UC-NRLF 113KA \T \ . EARTH SCIENCES L1F '7ARY EARTH SCIENCES LIBRARY A GUIDE TO THE FOSSIL REPTILES AND FISHES IN THE DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY IN THE ZL 3 BRITISH MUSEUM (NATUJUL HISTORY), CROMWELL ROAD, LONDON, S.W. WITH 165 ILLUSTBATIONS. PRINTED BY ORDER OF THE TRUSTEES. 1896. (All rights reserved,} PRESENTED OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM. .;-' -7 ^Un'^'lX ] I . 1 d TO THE FOSSIL REPTILES AND FISHES IN THE DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY. BRITISH 'MUSEM' (NATURAL HISTORY),, CEOlIWELL EOAD, LONDON, S.W. PRINTED BY ORDER OF THE TRUSTEES. 1896. (All rights reserved.} SCitiMCES LIBRARY LONDON : HARRISON AND SONS, PEINTEBS IN ORDINARY TO HER MAJESTY, ST. MARTIN'S LANE. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGES TABLE OP CONTENTS .......... Hi, iv List of Illustrations .......... v-x Preface xi Table of Stratified Rocks xii Introduction xiii, xiv CLASS 3. EEPTILIA .... 1-63 Order I. PTEROSAURIA . 1 II. CEOCODILIA 4 III. DINOSATTRIA 8 Sub-order 1. SAUBOPODA 9 2. THEROPODA 13 ,, ,, 3. OBNITHOPODA 17 Order IV. SQUAMATA 24 Sub-order 1. OPHIDIA ........ 25 ,, ,, 2. LACEBTILIA ....... 26 ,, 3. PTTHONOMOBPHA ...... 27 Order V. RHYNCHOCEPHALIA . 29 VI. PBOTEROSAURIA . . 31 VII. ICHTHYOSATJRIA 32 VIII. CHELONIA 38 IX. SAUROPTERYGIA 45 X. PLACODONTIA ........ 53 XI. ANOMODONTIA ........ 54 Sub-order 1. PROCOLOPHONIA ...... 55 2. DlCYNODONTIA 55 3. THERIODONTIA 57 4. PARIASAURIA ... (3L CLASS 4. AMPHIBIA .... 04 Order I. ECAUDATA 64 II. CAUDATA 65 III. LABYRINTHODONTIA 66 Sub-order 1. Microsauria ....... 72 2. Aistopoda 72 ,, ,, 3. Branchiosauria ...... 72 FOOTPRINTS 72 PRIMITIVE CHOBDATE ANIMALS . 74 MARSIPOBRANCHU 74 OSTRACODERMI 7(j a 2 IV TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE CLASS 5. PISCES .... 79 Sub-class I. ELASMOBRANCHII 81 Order I. PEOSELACHII 84 1C. ICHTHYOTOMI 84 III. ACANTHODII 85 ,, TV. SELACHII 85 Sub-order 1. TECTOSPONDYLI 86 2. ASTEBOSPONDYLI 88 Sub-class II. HOLOCEPHALI ,. 93 Order I. CHIM^EOIDEI 93 Sub-class III. DIPNOI ........ 94 Order I. SIRENOIDEI ......... 94 II. AETHEODIEA 96 Sub-class IV. TELEOSTOMI . . . '.'... 97 Order I. CEOSSOPTEBYGII 98 II. ACTINOPTEEYGII 100 Sub-order 1. CHONDEOSTEI 100 2. PEOTOSPONDYLI 103 3. AETHEOSPOKDYLI 107 4. ISOSPONDYLI ....... 108 ,, 5. PLECTOSPONDYLI 112 ,, 6. NEMATOGNATHI . . . . . . 113 7. HAPLOMI .113 8. APODES 113 9. ANACANTHINI . . . . . . . 114 10. PERCESOCES . . ... . . 114 11. PHAEYNGOGNATHI 114 12. PEECOMOEPHI . 115 13. LOPHOBBANCHII . . . . . . 120 14. HEMIBEANCHII ...... 120 15. PLECTOGNATHI . . . . . . 120 LIST OF ILLUSTK AXIOMS. Page FRONTISPIECE. Ichthyosaurus Tenuirostris, Conyb. ; L. Lias, Street, Somerset. FIG. 1. Rhaniphorhynchus Muensteri, Goldf. (restoration by Marsl) ; Lithographic Stone, Bavaria . . . . . . . . . . 1 ,, 2. Pterodactylus spectabilis, Meyer ; ibid. .. .. .. 2 3. antiquus, Sommerring ; ibid. . . . . . . 3 4. Pteranodon longiceps, Marsh (skull) ; Cretaceous, ST. America 3 ,, 5. Dimorphodon macronyx, Buckl. sp. (restoration by Owen) ; Lower Lias, Lynie Eegis . . . . . . . . . . 4 ,, 6. Crocodilus palustris, Lesson (skull) ; Recent, India . . . . 5 ,, 7. Spenceri, Buckland (skull) ; London Clay, Sheppey 6 8. Belodon Kapjfi, Meyer (skull) ; U. Trias, Stuttgart . . . . 7 9. Steneosaurus Heberti, Geoffr. (skull) ; L. Oxfordian, Nor- mandy . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . 7 ,, 10. Dacosaurus maximus, Plien. (tooth) ; Kimrneridge Clay, Ely 8 ,, 11. Pelagosaurus typus, Bronn (skull) ; U. Lias, Normandy . . 8 12. Diplodocus Icngus, Marsh, (skull) ; U. Jurassic, Colorado . . 9 ,, 13. Brontosaurua excelsus^ Marsh (restoration by Marsh) ; U. Jurassic, Colorado .. .. .. .. .. ..11 ,, 14. Hoplosaurus armatus, Grervais (tooth) ; Wealden, Isle of Wight .. .. 12 ,, 15. Allosaurus frag His, Marsh (pelvis) ; U. Jurassic, IS". America 13 16. Megalosaurus Bucklandi, Meyer (restoration) ; Great Oolite, Stonesfield 14 ,, 17. Ceratosaurus nasicornis, Marsh (skull) ; U. Jurassic, N. America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 ,, 18. Teeth (A) of Epicampodon indicus, Huxley, and (B) of Thecodontosaurus platyodon, Ril. and Stutch. ; U. Trias, Bengal and Bristol . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 ,, 19. Stegosaurus unffidatus^&rsh (limbs) j U. Jurassic, Colorado 17 20. Stegosaurus stenops, Marsh (skull) ; Upper Jurassic, Colorado 18 ,, 21. Scelidosaurus Harrisoni, Owen (tooth); L. Lias, Charmouth 19 22. Scelidosaurus ILarrisoni (restoration of skeleton) ; ibid. .. 19 23. Iguanodon Bernissartensis, Boulenger (restoration of skeleton) ; Wealden, Bernissart, Belgium . . . . . . . . 21 24. Iguanodon (teeth) ; Wealden, Isle of Wight 21 25. Iguanodon Bernissartensis, Boulenger (vertebra) ; ibid. . . 22 26. Iguanodon (tooth) ; ibid 22 VI LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Page YiGr. 27. Igiianodon Bernissartensis, Boulenger (skull) ; Wealden, Bernissart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 ,, 28. Teeth of (A, B) Trachodon cantabrigiensis, Lydekker, from Cambridge Greensand, and (C), Trachodon Foulki, Leidy, from U. Cretaceous, New Jersey . . . . . . 24 ,, 29. Palceophis typhceus, Owen (vertebra) ; London Clay, Sheppey 25 30. Paleryx rhombifer, Owen (vertebra) ; Eocene Phosphorites, Caylux, France . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 ,, 31. Dentary bone of Anguoid Lizard; ibid. . . . . . , . . 26 ,, 32. T'aranus Jjengalensis, Daudin (vertebra and maxilla) ; Pleisto- cene, Madras . . . . . . . . . . . . 2G ,, 33. Platecarpus (pectoral limb) ; Cretaceous, K". America . . 27 ,, 34. Platecarpus curtirostris, Cope (skull) ; ibid. .. .. ..28 35. Tooth of Liodon ; L T . Cretaceous, Maestricht .. .. ..28 36. Mosasaurus Camperi, Meyer (jaws) ; ibid. .. .. .. 29 ,, 37. Hyperodapedon Gordoni, Huxley (skull) ; Trias, Elgin . . 30 38. Ichthyosaurus communis, Conyb. (skull) ; L. Lias, Lynie Kegis 32 ,, 39. Ichthyosaurus trigomts, Owen (vertebra); Kimmeridge Clay, Stanton 32 ,, 40. Ichthyosaurus entheciodon, Hulke (vertebra.) ; Kimmeridge Clay, Wilts . . . .'.32 ,, 41. Ichthyosaurus latifrons, Konig (skull) ; L. Lias, Barrow-on- Soar ,33 ,, 42. Ichthyosauwis zetlandieus, Seeley (skull) ; L T . Lias, Nor- mandy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 43. Skeleton of Ichthyosaurus (restored) ; L. Lias, Lyme Regis . . 34 ,, 44. Teeth of (A, B) Ichthyosaurus platyodon, Conyb., and (C) Ichthyosaurus communis, Conyb. ; ibid. .. .. ..35 ,, 45. Pectoral limbs of (A) Ichthyosaurus Conyleari, Lydekker, and (B) Ichthyosaurus communis, Conyb. ; ibid. . . . . 36 ,, 46. Pectoral (A) and pelvic (B) limbs of Ichthyosaurus interme- dius, Conyb. ; ibid. . . * - 37 ,, 47. Trionyx Gergensi, Meyer (carapace) ; L. Miocene, Mayence. . 38 ,, 48. Hardella Thurgi, Gray (carapace) ; Pliocene, Siwalik Hills, India 39 ,, 49. Cachuga tectum, Gray (plastron) ; ibid. .. .. .. 39 ,, 50. Ehinochelys cantabrigiensis, Lydekker (skull) ; Greensand, Cambridge . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 ., 51. Argillochelys antiqua, Konig, sp. (skull); London Clay, Sheppey .. .. .". 40 ,, 52. Nicoria tricarinata, var. sivalensis, Lydekker (carapace) ; Pliocene, Siwalik Hills, India . . . / 40 53. Pleurosternum Bullocki, Owen (plastron) ; Purbeck Beds, Swanage . . . . . . , , .... . . 40 54. Argillochelys cuneiceps, Owen, sp. (skull) ; London Clay, Sheppey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Vll Page FIG. 55. PlesiocJielys valdensis, Lydekker (carapace) ; Wealden, Isle of Wight 41 56. Platychelys olerndorferi, Wagner (carapace) ; Lithographic stone, Bavaria . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 57. CTielone (?) Benstedi, Mantell, sp. (carapace) ; L. Chalk, Kent 43 58. Miolania Oweni, A. S. Woodw. (skull and tail-sheath) ; Newer Tertiary, Australia . . . . . . . . 43 59. Logger-head Turtle (Thalassochelys caretia, Linn, sp.) ; Eecent 44 60. PsepJiodertna alpinum, Meyer (carapace) ; Trias, Bavaria .. 45 61. Cryptoclidus Richards oni, Lydekker, sp. (vertebra) ; Oxford Clay, Weymouth. . . . ' . . . . 46 62. Ple-siosaurus Hawkinsi, Owen (pectoral girdle) ; L. Lias, Street, Somerset . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 63. Sauropterygian Mandibles (A, Peloneustes pMlarcTius, Seeley, sp., from Oxford Clay ; B. Thaumatosaurus indicus, Lydek- ker, from Upper Jurassic, India ; and C, Plesiosaurus dolicho- dirus, Conyb., from L. Lias, Lyme Regis) . . . . . . 47 64. Cryptoclidus oxoniensis, Phillips,sp. (skeleton) ; Oxford Clay, Peterborough . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 ,, 65. Skeleton of Plesiosaurus, restored ; L. Lias, Lyme Regis . . 49 ,, 66. Polyptycliodon interruptus, Owen (tooth) ; Greensand, Cain- bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 ,, 67. Peloneustes philarchus, Seeley, sp. (tooth) ; Oxford Clay, Bed- ford .. .. 50 ,, 68. Plesiosaurus EawJcinsi, Owen (vertebra) ; L. Lias, Lyme Regis 50 ,, 69. Lariosaurus Balsami, Curioni (skeleton) ; Muschelkalk, Perledo 51 70. Nothosauriis mirabilis, Minister (palate) ; Muschelkalk, Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 71. NotJiosaurus mirabilis, Miinster (side view of skull) ; Mus- chelkalk, Germany . . . . . . . . . . 52 72. Mesosaurus tenuidens, Gervais (pectoral limb) ; Karoo System, South Africa 53 ,, 73. ConcJiiosaurus clavatus, Meyer (humerus) ; Muschelkalk, Nurnberg . . . . . . ' . . . . . . . . 53 ,, 74. Cyamodus (Placodus) laticeps, Owen (skull) ; Muschelkalk, Baireuth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 75. Dicynodon (palate) ; Karoo System, South Africa . . . . 56 ,, 76. Lateral view of skulls of (A), Dicynodon lacerticeps, Owen, and (B), Oudenodon Baini, Owen; ibid. .. .. .. 57 ,, 77. TapinocepJialus Atkerstonei, Owen (vertebra) ; ibid... .. 58 ,, 78, Galesaurus planiceps, Owen (skull) ; ibid. ,. .. .. 58 79. Naosaurus claviger, Cope (vertebra) ; Permian, Texas . . 59 ,, 80. ^Elurosaurus felinus, Owen (skull) ; Karoo System, South Africa 59 81. Empedias molaris, Cope (skull) ; Permian, Texas . . . . 60 13 Vlll LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Page FIG. 82. Empedias molar is, Cope (tooth) ; ibid. . . . . . . 61 ,, 83. Deuterosaurus biarmicus, Eichwald (tooth) ; Permian, Eussia 61 ,, 84. Pariasaurus Baini, Seeley (skeleton) ; Karoo System, Cape Colony .. .. .. ..62 ,, 85. MegalobatracTius (Cryptobrancftvs) ScJieucTizeri, Holl; U. Miocene, QEningen, Switzerland . . . . . . 65 86. Mastodonsaurus giganteus, Jaeger (skull) ; Lettenkohle, Wiirtemberg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66- 87. Mastodonsaurus giganteus, Jaeger (palate) ; ibid. . . . . 66 ,, 88. Capitosaurus robustus, Meyer (skull) ; U. Trias, Wiirtemberg 67 89. Metoposaiirus diagnostics, Meyer (skull) ; ibid 67 90. Loxomma Allmani, Huxley (skull) ; Carboniferous, North- umberland . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 ,, 91. Bothriceps Huxleyi, Lydekker (skull) ; Karoo System, South Africa 69- ,, 92. Actinodon latirostris, Jordan, sp. (skull) ; L. Permian, Saar- bruck .. 70 ,, 93. Archegosaurus Decheni, Groldfuss (skull) ; ibid. .. .. 71 ,, 94. Euchirosaurus Rochei, Gaudry (vertebra) ; L. Permian, France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 ,, 95. Cheirosaurus Barthi, Kaup, sp. (footprints) ; Bunter Sand- stone, Hessberg, G-erniany . . . . . . . . 73 ,, 96. " Lancelet," BrancMostoma (Ampldoxus) lanceolatum ; Recent . . . . . . . . , . . . . . 74 ,, 97. " Hag-fish,' ' Myxine australis\ Recent .. .. ..74- ,, 98. Mouth of Lamprey, Petromyzonfluviatilis; Recent.. .. 74 ,, 99. Palce.ospondylus Gunni, Traquair (restored skeleton) ; L. Old Red Sandstone, Scotland 75 ,, 100. " Conodonts " from the Cambrian . . . . . . 75 ,, 101. Pteraspis rostrata, Ag. (restoration) ; L. Old Red Sandstone, Herefordshire . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 ,, 102. Pteraspis rostrata (head shield) ; ibid. , 77 ,, 103. Cephalaspis Murchisoni, Egerton (restoration) ; ibid. . . 77 ,, 104. Pterichthys testudinaritts, Ag. (restoration) ; L. Old Red Sandstone, Scotland . . . . . . . . . . 78 105. Diphycercal tail . . . 79 106. Heterocercal tail 79 107. Homocercal tail 79- 108. Dermal tubercles of Elasmobranch Fishes 81 ,, 109. Port Jackson Shark, Cestracion Philippi, Lacep., from Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 ,, 110. The Ray, Raja Murrayi, Giinther, from Kergeulen's Island 82 ,, 111. Spines of Elasmobranch and Chimseroid Fishes .. .. 8& 112. Pleuracanihus Gaudryi, "Brongn. (restoration) ; Coal- measures, Comtnentry, France . . . . . . . . 84 ,, 113. Acanthodes Wardi, Egerton (restoration) ; Coal-measures, Staffordshire 85 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. IX ' Page FiQ. 114i.Squatina alifera, Mimster, sp. ; Lithographic Si one, Bavaria 87 115. Squat ina speciosa, Meyer j ibid. .. .. .. ..87 116. Raja clavata (jaws of male and female) ; Recent . . . . 87 117. PtycTiodus deciirrens, Ag. (arrangement of teeth) ; English Chalk 88 118. Skull of Notidamis ; Eecent 88 119. Notidamis gigas, Sism. (teeth); Ked Crag. Suffolk .. .. 89 120. Jaw of Port Jackson Shark, Cestracion Philippi ; Eecent .. 89 ,, 121. Lepracanthus Colei, Owen (spine) ; Coal-measures, Euabon 90 122. Acrodus Anningics, Ag. (teeth) ; L. Lias, Lyme Kegis . . 90 123. Hybodus (dorsal spine) ; Wealden, Sussex 90 124. Jaw of AsteracantJius (StropJiodus medius, Owen) ; Great Oolite, Caen, Normandy . . . . . . . . 91 125. Cochliodus contortus, Ag. (teeth) ; Carboniferous Limestone, Armagh 92 ,, 126. Odontaspis elegans, Ag. (tooth) ; London Clay .. .. 92 ,, 127. Carcharodonmegalodon, Ag. (tooth) ; Suffolk Crag.. .. 92 128. Edaphodon lepiognathus, Ag. (lower jaw) ; M. Eocene, Bracklesham Bay 94 129. African Mudfish, Protopterus annectens ; Kecent . . . . 94 130. Australian Mudfish, Ceratodus Forsteri ; Eecent . . . . 94 131. Mouth of Ceratodus Forsteri 95 ,, 132. Dipterus Valenciennesi, Sedgw. and Murch. (restoration) ; L. Old Eed Sandstone, Scotland 95 133. Phaneropleuron Andersoni, Huxley (restoration) ; U. Old Eed Sandstone, Dura Den, Fife .96 134. Coccosteus decipiens, Ag. (restoration) ; L. Old Eed Sand- stone, Scotland 97 135. Jaws of Dinichthys ; Devonian, N. America .. .. ..97 136. Polypterus bichir ; Eecent .. .. .. .. ..98 137. Holoptychius (restoration) ; U. Old Eed Sandstone, Scotland 98 138. Glyptolcemus Kinnairdi, Huxley (restomtion) ; ibid. .. 98 ,, 139. Osteolepis macrolepidotus, Ag. (restoration) ; L. Old Eed Sandstone, Scotland 99 140. Undina (HolopJiagus) gulo, Egert. (restoration) ; L. Lia, Lyme Eegis 99 141. Elonichthys striatus, A g. sp. (scales) ; Carboniferous .. 100 I42.Palceoniscus macropomus, Ag. (restoration) ; Kupferschiefer, Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . t . , , 100 ,, 143. Eurynotus creaatus, Ag. (restoration) ; L. Carboniferous, Scotland . . . . . . . . . . . . tt . . 101 l^.Platysomus striatus, Ag. (restoration) ; Magnesian Lime- stone, Durham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 ,, 145. Skeleton of Sturgeon, Acipenser ; Eecent . . . . . . 102 X LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Page FIG. 146. Chondrosteus acipenseroides, Ag. (head restored) ; L. Lias, Lyme Regis .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 104 147. Dapedius politus, Leach (restoration) ; ibid... .. .. 104 148. Lepidotus maximus, Wagner (restoration) ; Lithographic Stone, Bavaria .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 104 149. Portions of Pycnodonts 105 150. Ainia calva, Linn, (skeleton of recent fish) ; North America 106 151. Eu t gnathus orthostomus, Ag. (restoration) ; L. Lias, Lyme Regis 105 ,, 152. Caturusfurcatus, Ag. (restoration) ; L. Lias, Lyme Eegis . . 107 153. AspidorhyncTius ornatissimus, Ag. (restoration) ; Lithographic Stone, Bavaria . . . . . . 108 ,, 154. Leptolepis dubius, Blainv. sp. (restoration) ; ibid. ., .. 108 ,, 155. Skeleton of Common Perch .. .. 109 156. Cycloid and ctenoid scales , . . . . . . . . . 109 157. Diplomystus brevissimus, Blainv. sp. (restoration) ; U. Creta- ceous, Mount Lebanon .. .. .. .. .. ..110 158. Rhinellusfurcatus, Ag. (restoration) ; ibid. .. .. .. Ill 159. Capelin, Mallotus villosits, in nodule of Glacial Clay, Green- land Ill ,, 160. Eurypholis Boissieri, Pict. (restoration) ; U. Cretaceous, Mount Lebanon .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 112 161. Phyllodus petiolatus, Owen (pharyngeal dentition) ; London Clay, Sheppey 115 162. Semiophorus velicans, Ag. ; Eocene, Monte Bolca .. .. 117 ,, 163. Sparnodus ovalis, Ag. ; ibid. .. .. .. .. .. 119 ,, 164. Smerdis minutus, Ag. ; Eocene, Aix in Provence, France .. 120 165. Diodon Scilla (teeth) ; Miocene, Malta 121 PREFACE. THE First Edition of tliis Guide was issued, without illustrations, on the 19th April, 1881 ; the second in 1882,. illustrated with thirty-one wood engravings ; a third, slightly altered, appeared in 1884. A fourth Edition, almost wholly re-written, with many fresh illustrations, appeared in 1886,. and a fifth, with only a few alterations, in 1888. The sixth Edition appeared in April, 1890, and 3,000 copies were sold up to October, 1895. Of these six editions, altogether 18,000 copies have been issued. The publication of Mr. R. Lydekker's Museum Catalogues- of the " Fossil Reptilia and Amphibia," Parts I-V. (1888-90), and Mr. Arthur Smith Woodward's Catalogue of the Fossil Fishes, Parts I-III. (1889-95), and the very numerous and important additions made to the exhibited series of specimens have necessitated the re-arrangement of a great part of these- Collections, and also changed the plan of the Guide. The writer is largely indebted to the authors of Nicholson's and Lydekker's "Paleontology" (Vol. II., " Yertebrata," by R. Lydekker), from which numerous notes and extracts have been made in the compilation of this Guide. The part relat- ing to the Fossil Fishes has been entirely re-written by Mr. Arthur Smith Woodward. Mr. C. W. Andrews has also- obligingly assisted in the preparation of this work. HENRY WOODWARD. Department of Geology, 8th April, 1896. TABLE OF STRATIFIED ROCKS. 1 SYSTEMS. FORMATIONS. LIFE-PERIODS. c x Terrestrial, Alluvial, Estuarine, and BECENT < Marine Beds of Historic, Iron, b ( Bronze, and Neolithic Ages ff c Peat, Alluvium, Loess ** H Valley Gravels, Brickearths CQ ^ rt PLEISTOCENE Cave-deposits * (250 ft.) Raised Beaches Palaeolithic Age | _ I Boulder Clay and Gravels PLIOCENE f Norfolk Forest-bed Series Norwich and Red Crags (100 ft.) ( coralline Crag (Diestian) m MI ( 9 CE ^ E | (Eningen Beds Freshwater, Ac. J H EOCENE j Fluvio-marine Series (Oligocene) ffj (2,600 ft.) I London Tertiaries } ( Nummulitic Beds > 1 B i ,; Ii '' ( Maestricht Beds S f -I J CBETACEOUS \ Chalk 2 "S e .53 (7,000 ft.) 1 Upper Greensand Gault * a 53 c .2 M NEOCOMIAN { Lower Greensand Wealden jljl ( Purbeck Beds I a 3 -g I Portland Beds V *^ rg *g JUBASSIC Kimmeridge Clay (Solenhofen Beds) Corallian Beds .s | s Ij (3,000 ft.) Oxford Clay Great Oolite Series 1 E 1 & Inferior Oolite Series "* c 1 S" *" S I Lias 1 ! | i3 Rhaetic Beds l g TBIASSIC ( Keuper H (3,000 ft.) ; Muschelkalk Bunter 1 . a PEBMIAN or ( DYAS < (500 to 3,000 ft.) Red Sandstone, Marl > , . . Magnesian Limestone. &c. j Zechstem Red Sandstone and Conglomerate Hothliegende Range of ! CABBONIFEBOUS \ Coal Measures and Millstone Grit cL (12,000 ft.) < Carboniferous Limestone Series ^ . DEVONIAN & OLD j Upper Old Red Sandstone || BED SANDSTONE 1 Devonian (5,000 to 10,000 ft.) ^ Lower Old Red Sandstone Ludlow Series I SILUBIAN < (3,000 to 5,000 ft.) ( W'enlock Series Llandovery Series May Hill Series OBDOVICIAN ( Bala and Caradoc Series Llandeilo Series (5,000 to 8,000 ft.) | Llanvirn Series r X" Arenig and Skiddaw Series a.* CAMBBIAN J (20,000 to 30,000 ft.) ( Tremadoc Slates Lingula Flags Menevian Series Harlech and Longmynd Series ominant t; n vertebra I EOZOIC ( Pebidian, Arvonian, and Dimetian ABCH-ffiAN \ Huronian and Laurentian t (30,000 ft.) ( i oar DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY AND PALAEONTOLOGY. INTRODUCTION. NEARLY every city has within its bounds some relics of earlier times, when a more ancient people occupied the same spot. Thus below modern London we find various layers of accumulated soil, each marked by tokens of former times. In one we find the charred relics of the wooden buildings which preceded the more modern brick and stone houses ; be- neath this are found weapons, coins, and pottery, telling of Norman and Saxon times. More than 20 feet down we come upon the relic-bed of Roman London, and in some parts two Roman periods have been recognised with remains of buildings at different depths. At a still lower level, along the course of the ancient Wall-brook, remnants of pile-dwellings have been discovered, which were probably occupied by an earlier British race. In the ancient gravels of the Thames Valley, both beneath and around London, stone implements, left by a yet earlier people, have been frequently met with, associated with bones and teeth of the Mammoth. If in a similar manner we investigate those larger layers of Chalk and Limestone, Sandstone, Clay, or Slate, composing the Earth's crust, we not only find that they rest upon one another, so that we can judge of their relative age by the order of their superposition, but that, like the layers of soil below London, they are often full of relics which tell of the former inhabitants that lived, flourished, and died out, to be succeeded by another race which have in their turn shared the same fate. XIV INTRODUCTION. Geology deals with the Earth, the composition of the various strata, or layers, of which it consists, their present and former extent, and the physical conditions under which they were deposited, and the changes they have since undergone. Palaeontology deals with the remains of ancient life found in the various layers, and strives, by comparison with living forms, to restore the successive faunas and floras which have passed away, and to trace by those relics their past dis- tribution, and thus to show the evolution of life on the earth from the earliest times to our own. So many good books on Geology and Palaeontology have been published * that it is not necessary to give in such a guide- book as the present a treatise on the science, but merely to explain that the Yertebrata in the Galleries are arranged according to their zoological classes, orders, and families (so far as these can be ascertained) ; and upon the label to each is placed its name, its geological position, and the locality whence it was derived. In the Invertebrata and Plants each class is also grouped chronologically in order, from the latest deposits to the earliest in which it occurs. Whenever a specimen has been figured and described in a scientific work, a green disk is affixed to it, and a reference is given to the author, and to the name and date of the work where it was published. Explanatory labels and illustrations have been introduced in many instances, to afford fuller information to visitors respecting the objects exhibited. A plan of the Gallery will be found affixed to the wall in each room, which will serve to show the general arrange- ment of the cases and their contents. The small Table of Strata, on p. xii, is given to indicate the range in time of the great groups of Mammals, Birds, Reptiles, Fishes, Invertebrates, and Plants. H. W. * See specially "Manual of Palaeontology," by Prof. H. Alleyne Nicholson and R. Lydekker, in 2 vols. (3rd Edition). Wm. Blackwood and Sons, Edinbiirgh and London. 1889. GUIDE TO THE DEPARTMENT GEOLOGY AND PALAEONTOLOGY. REPTILIAN GALLERY.* THIS Gallery is devoted to the exhibition of the remains of Reptilian fossil Reptilia, a class which includes the Tortoises and Turtles, -^foiiJ Snakes, Lizards, Crocodiles, and a large number of extinct No. 1. forms, the exact zoological position of many of which we can only judge by analogy. Like the Mammalia, the Reptilian class lived both on land and in the water; some being evidently fitted for terrestrial locomotion by their well-developed legs ; others, as shown by their paddle- shaped limb-bones, must have passed their entire existence in the water. One group, now extinct, possessed, like the Bats and the Birds, the power of flight. CLASS 3. REPTILIA. Order I. PTEROSAURIA (WINGED-LIZARDS). FIG. 1. Restoration ui Rkawphorliynchus Mufnsteri, Goldfuss (after Marsh) ; one-seventh natural size, from the Lithographic Stone, Eichstlidt, Bavaria. In Wall-case N"o. 1, and in Table-cases Nos. 1 and 2, are ^terodac- placed the fossil remains of this extinct group of " Flying t 3 rl es. Lizards," or Pterodactyles. These animals had the centra of JJ^i^Tab the vertebrae hollow in front ; they possessed a broad sternum or cases, Nos "breast-bone," with a median ridge or keel, similar to that of and 2- birds; the jaws were usually armed with teeth fixed in sockets. The fore-limb had a short humerus, a long radius and ulna, and * Galleries 3. 4, and 5 on Han facing p. 102. (1876) 2 Flying Lizards Pterodactyles. Flying: Lizards. Wall-case, No. 1. one of the fingers of the hand was enormously elongated to give support to the wing-membrane (patagium), which was attached to the sides of the body, the arm, and the long finger, and also to the hind-limb and tail. The other fingers of the hand were free and furnished with claws. The wing-membrane appears to have resembled that of the Bat, being destitute of feathers. The caudal series of vertebra? in some genera (as in Rhampho- rliynclius) was greatly elongated and stiffened with slender FIG. 2. The nearly entire skeleton of Pterodactylv.s spectabitis (Meyer), from the Lithographic Stone, Upper Jurassic, Eichstadt, Bavaria, a is the pubis; on the right side the ilium is exposed (figured nat. size). ossified fibres (Figs. 1 and 5). The bones were pneumatic (i.e. r filled with large air- cavities), the walls of the bones being very thin, and their substance very hard and compact, thus combining strength with lightness. Numerous remains of nearly perfect Pterodactyles, with both long and short tails, and varying greatly in size, have been Pterodactyles Dimorphodon. 3 obtained from the Solenhofen Limestone in Bavaria others ptero- occur in the Great Oolite at Stonesfield, near Oxford, and in dactyles. the Lias formation, Lyme Regis, Dorset. The most remarkable Wall-case, FIG. 3. The almost complete skeleton of Pterodactylus antiquus (Sommerring), from Table-case, the Lithographic Stone, Eichstiidt, Bavana (J nat. size), o, humerus; 6, radius and jf o> j t ulna; c, carpus; d, metacarpus; e, clawed digits;/, ff. h, i, phalangeals of ulnar digit; t, rib ; I, femur; s, tibia; r, tarsus; m, metatarsals ; t, t' t phalangeals of pes. FIG. 4. Left lateral view of skull of Pleranodonlonglceps (Marsh), from the Cretaceous of North Ameiica (Jy nat. size), a, preorbital vacuity; b, orbit: c, supraorbital crest ; d, angle of mandible ; */, quadrate ; s, symphyds. (Not represented in the Collection.) of these English examples is the Dimorphodon macronyx from Dimorpho- the Lias of Lyme, which had a large head, the jaws armed with d preserved at Munich, named Gompsognathus longipes, has been found entire in the Lithographic stone of Solenhofen. From the relative proportions of its limbs we cannot but con- clude that it must have "hopped (like a Jerboa), or walked in an erect or semi-erect position, after the manner of a bird, to which its long neck, slight head, and small anterior limbs must have given it an extraordinary resemblance." (Huxley.) 16 Dinosauria Ancliisauridce, etc. Teratosau- ;rus. , Meg-alosau- : rus. Table-case, No. 14. Wall-case, No. 4. i Drypto- | saurus. aiegalosau- rus. Wall-case, No. 7. Numerous other fine Dinosaurian remains are to be seen in the collection, but as we do not know the teeth of many of these huge reptiles, we cannot speak positively as to their habits. It is certain, however, that, from the Trias to the Chalk, two groups have existed, one having a carnivorous dentition, and the other being herbivorous. Teratosaurus of the Trias of Stuttgart, Cerato saurus and Allosaurus of the American Jurassic rooks, Megalosaurus and Compsognathus of the Oolitic and Wealden strata were all carnivores. The actual counterpart and casts of the maxilla and premaxilla and a portion of the ramus of the lower jaw of Megalosaurus from the Inferior Oolite, Sherborne, Dorset, may be seen in the Wall- case. Of Polacanthus, Omosaurus, and Hylceosaurus, we have no direct dental evidence, but judging from a comparison of the other portions of their skeletons, they have been referred to the family of the Stegosauridce. No doubt, as amongst the Mammalia at the present day, the majority were vegetable- feeders, and the minority were predaceous in habit. The Cretaceous genus Dryptosaurus, and the Jurassic Ceratosaurus and Allosaurus were, in America, the representatives of the carnivorous Megalosaurus of our Secondary rocks. Many species of Dryptosaurus have been identified, and a series of plaster-casts of bones of Dryptosaurus aquilunguis are exhibited in the case. ANCHISATJRIDJE. The genus Anchisaurus has amphicoelous cervical vertebroB, the pubis is rod-like, there are five digits in the manus and pes. The teeth are without serrations on the anterior border. Epicampodon (Fig. 18, A, B, c) is an allied genus from India. FIG. 18. Fragment of mandible, A, lateral aspect; B, posterior aspect ; C section of tooth of Epicanipodon indicus (Huxley i, from the Panchet beds (U. Trias), Lower Gondwanas of Bengal ; fl, lateral aspect of tooth of Tltecodcntotawit* ptatyodo* (Biley & Stutchbury), Upper Trias, Bristol. Dinosauria Ornithopoda. 17 In Thecodontosaurus platyodon (Fig. 18, D), the teeth have -wall-case oblique serrations on both borders. The ilium is of the Mega- No. 7. losaurian type. Remains of this genus are met with in the Table-case, Upper Trias, Durdham Down, Clifton, near Bristol, in Glouces- tershire. SUB-ORDER 3. Ornithopoda (Bird-footed). This sub-order is taken to include the STEGOSAURIA of Marsh. No a 4 " case > The genus Stegosaurus was originally described by Marsh from the Tipper Jurassic of North America, but certain forms from the Oxford and Kimmeridge Clay of England, described under the preoccupied name of Omosaurus, cannot be separated generically from Stegosaurus. They also agree with the Scelido- aauridoe in the general structure of their teeth and in the possession of a dermal armour of scutes and spines, as well as FIG. 19. The left pectoral and pelvic girdles and limbs of Stegosaurus ungulatus (Marsh), from the Upper Jurassic of Southern Colorado, North America ( T \ nat. size), s, scapula; c, coracoid ; h, humerus; r, radius; u, ulna,; 1-7, phalangeals; il, ilium; is, ischium ; p, pi, pubis ; /, femur; t, tibia; /I, fibula; a, astragalus; c, calcaneum (after Marsh). in their solid limb-bones. The neural arches of the vertebras are very much higher, and in the sacrum each arch is chiefly or entirely supported by a single centrum, instead of by the adjacent portions of two centra as in the Ornithopoda. (1876) 3 18 Dinosauria Omosaurus. The skull shows many points of resemblance to that of Iguanodon, especially by the presence of a predentary bone, but it is lower and narrower and in this respect it resembles the Scelidosaurian type. Wall-case, No. 4. Omosaurus. FIG. 20 Left lateral view of skull of Stegosaurus stenops (Marsh), i natural size; from the Upper Jurassic, S. Colorado, North America. , nares; 6, orbit; c, lateral temporal fossa ; pm, premaxilla ; m, maxilla ; n, nasal ; pf, prefrontal ; .o, supra- orbital ; fp, postfrontal ; po, postorbital; /., lachrymal; j, jugal ; 3, quadrate; sq, squamosal ; oc, occipital condyle ; ar, articular ; ., surangular ; en, angular ; s, splenial ; d, dentary ; pd t predentary (after Marsh). To this sub-order are referred the remains of a large Dinosaur from the Kimmeridge Clay of Swindon, Wilts, described by Sir Richard Owen in his Monograph on the Fossil Reptilia of the Mesozoic Formations (Palseontographical Society's Volume for 1875), under the name of Omosaurus armatus. The series com- prises, in an immense block, the iliac bones of either side with the entire sacrum, retaining the normal form and position, an ischium, a femur, several dorsal and caudal vertebrae projecting in bold relief from the background of grey stone, forming a magnificent fossil group unique of its kind. In addition to the bones above mentioned (which are all imbedded in one block 6' 0" x 7' 6"), a large dermal spine, several centra and processes of many vertebrae and chevron- bones, an entire humerus, ulna and radius with carpal and metacarpal bones, all parts of the same fore-limb ; also a com- plete ischium and pnbis, and six caudal vertebrae, were found lying in the clay around the larger mass. The femur measures more than 4 feet, and the humerus is nearly 3 ft. in length and enormously broad. The head and neck are unfortunately wanting, but there is little doubt that nearly the entire animal might have been obtained had some competent person been present in the pit when the remains were first observed. Remains of another species of this genus (Omosauvus durob- rivensis) from the Oxford Clay of Peterborough, are also exhibited in this case. Dinosauria Scelidosaurus, etc. 19 A large plated Dinosaur lias been dis- Scelidosau- covered in a tolerably perfect state, and is rus > CaseY, i j - -i j j_i XT. placed in a glazed case in the centre 01 the Reptile gallery. It was obtained from the Lower Lias of Lyme Regis, Dorset, and is a fairly complete skeleton of an herbivorous Dinosaur about 12 feet in length, closely allied by its dentition to Iguanodon, and described by Sir Richard Owen as Scelidosaurus Harrisoni. This reptile was armed with lateral rows of thick bony scutes or spines on each side, which extended along the tail also. There is very considerable disparity between the fore and hind-limbs, as in so many other Dinosaurs. There are four functional toes and one rudimentary one on the hind foot ; the fore-foot is not well preserved and the number of digits cannot consequently be clearly made out in the hand. FIG. 21. A single upper tooth of Sceli- dosaurus Harrisoni {Owen) twice nat. size, from the Lower Lias, Charmouth, Dorset. FIG. 22. Restored skeleton of Scelidosaurits Harrisoni. (Owen), greatly reduced, from the Lower Lias of Charmouth, Dorset. The figure shows the large lateral dermal spines on the shoulders, and the long lateral line of smaller spines, reaching from the pectoral region to the extremity of the tail; also the numerous ossified tendons running along the sides of the dorsal spines of the vertebras from the shoulder to the tail. (The original specimen is about 12 feet in length.) -A.cantlio- A smaller Dinosaur, named Acanthopholis, found in the Lower pfcolis. Chalk of Dover, was also armed with, spines, but only a few fragmentary remains of it are preserved in the collection. 3 2 No. 14. 20 Dinosauria Iguanodon. Hylseosau- rus. Polacan- thus, Wall-case, No. 4. I Hypsi- lophodon. Table-case, ; No. 16. ! Small Glass- case, y. Ig-uanodon Mantelli. Wall-case, No. 6, and Table-case, No. 15. The long dermal spines of Hylceosaurus, another armed Dinosaur from the Wealden, were arranged in a single row along the central line of the back. The Polacanthus, or many-spined Dinosaur, from the Weal- den formation near Brixton, Isle of Wight, appears, as regards its dermal covering, to have been one of the most heavily armed of these old dragons. Its body was protected by a series of long, laterally-compresssd, and more or less acutely triangu- lar osseous spines, and also by numerous plain and keeled scutes ; whilst the pelvic region was covered by a large shield or carapace of thick bone firmly united to the vertebrae and ribs, like the carapace in a turtle. The tail was also protected by strong bony dermal scutes. Many of the limb-bones and vertebrae of the back and tail were found associated with the spines, but no remains of the neck or head. The bases of the spines are broad and asymmetrical, show- ing that they were arranged in one or more rows on either side of the central line of the back. The largest of these spines exhibited measures ten inches in breadth, and in height thirteen inches. We are mainly indebted to the researches of Prof. Huxley and Mr. J. W. Hulke for a knowledge of Hypsilophodon Foxi, a small Dinosaur from the Wealden, about 4 feet in length. The animal has four large and powerful digits to the hind foot, and a small rudimentary fifth outer toe; an extremely small fore foot (or manus), with four digits and a fifth rudi- mentary one. The sharp-pointed and curved ungual phalanges indicate that it was probably arboreal and rock-climbing in its habits. The sides of the crowns of the teeth are finely- serrated, and repeat in miniature the serrations of the crown of the teeth of Iguanodon. Hypsilophodon was destitute of any dermal armour. Remains of parts of several individuals have been met with at Brixton, in the Isle of Wight. " Mantell's Iguanodon." This is one of the largest of the great extinct land-reptiles, some of which certainly rivalled the elephant in bulk. The femur (thigh bone) alone measured 4 to 5 feet in length. The fore-limbs were very short, so that it is almost certain that it did not make use of them constantly for progression on the ground, but could readily raise itself into an upright position, the weight of its body being counter- balanced by its long and ponderous tail, although it was far too bulky to progress by leaping, after the manner of a kangaroo. The slab in the centre of Case 6 contains a great portion of the skeleton of a young individual of Iguanodon Mantelli from Bensted's Kentish Rag quarry at Maidstone, in which the disproportion of the fore and hind limb is well shown. It will be seen that the bones of the arm and fore-arm (humerus, and Dinosauria Iguanodon. 21 radius and ulna) are barely half toe length of the thigh and Wall-case, shin bone (femur and tibia). This difference between the leg No. 6. and arm seems to have been a marked feature in a large Table-case, No. 15. FIG. 23. Restored skeleton, greatly reduced, of fguanodon Bernissartensis (Boulenger) ; from the Wealden of Bernissart, Belgium (scale about -^ nat. size). A reproduction of the original, which is preserved in the Royal Museum of Natural History, Brussels, is placed in the centre of the Reptile Gallery. FIG. 24. Outer^'view of four lower teeth of Iguanodon in fragment of jaw, showing unworn condition of teeth. From the Wealden of the Isle of Wight. number of Dinosaurs, as may be well seen in Hypsilophodon, Compsognathus, and many others. Of the larger species of Iguanodon, I. Bernissartensis, a repro- duction of the entire skeleton is placed in the middle of the gallery, and a separate cast of the skull is also exhibited. The height of the skeleton as mounted is about 14ft., and its length about 25 ft. The great difference in size between the fore and hind limbs noticed above is well shown. The original specimen 22 Dinosauria Iguanodon. is preserved in the Royal Museum of Natural History, Brussels, and is one of twenty-three more or less complete skeletons dis- FIG. 25. Iguanodon Sermssartensis (Boulenger). Posterior view of a dorsal vertebra; Wealden. Isle of Wight. FIG. 26. (A), Outer view; (u), Profile of Tooth of Iguanodon (natural size), Wealdeu, Isle of Wight, covered at Bernissart in Belgium. Remains of this species from the Wealden of Sussex, and the Isle of Wight are exhibited in Wall- case 5. Dinosauria Iguanodon and Orthomeruts. 23 Remains of other species are exhibited in Wall-case 4a. Numerous foofc-prints of these animals have been found in the Wealden deposits of Hastings, and are exhibited in Gallery No. 11, Wall-case No. 8. In all cases only the impressions of the hind-foot are seen, so that there can be little doubt that the mounted skeleton correctly represents the position of the reptile when walking. The Iguanodon was vegetarian in its diet, as is proved Ig-uanodon. by its teeth, which correspond with those of the living and Wall-cases, vegetable-feeding Iguana of S. America. Nos. 4a, 5, Their teeth are not unfrequently found worn down at the crown, like the molar teeth of the herbivorous mammalia at the present day. They were implanted in partially distinct sockets, and a succession of teeth always growing up from beneath replaced the worn-down stumps. The teeth are curved and leaf-shaped, and the edges are elegantly serrated, a character peculiar to all the vegetable - feeding Dinosaurs, such as Acanthopholis, Scelidosaurus, &c. (see Figs. 24 and 26). and 6. Table-case, No. 15. FIG. 27. Left lateral aspect of skull of Iguanodon Bernissartensis (Boulenger) ; from the Wealden of Beraissart, Belgium (much reduced). The anterior aperture in the skull is the nares (nostril), the middle one the orbit, and the large posterior one, the lateral temporal fossa. The predentary bone is seen at the extremity of the mandible (after Dollo). The genus Orthomerus (Seeley), an Iguanodont, and a species Table-case, of Megalosaurus, from the Upper Chalk of Maestricht, appear, so No 'l 15 ' far as yet known, to be the most recent, and probably the last representatives in Europe in geological time of the great group of terrestrial Dinosaurs. Both species are founded upon a few long bones of limbs in the collection, and assuming them to have belonged to fully adult animals, their small proportions, when compared with those of their predecessors, probably indicates degeneration in an expiring race. 24 Trachodon Squamata . Tables-case, No. 16. In the genus Trachodon, of Leidy, all the dorsal vertebrae are opisthoccelous (hollow behind), with low arches, on which the rib-facet rises to the summit of the neural platform ; the centra are moderately compressed and wedge-shaped, with a haemal carina. The teeth are simpler than in Iguanodon, with lozenge-shaped crowns, the inferior surface of the root of each tooth being grooved for the reception of the summit of the tooth below. In T. cantabrigiensis the crowns of the teeth are relatively broader than in T. Foulki, from New Jersey (see Figures 28, A, B, c). The following are of uncertain affinities, namely: Echinodon, which was a large saurian probably of aquatic habits. The teeth were flat, broadly pointed, and the upper edges strongly serrated, hence the name "prickly- tooth." A more formidable saurian Nuthetes. FIG. 23.-^ (A) lateral, and (B) profile views of a tooth of Trachodon cantabriyiensis (Lydekker), Greensand, Cambridge ; (c), tooth of Trachodon Foulki (Leidy), Upper Cretaceous of New Jersey, U.S.A. from the same deposit is the Nuthetes destructor. The teeth are flat, recurved, and finely serrated on their anterior and posterior margins, like miniature teeth of Megalosaurus which they resemble. Order IV. SQUAMATA (SCALE-COVERED REPTILES). This order is largely represented by forms living at the present day, as it includes the true Lizards, the Chamasleons, and the Serpents, and in the Cretaceous epoch by the great extinct Mosasaurians. In this order the body may be either short, with well developed limbs and a distinct tail, as in the Lizards ; or it may be extremely elongated without any external trace of limbs, and passing gradually into the tail, as in the Snakes. As a rule, the whole body and limbs are covered with overlapping horny scales, and these may be underlain by an Squamata Ophidia. 25 armour of bony dermal scutes. The limbs may be adapted for walking on land, or modified into paddles for swimming. In the skull the proximal end of the quadrate bone is more or less movably articulated ; the lower temporal arcade is wanting ; the post-orbital is generally fused with the post-frontal the palate is more or less open, the pterygoids being nearly always separated by an interval from one another, and the premaxillae are frequently united. The vertebrae are generally pvoccelous (concave in front), although more rarely they are amphiccelous (bi-coneave). True abdominal ribs are never developed. The carpus has but a single centrale, and the precoracoid process is often well marked. SUB-ORDER 1. Ophidia (Serpents). Serpents are rarely met with in a fossil state, but a few Serpents. such remains have been obtained from the Tertiary rocks. The Table-case, earliest Ophidian represented in the Collection is the Palceophis No * 3 * Paleeophis. FIG. 29. Vertebrae of Palceopliis typhous (Owen), from the Lower Eocene, Sheppey. A. haemal; B, anterior; and c, left lateral views of a trunk vertebra, wanting most P -.""" of the neural spine ; zs, zygosphene ; c, costal articulation. toliapicus, a serpent about 12 feet in length, obtained from the London Clay of Sheppey ; from the Middle Eocene of Brack- lesham we have a still larger form, the Palceophis typhceus, a boa- constrictor-like snake, considered to be marine, that attained a length^of 20 feet, and also a smaller species, P. porcatus. c FIG. 30. (A) Haemal, (B) Anterior, (C) left lateral views of a trunk-vertebra of Paleryx rhombifer (Owen), from the Eocene Phosphorites of Caylux, France. c, costal articulation; c, zygosphene. The Upper Eocene sands of Hordwell have yielded numerous Paleryx. vertebrae of snakes, but of a much smaller size, namely, Paleryx Lizards. Table-case. No. 3. 26 Squa/mata Ijticertilia, Anguidcc, Varanidce, etc. rhombifer and P. depressus. Others are recorded from the Miocene of CEningen and the Lignites of Bonn-on-the-Rhine, and are exhibited in this case. SUB-ORDER 2. Lacertilia (Lizards). The earliest known member of the large group of existing Lacertian reptiles is Macellodus (with which Saurillus is pro- bably identical, or closely allied), mostly known by jaws and teeth from the Purbeck beds of Swanage, Dorset, a small lizard with pleurodont dentition, dermal scutes, and procoelous vertebrae. Coniasaurus, with expanded teeth, occurs in the Chalk of Kent and Sussex. Several genera of lizards are represented in the Tertiaries of France and America. Remains of a species of Iguana occur in the Eocene Phosphorites of France, and the Middle Eocene of Hordwell, Hampshire. FIG. 31. (A) Outer, and (B), inner views of the left dentary bone of an Anguoid Lizard ; from the Eocene Phosphorites of Cay lux, France. . The Anguidce (Slow-worms) are represented by several genera from Gers in France (Middle Miocene), and from Rott, near Bonn (Lower Miocene); from Steinheim, Bavaria; and from England and North America. FIG. 32. (A) Eight Maxilla; (B) Anterior, and (C) Posterior views of a dorsal vertebra of Varanus bengalensis (Daudin), Pleistocene, Madras. |. The VaranidcB (Monitors) are represented by a very large form Megalania, from Queensland, Australia, and by Varanus Squamata Py thonomorplia. 27 sivalensis from the Siwalik Hills of India. Fragments of jaws, vertebras, etc., referred to Varanus bengalensis, from caves, Kar- nul. Madras, are preserved in the collection. Similar specimens have been described by Mr. Lydekker (see Palseontologialndica). From the Chalk of Sussex and Kent have been obtained several examples of the snake-like lizard Dolichosaurus longicollis, Eolicliosau- and an allied geuvtsAigialosaurus is represented in the collection rus " by a fine specimen of a nearly complete skeleton from the Cre- taceous of the Island of Lesina, Dalmatia. SOB-ORDER 3. Pythonomorpha. The Mosasauridce were carnivorous marine reptiles, fre- Wall-case, quently of great size, and ranging in time from the Upper No ' 7< Grreensand to the uppermost Cretaceous beds, and having a FIG. 33. Right pectoral limb of a Mosasauroid reptile, Platecarpus, sp. Cretaceous strata of North America. T V nat. size (after Marsh.) a, scapula ; 6, coracoid ; c, humerus ; vt, radius ; and e, ulna. world-wide distribution. The body was much elongated ; the skull offers a strong resemblance to the Varanidce amongst the lizards, and has the nasal and premaxilla? welded together ; the quadrates very loosely articulated ; teeth on the pterygoids as well as in the jaws, and frequently ossifications in the sclerotic of the eye. The teeth are large and sharp, and anchylosed by expanded bases to the summits of the jaws. The clavicles are always, and the interclavicles and sacrum generally, wanting. 28 Squamata Mosasanrus. Wall-case, No. 7. Mosasau- rus. The limbs are modified into paddles with no claws to the terminal phalangeals and no foramen to the humerus. The majority of forms were devoid of dermal scntes. FIG. 34. Superior aspect of the cranium of Platecarpus curtirostris (Cope) ; from the Upper Cretaceous of N. America (greatly reduced), pmz, premaxilla; mx, maxilla ; fr, frontal ; prf, prefrontal (after Cope). FIG. 35. Lateral and profile views of a lower tooth of Liodon, sp. from the Upper Cretaceous of Maestricht, Holland, \. These great aquatic lizard-like reptiles, known as the Mosasaurus, Liodon, etc., once inhabited the shores of the sea in which the uppermost Chalk, or Maestricht beds, were deposited, and their powerful jaws, armed with great grooved, recurved, conical teeth, their vertebrae and various other skeletal remains have been obtained from St. Peter's Mount, near Maestricht, Holland, and from the Chalk of Norfolk and Kent. Remains of over forty species have been found in the Cretaceous rocks of New Jersey, Kansas, &c., in North America. One of these, the Mosasaurus princeps, is computed to have been 75 to 80 feet long. The paddles, which were four in number, each Rhynchocep h alia. 29 with five digits, had a remarkable resemblance to the "flippers " Wall-case, of a whale (see Fig. 33). No - 7 ' FIG. 36. The imperfect skull of Mosasaurus Camperi (Meyer), from the Upper Cretaceous of Maestricht, Holland (much reduced). Order V. RHYNCHOCEPHALIA (Beak-headed Lizards). This order has only one living representative, the genus Wall-case. Sphenodon (Hatteria), from New Zealand. Its earliest known No> 8 * ancestor, Palceohatteria, dates from the Permian. In external appearance the Bhynchocephalians were lizard-like animals. They have the quadrate bone of the skull immovably fixed by the proximal extremity to the pterygoid, the palate is closed anteriorly by the median union of the pterygoids which ex- tend to the vomers ; the premaxillae are never united. The teeth are acrodont, being anchylosed to the jaws. Abdominal ribs are always present. Under the name of Rhynchosaurus articeps, Sir Richard Bhynclio- Owen described and figured, in 1842, a very interesting reptile saurus - from the fine-grained white Triassic sandstone of the Grinsill Wall-case, quarries near Shrewsbury (Trans. Cambridge Phil. Soc., vol. vii., part iii., p. 355, pi. 5 and 6). The vertebrae are biconcave, but whilst in some characters of the processes they resemble recent lizards, in others they present characters like those of the Dinosauria. The skull presents the form of a four-sided pyramid compressed laterally ; it is also remarkable for the beak-like prolongation of the premaxillaries, which are pointed and re- curved, and may have been encased in a horny sheath, like the mandible of a bird of prey. It had also, like the still existing New Zealand lizard Sphenodon (Hatteria), to which it is closely allied, two rows of minute acrodont teeth, united to a sharp edge of the maxillary and palatine bones respectively, between which the teeth of the lower jaw fit in a longitudinal groove. 30 Rhynchocephalia Hyperodapedon. Wall-case, No. 8. This character was unknown until a few years ago, when a skull in the collection, having the mandibles in natural position, was skilfully developed from the matrix, and revealed the fact. The biconcave form of the vertebrae, sternal and abdominal ribs, and general characters of the limbs, also show the near affinity of this ancient extinct land- lizard to its living representative. Pmx Hyperoda- pedon. Wall-case, No. 8. FIG. 37. Skull of Hyperodapedon Gordoni (Huxley), Triassic Sandstone, Lossiemouth, Elgin, Morayshire, Scotland (j nat. size). A, upper surface of skull; B, palatal aspect of skull; C, under side of front of lower jaw; Pmx, premaxillary bone; MX, maxillary; PI, palatal teeth; Md, mandibles; 0, orbit. N, anterior nares : S, supratemporal fossa ; 6", lateral temporal fossa. Another form, but of much larger proportions, named by Prof. Huxley, Hyperodapedon, has been obtained from the Triassic sandstone of Elgin, Morayshire, Scotland, having the same compressed broadly triangular form of skull, with the orbits directed upwards and the premaxillaries prolonged into a sharp recurved beak, like Rhynchosaurus, which also may have been encased in a horny sheath. The dentition is very peculiar, the maxillary and palatine bones being provided with several rows of well-developed low conical teeth closely set, and so arranged posteriorly as to form a deep longitudinal groove between two or more rows of teeth Hyperodapedon and Proterosauria. 31 on each side for the reception of the marginal teeth of the Wall-case, mandible ; these teeth are small and closely arranged, and wear No 8 - by attrition with the upper teeth into a sharp cutting edge. There is also present on the inner side of the mandible a series of large and obtuse teeth. The fine specimen of Hyperodapedon Gordoni exhibited from Elgin shows the head, neck, and body region, and some of the limb-bones in fair preservation, but the whole of the caudal region is absent. It was a terrestrial reptile, and attained a length of six or seven feet, and does not appear to have been armed with scutes or spines, but there are traces of wrinkled (skin) markings on the slab near the vertebras. A much larger species, named Hyperodapedon Huxleyi, has been obtained from the Triassic deposits of Maleri, India, of which a good series of the jaws is exhibited. It is computed to have attained a length of 17 ft. Prof. Huxley remarks ("Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.," vol. xliii., 1887) that this order had already attained its greatest degree of specialization as early as the Trias ; Hyperodapedon being in all respects a more modified form than Sphenodon. It appears therefore to be probable that in the Permian, or perhaps still earlier, there must have existed Lizards differing less from the existing genus than either Hyperodapedon or Rhynchosaurus . Aphelosaurus, from the Permian, France, is also placed here. From the Trias of Elgin in Scotland, we have the very small Lacertian, the Leptopleuron (Telerpeton) , not exceeding seven inches in length. The Saurosternon is another small form of Triassic lizard, from the reptiliferous sandstones of South Africa. The Pleurosauridce are typically represented by Pleurosaurus, -wall-case of the Lithographic stone of Bavaria, which is a medium-sized No. 8. Lizard characterized by the extreme elongation of the body (in which there are a great number of presacral vertebras), and the skull is long and narrow, with slit-like nares. Anguisaurus and Acrosaurus, of the same deposits, belong to this family, but it is not certain that they are really distinct from the type genus. From the same horizon also we have Sapheosaurus, Ardeo- saurus and Homwosaurus. Order VI. PROTEROSAURIA. To this order is referred a reptile named Proterosaurus Proterosau- Speneri, from the Permian " Copper-slates " of Thuringia. rus ' Though capable of progression on land, it was evidently of Wall-case, aquatic habits, feeding upon the Palceoniscidce and other fishes, which abounded in the seas of that period. 32 Ichthyosauria. Table-cases, Nos.4and5. Order yiL ICHTHYOSAURIA (FISH-LIZARDS). These great marine carnivorous reptiles had very short neckg ^ Woodcut, Fig. 43), probably not visible at all ex- FIG. 38. Left lateral aspect of the skull of Ichthyosaurus communis (Conybeare) ; from the Lower Lias, Lyme Kegis, Dorset (about A nat. size). The body was entirely devoid of any hard exo-skeleton. Fie. 39. Left lateral and anterior aspects of the centrum of an early posterior dorsal vertebra of Ichthyosaurus trigonus (Owen); Kimmeridge Clay, Stanton. a, upper, b, lower costal tubercle. FIG. 40. The centrum of an anterior dorsal vertebra ,of Ichthyosaurus cntheciodon (Hulke); Kimmeridge Clay, Wilts. A, section: B, anterior aspect; c, left lateral aspect. ternally. The vertebrae are numerous and deeply biconcave (see Fig. 40, A). They are primarily divisible into a precaudal Ichthyosauria. 33 and a caudal series without any differentiated sacrum, the pre- caudals have an upper and a lower costal or rib-tubercle on the centrum ; the caudals have a single tubercle ; the neural arches are attached by synchondrosis (by cartilage or gristle) to the flat surfaces on the centra. Intercentra are present between the skull and atlas, the atlas and axis, and the axis and the third vertebrae. The precaudal ribs are double-headed. Ribs are present in the caudal region ; the chevrons are not united below. Abdominal ribs are present, but there is no sternum. There are clavicles and a T-shaped interclavicle present in the pectoral girdle ; the coracoids do not overlap, there is no ossified pre- Wall-case, No. 14. Table-cases Nos. 4, 5. FIG. 41. Left lateral aspect of skull of Ichthyosaurus latifrons (Konig), from the Lower Lias of Barrow-on-Soar, Leicestershire, i nat. size. coracoid. The pelvis is weak, the iliac bones are not connected with the vertebrae, and there is an open obturator notch. The skull has very large orbits, and the eyes were surrounded by a ring of broad bony (sclerotic) plates. The jaws are elongated, and armed with powerful teeth implanted in grooves. The hand and foot are modified into fin-like organs, composed of short polygonal FIG. 42. A, superior, and B, right lateral aspect of the skull of Ichthyosaurus zetland- icus (Seeley) from the Upper Lias of Normandy (reduced). Pmx, premaxilla; Mx t maxilla ; JV, nares ; JVa, nasal ; Fr, frontal ; Pr/, prefrontal ; Ptf, postfrontal ; Pa, parietal; /, jugal; QuJ quadratojugal; Sg, squamosal; St, supratemporal ; Por, postorbital; A, orbit; S, supratemporal fossa; Scl, sclerotic; Md, mandible; Tortoises and Turtles, a group of reptiles in which the verte- ca^s & brse and ribs are immovable, being combined with the external Nos. 19, 20-' coat of bony plates, closely connected by interlocking sutures, 21 FIG. 48. Outline of the Carapace, or dorsal shield, of Hardella Thuryi (Gray), reduced. nu, nuchal ; nl-n8, neurals ; cl-c8, costals ; spy, 1 the nares, or nostrils, are lateral and placed near the orbits. Table-coses The premaxillae are very large, and there is a well-developed e, 7, 8. parietal foramen in the adult. The symphysis of the mandible is united by a suture (Fig. 63) . The teeth are implanted in distinct sockets and confined to the margins of the jaws ; they have curved sharp crowns with fluted enamel. Each rib articu- lates to a single vertebra ; the facets for the cervical ribs may be either single or double, and are situated entirely on the centrum. The vertebrae are amphiccelous (concave at both ends). The neck may have as many as from 21 to 44 vertebrae. A few of the vertebras behind the cervicals have the ribs arti- culating partly on the arch and partly on the centrum : these have been named pectoral vertebras. The ribs attached to the dorsal vertebrae have the articulation entirely on the arch, which generally forms an elongated transverse process. The 46 Sauropterygia. 1 WaU-case, ]No.l3. Table-cases, Nos. 6, 7, 8. pr.z...... -co FIG. 61. Anterior and left lateral aspects of a cervical vertebra of Cryptoclidus (?) Richardsoni (Lydekker) from the Oxford Clay, Weymouth, Dorset. % nat. size, co, rib ; prz, prezygapophysis ; ptz, postzygapophysis. caudal vertebrae carry true ribs and also chevron bones. In the pectoral girdle, the coracoids unite in a ventral symphysis, and the scapulae may also meet in the median line. The limbs FIG. 62. Ventral aspect of the pectoral girdle of Plesiosaurus Hawkinsi (Owen), from the Lower Lias, Street, Somerset (about i nat. size)o^f., clavicular arch; sc., scapula; pcor., ventral (precoracoidal) plate of scapula; yl., glenoid cavity; cor., coracoid. (In reality the clavicular arch is wedged in between the extremities of the coracoids.) vary, being in some genera adapted for progression on land, in others converted into paddles suited for an aquatic existence. The humerus and femur are always of considerable length; the phalangeal bones are elongated, but no additional digits are developed. In habits the members of this order were carnivo- rous, and either marine or terrestrial. Sauropterygia Plesiosauridcu. 47 PLESIOSAUBIDJ:. In Wall-cases Nos. 9 and 10, and in Table- piiosaurus. case No. 6, are placed the remains of one of our largest marine Wall-case, reptiles, the Piiosaurus, from the Kimmeridge Clay, near Ely, No - 13 - and also from Dorsetshire. We have no entire skeleton of this Table-case, animal, but the cast of a swimming-paddle (the original of No. 6. Fro. 63. Sauropterygian mandibles. A, Peloneustes philarchus (Seeley) ; from the Oxford Clay, g. B, Thaumatosaurus indicus (Lydekker) ; Upper Jurassic of India, . c, Plesiosaurus dolichodirus (Conybeare) ; from the Lower Lias, Lyme Kegis. which is preserved in the Dorchester Museum) measures 7 feet in length ; its jaw was 6 feet long, and one of its teeth was 15 inches in length. It had a shorter neck than the Plesiosaurus, but was probably less fish-like in aspect than Ichthyosaurus, which latter reptile it outrivalled in point of size. In Wall-case No. 13, and in Table-cases Nos. 6, 7, 8, are Plesio- arranged examples of the extinct group of marine reptiles, the saurus. PLESIOSAURIA (see Figs. 64, 65, pp. 48, 49). They are distinguished ^ a at once by the great development of the neck, which is composed Table-cases, of numerous vertebrae. The head is comparatively small in Nos. 6, 7, 8. size ; the orbits are large ; the limbs being shaped externally Plesiosaurus . o ^ a JP . o 2 t* II so I Plesiosaurus. 49 (1876) 50 Sauropterygia Plesiosauridce. Wall-case, No. 13. like the flippers of a whale, and made up of 5 fingers, com- posed of numerous phalanges. The jaws were armed with many Table-cases, simple pointed teeth inserted in distinct sockets. The most ' ' ' complete examples are the Plesiosaurus Hawkinsi, the PL FIG. 66. A tooth of Polyptychodon mterruptus (Owen); Greensand. Cam- bridge. FIG. 67. An upper tooth of Peloneustes philarchus (Seeley) ; Oxford Clay, Bedford, i. FIG. 68. Plesiosaurus Hawkinsi (Owen). Anterior and left lateral aspect of a late cervical vertebra, from the Lower Lias of Lyme Begis, Dorset; co, costal facet; prz, prezygapophysis ; ptz, postzygapophysia. Plesiosauridce . 51 robustus, the Pl.laticeps, PI. macrocephalus, all in Case No. 13 ; Wall-case, and the cast of the Tliaumatosaurus, fixed on the wall of No< 13 * the East Corridor (No. 3 on Plan), leading to the S.B. gallery, which is 22' 0" in length and 14' 0" in breadth, measured across its expanded paddles. FIG. 69. Skeleton of Lariosaurus Balsami (Curioni) ; Muschelkalk, Perledo, Lake of Como, Italy (| nat. size ; original in the Munich Museum). (See coloured reproduction in frame on wall.) In Wall- case 10 are exhibited numerous more or less com- plete skeletons of species of the genera Cryptoclidus, Murceno- saurus, and Peloneustes from the Oxford Clay of Peterborough (Leeds Collection). In some cases the bones are so little crushed that it has been possible to mount them in their natural Glass-case position. One nearly complete skeleton of a young Plesiosaur (probably Cryptoclidus) from the same locality has been mounted and placed in a separate case in the centre of gallery. 5 2 oor " 52 Lariosauridce. Most of the " Sea-Dragons," both the long and the short- necked forms, were obtained from the Lias of Street, Somerset- shire ; Lyme Regis, Dorsetshire ; Barro vv-on-Soar, Leicestershire ; FIG. 70. Palatal aspect of the cranium of Nothosaurus mirabilis (Munster) ; Muschelkalk, Germany (i nat. size), pmx, premaxilla; war, posterior nares ; vo, vomer; mx, maxilla; pal, palatine; pt, pterygoid ; a, ala of same ; 6, quadratic ridge ; qu, quad- rate bone ; oc, occipital condyle. The posterior extremity of the palatine was pro- bably formed by a transverse bone, but the suture is not visible. (Table-case, No. 1 7.) and Whitby in Yorkshire ; or from the Oxford Clay of Peter- borough and Weymoufch, and the Kimmeridge Clay of Dorset- shire ; in fact, their geological and geographical distribution seem to have been almost identical. Table-case, No. 7. Table-case, No. 7. FIG. 71. Right lateral aspect of the skull of Nothosaurus mirabilis (Munster), reduced ; from the Muschelkalk of Germany. The LARIOSAURID^;, represented by the Italian Lariosaurus and the German genus Neusticosaurus, appear to connect the marine PLESIOSAURIDJ; with the freshwater and terrestrial NOTHOSAURIDJ;. The skull was short, the neck relatively long ; the humerus short, the femur elongated, and the terminal phalangeals were furnished with claws. Casts of Lariosaurus Balsami (Fig. 69) (see coloured cast on wall) and two original and nearly entire skeletons of Neusticosaurus pusillus from the Trias of Stuttgart may be seen in the cases. In Nothosaurus the skull is long and narrow with the post- orbital larger than the preorbital portion and with very long and narrow supratemporal fossae ; the upper teeth are numerous, and the 5th and 6th maxillary teeth much enlarged; the Lariosauridce Placodontia. 53 mandibular symphysis is of moderate length and bears 5 teeth ; the dorsal vertebrae have very short transverse processes. Conchiosaurus is closely allied to Nothosaurus ; C. clavatus Table-case, was about one half the size of N. mirabilis. No. 7. The genus Mesosaurus, a reptile discovered in the Karoo formation, Griqualand, S. Africa, and since met with in Brazil, is included in the same order with Nothosaurus. One of the most peculiar features in this genus is the separation of the fourth and fifth tarsalia, so that each metatarsal articulates FIG. 72. Ventral aspect of left pectoral limb FIG. 73. Ventral aspect of right humerus of Mesosaurus tenuidens (P. Gervais), from of Conchiosaurus clavatus (Meyer) ; Mus- the Karoo System (Trias), Griqualand West chelkalk , of Nurnberg (\ nat. size) ; entf, (South Africa) \. ent. f., entepicondylar entepicondylar foramen ; a, ectepicondylar foramen of humerus; r, radius; u, ulna groove, (see Wall- case No. 8). with a distinct tarsale. The centra of the vertebras have a notochordal canal, and are small in comparison to the neural arches ; while the ribs were anchylosed to the vertebrae, and were of great thickness like those of Nothosaurus. Abdominal ribs were also present. The skull was much elongated, and furnished with slender recurved teeth, implanted in distinct sockets. Order X. PLACODONTIA (Plate-toothed Reptiles). The genus Cyamodus, from the Muschelkalk of Germany, Cyamodus. offers a remarkable modification in its dentition not usually Table-case, met with in the reptilian class, but of which the class of fishes No - *? affords numerous examples. The skull is as broad as it is long, the greatest breadth being behind, whence the sides , converge to an obtuse muzzle. The temporal fossae are the widest and the zygomatic arches the strongest in the reptilian class, 54 Placodontia Anomodontia. and the lower jaw presents a similar strong development of the coronoid process. This powerful action of the jaws for biting and grinding relates to the form and size of the teeth, which resemble paving-stones, and were evidently adapted to crack the shells of Mollusca, Crustacea, and perhaps Echini also, upon which this reptile probably subsisted. The upper jaw contains a double series of these teeth, an outer, or maxillary series, and an internal or palatal series ; but the under jaw has only a single row of teeth. Although now admitted to be a reptile, this remarkable genus was formerly classed by Minister and Agassiz as one of the Pycnodont fishes. Placodus. Placodus gigas (Agassiz) . A closely allied form ; ha,s a more Table-case, elongated cranium with a distinct premaxillary rostrum carrying No. 17. three chisel-like teeth on each side. It has three polygonal FIG. 74. Cyamodus (Placodus) laticeps (Owen). A, palatal aspect ; B, frontal aspect of cranium ; from the Muschelkalk of Baireuth, Germany. (Table-case, No. 17.) palatine teeth and four or five maxillary ones. The cranium is more elevated than in Cyamodus. Order XI. ANOMODONTIA. Wall-^ases, In this order the limbs are adapted for walking. The skull is comparatively short ; the quadrate bone is fixed ; a parietal foramen is present : there is one temporal arcade ; the nasals are large ; in the palate the pterygoids meet together in front of the basispheiioid, which they also Anomodontia. Procolophonia and Dicynodontia. 55 join, but diverge anteriorly ; the palatine bones are small and placed internally to the pterygoids, as in Mammals. The dentition is thecodont (teeth placed in distinct sockets), but the teeth may be anchylosed to the bone. The vertebrae are amphicoelous (concave at both ends), and in some cases the noto- chord pierces them ; the dorsal vertebrae have long transverse processes, and the anterior ribs articulate by double heads. Abdominal ribs seem generally to have been absent. In the pectoral girdle an inter clavicle, clavicles, and precoracoids are present, and a sternum was probably always developed. In the pelvis the pubis is placed in advance of the ischium to which it is completely united. The body of the ilium is in advance of the acetabulum. The tarsus has one centrale, and the phalangeal bones of the maims and pes are typically 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, in number as in Mammals ; the whole structure of the foot being Mammalian in type. We are led to conclude, from recent researches, that these animals are directly descended from the Labyrinthodont Amphibians, more especially from the Archegosaurian family. They are also related in all probability to Monotreme Mammals. This order appears to be confined to the Permian and Trias. SUB-ORDER 1. Procolophonia. To the Anomodontia are now referred the small reptiles of the genus Procolophon, with a short triangular and somewhat depressed skull ; their dentition is carnivorous but the marginal teeth are all alike and are completely anchylosed to the bone ; teeth are also borne upon the vomer and the pterygoids. Procolophon presents many points of resemblance to Sphenodon and the Bhynchosauridce. The genus is met with in the Karoo Beds (Trias), of South Africa. Table-case, * Table-case, No * 18 * SUB-ORDER 2. Dicynodontia (Double Dog- toothed). Family DICTNODONTID^:. The Dicynodonts* are a very Dicynodon. peculiar family of reptiles from the Trias of South Africa. Wall-case, The skull is massive and remarkable in form, and is furnished with a single pair of huge sharp-pointed tusks growing down- wards, one from each side of the upper jaw, like the tusks in the Walrus. No other kind of teeth was developed in these singular animals ; but the premaxillaries was confluent and sharp-edged, and formed with the lower jaw a beak-like mouth, probably sheathed in horn like that of the Turtles and Tortoises. Several species have been described from the Storm- * The genus, Dicynodon, is so called from dia, two, and KVVO$OQ, canine tooth, from the two tusk-like canines in the upper jaw. 56 Dicynodon. Dicynodon. "Wall-case, No. 9. Table-case, No. 18. Oudenodon. Table-case, No. 18. berg and Beaufort Beds of the Karoo series of South Africa, and the equivalent Gondwana series of Central India. Gor- donia and Geikia, closely related to Dicynodon, have been dis- covered in the reptiliferous sandstone of Elgin, Scotland, which seems to be of Triassic age. In Oudenodon both jaws were edentulous ; the maxillae have a sharp external beak-like ridge ; the palate has a vomerine Dicynodon. Table-case, No. 18. Endothio- don. FIG. 75. Palatal aspect of cranium of Dicynodon, from the Karoo series of the Cape of Good Hope, S. Africa. . pmx, premaxilla ; mx, maxilla ; vo, vomer ; pal, palatine ; pt, pterygoid ; bs, basisphenoid ; bo, basioccipital ; qu, quadrate ; tr f transverse bone? ; ptn, posterior nares.l. Figure much reduced. ridge, and the general shape of the skull resembles Dicynodon. Several species have been described by Owen, all from South Africa. Family ENDOTHIODONTID^. This family includes a number of large reptiles from the Karoo formation of the Cape, of which the genus Endothiodon forms the type. They are dis- tinguished from the preceding by the presence of numerous teeth on the palate. The skull resembles Oudenodon, but the Theriodontia Topi nocephalidcu . 57 muzzle is more elongated and the nares (nostrils) are terminal and are overhung by massive nasal bones. The border of the jaws has a cutting edge, but the surface of the palate an -I FIG. 76. Lateral views of the skulls of (A), Dicynodon lacerticeps (Owen), "and (), Oudenodon Baini (Owen) ; from the Karoo series, South Africa. Figures much reduced. mandible carry one or more longitudinal rows of columnar and cylindrical teeth. The palate of Endothiodon is remarkably mammalian in type. x 3. Theriodontia. Family TAPINOCEPHALIP.E. This family includes remains of two large forms from the Karoo beds, South Africa, namely, Tapinocephalus and Titanosuchus. Their dentition indicates a carnivorous type of reptiles. An imperfect skull, several entire limb-bones, and vertebras are preserved in the Collection. Family GALESAURID^. Nearly the whole of the typical Theriodontia are included in this family. They form a remark- able group of carnivorous reptiles, first described and thus named by Sir Richard Owen* in reference to the form and order of arrangement of the teeth bearing a greater resemblance to the dentition of the Mammalia than any other group of the class * " Catalogue of the Foss. Kept, of South Africa," 4to, Lond. 1876. Theriodon- tia. Table-case, No. 18. Wall-case, No. 7. Tapinoce- phalus. Table-case, No. 17. Galesaurus. 58 Theriodontia Galesauridce. Reptilia, for, as in the carnivorous mammals, the incisors are separated from the molars by well-developed canines, and the Table-case, No. 17. Teeth of Therio- dontia. FIG. 77. Anterior and right lateral aspects of a lumbar vertebra of Tapinocephalw Athtrstond (Owen) ; from the Karoo Beds, South Africa. About nat. size. canines of the lower jaw cross those of the upper in front. In many of the genera the upper canines are long and trenchant, and the incisors large and close together (Lycosaurus, ^lurosaurus, etc.), the molars, as a rule, being smaller than the incisors. In most reptiles, living and extinct, the teeth that are worn away by use, or otherwise lost, are replaced by others that are constantly FIG. 78. Left lateral aspect of skull of Galesaurus jilaniceps (Owen), from the Karoo beds (Triassic), South Africa (^ nat. size), a, an upper cheek-tooth, and 6, an incisive tooth. forming in the jaws ; but there is no evidence of preceding teeth, like the milk-teeth in mammals, nor of successional teeth, in the jaws of the Theriodonts. From this negative evidence Sir Richard Owen assumes them to have been " Monophyodont " reptiles, having but one set of teeth, which were permanent, during life. He has described eleven genera, varying in the size and form of Theriodontia Galesauridce, 59 the skull and teeth. The specimens exhibited have all been obtained from rocks of Triassic age in South Africa, and are the type-specimens of the species figured and described in the work already quoted. FIG. 79. Anterior view of a dorsal vertebra of Naosaurus clavlger (Cope), from the Permian of Texas (,\ nat. size): cc, centrum. FIG.! 80. Bight, lateral aspect of imperfect cranium of JElurosaurus felinus (Owen) ; from the Karoo Beds; Triassic), Beaufort West, South Africa (f nat. size), a, upper incisive tooth ; 6, upper cheek-tooth, enlarged. 60 Glass-case No. I., and Table-case, No. 17. Tkeriodontia Clepsydrop id&. Two very remarkable genera of Theriodonts, Cynognathus and Gomphognathus, have lately been described by Prof. H. G. Seeley. In both the skull is remarkable for its mammalian appearance, that of Cynognathus especially, with its small^'incisors and powerful canines, having a striking resemblance to the skull of a Carnivore, such as the wolf. The occipital condyle is double, also a mammalian character, and the quadrate is much reduced, ^n imperfect skeleton of Cynognathus crater- onotus is exhibited in a separate case in the middle of the gallery. Gomphognathus is further remarkable for its broad-crowned molar teeth. FIG. 81. falatal aspect of cranium of Emvedias molaris (Cope), J nat. size- from the Permian of Texas, North America. Naosaurus. Family CLEPSYDROPID^:. These Theriodonts differ from the GALESAURID^; either in having teeth on the palate, or by the extraordinary character of their dorsal vertebrae, in which large intercentra are typically present. These forms all belong to Theriodontia Diadectidce and Bolosauridce. 61 the Permian formation of North America. The premaxillary and Gallery, maxillary teeth are of unequal size, as in Galesaurus, and there Jf ,:, 4 * are two tusks near the extremity of the dentary bone. In Dime- N ^ ^e-case trodon and Naosaurus the neural spines of the dorsal vertebrae Empedias. have an extraordinary development ; the height of the spine in one species being- more than twenty times the length of the centrum. Prof. Cope concludes that these spines formed a kind of elevated fin on the back, of which it is difficult to imagine the use. In Naosaurus there were horizontal processes on the spines of the vertebrae. This genus has also been recorded from the Permian of Bohemia (see Fig. 79, p. 59.) Family DIADECTID^. In the DIADECTIDCE, represented by 'the genera Diadectes, Empedias, and Helodectes, the teeth are transversely elongated, and are also divided by a median vertical ridge, but both the inner and outer sides are equally low. They are believed to have been herbivorous in diet. These genera are characteristic of the Permian of North America; see Figs. 81 and 82, Empedias molaris (Cope). Family BOLOSAURIDJ;. Another closely related form, re- ferred to the family of BOLOSAURIDCE, named Deuterosaurus, is found in the Permian of Russia (Fig. 83). FIG. 82. Lateral and palatal view of posterior tooth of Empedias molaris (Cope) ; Permian, North America. FIG. 83. Lateral view of a premolar of Deuterosaurus biarmicus (Eich- wald), from the Upper Permian of Russia. A tooth has been obtained from the Karoo beds of South Africa closely resembling in general characters the anterior teeth of Deuterosaurus. It has been made the type of the genus Glaridodon. SUB-ORDEE 4. Pariasauria. In this sub-order are placed the remains of several other Wall-case, genera of Anomodonts. TJie-y include Pariasaurus, Anthodon, Tabte-case and Propappus, from tKe f riassic deposits of South Africa. No. 18. S6 ' ' ^ THB. Pariasaurus. 63 Pariasaurus bombidens was obtained by Mr. Bain from the Gallery, reptiliferons Triassic sandstone near the Winterberg, Cape No. 4. Colony. The teeth are close-set, fused with the bone ; they r us? aSaU ~ resemble those of the Iguanodon in their mode of implantation, Glass-case,, and those of the Scelidosaurus in their close arrangement and ZE * nearly uniform wear. The degree of abrasion indicates, as in Wall-case,, the Iguanodon, that they were applied to the mastication of " * vegetable substances. Fifteen or sixteen teeth are closely set on each side of both the upper and lower jaws. As in man, there is no diastema in the dental series, no one tooth is longer than the rest. But there is still greater uniformity in the teeth of this ancient reptile. There is absolutely no character by which to separate the incisors, or canines, or false or true molars. All the teeth are equally worn, and show by their abraded border that they have taken an equal share in the pounding as well as the crop- ping of the vegetable food upon which the animal subsisted. It may be added that the palate also bears several rows of small teeth. The animal measures fully nine feet in length, and the shape of its skull and jaws are remarkably like those of the Labyrinthodont Batrachia. Two examples of the skeleton of Pariasaurus are exhibited in a glass-case (marked JT), at the west-end of Gallery, No. 4. * A still finer skeleton of another species, P. Baini (Seeley), from the Karoo Formation of Tamboer Fontein, Cape Colony, is placed in Glass-case L. (Fig. 84). Professor Seeley concludes that this very remarkable and Amphibian-like reptile is a direct descendant from the Laby- rinthodonts ; the chief affinities to that group being displayed in the characters of the skull, in the notochordal canal, and the large arches of the vertebrae, as well as in the characters of the pectoral and pelvic girdles. The latter features, together with the general structure of the palate, being identical with those of typical Anomodonts, there appears every reason for referring this family to a sub-order of that group. Amphibia Ecaudata. Amphibia, Gallery, No. 4. Table-cases, Nos. 22 and 23. West Cor- ridor, No. 5. Wall-case, No. 11. Table-case, No. 23. Batrachia ; Frogs, Toads. CLASS 4. AMPHIBIA. In Wall-case No. 11, and in Table-cases Nos. 22 and 23, are placed the fossil AMPHIBIA or BATRACHIA (Frogs, Toads, Newts, and Salamanders). These animals are distinguished from true reptiles by the fact that the young undergo certain metamor- phoses after leaving the egg. In this stage of their exist- ence they breathe by external gills, which are occasionally retained along with internal lungs in the adult animal. The limbs are sometimes all absent, or one pair may be 'wanting. When present, they have the same bones as in the higher animals ; they are never converted into fins. The skull has two occipital condyles and often a persistently cartilaginousbasi- and supra-occipital. The suspensorial apparatus of the mandible is continuous with the skull. Teeth are commonly present on the premaxilla, maxilla, vomer, and the dentary bone of the mandible. They are usually anchylosed to the bone and are simple in structure ; but in the Labyrinthodonts they are more complex. There are never more than two vertebras coalesced to form the sacrum. The tail is usually comparatively short. The centra of the backbone are sometimes found to be unossified, forming a mere ring of bone, the interior being gelatinous. This form of backbone is called "Notochordal," and is cha- racteristic of the oldest forms belonging to this group met with fossil in the Coal Measures, such as the Anthracosaurus, Archegosaurus, and the Triassic Labyrinthodonts. Order I. ECAUDATA. (Tailless Batrachia, Frogs and Toads.) The body of the adult is short, destitute of a tail, and furnished with four limbs, of which the pelvic pair are the larger and adapted for leaping. There are no gills in the adult. Skull short and wide, with the parietals confluent with the frontals, and the orbits usually undefined ; prassacral vertebrae few in number, and generally procrelous ; there is only one sacral vertebra, and the vertebral column terminates in a long urostyle ; dorsal ribs are usually absent. Ilia prolonged backwards, so as to throw the acetabulum far behind the sacrum ; radius and ulna, and tibia and fibula respectively fused together, calcaueum and astragalus elongated. Four digits in the hand and five in the foot ; an additional ossicle in the pes may represent the prehallux. The tailless Batrachia (frogs and toads) do not date back further in time than the Upper Eocene. A form allied to the European genus Bombinator occurs in the Upper Miocene of Switzerland and the Middle Miocene of Sansan, France. Another genus Bufavus, occurs in the Middle Tertiary of Italy. Pelobates is found in the Miocene of Sansan, Amphibia Caudata. 65 and Protopelobates in that of Bohemia. The extinct family of Table-case, Palceobatrachidce has teeth in the upper jaw and no ribs ; it was No> 23 * widely distributed over the continent of Europe in Miocene Batrachia; times, and was represented by a single genus Palceobatrachus, Toads', and more than a dozen species from various localities. The true toads, Bufonidce, have no teeth or dorsal ribs. Existing species of the genus Bufo occur in the European and Indian Pliocene deposits. B. Gesneri from the Upper Miocene of Switzerland agrees closely with the living B. viridis. Dr. Filhol records the type-genus from the Upper Eocene Phos- phorites of France. The huge Ceratophrys cornutus, or Horned Frog of Brazil, occurs in the Cave deposits of that country; and the genus Latonia in the Miocene of Switzerland. The Hanidoe, or true frogs, have teeth in the upper jaw and the extremities of the sacral ribs are not expanded. Species of Sana are found in the Norfolk Forest Bed, in the Pleistocene of Sardinia, the Miocene of Sansan ; two are from the Brown Coal of Bott, near Bonn, others from the Upper Eocene Phos- phorites of Caylux, France ; several forms occur in the Middle Tertiary of Italy, &c. Order II. CAUDATA. (Salamanders, &c.) In this order the body of the animal resembles that of a Wall-case, Lizard, or is still more elongated like that of an Eel ; in some No< u * there are four limbs present, in others only the anterior pair are FIG, 85. The great Fossil Salamander Megalobatrachus (Cryptobranchus) Scheuchzeri (Holl), from the Upper Miocene, GEningen, Switzerland. developed. The external gills of the larva are occasionally Salaman- retained in the adult animal. Hylceobatrachus is found in the ders ' Wealden of Belgium and may be an ancestral form allied to the Proteidce but distinguished by the presence of a maxilla and of five digits to the feet. (The only specimen known is in the Brussels Museum.) In the family of Amphiumidce is placed Meqalobatrachus (1876) 6 66 Amphibia Labyrinthodontia. Wall-case, No. 11. Table-case. No.23. (Oryptobranchus) represented by the gigantic Salamander (M t maximus) of China and Japan, with which we may probably include the large Salamander from the Upper Miocene of Oenin- gen, Switzerland, originally regarded as the remains of a fossil man, and described by Scheuchzer as " homo diluvii testis" the man who witnessed the Deluge ! Cryptobranchus Tschudii (Meyer) a much smaller form than C. maximus, but with a skull of nearly the same form, is from the Miocene Brown-coal beds of Bott, near Bonn, in the Siebengebirge. The true Salamanders lose their gills when adult, but in some individuals of Amblystoma they are persistent. The existing crested Newt (Molge cristata) is found in the Norfolk Forest-bed, other representatives occur in the Middle and Lower Miocene of Europe. C/ielotriton is found in the Lower Miocene of Allier ; Heliarchon in the Brown Coal of Bonn ; and Megalo- triton in the Upper Eocene Phosphorites of Central France. Order III. LABYRINTHODONTIA. Wall-case, In this order the body is long and lizard-like (occasionally No. 11. snake-like) in form, with a tail, the pectoral limbs shorter than the Table- cases, Nos. 22, 23. FIG. 86. Mastodonsaurus giganteus (Jaeger), from the Lettenkohle (Lowest Keuper) of Wttrtemberg ; about $. Frontal aspect of the cranium with the sculpture omitted ; SOc supraoccipital ; p, epiotic; P, parietal; Sq, squamosal ; ST, supratemporal ; Q.J, quadratojugal; Ju, jugal; Pt, postf rental; PtO, postorbital; Fr, frontal; Pr.F, pre- frontal ; Z, lachrymal ; Na, nasal ; MX, maxilla ; the premaxilla has no letter. (After E. Fraas.) FIG. 87. Palatal aspect of cranium of Masto- donsaurus giganteus (Jaeger) ; from the Lower Keuper of Wtirtemberg. (After Miall.) Amphibia Labyrinthodontia. 67 pelvic pair ; the feet pentadactyle. Skull with the temporal region Wall-case, completely roofed over by the post-orbital and supra-temporal No. 11. bones ; with a parietal foramen. Teeth pointed, having a large Table-cases, pulp-cavity and the dentine simple or plicated. Vertebrae amphi- Nos * 22 > 2S * coelous; they may be imperfectly ossified, and a notochordal canal is often present. A bony thoracic buckler on the ventral aspect. Bony scutes frequently present on the ventral aspect of the body. Teeth are generally present on the palatines and vomer and more rarely on the pterygoids. There is generally an ossified sclerotic ring. FIG. 88. Frontal aspect ot cranium of Capitosaurus robustus (Meyer); Middle Keuper (Upper Trias), near Stuttgart, Wiirtemberg. Letters as in Fig. 86. (^ nat. size.) FIG. 89. Frontal aspect of the cranium of Metoposaurus diagnosticus (Meyer) , Upper Trias, near Stutt- gart. 'Letters as in Fig. 86. ( nat. size.) The Labyrinthodonts were frequently of large size; the dentine of the teeth was usually plicated ; the cranial bones were deeply sculptured and usually marked by numerous mucus- canals. The Labyrinthodonts range from the Carboniferous to the Trias, and were especially abundant in the Permian epoch. One of the largest of these forms is the Mastodonsanrus giganteus (Jaeger), from the Keuper of Wiirtemberg, the skull of which measures a yard in length, and broad in proportion ; the snout is obtuse, the nares are oval and widely separated ; the orbits are oval, but narrow in front, and are some distance in advance of the parietal foramen ($ee Fig'. 86). 6 2 68 Amphibia Anthracosauridce. Capita saurus and Metoposaurus occur in the Upper Trias of Stuttgart ; in the former the orbits are elliptical, and approxi- mate to the parietal foramen ; in the latter they are oval, and situated in the anterior half of the skull, and widely separated from one another. (Figs. 88, 89.) FIG. 90. Loxomma Allmani (Huxley). Frontal aspect of cranium with the sculpture omitted; from the Carboniferous of Northumberland. About |, PI'', prefrontal. Other letters as in Fig. 86. (After Miall.) In the Anthracosauridw, represented by Loxomma, the skull is vaulted with a broad and somewhat spatulate muzzle ; the length of skull being about 14 inches by 9 inches in breadth. In this family the vertebral column is fully ossified in the adult ; the teeth are deeply infolded ; the mucus-canals between the orbits and the nares form a lyre-shaped pattern, known as the lyra ; and the ventral surface of the body typically has a covering of bony scutes. In Wall-case 11 is placed a very beautifully preserved skull of a Labyrinthodont from the Coal Measures of Shrop- shire, referred to Loxomma Allmani (Huxley). The specimen is preserved uncrushed and shows the natural contour of the skull and lower jaw, admirably preserved in clay-ironstone. It was presented by George Maw, Esq., F.L.S., F.Gr.S. This family comprises Baphetes, from the Carboniferous of Nova Scotia ; Anthracosaurus and Loxomma, from the Lower Carboniferous of Burdiehouse, near Edinburgh, and the Coal Measures of Lanarkshire and Northumberland; Macromerium, from Bohemia; Eosaurus, from Nova Scotia; Nyrania, from Bohemia ; Ichthyerpetum, from Jarrow Colliery, Kilkenny ; Den- Diplospondylidce and Archegosauridce. 69 drerpetum, from the Coal Measures, Nova Scotia; Brachyops, Table-cases from the Permian, Mangali, India; Bothriceps and MiorophoUs, ** s - 22 and from South Africa. FIG. 91. Bothriceps Huxley I (Lydekberi. Frontal aspect of the skull ; from the Karoo system of the Orange Free State, South Africa. A. In Bothriceps the surface of the cranium is closely and irregularly pitted ; the orbits are placed near the middle of the skull. This small skull measures about 2J inches in length, and 2 in breadth. It was obtained from the Karoo beds (Triassic?) of South Africa. In the Diplospondylidce the vertebras, at least in the caudal region, consist of an anterior centrum carrying the neural arch, and a posterior intercentrum to which the chevrons are united. These interceiitra correspond with those of Glepsydrops among the Anomodontia, the type of structure being known as ein- bolomei'ous. In the Archegosauridce each vertebra of the trunk, in Tri- merorachis and Archegosaurus, consists of four portions,* namely, a basal intercentrum (hypocentrum), a pair of pleurocentra, See Table- and a neural arch. This is known as the rhachitomous type of case > No 2 vertebra. These are Labyrinthodonts of moderate size, having cylindrical teeth of varying size with only slight infoldings of the dentine ; the upper surface of the skull being pitted ; the supra-occipitals ridged ; a ring of bones is usually developed in the sclerotic ; the ventral surface of the body is always covered with scutes. This family is evidently the most primitive one of the entire group. * See Fig. 94, infra, p. 71, vertebra of Eiichirosaurus, illustrating this rhachitomous type of vertebra. 70 Amphibia Arcliegosaurus, etc. ^ Wall-case, '3 No. 11. The genus Arcliegosaurus, represented by A. Decheni (Gold- fuss), from the Lower Permian " Rothliegendes" of Saarbriick, Rhenish Prussia, is particularly well represented in the Col- lection by a remarkably good series of examples. This genus is confined to the Permian formation, and may be taken as the type of the family. The skull is nearly twice as long as it is broad, with elongate -oval orbits, and situated very far back ; length of skull 11 inches. (See Fig. 93, p. 71.) In Actinodon the skull is short and wide, with the. circular orbits placed in the middle of the length ; the nostrils are large and widely separated ; the muzzle is broad. A skull of this species is preserved in the Collection on a slab of shale from the Lower Permian of Autun, Saone-et-Loire, France, and a cast of an entire skeleton from the same locality, presented by Prof. A. Gaudry, is exhibited in the Wall-case. Cochleosaurus, Gaudrya, Chelyosaurus, and Sparagmites, are Labyrinthodonts from the Permian Gas-coal of Bohemia, dis- covered and described by Dr. Fritsch, of Prague. Trimerorhachis is from the Permian of Texas. Eryops occurs in Texas, and perhaps also in South Africa. Hhytidosteus is from the Orange Free State (see Table- case, No. 22); and Plwlidogazter from the Lower Carboniferous of Edinburgh. FIG. 92. Actinodoi' (atiros/ris (Jordan, sp.). Frontal aspect of the cranium, with the sculpture omitted ; frem the Lower Permian of SaarbrUck. f Pt.F., postfrontal , Pm:r. premaxilla : other letters as in Fig. 86 (p. 66). Amphibia Archeyosaurus, 71 FIG. 93.Arehegosaurus Decheni (Goldfuss). Frontal aspect of the cranium, with the sculpture omitted; from the Rothliegendes (Lower Permian) of Saarbruck. About fc. Pmx, premaxilla; MX, maxilla; f? a , nasal; La, lachrymal; Fr, frontal; PF, pre- frontal; Pa, parietal; Ptf, postfrontal; PtO, post-orbital ; Ju, jugal; QJ, quadrato- jugal; Sg, squamosal; flT, supratemporal ; Sp, epiotic ; SO, supraoccipital. (After MialL) Fio. 94. A, Left lateral aspect ; B, posterior aspect of a vertebra of Euchirosaurus Roehei (Gaudry). from the Lower Permian of France, n, Neural spine with lateral expan- sions, al; s, suture between spine and arch ; za, prezygapophysis ; zp, postzygapo- physis ; rf, transverse process ; c, rib facet ; cr, neural canal ; ic, intercentrum ; pic, pleurocentra (illustrating the rhachitomous type of vertebra). (Aft.fr Gaudry.) 72 Amphibia Microsauria, Aistopoda, and Branchiosauria. Wall-case, No. 11. Table-case, No. 22. SUB-ORDER 1. Mierosauria. This sub-order contains a number of salamander-like forms of Labyrinthodonts referred to the family Urocordylidce, and to the genera Urocordylus, Ceraterpetum, Lepterpetum, from Kil- kenny, Ireland, and from Bohemia. Limnerpetum, from Bohemia, occupies a family by itself. The Hy lonomidce include Hylonomus, Seeleya, Ricnodon, Orthopleurosaurus, all from the Gas-coal of Bohemia. Microbrachis, also from Nyran, Bohemia, occupies a distinct family. Most of these are represented by electrotypes of the original fossils, the shales in which they occur as fossils being charged with pyrites, which rapidly decompose. Wall-case, No. 11. Table-case, No. 22. SUB-ORDER 2. Aistopoda. In this sub-order the body is snake-like without legs, and there is neither a pectoral nor pelvic girdle ; the centra of the vertebrae are elongated, and the neural spines aborted. It includes Dolichosoma and Ophiderpetum (Huxley) from the coal of Ireland and the Permian of Bohemia. Table-case, No, 22. Wall-case, No. 11. SUB-ORDER 3. Branchiosauria. These are short-tailed salamander-like Labyrinthodonts with barrel-shaped centra, and a notochordal canal through their vertebrae. The family APATEONID^ includes Melanerpetum from Bohemia ; and the family PROTRITONID.E the genera Protriton of Gaudry, from the Lower Permian of Autun, and Bohemia, Sparodus and Dawsonia also from the last-named locality. Among doubtful Labyrinthodonts may be recorded here, Lepidotosaurus Duffii from the Middle Permian of Midderidge, Durham. Some of the Ichnites (Footprints) were doubtless made by Amphibians ; they are mentioned under that head in Gallery No. 11 (see infra, p. 73 of this Guide, Fig. 95). FOOTPRINTS. GALLERY No. 11. Footprints. Wall-cases Nos. 8-10 are occupied by a fine series of Foot- prints and impressions mostly found in Sandstone of Triassic age. Attention is directed to the large slab from near Greenfield, Massachusetts, which is covered with impressions supposed to be the footmarks of bipedal reptiles ; these tracks are called "Ichnites." Footprints. 73 The Gheirotherium footprints in Wall-case No. 10 are exceed- ingly fine; they occur chiefly in the Triassic Sandstones of Cheshire. Wall-cases, Nos. 11-13, contain a continuation of the Gallery Saurian Collection. No. 11 is devoted to the Genus Plesio- No. 11. saurus, Nos. 12 and 13 to Ichthyosaurus. Many of these speci- Foot P rint s. mens have been figured and described by Hawkins, Sollas, Saurian Ool- and others. In Wall-case, No. 13, is a very complete and ec lon< perfect specimen of Ichthyosaurus tenuirostris from the Lower Lias of Street, Somersetshire, presented by Alfred Gillett, Esq. (see Frontispiece) . FIG. 95. Footprints of Cheirotherium Barthi (Kaup, sp.), Bunter sandstone, Hessberg, near Hildburghausen, Germany (reduced). 74 FOSSIL FISHES. GALLERY No. 6. As the varied layers of sandstone, limestone, and clay, which compose the greater part of the superficial crust of the earth, have been accumulated as sedimentary deposits in lakes, estuaries, and seas, one would naturally expect that, of the Vertebrate division of animals, the remains of Fishes would be most frequently met with in these formations ; and such is in fact the case, although, from their fragmentary state, it is not always possible to determine their precise systematic position. h a FIG. 96. The " Lancelot," Eranckiosloma (Amphioxus) lanceolatum (recent), a, mouth; c, vent ; b, abdominal pore. Some fishes have no hard structures capable of fossilizatioii, and such is likewise the case with most of the lower notochordal forms the " Sea-squirts " and the " Lancelets " which seem to connect the Vertebrata with the subkingdoms of Invertebrata. The little "Lancelet" (Branchiostoma), for example, has only a membrane-cartilaginous skeleton without vertebrae, ribs, or jaws (Fig. 96) ; while the ordinary Tunicates, or " Sea-squirts," are equally destitute of any but the most perishable tissues. Marsipobranchii. The modern lampreys and hag-fishes also possess no hard structures capable of fossilization, beyond the minute horny teeth (Figs. 97, 98). Technically speaking, in fact, they are not FIG. 97. FIG. 98. FIG. 97. The "Hag-fish," Myxine australis (recent). 97a, Lower aspect of head. 976, A single detached tooth of Myxine. FIG. 98. Mouth of Lamprey, Petromyzonfluviatilis, showing circular arrangement of teeth. Harsipobranchii. 75 Fishes (Pisces), being destitute both of a lower jaw and paired fins. There is now, however, reason to believe that these animals are the degenerate descendants of a class which once possessed not only a hard internal skeleton, but also dermal armour of a very varied kind. The small Palceospondylus Gunni (Fig. 99), Table-case for example, from the Lower Old Red Sandstone of Caithness. No - A - Fio. 99. PcdcEOypondylus Gunni, Iraq. Old Red Sandstone ; Caithness. has a skeleton in all essential respects like that of a lamprey, but well-calcified, and with ring-vertebras. The little tooth-like bodies (Fig. 100), named " Conodonts" by Pander, have also been FIG. 100." Conodonts " from the Cambrian (after Dr. G. J. Hinde). x 10 times. compared with the denticles of lampreys and hag-fishes ; but instead of being chitinous or horny, they consist of phosphate of lime, and thus cannot be satisfactorily determined. These 76 Ostracodermi. fossils are exclusively Palaeozoic, and were first discovered in the Cambro- Silurian and Devonian formations of Russia and North America, Table-cases, Nos. A, B, and Wall- case, No. 4. Table-case, No. A. Ostracodermi. The armoured notochordal animals which possessed neither lower jaw nor paired fins, and are hence now supposed to be related to the lampreys, are found only in Upper Silurian and Devonian rocks. They were for a long time erroneously classified with Coccosteus and its allies (see p. 96) under the name of " Placodermata " (plate-skinned animals), but are now distinctly separated from the latter and grouped under the name of OSTRACODERMI (shell-skinned) or OSTRACOPHORI (shell- bearers). The head and anterior portion of trunk are covered with plates ; while there are remains of median fins, and often also scales, in the caudal region. No traces of the internal skeleton have been found, and the notochord must have been persistent. There are three groups cf Ostracoderms distinguished by the structure and arrangement of the anterior shield. Firstly, there are the Heterostraci (anomalous-shells), comparatively simple, of which the plates exhibit no bone-cells in their tissue and comprise three superposed layers an inner " nacreous " layer of lamellse, a relatively thick middle zone of polygonal chambers, and an outer hard layer of vascular dentine. Secondly, the Osteostraci (bony-shells), also with simple shields, which exhibit bone-cells in part at least of their tissue. Thirdly, the Antiarcha, of which the shields comprise many symmetrically disposed plates, are provided with a pair of lateral appendages, and likewise exhibit bone-cells in their tissue. The earliest known fish-like shield belongs to Cyathaspis, a member of the Heterostraci. One specimen has been recorded from the Wenlock Limestone of the Island of Gothland in the Baltic Sea, and a ventral shield (originally named Scaphaspis ludensis) has been found in the Lower Ludlow of Leintwardine, Shropshire. Cyathaspis Banksi occurs in the Upper Ludlow " Bone-bed " and Downton Sandstone. The typical Heteros- tracan genus, Pteraspis (Figs. 101, 102), has a dorsal shield com- posed of seven pieces : a rostrum, a large median disc, a FIG. 101. Restoration of Pteraspis rostrata, Ag. Lower Old Red Sandstone ; Herefordshire. Ostracodermi. 77 posterior median spine, an anterior lateral pair of plates pierced by the eyes, and a posterior lateral pair pierced by openings from the gill-chamber. There is a single ventral shield, and the tail in Pteraspis is also proved to have been scaly. All the Heterostracan shields are ornamented externally with very fine FIG. 102. Restoration of shield of Pteraspis rostrata, Ag.,upper aspect (after Lankester). Lower Old Bed Sandstone ; Herefordshire. concentric lines of vascular dentine. They are typically Lower Devonian, and the largest specimens scarcely ever exceed six inches in length. So far as known, the Osteostraci are almost confined to the Uppermost Silurian and the Lower Devonian rocks, only one specimen having been found in the Upper Devonian (Canada). The typical genus is Cephalaspis (Fig. 103), represented in the Table . cases Collection by the finest known specimens from Forfarshire and Nos. A, B. Herefordshire. Special attention may b3 directed to the unique group of Cephalaspis Murchisoni from the Lower Old Red Sand- stone Passage Beds of Ledbury, Herefordshire, presented by George H. Piper, Esq., F.Gr.S. The head-shield is rounded or tapering in front, truncated behind, and the eyes appear close together in the middle ; its outer tuberculated layer is usually FIG. 103. Cephalaspi Murchisoni, Egert. ; L. Old Red Sandstone (Passage Beds), Ledbury, Herefordshire. removed, and then the middle layer is exposed with its coarse network of blood-vessels. A pair of small nippers at the back of the shield are probably not fins, but connected with the aeration of the gills. The body is covered with rings of bony scutes ; there is one dorsal fin ; and the tail is distinctly hetero- cercal. In Auchenaspis and Didymaspis some of the body-rings are fused together immediately behind the head-shield. Trema- taspis is a remarkable allied genns. -^^^ " 78 Ostracodermi. Wall-case, Pterlchthi/s (Fig. 104) and Bothriolepis are the best-known Tablt-case members of tne Antiarcha, which are exclusively Devonian. No. B. FIG. l04.Ptcrichthystestudinarius,Ag.; restored by Dr.K.H.Traquair, from the dorsal aspect (A), ventral aspect (B), and lateral aspect (C). In the last figure the caudal fin is omitted. The double dotted lines indicate the grooves of the sensory canal system ; and in the trunk, the thick lines represent the exposed borders of the plate, the thin line showing the extent of the overlap, a., anconeal; a.d.l., anterior dorso-lateral ; a.m.d., anterior median dorsal; a.v.l., anterior ventro-lateral ; ag., angular ; a?-., articular; c., central; e.l., extra-lateral (or operculum) ; 1., lateral; Locc., lateral occipital; m., marginal; m.occ., median occipital ; m.v., median ventral ; mn., mental ; pm., premedian ; p.d.l., posterior dorso-lateral ; p.m.d., posterior median dorsal ; p.v.l., posterior ventro-lateral . pt.m., post-median ; s.l., semilunar ; t., terminal. Lower Old Red Sandstone, Scotland. ' These are particularly noteworthy for the pair of jointed appendages fixed to the antero-lateral angles of the body-armour. Pterichthys has a scaly hinder region, a dorsal fin, and a hetero- cercal tail, and is represented by a beautiful series of specimens from the Lower Old Red Sandstone of Scotland. The finest examples of Bothriolepis were obtained from the Upper Devonian Pisces. 79 of Scaumenac Bay, P.Q., Canada, but its tail has never been found, being probably scaleless. Asterolepis is an allied genus. CLASS 5. PISCES. The true fishes all possess a lower jaw and complete or rudimentary paired fins. They are most commonly divided into the subclasses or orders of ELASMOBRANCHII (sharks, rays, and chimasras), DIPNOI (mud-fishes), GANOIDEI (enamelled- scaled fishes), and TELEOSTEI (bony fishes). This arrangement, however, was originally based chiefly on a study of the fishes now existing ; and more recent investigations among extinct fishes have shown that it cannot be maintained. The limits of these groups are indicated by the brackets to the right of the table on the next page, which explains the system of classifica- tion adopted in the Collection. In tracing the fishes through the successive ages of the past, it is interesting to note the close correspondence between the history of the race and the history of an individual modern Tele- ostean, at least in one point the structure of the tail. All the older members of the class either had the extremity of the body straight and tapering, with the fin equally developed above and below (Fig. 105), or there was a slight upward bend of the verte- FOBMS OF TAILS OF FISHES. FIG. 105. Diphycercal. Primitive form. FIG. 106. Heterocercal. Ancient Form. FIG. 107. Homocercal. Modern form. bral column, with the lower lobe of the tail-fin much larger than the upper (Fig. 106). In later fishes, the upturned end of the body in the unequally-lobed tail has become more and more abbreviated, and the rays of the fin have gradually become so disposed that to all external appearance the tail has assumed per- fect symmetry (Fig. 107). Such changes are precisely repeated in the embryonic history of a living Teleostean, in which the tail is first pointed, then upturned, and then externally sym- metrical. Classification of Fishes. CLASSIFICATION OP FISHES. SUB-CLASS I. ELASMOBRANCHIL Jaw-apparatus" suspended from skull ; no operculum ; dermal armour without bone-tissue Order I. PBOSELACHII. Paired fins supported by parallel rods of cartilage ; no claspers in male Order II. ICHTHYOTOMI. Pectoral fins supported by cartilages radiating from central axis ; claspers in male Order III. ACANTHODII. Ail fins except caudal with spine in front, and cartilages very short ; no claspers Order IV. SELACHII. Pectoral fins with two or three basal cartilages and no central axis ; claspers in male Sub-orders. Tectospondyli and Asterospondyli SUB-CLASS II. HOLOCEPHALL Jaw-apparatus fused with skull ; an opercular membrane ; dermal armour without bone-tissue Order I. CHIM^EOIDEI. Fins as in Selachii ..J SUB-CLASS III. DIPNOI. Jaw-apparatus fused witlT) skull; an opercular bone; dermal armour | often with bone-tissue . . . . . . Order I. SIBENOIDEI. Scaly fishes with paddle- shaped paired fins, these supported by a j segmented axis . . . . . . . . J Order II. AETHEODIEA. Armoured fishes, the ] head-shield hinged on body-shield ; paired fins rudimentary SUB-CLASS IV. TELEOSTOMI. Jaw-apparatus sus- pended from skull ; an opercular bone ; dermal armour often with bone-tissue Order I. CEOSSOPTEEYGII. Paired fins paddle- shaped and fringed with fin-rays Elasmobranchii or ' Chondropterygii. Dipnoi. \> Granoidei. Sub-orders. Haplistia, Rhipidistia, Actinis- tia, and Cladistia Order II. ACTINOPTEETGII. Supports of paired fins much shortened and dermal rays chiefly supporting membrane Sub-orders. Chondrostei, Protospondyli, Aetheospondyli, Isospondyli (in part)J Isospondyli (continued), Plectospon-\ dyliy Nematognathi,Haplomi,Apodes, j Anacanthini, Percesoces, Pharyngo- j> Teleostei. gnathi, PercomorpM, Lophobranchii, \ HemibraneMi, and Plectognathi .. J E lasmobran chii. 81 Sub-class I. ELASMOBRANCHII. The true fishes begin with the sub-class of Elasmobranchii (laminated or plate-like gills). In these the cranium itself is not divided into any distinct tracts by sutures or ossifications, and the two foremost of the " visceral arches " (cartilaginous rods in the walls of the alimentary tube), which are modified as jaws and hyoid cartilages, have a very slight connection with it. The jaws are mainly suspended by the upper element of the hyoid arch (the " suspensorium") and by a ligament in front ; or there is sometimes (e.g. in Cestracion and Notidanus) direct contact either behind or in advance of the eye (see Fig. 118, p. 88). The axial skeleton of the trunk varies from a primitive persistent notochord to a well-calcified vertebral column, com- posed of distinct centra. The gills are pouch-like, and there are five (six or seven) distinct clefts on each side, which are exposed, having no " gill-cover," or operculum. The body is provided with median and paired fins, the hinder pair being abdominal. In the majority of the Elasmobranchs, the extremity of the vertebral column is slightly turned upwards, and the lower lobe of the caudal fin is much larger than the upper, producing a " heterocercal " tail. In some, however, like Squatina and several of the Bays, the terminal portion of the body is straight, and the fin equally developed above and below, upon the " diphy- cercal " or " protocercal" plan. The skin is usually covered more or less closely by numerous small detached plates or granules of dentine, with tubercles or spines (Fig. 108) scattered over the whole surface of the integu- ment, commonly known as " placoid scales." When very small FIG. 108. Dermal tubercles of Elasmobranch Fishes. a, shagreen of Dog-fish (Ginglymostoma), enlarged ; 6, shagreen of Blue Shark (Carcharias), enlarged ; c, shagreen of Spiny Dog-fish (Centropliorus), enlarged ; tZ, dermal tubercles of Spiny Shark (Echinorhinus), nat. size; e, tubercle of Ray; /, dermal tubercle of Greenland Shark (Lcemargus borealis), enlarged; g, 'shagreen of Sting-ray (Urogymnvs), nat. size. (1876) 7 Wall-cases, Nos. 1 to 3, and Table- cases, N"os, 25 to 32. 82 Elasmobranchii. and close set, as in the Dog-fish, this dermal covering is called " shagreen." Those of the Elasmobranchs with lateral gill-clefts are commonly known as " Sharks " (Fig. 109), while those with depressed body and ventrally placed gill-clefts fall under the denomination of "Rays" (Fig. 110). There are many inter- mediate forms, however, which it is impossible to distinguish in a fossil state. FIG. 109. Port Jackson Shark, Cestracion Philippi, Lacep., from Australia. sp', anterior dorsal spine ; sp", posterior dorsal spine. From the perishable nature of their skeletal parts, it is obvious that the paleeontological history of these fishes is most difficult to decipher. In the majority of instances, the fossils consist merely of detached spines, shagreen-granules, teeth, or pieces of cartilage ; and it is often impossible to correlate these unsat- isfactory fragments, so that the different parts of the same species not unfrequently receive even distinct generic names. FIG. 110. The Bay (Raja Murrayi, Giinther), from Kergeulen's Island. A, dorsal aspect; B, part of ventral side ; sp., spiracle; br., gill clefts; m., mouth. Sometimes, however, complete fishes are met with, and many beautiful examples are shown from the Lias of Lyme Regis, the Lithographic Stone of Bavaria, and the Upper Cretaceous of Mount Lebanon. Elasmobranchii. 83 The first table-case on the left and the adjoining wall-case are filled with numerous spines and other dermal appendages of cartilaginous fishes, perhaps mostly Elasmobranchs, which cannot yet be precisely determined; they are conveniently grouped together as Ichtliyodorulites (" fish-spine-stones "). [See Fig. 111.] The earliest evidence of the sub-class is placed here, namely, the dorsal fin-spines from the Ludlow Bone-bed (Upper Silurian) and the Old Bed Sandstone, bearing the name of Onchus. GtenacantTius is founded upon dorsal spines from the Carboni- ferous. The huge Oracanthus pustulosus (Phoderacanthus), three feet in length, from the Carboniferous Limestone of Bristol, is the largest ichthyodorulite known ; and there are also triangular paired spines of considerable size from the same formation, Wall-case, No. 1. Table-case, No. 25. FIG. 111. Spines of Elasmob ranch and Chimseroid Fishes. a, Acanthias (recent) ; 6, Callorhynchus (recent) ; c, Machceracanthus (Devonian) ; d, Hylodus (Jurassic) ; e, Asteracanthus (Jurassic) ; /, Squaloraja (Lias) ; g, Gyr acanthus (Carboniferous) ; li, Edestes (Carboniferous) ; i, Pleuracanthus (Carboniferous). which are named Oracanthus Milleri, and provisionally associated with several flat dermal plates having a corresponding orna- mentation. Spines of Edestes (Fig. 11 Ih) occur in the Car- boniferous of N. America, Australia, and Hussia, and are remarkable for their curvature and the great size of the posterior denticles ; the latter are in the form of serrated teeth, and led their first discoverer, Prof. Leidy, to conclude that the fossils were fragments of jaws. Gyracanthus (Fig. lllgr) occurs abun- dantly in the British Carboniferous, and is represented both by the well-known paired spines (with an ornament of angulated ridges, and ordinarily abraded extremity), triangular dermal 7 2 84 Proselachii Ichthyotomi. Table-case. No. C. bones, and shagreen granules : the teeth probably bear another name. Acondylacanthus resembles the spine of a Bay ; and Erismacanthus and Lispacanthus are very suggestive of the rostral spine of male Chimeeroids. These ichthyodorulites show that the earliest Elasmo- branchs differed very much from the existing members of the sub-class. The fact is further emphasised by the discovery of several Elasmobranch skeletons of Devonian, Carboniferous, and Permian age, which show that at least three extinct orders are represented. ORDER I. Proselachii. The first of these orders is that of the PROSELACHII, represented only by Cladoselache, from the Upper Devonian of Ohio, U.S.A. This is a notochordal shark without spines or armour, except a ring of plates round the eye ; its paired fins are mere balancers supported by parallel rods of cartilage, and the teeth are identical with the detached Palaeozoic teeth provisionally named Cladodus. Only fragments are exhibited. Wall-case, No. 3. Table-cs se, No. C. ORDER II. Ichthyotonii. The second order, that of the ICHTHYOTOMI, is known by numerous tolerably complete skeletons from the Carboniferous and Lower Permian. Fine examples of the typical genus Pleur acanthus (Fig. 112) are exhibited from the Lower Permian of Rhenish Prussia, Silesia, and Bohemia. The isolated spines of Pleur acanthus and the teeth known as Diplodus from the FIG. 112. Pleuracanthus Gaudryi, Broiign. (restoration by 0. Brongniart) ; Coal-measures, Commentry, France. British Carboniferous, especially Coal-measures, are also placed here. Like the Proselachii, these sharks are notochordal ; but they differ in having paddle-shaped paired fins, supported by a more or less branching arrangement of cartilages. The median fins are very extensive, and there is usually a median dorsal spine fixed at the back of the head. There is reason to believe Acanthodu Selachii. 85 that some of the teeth named Gladodus also belong to this order. ORDER III. Acanthodii. The ACANTHODII form perhaps the most remarkable extinct Wall-case, order of Elasmobranchs. They are small fishes exclusively No - 3 and confined to Palaeozoic rocks, ranging from the Lower Devonian to the Lower Permian. The tail is heterocercal, and each of the fins, except the caudal, is armed in front with a formidable spine, though in itself a mere membrane without cartilage supports beyond the base. The eye is often surrounded by a ring of plates, and the teeth when observable are fused with the border of the jaws. There is no hard operculum, and the trunk is covered with minute, quadrangular, shining scales; the slime-canal of the " lateral line " passes between two series of the latter. Acanthodes (Fig. 113), from the Carboniferous of FIG. 113. Acanthodes Wardi, Egcrt.; Coal-measures, Staffordshire. Scotland and England, and the Lower Permian of Germany, is the typical genus, and is represented in the cases by numerous nearly complete fishes. The beautifully preserved Mesacanthus, from the Lower Old Red Sandstone of Scotland, and the Upper Devonian of Canada, is almost identical. Qli/rnatius t from the Lower Old Red Sandstone of Scotland, is remarkable for its broad spines, of which three or four pairs are fixed along the body between the pectoral and pelvic fins. Diplacanthus and Parexus, of corresponding age, are also remarkable. ORDER IV. Selachii. The order of SELACHII, or sharks and rays proper, also seems to have been represented in the Palaeozoic Era, though there is no conclusive evidence of its existence before the Lias. It is characterised, among other features, by the structure of the paired fins, which are always supported by large cartilages, but never exhibit the branched arrangement seen in Pleuracan- thus, having either two or three basal pieces. The " Rays " are 86 Tectospondyli. Table-case, No. 31. Wall-case, No. 3. Table-case, No. 32. destitute of an anal fin, and their vertebrae, when fully devel- oped, are strengthened by concentric layers of calcified tissue ; they are hence named TECTOSPONDYLI (covered- vertebras) . The " Sharks and Dog-Fishes " always exhibit an anal fin, and when the vertebrae are strengthened, radiating plates predominate over concentric plates; they are thus known as ASTEROSPONDYLI (star-vertebrae). It is impossible as yet to make any satisfac- tory arrangement of the ancestors of these two sub-orders which are destitute of vertebrae, or have them only^ incom- pletely formed. SUB-ORDER I. Tectospondyli. The Spinacidae, or spiny dog-fishes, of the present day are supposed to be little-modified descendants of the early ancestors of the rays ; but they are scarcely known among fossils. Well- preserved fishes which seem to belong to the existing genera Avanthias and Centrophorus, are exhibited from the Upper Chalk of Mount Lebanon. The Petalodontidae, of Carboniferous and Permian age, may perhaps be related to the Spinacidse, but they are only known by fragments, chiefly teeth. Petalodus and Polyrhizodus are Lower Carboniferous, while Janassa is both Carboniferous and Permian. The existing Squatinidae date back to the Lower Kimmeridgian, fine examples of Squatina being known from the Lithographic Stone of Bavaria (Figs. 114, 115) . Detached teeth are exhibited from the English Cretaceous, Eocene, and Pliocene Formations. The Pristiophoridae are insignificant as fossils, and the Pristidae are represented only by the Cretaceous Sclerorhynchus and by fragments of Pristis-like " saws " from the Eocene and later deposits. Sclerorhynchus atavus is a remarkable fish from the Upper Chalk of Mount Lebanon, with the " saw " scarcely more developed than that of a Pristiophorus. Numerous Rhino- batidae, apparently identical with the existing Rhinobatus, occur well-preserved in the Lithographic Stone of Bavaria and France, and in the Upper Cretaceous of Mount Lebanon. The fine slab of Rhinobatus (Spathokatis) bugesiacus affixed to the wall between Wall-cases Nos. 2 and 3, is particularly worthy of examination. The Bajidae and Trygonidae are also represented by numerous fine specimens from the Upper Chalk of Mount Lebanon, there being apparently Raja itself and a small extinct sting-ray named Cyclobatis. Torpedos occur in the Upper Eocene of Monte Bolca, near Verona, but are not represented in the Collection. The Carboniferous teeth named Psammodus and Copodus may belong to a family of devil-fishes, related to the modern Myliobatidae, but their relationships are very uncertain. They are always found detached, and a large series is exhibited from Tectospondyli. 87 Fia. 114. FIG. 115. FIG. 114. Squatina alifera, Miinst. sp. (after Fraas), Lithographic Stone (Upper Oolite), Bavaria. FIG. 115. Squalina spetiosa, Meyer ; Lithographic Stone (Upper Oolite), Bavaria. a, mandibular cartilage ; 6. pectoral arch ; c, pectoral fin ; d, pelvic arch ; e, pelvic fin. FIG. 116. Jaws of Male (A) and of female (B) Thornback Skate, Raja davata, showing the remarkable variation in the dentition which they exhibit. 88 Table-case, No. 32. Asterospondyli. the Carboniferous Limestone of Armagh, Ireland. The well- known teeth of Ptychodus from the Chalk are proved to belong to a large ray probably of the Myliobatis type, by specimens both in this Museum and in the Brighton Museum. The arrange- ment of the teeth in the jaws is shown in Fig. 117. Typical portions of the dentition of Myliobatis occur abundantly in the English Eocenes ; and the largest known specimen (M. Pentoni) is exhibited from the Lower Tertiary of the Mokattam Hills, Cairo, Egypt. Aetobatis and Rhinoptera are also Eocene. FIG. 117. Diagram of arrangement of teeth of Ptychodus decurrens, Ag.; English Chalk. A, upper jaw ; B, lower jaw. SUB-ORDER II. Asterospondyli. Of the Asterospondyli or Sharks, the Notidanidae are perhaps the most primitive surviving family. They are repre- sented only by five or six species at the present day, and are MeZ FIG. 118. Skull of Notidanus, side view (after Wiedershehn). pq, pterygo-quadrate cartilage (upper jaw); md, mandibular cartilage; nk, nasal capsule ; orb, orbit ; r, rostrum : ws, vertebral column ; >J< postorbital articula- tion of the upper jaw with the cranium. noteworthy both on account of the primitive character of their skull and backbone (Fig. 118), and for the possession of six or seven gill-clefts instead of the usual five. Whole skeletons of Asterospondyli. 89 Notidanus are known from the Lithographic Stone of Bavaria Table-case and the Upper Cretaceous of Mount Lebanon, but there are No. 27. none in the Collection. Numerous teeth are shown from Jurassic, Cretaceous, and Tertiary Formations, and it is note- worthy that the largest and most complex teeth are those of the latest deposits (Fig. 119). The Cestraciontidae are also primi- FIG. 119. Teeth of Notidanus gigas, Sism.; Bed Crag, Suffolk. tive and represented only at the present day by the Port Jackson Shark (Cestracion, Fig. 109, p. 82). Their extinct representa- tives are extremely numerous. As in Cestracion (Fig. 120), the majority of the teeth are always adapted for crushing, though 1 1 /. 120. J.iw of Port Jackson Shark, Cestracion Philippi (recent). some in front are prehensile and many are cuspidate. Their variation in different parts of the mouth is thus so great, that it is often almost impossible to name detached fossil teeth . As in Cestracion, also, each of the two dorsal fins is invariably pro- 90 Aster ospondyli. vided with an anterior spine. The Carboniferous sharks, Sphenacanthus and Tristychius, with cuspidate teeth and ribbed dorsal fin-spines, are probably to be placed here ; so also are the fine teeth from the Carboniferous Limestone named Orodus. Hybodus, ranging from the Muschelkalk to the Wealden, has a persistent notochord, cuspidate teeth, and ribbed dorsal fin- spines (Fig. 123) ; many specimens, presumably males, are FIG. 121. FIG. 123. FIG. 122. FIG. 121. A, spine of Lepracanthus Colei, Owen ; Coal-measures, Ruabon, N. Wales ; B, a portion of the spine enlarged, to show tbe external ornamentation. FIG. 122. Teeth of Acrodus Anningicc, Ag. ; Lower Lias, Lyme Regis. FIG. 123. Dorsal spine of Hybodus ; Wealden, Sussex. further provided on either side of the head with two large barbed booklets, each fixed on a broad base, and these were originally named Sphenonchus by Agassiz. who supposed them to be the teeth of a distinct fish. The skull much resembles that of Notidanus, and the teeth in some species are also very similar to the early forms of the last-named genus. The finest speci- mens of Hybodus exhibited, were obtained from the Lower Lias Aster ospondyli. 21 of Lyme Regis arid the Wealden of Pevensey Bay, Sussex. Palceospmax, from the Lower Lias of Lyme Regis, and the Upper Lias of Wiirtemberg, is a small fish with smooth dorsal fin-spines and simple constricted vertebrae; Synechodus, of Cretaceous age, is almost identical. Acrodus, ranging from the Muschelkalk to the Grault, only differs from Hybodus in the less cuspidate character of its teeth (Fig. 122). Aster acanthus, with a dentition commonly named Stropliodus (Fig. 124), is proved by Table-case specimens in the collection to differ only from Acrodus in the No. 39. pattern on its teeth and fin-spines. Fine examples of its head- spines (Sphenonchus) , from the Oxford Clay of Peterborough, are exhibited; while a jaw in a block of Great Oolite from Caen, Normandy (Fig. 124), is unique. It will be observed that the front prehensile teeth in Hybodus, Acrodus, and Asteracanthus {Stropliodus), are relatively larger and less numerous than those FIG. 124. Jaw of Asteracanthus (Strophodus medius, Owen); Great Oolite, Caen, Normandy. of Gestracion. The latter genus seems to range from the Upper Jurassic to the present day. An interesting Carboniferous family of which little is known Table-case, beycnd the dentition, is that of the Cochliodontidae, apparently No> 3O - closely related to the Cestracionts. Their jaw is arranged somewhat like that of Cestracion, but the several series of lateral teeth are each represented by a single plate, coiling inwards by growth at the outer edge. Cochliodus (Fig. 125) is the typical genus, and Streblodus, Psephodus, Sandalodus, Poecilodus, etc., are very similar forms. Many of the teeth named Helodus pertain to the symphysis of the jaw of these fishes ; and in one genus, Pleuroplax, from the Lower Carboni- ferous and Coal Measures, such teeth are only imperfectly fused together in the plates. 92 Asterospondyli, Wall-case, ^he Scylliidaa range from the later Jurassic upwards. [ No. 3, and They are represented in the Bavarian Lithographic Stone by Table-case, Palceoscyllium, in the Upper Chalk of Mount Lebanon by Wall-case, No. 3, and Table-cases, Ncs 26 and 27. 25. Teeth of Cochliodus <:ontorti>,*, Ag. ; Carboniferous Limestone, Armagh. Mesiteia, and in the English Chalk by Cantioscyllium. Teeth of the existing Ginglymostoma are exhibited from the Eocene. The Lamnidse and Carchariidse are the characteristic sharks of modern times, but are very rarely found fossil except in the form of detached teeth, vertebras, and portions of calcined carti- lage. To the Lamnidaa may be assigned the fine examples of Scapanorhynchus from the Upper Cretaceous of Mount Lebanon, which exhibit a dentition identical with that of Odontaspis, but differ in the remarkable elongation of the snout and in the arrangement of the fins. To the Carchariidae belong several fine fishes from the Upper Eocene of Monte Bolca, near Verona, of which there are no specimens in the Collection. A large series of detached teeth is exhibited, but it is impossible to name and arrange them satisfactorily, owing to the variation of shape always occurring in one and the same mouth. Lamna (including Otodus, in part) and Oxyrhina seem to range from the Cretaceous, FIG. 126. FIG. 127. FIG. 126. Tooth of Odontaspis etegans, Agassiz ; London Clay. FJG. 127. Tooth of Carcharodon megalodon, Agassiz ; Suffolk Crag. (One-third nat. size.) while Corax is the tooth of an extinct member of the LamnidaB of the same age. Odontaspis (Fig. 126) is Tertiary and Recent. The Jurassic Orthacodiis may even belong to this family. The teeth of Carcharodon, however, are the most interesting of such Holocephali Chimceroidei. 93 fossils, those named Carcharodon megalodon (Fig. 127) having an almost world-wide distribution. Specimens are exhibited from New Zealand, Australia, South Carolina, the West Indies, France, Spain, Italy, Malta, and Arabia, as also from the Antwerp and Suffolk Crags. The Carchariidee are almost, if not exclusively, Tertiary, and only a small collection of teeth of Galeocerdo, Carcharias, Hemipristis, etc., is exhibited. It may be interesting to add that in some places, both in the Atlantic and Pacific (especially at extreme depths in the red-clay areas), the " Challenger " dredged up many teeth of Sharks and ear-bones of Whales, all in a semi-fossil state, and usually im- pregnated with oxides of iron and manganese. The Sharks' teeth belong principally to species believed to be extinct, and resemble those found fossil in the late Tertiary formations. Sub-class II. HOLOCEPHALI. ORDER I. Chimseroidei. The Chimoeras resemble the Sharks in many important Wail case features, but, in the skull, the upper jaw is fused with the NO. 3, and cranial cartilage, not suspended by the upper part of the hyoid Table- case, arch. The skeleton is wholly cartilaginous, and the notochord No ' 33 " is tolerably persistent, the vertebrae being represented by mere slender rings. In the two living genera, there is a strong- spine in front of the dorsal fin : the gill-clefts are covered by a fold of skin, so that only a single external opening is observed : and the dentition consists of four plates above and two below. Teeth of Rhynchodus and Palceomylns from the Devonian of North America, and of Ptyctodus from the Devonian of Russia, are the earliest fossils hitherto definitely referred to this sub- class, but there are no examples in the Collection. The early Jurassic family of Squaloraiida3 is represented by the unique genus Squaloraja, of which several fine specimens are exhibited from the Lower Lias of Lyme Regis. The trunk is shaped like that of a narrow skate of the family Rhinobatidas, and the rostral spine in the male is long and slender ; there is no dorsal fin-spine. Another Jurassic family is that of the Myriacan- thidae. Myriacanthus itself, also from the Lower Lias of Lyme Regis, is represented by numerous fragmentary specimens. One slab of M. granulatus shows the dorsal and rostral spines, and a produced snout resembling that of the existing Callo- rhynchus. The dentition (originally named Prognathodus) is remarkable for a median chisel-like tooth in front of the lower jaw. The long dorsal spine is covered with tubercles, which are often pointed and thorn-shaped. The still-surviving family of Chimseridse is first represented by teeth of Ganodus and 94 Dipnoi Sirenoidei. Iscliyodus in the Stonesfield Slate, and the latter g*enus ranges upwards to the Upper Cretaceous. Nearly complete skeletons have been found in the Lithographic Stone of Bavaria. Eda- FIG. 128. Lower Jaw of Edapliodon leptognathus, Ag. ; Middle Eocene, Bracklesham Bay, Sussex. phodon (Fig. 128) and Elasmodus are Cretaceous and Eocene; Chimcera dates back at least to the Pliocene. Wall-case, No. 5, and Table-case, 34. Sub-class III. DIPNOI. ORDER I. Sirenoidei. The typical Dipnoi (double-breathers) are so named because in their living representatives the air-bladder assumes the function of a lung, and thus furnishes them with a second FIG. 129. Skeleton of the African Mudfish, Protopterus annectens, living in the Rivers of Africa. means of respiration. They are a nearly extinct race, only three forms now surviving, namely, Protopterus in Africa (Fig. 129), Lepidosiren in South America, and Ceratodus (Epiceratodus) in Australia (Fig. 130). FIG. 130. "The Australian Mudfish," Ceratodus Forsteri (recent), Australia. The notochord in these fishes is always persistent, and the tail is diphycercal or heterocercal. There are two pairs of Dip no i Sirenoidei. 95 nostrils more or less within the month (Fig. 131, n) ; and the dentition (Fig. 131) consists of a pair of ridged plates above and below, usually with a pair of incisor-like vomerine teeth above. An ordinary bony operculum covers the gill-cavity. The paired fins are acutely lobate, supported by a central jointed cartilaginous stem fringed with radial cartilages and dermal fin-rays. The earliest Dipnoi are Lower Devonian. Dipterus (Fig. Wall-case, 132) is beautifully preserved in the Caithness flagstones, ^ablt-oSe and exhibits two dorsal fins, a heterocercal tail, and enamelled ]^ . 34, scales. Phaneropleuron (Fig. 133) occurs in the Upper Old Bed Sandstone of Dura Den, Fifeshire, and Scaumenacia in the Upper Devonian of Canada. Ctenodus is characteristic of the Carboniferous and Lower Permian, and is met with both in Europe and America. All these genera are characterized by the roof of the skull exhibiting more numerous bones than that of the living Dipnoi. The teeth of Ceratodus occur in early Mesozoic strata in Europe, India, South Africa, and Central North America ; but only one important skull has FIG. 131. Mouth of Ceratodus. nn, narial openings ; x, vomerine teeth; xx, palato-pterygoid teeth ; xxx, manclibular teeth. been described, this from the RliEetic of Austria. A fine series of teeth is exhibited from the Rhsetic of Aust Cliff near FIG. 132. Dipterus Valenciennesi, Sedgw. and Murch. (restored by C. H. Pander); Lower Old Red Sandstone, Scotland. 96 Arthrodira. Bristol, and from the Trias (Lettenkohle) of Wiirtemberg. The characters of the skull of Ceratodus in the Museum of the FIG. 133. Phaneroplcuron . As.dersoni, Huxl. (restored by Dr. R. H. Traquair); Upper Old Red Sandstone, Dura Den, Fife. Austrian Geological Survey, Vienna, suggest that the early Mesozoic fish was geiierically distinct from the living fish similarly named from the Queensland rivers. ORDER II. Arthrodira. Wall-case, The Coccosteus-like fishes have already been mentioned No. 4. (p. 76) as originally classified with the Ostracoderms in the un-natural and artificial group of " Placodermata." In them the head and anterior portion of the trunk are armoured with bony plates, and the head is movable with respect to the trunk. In all the satisfactorily-known genera, there is an elaborately- formed joint between the hinder angles of the head-shield and a rounded process of the antero-lateral plates of the trunk ; an arrangement unique among fishes and referred to in the name ARTHRODIRA (joint-neck) now given to this group. The principal upper teeth are fixed on the bones of the roof of the mouth ; the lower jaw comprises only one bone on each side. The notochord must have been persistent, and the paired fins are rudimentary or absent. The Arthrodira are only provisionally placed among the Dipnoi, on account of the very striking resemblance between their dentition and that of certain mud-fishes, also because they seem to have possessed a skull of the same type. Coccosteus (Fig. 134) is the best-known Arthrodiran, and a fine series of specimens is exhibited from the Lower Old Bed Sandstone of Scotland. There is also a unique head-shield from the Upper Devonian of Scaumenac Bay, P.Q., Canada. The eyes form notches in the head-shield ; there seem to be premaxillae, and there is one large plate upon the cheek which may be maxilla or suborbital, or both. The teeth are stout and conical, in one close series on the mandible, clustered on the palate. A pair of dermal plates occupies the position of clavicles ; and the basal supports of the pelvic fins are often distinct (Fig. 1 34) . There is a membranous median dorsal fin, and the tail may have been either diphy cereal or heterocercal. Teleostomi. 97 Homosteus (Hugh Miller's " Asterolepis of Stromness ") is a very similar fish, with toothless jaws and the eyes within the head- shield. Plaster casts of the shields of Homosteus Milleri FIG. 134. Coccosteus decipiens, Ag. ; Lower Old Red Sandstone, Scotland. from the Caithness flagstones are exhibited on the pillar between Wall-cases Nos. 4 and 5. There are fragments of Wall-case, other species from the Devonian of Livonia, Russia. Heterosteus " ' is a gigantic fish from the Devonian of Livonia, with a great bony process from the body-shield extending forwards on each side of the head. Dinichthys is a still larger Arthrodiran from the Upper Devonian of Ohio, U.S.A. Its dentition (Fig. 135) much resembles that of the recent Protopterus. <- js^/v^i. FIG. 135. Jaws of DinichtJtys ; Devonian, North America. Sub-class IV. TELEOSTOMI. These are fishes with a bony armour or bony skeleton, or both ; with the margin of the mouth completed by membrane- bones ; with the more or less ossified cartilages of the upper jaw suspended from the skull by the upper part of the hyoid arch (hyomandibular) ; and with a bony operculum covering the gill-cavity. The name of the sub-class Teleostomi (com- plete-mouth) refers to the ossification of the margin of the jaws. Nearly all the Devonian representatives of this sub-class have lobate paired fins fringed with dermal rays, and are thus named CROSSOPTERYGII (fringe-fins). A single Devonian genus, Cheirolepis, belongs to a higher order which began to replace the Crossopterygians in the Carboniferous period, and which is named ACTINOPTP^RYGIT (ray-fins) because here the lobe is insignificant and the enlarged dermal rays support almost c>r quite the whole of each paired fin. (1876) 8 98 Crossopterygii. ORDER I. Crossopterygii. Wall-cases - finned fishes, or Crossopterygians, are now Nos. 5 to 7,' almost extinct, being represented only at the present day by and Table- ^ Polypterus (Fig. 136) and Calamoichthys of the African rivers, case, o. o. j n ^ Q j) evoll i an an( j Carboniferous periods they existed in FIG. 136. Polypterus Mchir, living in the Nile, Gambia, etc. a, pectoral fin; 6, pelvic tin; c, anal fin. large numbers and in much greater variety. HoloptycJiius (Fig. 137) is an Upper Devonian genus from Scotland and Russia, with long and acutely- lobate pectoral fins, obtnsely-lobate pelvic &fc FIG. 137. Holoptychius ; U. Old Red Sandstone, Fifeshire (restored by Huxley), , paired pectoral fins ; b, pelvic tins ; c, the anal fin ; d, anterior dorsal fin ; e, posterior dorsal fin. fins, and thick, round, deeply overlapping scales. Glyptolepis, from the Lower Old Red Sandstone of Scotland, and apparently from the Upper Devonian of Canada, is a nearly identical genus. Glyptolcemus (Fig. 138), from the Upper Old Red Sand- stone of Dura Den, Fifeshire, has more obtuse pectoral fins and rhombic scales. Osteolepis (Fig. 139), Diplopterus, Tkursius (Devonian), and Megalichthys (Carboniferous and Lower Per- mian) are another group of genera with enamelled rhombic FIG. 138. Glyptolamus Kinnairdi, Huxl. (restored by Huxley) ; U. Old Red Sandstone, Scotland. Crossopterygii. 99 scales and obtusely-lobate paired fins. RJiizodopsis is represented by small species in the Carboniferous, Rhizodus and Strepsodus by comparatively large species. A fine series of remains of Rhizodus Hibberti and R. ornatus, from the Lower Carboniferous of Scotland, is exhibited in Wall-case No. 6. Wall- case No. 6, FIG. 139. Osteolepis macrolepidotus, Ag. (restored by C. II .Pander) ; L, Old Red sandstone, Scotland. No. 35. The Ccelacamthidae (hollow-spines) are the most remarkable Wall-case, Crossopterygians, ranging almost unchanged from the Lower Devonian to the Upper Chalk. Their name refers to the cir- cumstance that the spines of the backbone are only superficially ossified and so appear hollow when fossilized. The head-bones and opercular bones are much reduced, and the tail is produced into a small terminal extension. The air-bladder is ossified. The trunk is covered with thin, deeply overlapping scales. FIG. UQ.Undina (HolopJtagu*) rjulo, Egert. ; L?wer Lias, Lyme Regis. Ccelacanthus is Carboniferous and Permian ; Undina (Fig. 140) is Jurassic, and beautiful specimens are exhibited from the Lower Lias of Lyme Regis ; Macropoma is Cretaceous, and represented by the unique collection of Dr. Mantell besides later acquisitions from the English Chalk. 8 2 -, *r V t TT tt t! 100 Act in opteryg ii hondros tei. Wall-case, No. 8, and Table-cases, Nos. 37 to 39. Wall-case, No. 8, and Table-cases, 39, 40. ORDER II. Actinopterygii. SUB-ORDER I. Chondrostei. The earliest known ray- finned fishes are the Paleeom'scidce, represented in the Devonian by Clieirolepis . They exhibit a very imperfectly ossified skeleton with heterocercal tail ; and they must have bad a persistent notochord. In their most fundamental characters they agree with the modern sturgeons, and are thus classed in the same sub-order (Chondrostei). FIG. 141. Ganoid scales of ElonlcltUnjs xtriatus, Ag. sp. ; Carboniferous. series Nearly all of them, however, are covered with regular of scales, which are usually rhombic and united by a peg-and-socket articulation (Fig. 141). HJlonichthys, Ehadi- nichthySj and Gonatodus are the commonest Carboniferous genera; Palcconiscus (Fig. 142), Acrolepis, Amblypterus, and Pygopterus are Permian ; Gyrolepis is Triassic, and Atlierstonia is represented by a fine specimen from the Karoo Formation (probably Triassic) of Cape Colony; Oxygnathus and Platij- siagnm are Liassic ; and Coccolepis ranges from the Lias to the Purbeck Beds. The Platysomidse are deep-bodied fishes closely related to the Palneoniscidaa, confined to the Carboniferous and Permian. Eurynotus (Fig. 143) is Lower Carboniferous ; Cheirodus FIG. 142.Fahioniscus ina.cropon.us, Ag. (restoration by Dr. li. II. Traquair) ; Kupferschiefer, Germany. and Mesolepis are best known in the Coal Measures ; Platysomus (Fig. 144) is both Carboniferous and Permian. A c tinop terygii Cliondrostei. 101 These fishes all have strongly heterocercal tails, bnt there is one family (that of Catopteridse) in the Trias, in which the FIG. 143. Etii-i/notus crenatus. Agassiz (restoration by Dr. R. II. Traquair) ; " Cement- stones," Carboniferous Series of Scotland. tail is henii-heterocercal and the rays of the dorsal and anal Wall-case, fins are nearly as few as their supporting cartilages. They are ^- 8> an( i represented by Dictyopyge, from Europe, North America, and Australia, and by Catopterus from North America. They are fc a distinct link between the Chondrosteans and the great majority of Mesozoic fishes. Here are also placed the Belonorhynchidae, which are elongated fishes with much-produced snout, diphycercal tail, and the trunk only armoured with four longitudinal rows of scutes one dorsal, another ventral, and one along the course of the " lateral line " on each side. Skeletons of the small Belono- rhynchus striolatus from the Upper Trias of Raibl, Carinthia, and fine skulls of larger species from the Lower Lias of Lyme liegis and the Upper Lias of Wiirtemberg, are exhibited. Table-ease, No. 40. FIG. IM.rtatysomus striding, Agassiz (restoration by Dr. K. 11. Traquair) ; Magnes : an Limestone, Durham. 102 A ctinopterygii Chondrostei. c/i '5b s? S -s 1 1 I! I ?. ! 1 H c Actinopterygii Proiospondyli. 103 . Wall-case, No. 7. The Rhastic teeth named Sawriclithys belong to a very similar fish. The Chondrosteidce, represented by Chondrosteus (Fig. 146) from the Lower Lias of Lyme Regis, perhaps also by the gigantic Gyrostens from the Upper Lias of Whitby, are inter- mediate between the Palaeoniscidas and the modern sturgeons. The fine specimens exhibited show that the skeleton is identical with that of the sturgeons (Fig. 145), and that the jaws are reduced and toothless ; but the roof of the skull and the develop- ment of the branchiostegal rays more closely resemble the corresponding parts in Palasoniscids. A few dermal scutes identical with those of the existing Table-case, sturgeon, Acipenser, are shown from the English Eocene. No. 40. There are also pectoral fin-spines both from the Eocene and Pliocene. SUB-ORDER II. Protospondyli. The large majority of Mesozoic fishes are closely related to the existing " bony pike " (Lepidosteus) and " bow-fin " (Amia) of North American lakes and rivers. They have the upper lobe of the tail excessively abbreviated, the rays of the dorsal and anal fins equal in number to their supports, and no infra- clavicular plates in the pectoral arch. They are represented in the Collection by a very extensive series of specimens. The first family is that of the Semionotidaa, already repre- sented by one genus of small fishes, Acentrophorus, in the Upper Permian. They are stout-bodied, with a small mouth and blunt, often powerfully crushing teeth . Semionotus and Colo- bodus are Triassic and Rhaetic ; Dapedius (Fig. 147) is Liassic; and Lepidotus (Fig. 148) ranges from the Rhaetic to the Wealden. The powerful dentition of Lepidotus, originally named Sphcero- dus, is particularly noteworthy ; the successional teeth when first formed in the jaw are directed away from those the} r are destined to replace, and gradually turn through an angle of 180 as they come into use. The Macrosemiidae are elongated fishes witli small mouth, obtuse teeth, and extended dorsal fin, ranging from the Rhastic to the Chalk. Fine examples of Ophiopsis and Macrosemius are shown from the Lithographic Stone of Bavaria and France, others of Ophiopsis and Histionotus from the Purbeck Stone of Dorsetshire and Wiltshire. The Pycnodontidse (thick-teeth) are a remarkable family of deep-bodied fishes, so-called in allusion to the powerful grinding teeth (Fig. 149) which arm their forwardly-displaced mouth. The rhombic scales are usually so thin, that their ribbed front margin is often the only part preserved, producing the appearance of a series of parallel streaks from the upper to Wall-cases, Nos. 9 to 11. Table-case, Nos. 40, 41. Table-case. No. 41. Wall-case v No. 11, and Table-cases Nos. 42, 43. 104 Actinopterygii Protospondyli. zel FIG. 146. Restoration of Head of Chondrosteus acipcnscroides, Ag. (after Traquair) ; Lower Lias, Lyine Regis. ay, angular bone ; br, branchiostegal rays ; c7i, ceratohyal ; c?, clavicle: d, dentary bone of mandible ;/, frontal ; km, hyomandibular ; j.jugal; i.cl, infraclavicle ; mx, maxilla) ' op, operculum ; p, parietal; />./, postfrontal; p.t, post-temporal; x.cl, supraclavicle ; s.o, suborbital ; g.op, suboperculum ; s.t, supratemporal; sg, squamosal. FIG. 147. Dapedius politus, Leach ; Lower Lias, Lyme Regis, Dorset. FIG. \48.L(pidotm maximus, Wagn. ; Lithographic Stone (Upper Oolite), Bavaria. Actinopterygii Protospondyli. 105 the lower margin of the trunk. In several genera {e.g. Meso- don, Microdon, and Coelodus^ the tail is destitute of scales. These fishes range from the Lower Lias (Mesodon liassicus) to the Upper Eocene (Pycnodus platessus) with very little modification. The fine series of examples of Gyrodus from FIG. 149. Portions of Pycnodonts. a. transverse section of jaws, showing the two halves of the mandibular dentition opposing the vomerine teeth; b, dentition of Microdon; c, dentition of Coelodus ; , maxillary bone; c, lower jaw; d, palatine arch: e, cranium; f, interoperculum : Pharyngodopilidse, is indicated by some pharyngeal dental plates from the London Clay of Sheppey, and the Lower FIG. 161. Pharyngeal dentition of Phyllodus petiolalus, Owen ; London Clay, Sheppey. Tertiaries of the Continent. To the latter belong Phyllodus (Fig. 161) and Pharyngodopilus (Nummopalatus^) , and of the first-named genus, the collection now comprises nearly all the type-specimens described in Prof. Cocchi's Monograph on these fishes. Phyllodus is so called on account of the leaf-like shape of the entire pharyngeal dentition, and the separate teeth com- posing this are very thin and constantly replaced by vertical successors, which are arranged in little piles beneath the functional ones. The remarkable fragments of dentition from the London Clay, known as Egertonia, and those from the Bracklesham Beds termed Platylcemus, are also supposed to be referable to extinct Pharyngognathi. Taiirinichthys, from the French Miocene, is also placed here. SUB-ORDER XII. Percomorphi. PterygoeepJialus, from the Eocene of Monte Bolca, seems to represent the " Blennies " (Bleniidaa) : extinct species of " Gobies " (Gobiidee) are also found in the same formation, and in the Infusoiial Earth of Oran, Algeria. Petalopteryx, with huge pectoral fins, from the Cretaceous of Table-case, Mount Lebanon, is perhaps an old "Flying-fish" one of the No ' 54 Cataphracti. And the closely-allied " Millers' Thumbs " and " Gurnards " (Cottidas) are represented in the Middle Tertiaries. Lepidocottus, almost identical with the living Cottns, except in possessing a covering of scales, is found in the Miocene of the Puy-de-D6me, France ; and a large series of these fishes is exhibited. 9 2 116 A ctinopterygii Per com orplii. Remains of true u Angler-fishes " (Lophius) have been dis- covered at Monte Bolca ; and the Trachinida? (" Stare-gazers," etc.) may possibly be represented by Callipteryx from the same locality. To the latter also certainly belong Trachinopsis from the Upper Tertiary of Lorca, Spain, and Pseudoeleginus from the Upper Miocene of Licata, Sicily. The Scombrida3 or Mackerel family occur fossil in various Tertiary deposits. They may often be readily distinguished by the curious series of finlets, in most cases present behind the second dorsal and anal fins. The " Tunny" (Thynnus) and an extinct genus, Orcynu8,&r& met with at Monte Bolca : remains of Cybiuin are not un- common in the London Clay : and three other extinct genera, Archcens, Isurus, and Palimphyes, occur in the black Eocene Slates of Canton Grlaris. To the Coryphrenidge pelagic fishes with a single long dorsal fin and laterally-compressed body Dr. Giinther refers the (rasteronemus of Monte Bolca, which is perhaps not distinct from the living genus Mene. It is remarkable for the length of the spinous rays representing the pelvic fins, and several fine specimens are exhibited in the Wall-case. Goniognathus, from Sheppey, may also be placed here. The Carangidaa, or " Horse-mackerels," constitute an exten- sive family of laterally-compressed deep-bodied fishes, abun- dantly represented at present and throughout the Tertiary period, comprising a few forms also in the Cretaceous. Vomer r Aipichthys, and Platax, have been described from the Chalk of Comen in Istria (Trieste), and Platax alone from that of Mount Lebanon : the last-named genus survives in existing seas (as the " Sea-bats ") having also left traces of its presence in the Eocene of Monte Bolca, and the Crags of our Eastern counties. The Crag fossils are mere fragments of vertebral centra, neural spines, and interspinous bones ; the spines are tumid in the middle, giving the broken pieces a curious appear- ance. Semiophorus (Fig. 162) is a remarkable extinct genus found at Monte Bolca, and characterized by the enormous development of the dorsal fin ; the pelvic fins are long and slender, thoracic in position, and situated in advance of the pectorals, which are very small. Lichia, Carangopsis, and Ductor, are other Monte Bolca genera shown in the Wall-case ; the first still exists, the second is scarcely distinguishable from the living Caranx, and the third appears to be extinct. Amphistium, from the same deposit and the Paris Eocenes, is another form referable to this family. Of the Acronurida3, or" Surgeons," species pertaining to the living Acatithurus and Naseus are exhibited from the Eocene of Monte Bolca. An extinct family, apparently most closely related to the Actinopterygii Percomorphi. 117 Tricbiuridao, is that of the Palaeorhynchidse. These are long, slender, laterally-compressed fishes, with a very delicate skeleton, and having the jaws prolonged into a sharply-pointed beak, either edentulous or provided with very small teeth. The dorsal fin is supported by spinous rays and extends along the entire length of the back, and the caudal fin is deeply forked. Wall-case, { No. 17. FIG. 162. Semiophm'us velicanx, Agassiz, from the Eocene formation of Monte Bolca. A, anal fin ; c, caudal ; D, dorsal ; r, pectoral ; v, pelvic fins. In PalceorJiynchum the jaws are of equal length, and an extensive series of specimens is shown in the Wall-case, from the Eocene Slates of Canton Glaris. HemirhyncHus, which has the upper jaw much longer than the lower, occurs both in the Glaris beds and in the Lower Tertiaries of France and Belgium. 118 Actinopterygii Percomorplii. Wall-case, No. 17. Table-case, No. 55. ; Wall-case, ' No. 18. The Trichiuridaa ("Hair-tails," "Scabbard-fishes," etc.) differ most prominently from the preceding family in the powerful character of the jaws, which are armed with strong teeth, some usually much larger than the others. Representa- tives of the existing Lepidopus occur in the Eocene Slates of Glaris, and also in the Upper Miocene of Licata, Sicily. Owing to imperfections in the specimens, the former were originally placed in a distinct geiias, Anenchelum, and the distortion of the fossils led to an undue multiplication of the so-called species. Hemithyrsites and Trichiurichthys are scaly extincC forms from the Upper Miocene of Licata, Sicily, but there are no examples in the collection. Next to the Trichiuridee are arranged the fragmentary remains of Xiphiidae or " Sword-fishes." These, as is well known, are remarkable for the great length of the cuneiform snout ; they are the largest of Acanthopterygian Fishes. The generic determinations of the fossil forms are still very doubtful, but a series of typical fragments is exhibited from the English Eocene. Of the family of Berycidae, a very large series of specimens is exhibited. These fishes have much the general appearance of the Perches, but there are large cavities in the head-bones connected with the sensory slime-canal system, and the pelvic fins have (except in one genus) more than five soft rays in addition to the spine. They are all marine. The living genus Beryx occurs both in the English Chalk and the Upper Cre- taceous of Mount Lebanon. Many of the English examples, both of this and allied genera, are but slightly compressed, retaining their original form, and those from the collection of the late Dr. Mantell are especially fine ; several are the type- specimens figured in the works of Agassiz and Mantell ; and later acquisitions from Mr. Frederic Dixon's collection are the originals of figures in his well-known " Geology and Fossils of Sussex." Hoplopteryx is a genus with very powerful fin-spines, to which are referred the two English Chalk species commonly known as Beryx ornatus and Beryx superbus, besides other forms from the Cretaceous of Westphalia and Mount Lebanon. Berycopsis (with cycloid scales), Uomonotus, and Stenostoma are other genera of the English Chalk. Pseudoberyx (with almost abdominal pelvic fins) occurs at Mount Lebanon, and SplienocepTialus and Acrogaster in the Westphalian Cretaceous deposits. The living surface-dwelling genera, Myripristis and Holocentrum, are not uncommon at Monte Bolca, and the latter has also been discovered in the Miocene of Malta. The carnivorous marine family of Scorpaenidae is represented in the fossil state by a species of Scorpcena in the Infusorial Earth of Oran, Algeria, but there are no specimens in the col- lection. Act'tnopterygii PercomorpJii. 119 The SparidaB, or " Sea-breams," have numerous extinct congeners. They are Perciforrn Acanthopterygians with a curiously specialized dentition, the front teeth being usually adapted for piercing and cutting, and those at the sides of the mouth for crushing. Their earliest representatives, from the Cretaceous of Mount Lebanon, appear to be referable to the living genera, Pagellus and Sargus ; and both these fishes are again found in the Tertiaries, the former at Monte Bolca, and the latter in France and at Oran, Algeria. Sparnodus (Fig. 163) is an extinct genus from Monte Bolca, having the teeth some- what " spaced out " hence the name. Soriddens and Capitodus are founded upon detached teeth from various European Ter- tiaries. Teeth of the living Chrysophrys are exhibited from the Miocene of Malta, the Crag of Suffolk, and from probably equivalent deposits in the Canary Islands. FIG. 163. Sparnodus ovalis, Ag.; Upper Eocene, Monte Bolca. The Squamipinnes are short, deep-bodied fishes, charac- Table-case, terized, as their name denotes, by the extension of the scales No - 5e - over more or less of the dorsal and anal fins. The living forms (" Coral-fishes ") are mostly brightly coloured fishes which abound in the neighbourhood of Coral-reefs. Platycormus, from the Upper Cretaceous of Westphalia, seems to be their earliest known representative ; and there are remains of Scaiophagus, and the living genera Ephippium, Pomacanthus, Holacanthus, in the Eocene of Monte Bolca. Pygceus, from the same formation, is also placed in this family. The Percidse, or Perch family, may perhaps be regarded as Wall-case, the highest the most specialized of Teleostean fishes ; they No. 18. are well represented both in the freshwater and marine Tertiary Table-case, formations. The extinct genus Smerdis, with large deeply- No< 5e - forked tail (Fig. 164), occurs in the Miocene of Ulm, Wurtem- berg, and Puy-de-Dome, France ; in the Upper Eocene of Monte Bolca and Aix in Provence. Lates, Cyclopoma, and species of the living marine genera, Dules, Serranus, Apogon, Therapoii, and Pristipoma, are also found at Monte Bolca. 120 Actinopterygii Lopliobrancliii Hemibranchii, fyc. Table-case, Acanus is an extinct genns, originally referred to the Berycidae, No. 56. f rom t k e Eocene Slates of Canton Glaris, Switzerland. FIG. 164. Saierdia minutus, Ag. ; Eocene, Aixin Provence, France. SUB-ORDER, XIII. Lophobranchii, These are a small sub-order of bony fishes having the gills not laminated, but in the form of small rounded lobes or tufts. The gill-cover is reduced to a large simple plate ; and the body is more or less encased in hard scales, arranged in segments. Here are placed the " Pipe-fishes " and " Sea-horses," which have but few fossil representatives. An extinct species of Siplionostoma is exhibited from the Miocene of Licata, Sicily ; and there is also an ancient type of " Sea-horse " Calamostoma differing from the living Hippocampus in the possession of a caudal fin, from the Eocene of Monte Bolca. Another " Pipe- fish," Solenorhynchus, has been found in the Eocene of Monte Postale. SUB-ORDER XIV. Hemibranchii. The Fistulariidaa, or "Flute-Mouths," which have been aptly described as " gigantic marine sticklebacks," are first known from the Eocene formation. Fossil remains of the two living genera, Fistularia and Aulostoma, occur at Monte Bolca and in the Slates of Canton Glaris; and Auliscops, another existing form, has been found at Padang, in the Tertiary lignites of the Island of Sumatra. The Monte Bolca deposits also yield two extinct genera, Urosphen and Rhamphosus : the latter has an immense spinous ray, denticulated behind, inserted on the nape, well shown in the specimen in the case. SUB-ORDER XV. Plectognathi. The Plectognathi are remarkable for their dermal skeleton i __ n __i j i A ~~ .:,, ^-~>^-^./- -4-Vn-k Ganoids " r * ri and were originally placed by Agassiz among the account of the characters of their armour. Some of on these Actinopterygii Plectognathi. 121 fishes (e.g., Ostracion) have the integument converted into a continuous mosaic of hexagonal scutes ; in others (e.g. Diodon), the skin is covered with numerous isolated spiny ossifications ; while others are almost destitute of hard dermal structures. The pelvic fins are either absent or merely represented by spines ; and the bones of the upper jaw are nearly always firmly united. FIG. 165. Teeth of Diodon Settle?, Ag. ; Miocene, Malta. The sub-order is divided into the two families of Sclerodermi and Gyrnnodontes, the former of which have the jaws armed with distinct teeth, while the latter are provided with a kind of edentulous beak. Fossil Scleroderms, in an excellent state of Table-case, preservation, are found in the Eocene Slates of Glaris, where * two extinct genera, Acanthoderma and Acanthopleurus, occur. A species of Ostracion has been described from the Eocene of Monte Bolca ; and Glyptocephalus appears to be another repre- sentative of the family in the London Ciay of Sheppey. The Gymnodonts also date back to Eocene times. Fine specimens of Diodon (" Sea-hedgehogs") are exhibited from Monte Bolca and the Infusorial Earth of Oran, Algeria ; and the little piles of dental plates (Fig. 165), placed within the mouth of the same genus, are found in the Miocene of Malta, Sicily, and other localities. Enneodon is a closely allied extinct genus, from the Middle Eocene of Monte Postale, N. Italy. 9 8 122 INDEX. -Acanthias .. PAGE. 83,86 Antliracosaurus I'AGE. 68 Acanthoderma . 121 ANTIAECHA. . 76, 78 Acanthodes Wardi. , 85 APATEONID.?: 72 ACANTHODII , 85 Aphelosaurus 31 Acanthopholis . 19 APODES 113 A canthopleurus 121 Apogon 119 Acanthopsis , 112 Archfleus 116 Acanthurus. . , 116 Archegosaurus Decheni 70, 71 Acanus 120 Ardeosaurus 31 Acentrophorus . 103 Argillochelys antiqua 40 A pinon <*i* 02 103 cvmciccD 9 ' 41 jxL/i|.jt?iiDt?jr '-'^j J.UO rr J. Acondylaeanthus . . 84 Arius Egertoni 113 Acrodus Anningiae , 90 AKTHRODIBA 96 Acrogaster . . . 118 Aspidorhynchus ornatissi- Acrolepis . . . 100 mus 108 ACEONTJEID^E 4 116 Aspius 112 Acrosaurus . . , 31 Asteracanthus 83,91 Actinodon latirostri s 70 Asterolepis . . 79 A CTINOPTEEYGII ., , 97, 100 ASTEROSPOKDTLI . . 86,88 jElurosaurus felinus > 59 ATHERINID^; 114 Aethalion . . , 108 Atherstonia. . 100 AETHEOSPONDYLI . , 107 Atlantosaurus 9 Aetobatis . . . 88 Auchenaspis 77 Aigialosaurus . 27 Auliscops 120 Aipiehthys . . 116 Aulolepis 110 AISTOPODA . . , 72 Aulostoma . . 120 Alligator . . . 6 Allosaurus fragilis . t 13 Baphetes 68 Amblypharyngodon . 113 Baptanodon 35 Amblypterus t 100 Barbus 112 Amia calra . . 106 Barracudas 114 AMPHIBIA .. , 64 BATEACHIA 64 Amphioxus . . 74 Belodon 6,7 Amphistium . 116 Belonorhynchus striolatus . 101 AMPHIUMID.E 65 Belonostomus . . . 107 ANACANTHINI t 114 Berycopsis . . 118 Anapterus .. , 112 Beryx ornatus 118 A 'V/^TTTa A TTTJTT* 37 i & i*\Ai*ivfia 118 ,/Y rs (. 11 1 fc> A L K 1 JJ .} . . J-O -i-J-O Anchisaurus 16 Blennies 115 Anenchelum t 118 BOLOSAUEID.E 61 Angler-fish . . t 116 Bombinator. . 64 Anguidae t 26 Bony pike 103 Anguilla . . t 113 Bothriceps Huxleyi 69 Anguisaurus 31 Bothriolepis 78 ANOMODONTIA . 54 Bothriospondylus madagas- Anthodon . . . 61 cariensis 13 INDEX. 123 PAGE. Bow-fin 103 Brachyops . . . . . . 69 BEANCHIOSAURIA . . . . 72 Branchiostoma lanceolatum 74 Brontosaurus excelsus . . II Bucklaiidium diluvii .. 133 Bufavus . . . . . . 64 Bufo Gesneri . . . . 65 Cacliuga tectuni . . . . 39 Calamostoma . . . . 120 Callipteryx . . . . . . 116 Callorhynchus ... ..83,93 Cantioscylliurn . . . . 92 Capelin Ill Capitodus .. ...... 119 Capitosaurus robustus . . 67 CABAISTGID^: .. .. 116 Carangopsis. . . . . . 116 Carcharias . . . . . . 81, 93 Carcharodon megalodon . . 92 Carp 112 CATAPHEACTI .. .. 115 Cat-fishes 113 Catopterus . . . . . . 101 Caturus furcatus .. .. 107 Centrophorus . . . . 81, 86 Cephalaspis Murchisoni . . 77 Ceraterpetum . . . . 72 Ceratodus 95 Forsteri . . . . 94 Ceratophrys cornutus . . 65 Ceratosaurus nasicornis . . 15 Cestracion Philippi . . 82, 89 Cetiosaurus . . . . . . 10 brevis . . . . 10 humerocristatus 10 longus.. .. 10 Cheirodus 100 Cheirolepis 100 Cheirotherium Barthi . . 73 Chelone Benstedi . . . . 43 Hoffmann! . . 44 CHELONIA 38 Chelotriton 66 Chelyosaurus . . . . 70 Chelytheriuni obscuruni . . 45 Chimaera . . . . . . 94 CHIM^EOIDEI .. .. 93 Chirocentrites .. .. 110 CHONDROPTERYGII .. 80 CHONDEOSTEI . . . . 100 Chondrosteusacipenseroides { , Q . Chrysophrys .. .. 119 Cimolichthys .. .. 112 PAGE. Cladodus 84, 85 Cladoselaclie .. .. 84 Classification of Fishes . . 80 Clepsydropidee . . . . 60 Climatius . . . . . . 85 Clupea 110 Cobitis 113 Coccodus 105 Coccolepis 100 Coccosteus decipiens . . 96, 97 Cochleosaurus . . . . 70 COCHLIODQNTID^ . . . . 91 Cochliodus contortus . . 92 Cod-fish 114 Coelacanthus . . . . 99 Coelodus 105 Colobodus 103 Compsognathus longipes . . 15 Conchiosaurus clavatus . . 53 Coniasaurus. . . . . . 26 Conodonts 75 Copodus . . . . . . 86 Coral-fishes .. .. 119 Corax 92 CORYPILENIP J2 . . . , 116 Cottus 115 Crocodiles . . . . . . 4 CEOCODILIA. . . . . . 4 Crocodilus palustris . . 5 Speuceri . . 6 CEOSSOPTEEYGII . . . . 97, 98 Cryptobranchus niaxinius 66 Scheuchzeri 65 Tschudii. . 66 Cryptoclidus oxoniensis . . 48 Kichardsoni 46 Ctenodus 95 Ctenoid scale . . . . 109 Cyamodus laticeps . . . . 54< Cyathaspis Banks! . . 76 Cybium 116 Cyclobatis 86 Cycloid scale . . . . 109 Cyclopoma . . . . . . 119 Cynognathus crateronotus 60 Cyprinodon. . . . . . 113 Cyprinus . . . . . . 112 Dace.. Dacosaurus . . maxii Dapedius politus Dawsonia Dendrerpetum Dercetis 112 6 8 104 72 69 112 124 INDEX. PAGE. PAGE. Deuterosaurus biarmieus . . 61 Eurynolus crenatus 101 Diadectes . . 61 Eurypholis Boissieri 112 Dictyopyge 101 Dicynodon . . 56 laywvM^irtA'na 57 Fishes, Classification of 80 DlCYNODONTIA 55 " Fish-lizards " 32 Didymaspis 77 Fistularia . . 120 Dimetrodon. . 61 Flat-fishes .. 114 Dimorphodon inacronyx . , 3.4 Flute- Mouths 120 Diniclithys . . 97 Flying-fish 115 DlNOSAURIA 8 " Flying Lizards " . . 1 Diodon Scillae 121 Footprints 72 Diphy cereal tail 79 Frogs 64 Diplacanthus 85 Diplocvnodon 6 Diplodocus longus 9 G-ADOIDEI 114 Diplodus . . 84 Gadus 114 Diplomystus brevissimus 110 Galeocerdo 93 Diplopterus 98 G-alesaurus planicepo 58 DlPLOSPOXDYLID^E 69 Ganodus 93 DIPNOI 94 G-ANOIDEI .. . . 80, 109 Dipterus Valenciennes! 95 Ganoid scale 100 Dolichosorna 72 Garialis 8 Dolichosaurus longicollis 27 Gasteronemus 116 Dryptosaurus 16 Gaudrya 70 n/fniliivimiici 16 Geikia 56 Ductor 116 G-eosaurus 6, 8 Dules 119 Ginglymostonm .. 81,92 G-laridodon 61 G-lyptocephalus 121 ECATTDATA 64 Glyptolsemus Kiunairdi 98 Echinodon 24 Glyptolepis 98 Echinorhinus 81 Gobies 115 Edaphodon leptognathus . . 94 Gobio 112 Edestes 83 Gomphognathus . . 60 Eels 113 Gonatodus 100 Egertonia . . . . 115 Goniognathus 116 ELASMOBKANCHII 81 Goniopholis 6 Elasmodus 94 Gordonia 56 Elonichthys striatus 100 Grey mullets 114 Empedias molaris 60, 61 Gudgeon 112 Emys orbicularis 42 Gurnards . . 115 Enchodus 112 GYMNODONTES 121 Endothiodon 56 Gyracanthus 83 Enneodon 121 Gyrodus 105 Eosaurus . . 68 Gyrolepis 100 Eosphargis gigas 44 Gyrosteus 103 Ephippium 119 Epicampodon 16 ) Ii , i I .., ^ 16 Hag-fishes .. 74 Epiceratodus 94 Hair-tails 118 Erismacanthns 84 HAPLOMI 113 Eryops 70 Hardella Thurgi . . 39 Esox lucius 113 Hatteria 29 Euchirosaurus Rochei 71 Heliarchon 66 Eugnathus orthostomus . . 105 Helodectes .. 61 INDEX. 125 Helodus PAGE. 91 Iguanodon Mantelli PAGE. '20 TT"F\f TUT? A "VPTTTT 120 trrHi 91 O-> Hemipristis. . 93 Ischyodus . . '94 Hemirhynchus 117 ISOSPONDYLI 108 Hemithyrsites 118 Isurus .. 116 Herrings 110 Heterocercal tail 79 Heterosteus. . 97 Janassa 86 HETEEOSTEACI 76 Hexapsephus 113 Hippocampus . . 120 115 Histionotus. . 103 LABYEINTHODONTIA 66 Holacanthus 119 Lacerta gigantea . . 8 Holocentruni 118 LACEETILIA 26 HOLOCEPHALI 93 Laemargus borealis. . 81 Holophagus gulo 99 Lamna . . 92 Holoptychius 98 Lampreys . . 74 Homoeosaurus 31 LAEIOSAUEIDJE 52 Homocercal tail 79 Lariosaurus Balsami 51 " Homo diluvii testis " 66 Lates .. 119 Homonotus 118 Latonia 65 Homosteus Milleri . . 97 Lebias 113 HOPLOPLEUEID^; 112 Lepidocottus 115 Hoplopteryx 118 Lepidopus 118 Hoplosaurus armatus 12 Lepidosiren. . 94 Horse-mackerels 116 Lepidosteus 108 Hybodus 83, 90 Lepidotosaurus Duffi 72 Hylseobatrachus . . 65 Lepidotus maximus 104 Hjlseochampsa 6 Lepracanthus Colei 90 Hylseosaurus 20 Lepterpetum 72 Hylonomus.. 72 Leptocephali 113 Hyperodapedon Gordoni . . 30 Leptolepis dubius . . 108 TTn vl^-CTT 31 Leptopleuron 31 Hypsilophodon Foxi 20 Leptosomus. . 110 Hypsocormus 107 Leptotrachelu s 112 H^psodon .. 111 Leuciscus 112 Lichia 116 Limnerpetum 72 ICHXITES 72 Liodon 28 Ichthyerpetum 68 Lispacanthus 84 Ichthyodectes 111 Lizards 26 Ichthyodorulites 83 " Logger-liead Turl le " 45 ICHTHYOSAUEIA 32 Lophius 116 Ichthyosaurus cominunis 32, 35, 36 LOPHOBEANCHII . . 120 f^s^-n -rrV* rtrt -M^ 36 Loxomma Allmani 68 rt*- 4-l- S\ r* 1 /-v A ^w-t-l 32 Lycosaurus 58 T'nfr'wnr^rl i n^t 37 i t'f 33 T) 1 d t "V o d. o ri 35 Macellodus . . 26 tA-iiiBstat**a or: 70 IVTo rli o^vona n f li 1 1 a eq Ot), / O 32 M >i' ' >> 33 _^ac miosaui us ICHTHYOTOMI 84 Macromerium 68 ("21 Macropoma. . 99 Iguanodon Bernissartcnsis ^22 Macrosernius 103 (.23 Mallotus villosus . . 111 126 INDEX. PAGE. PAGE. " Mantell's Iguanodon " . . MARSIPOBEANCHII 20 74 Odontaspis elegans Omosaurus . . 92 17 Mastodoiisaurus giganteus 66 armatus 18 TV/Tpo'q 1 a "n in 26 J ii-i*/-jK-|l Yp-i-iqic? 18 Megalicbtbys 98 Oncbus 83 Megalobatracbus Scbeucbzeri 65 Opbicbtbys 138 Megalosaurus Bucklandi . . 14 Opbiderpetum 72 Megalotriton 66 OPHIDIA 25 Megalurus 107 Opbiopsis . . 103 Melanerpetum 72 Opbtbalmosaurus icenigus 35 Mene 116 Oracantbus Milleri 83 3VT c s t c cin tliii s Qfi ^^,,^4-,-,! ^^TTO 83 Mesiteia Otl 92 Orcynus 116 Mesodon 105 OENITHOPODA 17 Mesogaster 114 Ornitbopsis. . 10 Mesolepis . . . . 100 ^-.-.rtrt-^-V--M^-\f 110 12 IVIcsostiu.i'us tciiuiclcns 53 TT-iinj-^i 10 Metoposaurus diagnosticus Metriorbyncbus 67 6, 8 T ^ic.; 10 90 Orodus Microbrachis 72 Ortbacodus 92 Microdon 105 Ortbomerus.. 23 Micropbolis. . MlCEOSAUEIA 69 72 Ortbopleurosaurus Osrneroides 72 110 Miller's thumbs 115 Osteolepis macrolepidotus 99 Minnow 112 OSTEOSTEACI 76, 77 Miolania Oweni 43 Ostracion 121 platyceps 44 OSTEACODEEMI 76 Molge cristata 66 OSTEACOPHOEI 76 Monitors 26 Otodus 92 MOSASAUEIDJD 27 Oudenodon Baini . . 57 Mosasaurus Caniperi 29 Oweniasucbus 6 ^^ ' 28 Oxygnatbus 100 JJIlllCt'JJo . . Mugil 114 Oxyrbina 92 Mullets 114 Mureenosaurus 51 Myliobatis Pentoni. . 88 Pacbycormus 107 Myriacantbus 93 Pacbyrbizodus 111 Myripristis 118 Pagellus 119 Myxine austral is . . 74 Pal a3obali stum 105 Palseobatrachus 65 Palseogadus. . 114 Nannosucbus .. 6 Paleeobatteria 29 Naosaurus claviger. . 59, 61 Palseomylus 93 Naseus 116 Paleeoniscus macropomus . . 100 NEMATOGNATHI . . 113 Paleeopbis porcatus 25 Nemopteryx Neorhombolepis Neusticosaurus pusillus . . 114 107 52 typbeeus Palseorbyncbidse . . Palseorbyricbum . . 25 117 117 Newts .... 64 Palceoscyllium 92 Nicoria tricarinata. . 40 Palseospinax 91 Notbosaurus mirabilis 52 PalaBospondylus Gunni 75 Notidanus - . 88 Paleryx depressus . . 26 men* GO vli r>yr> Hi fpi* 25 giga .Nummcpalatus 115 Palimpbyes 116 Nuthetes destructor 24 Parascopelus 112 Nyrania . . 68 Parexus 85 INQEX. 127 PAGE. PAGE. PAKIASAURIA 6L PLEURONECTOIDEI. . 114 Pariasaurus Baini . . 62,63 Pleuropholis 108 V> ^ *- K * A s\ ~ n 63 "PI PII vmil a Y 91 Pelagosaurus 6, 8 Pleurosaurus 31 j. _..__ 4 I*lciii*osti6rimiii Bullocki 4O Pelargorhynchus 118 Pliosaurus . . 47 Pelobates . . 62 Poacilia 113 Pelobatochelys 45 Poecilodus 91 Peloneustes philarchus 47, 50 Polacanthus. . 20 Pelorosaurus 12 Polypterus bichir . . 98 Peltopleurus 108 Polyptychodon interruptus 50 PERCESOCES 114 Polyrhizodus . . . , 86 Perch, skeleton 109 Ponaacanthus 119 PERCID.E 119 Pomognathus 112 PERCOMORPHI 115 Portheus molossus . . 111 Petalodus 86 Port Jackson Shark 82 Petalopteryx 115 PRISTIOPHORID.E 86 Petromyzon fluviatilis 74 Prislipoma 119 Petrosuchus 6 Pristis 86 Phaneropleuron Andersoni 95,96 Procolophon 55 Pharyngodopilus . . 115 PROCOLOPHONIA . . 55 PHARYNGOGNATHI 114 Proganochelys Quenstedti. 45 Phoderacanthus . . 83 Prognathodus 93 Pholidogaster 70 Propappus. . 61 Pholidophorus 108 PROSELACHII 84 Pholidosaurus 6 PROTEID^; 65- Phylactocephalus 112 PROTEROSAURIA . . 31 Phyllodus petiolatus 115 Proterosaurus Speiieri 31 Pike 113 Protopelobates 65 Pipe-fishes 120 Protopterus annectens 94, PISCES 79 Protosphyrsena . . 107 " Placodermata " . . 76,96 PROTOSPONDYLI . . 103; PLACODONTIA 53 Protriton 72: Placodus gigas 54 Psammodus 86: laticeps 54 Psephoderma alpinum 45, Platax 116 Psephodus 91 Platecarpus . . 27 Pseudoberyx 118 )i i -\*f i M^-.d-vi* -i oo "Pamir! r*l Awinna 1 1ft j. j-i> Platychelys Oberndorferi. . 42 Pteranodon longiceps 3 Platycormus 119 Pteraspis rostrata . . 76, 77 Platylaemus 115 Pterichthys testudinarius . 78 Platysiagum 100 Pterodactyles 1 Platysomus striatus 101 Pterodactylus antiquus 3 T*T T?OTr\rL"w A HPTTT 1 f)(\ Tiif*pi"nl^i li^ 1 2 JL likO JL(J(jr.N AJ. Hi PLECTOSPONDYLI .. 112 PTEROSAURIA 1 Plesiochelys yaldensis 41 Pterygocephalus . . 115 PLESIOSAURIA 47 Ptychodus decurrens 88 Plesiosauridae 47 Ptyctodus . . 93 Plesiosaurus 49 PYCNODONTID^: 103 ,1 ~1 * ~1* ~ 3 : 47 Pvcnodns Dlsitcssiis 105 ^r / TTnTrlrin^i Af* ^O T*v"*fpn^ 119 Iaticci33 51 p t 100 %-w-.!-. ..1.1 r -i "PVPTJOW r^ Arm? T>TT A 27 O -L JT JL L 1 L t /i> L^JJ-UlCi Jl A . . / *^.Vll-lrt4--i-l c, > 51 Pleuracanthus 83,84 84 Kaja elayata 87 82 128 INDEX. PAGE. PAGE. 86 Sea -dragons . . 52 Bana 65 Seeleya 72 Hays 82 SEL\CHII .. 85 BEPTILIA . . 1 Seinionotus 103 Bhacolepis . . . . . . 110 Semiophorus velicans 117 Bhadinichthys 100 Serpents 25 Bhamphorhynchus Muen- Serranus 119 steri 1 Sharks 82 Bhamphosuchus . . 6 SlLURID.E .. 113 Bhamphosus 120 Siphonostoma . . , 120 Bhinellus f urcatus. . in SlRENOlDEI.. 94 Bhinobatus bugesiacus 86 Slow-worms 26 Bhinochelys cantabrigiensis 40 Smerdis minutus . . 120 Bhinoptera . . 88 Sole 114 Bhizodousis 99 Solea 114 Bhizodus Hibberti. . 99 Solenorhynchus 120 on 1 1 Q Bhodeus t/t7 112 ooncixiciis .4 , . Spaniodon . . XI 7 112 Bliombus . . . . 114 Sparagmites 70 BHYNCHOCEPHALIA 29 Sparidse 119 Bhynehodus 93 Sparnodus ovalis . . 119 Rhynchorhinus 113 Sparodus 72 Bhynchosaurus articeps . . 29 Spathobatis bugesiacus 86 Bhytidosteus 70 Sphaerodus 103 Bicnodon 72 Sphagebranchus 113 Boacli . . 112 Sphenacanthus 90 Sphenocephalus 118 Salamanders 64 Sphenodon 29 SALMONID^: 111 Sphenonchus . 90, 91 Sandalodus . . 91 SPHYR^NIDA: 114 Sapheosaurus 31 SPINACID^;.. 86 Sargus 119 Squaloraja . 83, 93 Saurichthys 103 SQUAMATA . . 24 Saurillus 26 SQUAMIPINNES 119 Sauroceplialus 111 Squatina 86 SI A TT"Rn~nrt"V r TTTt 3? n lJ^-* w-1 07 QAU Jii/JJU-iN -Ll_L>ji^ .. . SAIJROPODA . 9 Of 87 SATJROPTERYGIA . . 45 Stagonolepis 6 Saurosternon 31 Stare-gazers 116 Scabbard-fishes 118 STEGOSAURIA 17 Scapanorhynclius 92 Stegosaurus stenops 18 Scaphaspis ludensis 76 uniruliitus 17 Scatophagus 119 Steneosaurus 6 !^)C tin in cnSrci^i 95 Hcbcrti 7 Scelidosaurus Harrison! 19 Stenostoma '. 118 SCLERODERMI 121 Streblodus 91 Sclerorhynchus atavus 86 Strepsodus 99 SCOMBRESOCID^: 114 Strophodus medius 91 SCOMBRID.E 116 Sturgeons 102, 103 Scombroclupea 110 Surgeons 116 SCOPELID^; 112 Sword-fishes 118 Scorpaena . . 118 Synechodus 91 SCYLLIID^E. . 92 Sea-bats 116 Tapinoccphalus Atherstonei 58 Sea-breams . . 119 Taurinichthys 115 Sea-horses 120 TECTOSPONDYLI 86 INDEX. 129 PAGE. PAGE. Teleidosaurus . .. 6 TRACHINID.E 116 Teleosaurus. . . 6 Trachinopsis 116 TELEOSTEI . . . . . 80, T E L* E O S T O ]M I 109 97 Trachodon cantabrigiensis TTnnllri 24 OA Telerpeton 31 Tremataspis ^^r 77 Tench 112 Trichiurichthys 118 Teratosaurus 16 TRICHIUBJD.E 118 Testudo G-randidieri 42 Trimerorachis 70 Thalassochelys caretta 44 Trionyx Gergensi 38 Thaumatosaurus indicus . . 47 Tristychius . . 90 Thecodontosaurus platyodon 17 TRYGONID^; 86 Therapon . . 119 Tunny 116 THERIODONTIA 57 Turtles 38 Theriosuchus 6 "11 8 Undina gulo 99 THEROPODA 13 Urocordylus 72 Thoracosaurus 6 Urogyrnnus.. 81 Thrissopater 110 Urosphen . . 120 Thrissops 108 Thursius 98 VARANI PJE . . 26 Thynnichthys Thynnus 113 116 Varanus bengalensis sivalensis. . 26 27 Tinea 112 Vonier 116 Titanosaums australis 13 Titanosuchus 57 Toads g^ W rasses 115 Tomistoma 6, 8 Toothed carps 113 XIPHIID.E 118 Tortoises 38 Xenopholis 105 BRITISH MUSEUM (NATURAL HISTORY) CROMWELL ROAD, LONDON, 8.W. GUIDE-BOOKS. 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