LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. OIF-T . .T. O CC I < ' 5r^ .^-* < , MANUAL TOR ENGINEER TROOPS; CONSISTING OP PART I. Ponton Drill, PART II Rules for Conducting a Siege, PART III. School Of the Sap, PART IV. Military Mining, PART V. Construction of Batteries, BY CAPT. J. C. DUANE, CORPS OP EXOIXEERS U. 8. ARMY. THIRD EDITION. NEW YORK: D. VAN NOSTRAND, 192 BROADWAY. 1804 vv .%v %%**>" . " Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1862, BY D. YAN NOSTRAND, la the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, for the Southern District of Xew York. O. A. ALVORD, 8TERKOTYPER AND PRINTJEB. 8 PEEFACE. THE following Manual is a compilation from English, French, and Austrian Military Authors, with such al- terations, as appeared necessary to adapt the work to our service. In the instruction for the Pontonier, it has been at- tempted to devise a drill applicable to the various Pon- ton Trains now in use in our Army. The first part of the instruction for the Sapper is, with a few alterations, a reprint of General Pasley's Rules for conducting the Practical Operations of a Siege. The second is a translation of the French Sapper Manual. That part which relates to Military Mining is taken from the English and French Aides Memoire. PONTON DRILL "HE UNIVERSITY 1 I. PONTON DRILL. CHAPTER I. PASSAGE OF RIVERS. WHEN an army in the field finds its march interrupted by a river, it may effect the passage of this obstacle either by fording, by ferrying in boats, rafts or flying bridges, or by military bridges. The selection of the place and means of crossing a river, is determined by a reconnoissance, which should be as de- tailed and extensive as circumstances will permit. Forl. A river with a moderate currrent may be forded by in- fantry when its depth does not exceed three feet, and by cavalry and carriages when its depth is about four feet. The requisites for a good ford are, that the banks are low but not marshy, that the water obtains its greater depth gradually, the current moderate, the stream not subject to freshets, and that the bottom is even, hard and tenacious. In mountainous countries, the bottom is frequently covered with large stones, rendering the passage of carriages nearly or quite impracticable. 8 MANUAL FOE ENGINEER TROOPS. In level countries, the case is often still worse, the bottom being either of mud or quicksand, rendering it impassable for both men and carriages. Sometimes the bottom is com- posed of fine sand, which is hard enough, but by the action of the hoofs of animals is stirred up and washed away, in- creasing the depth until it is unfordable. The best bottom is coarse gravel. Fords are usually found in the wider and more rapid parts of the river. Their position may be determined by sending a number of mounted men across wherever there is a probability of the river being shallow enough. The most certain method is to float down the stream in a boat, keeping it in the swiftest part of the current, where the stream is usually the deepest. Over the stern a sounding line of the proper length is hung ; when this touches bot- tom the river is sounded across. When the ford is discovered, the remarkable objects on the shore should be noted, that the ford may be easily recog- nized, and a picket planted at the water's edge, in order that uny variation in the height of the water maybe ascertained. Rivers which are not fordable may sometimes be rendnvl so, when the only obstacle is a too great depth of water over an extent of eight or ten yards, by filling in this por- tion of their bed with fascines loaded with stones, or with stone and gravel. " When the water is sluggish, or muddy, a ford may be im- proved by covering the bottom with bundles of coarse grass, rushes or twigs. There have been instances of rivers rendered fordable by diverting a portion of the water from its natural course. When the river is wide and rapid, the ford must first be carefully examined and staked out. The troops pass in column of platoons, with sufficient interval to avoid choking the current. PASSAGE OF RIVERS. fl When boats are to be had, a few should be stationed be- low the ford, to assist those who may be carried down by the current. When boats are wanting, this duty may be performed by mounted men, or a life-hue may be stretched across, sup- ported on casks or other floats. The force of the current may be broken in a measure by stationing cavalry in tho stream above the ford. After a freshet, the ford should be re-examined, lest some alteration may have taken place in the bed of the river. In marching in retreat, it is frequently advisable to destroy a ford after having used it. This may be effected by dig- ging trenches across it, or filling in the deepest part with harrows, teeth up, plank filled with spikes, crow's feet, &c. Ice. In high latitudes, during the winter, rivers are frequently covered with ice of sufficient thickness to sustain the heavi- est loads. This means of communication should be used with great circumspection. A change of temperature may not only suddenly destroy this natural bridge, but render the river impassable by any method for a considerable time, in consequence of the floating ice. The thickness of ice should be, to allow the passage of infantry in single file, on a line of planks and two yards apart two inches; cavalry, or light guns, with intervals, four inches ; 12-pounder field-pieces, unlimbered and on sleds, five inches; 12-pounder field-pieces, limbered and drawn by horses, with intervals between pieces, six to seven inches. Ice when ten to twelve inches thick, bears the heavi- est loads. Two tracks of planks laid on the ice, for the carriage- wheels to run on, may be employed when there is any doubt as to its strength, or the wagons may be transformed into a sort of sled by fastening two planks under the wheels. 1* 10 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. The thickness of the ice may be increased, when the temperature is low enough, by throwing water on it. AVhen the river is frozen on each side, but open in tlu- middle in consequence of the velocity of the current, a boom stretched across the open space will often check the veloci- ty sufficiently to cause the ice to freeze. Passage oil Boats, Rafts, &c., &c. The point of passage being selected, all the boats that can be procured will be collected in default of a sufficient number of boats, lumber, casks and other material suitable for rafts and the rafts constructed without delay. The banks, if too steep, will be cut down ; the landing on the opposite shore should be further down the stream than I lie point of embarkation, as the loaded boats will drift with the current. The boats will be arranged along the shore ac- cording to size, and numbered ; the rafts moored below the boats. The infantry will be divided into sections, depending in size upon the capacity of the boats in which they are to embark ; each section is provided with the number of its boat ; great care must be taken not to overload the boats or to crowd the boatmen. The soldiers will enter the boats one by one, alternately against the right and left gunwale ; they will be cautioned not to stir from the places assigned them, and above all, not to spring up when the boat lurches ; they will disembark in the same order, i. e., one by one. When the river is shallow near the shore, the boat must not approach the bank near enough to ground as it fills with men. In the passage of artillery, it is usually necessary to dis- mount the piece. Cavalry are not often passed over in boats. When boats of sufficient size can be obtained, their bottoms must b*> PASSAGE IN BOATS, RAFTS, ETC. 11 covered over with plank, the horses placed crosswise, facing alternately up and down stream, otherwise they may be thrown down by the rolling of the boat. The passage of all arms may be facilitated by construct- ing a floating bridge formed of two boats, covered with a platform constructed as follows : From five to seven beams of the same thickness are laid across the two boats, the interval between the beams equal, and such that the covering plank extends one foot beyond the extreme beams. The interval between the boats allows the beams to ex- tend two feet beyond the outer gunwales. The beams are lashed to the boats ; the covering planks are kept in place by two side-rails laid directly over the outer beams, and lashed down to them ; the extreme planks are nailed down. The size of the beams is regulated by the load, and inter- val between the boats. With seven beams 27' long and 5" square, and covering plank 1" thick, a 24-pounder may be carried. Not only artillery and cavalry may be transported by this moans, but infantry may be, in much greater numbers than by using the boats separately. The raft can be manoeuvred by oars with nearly the same facility as a boat. The same rules apply to the passage of troops on rafts as in boats, attention being paid to the following circumstances : that rafts drift more than boats, consequently the landing on the opposite shore will be further down stream ; and as the embarkation is easier, there is more danger of over- loading the rail, and of confusion in embarking. Infantry enter by the flank, and occupy first the middle of the raft, through its entire length ; a rank is then added alternately on the up and down stream side, until the raft is loaded. Artillery and heavy carriages are placed in the centre, and cavalrv as in fl1 ^ v,o+" 12 MANUAL FOE ENGINEER TROOPS. Rafts possess these advantages, viz.: the embarkation and landing of all arms is easier. They carry large numbers at each trip. They are not easily injured by the fire of the enemy. They draw little water. They cannot, however, be navigated with the same facili- ty as boats, and move much more slowly through the water, thus keeping the troops a longer time under fire when in presence of an enemy. They cannot be directed with certainty on a fixed point, when the stream is rapid, and in this case it is often impos- sible to bring them back against the current to the starting point. Finally, the length of time required for their construction forbids their use when the passage is to be effected secretly. When the material is limited in quantity, the passage will be executed more readily by means of the rope ferry, trail or flying bridge. The first, which is used in streams with sluggish currents, consists of a floating support, either raft, floating bridge (as described above) or a wide scow. This support is provided with two forked uprights, one near each end of the up-stream side. The forks support a strong rope, stretched across the stream, and securely fixed at each bank. The raft is caused to traverse the stream by men on its deck hauling on the cable. The trail bridge is employed on streams of not more than one hundred and fifty yards in width, and with a current whose velocity is not less than one yard per second. The rope must be maintained above the surface of the water, consequently must be drawn very tight by means of wind- lass, blocks and falls, or similar expedients, also raised at each bank some distance above the water. The raft or boat is attached to a pulley which runs on a sheer line, and by means of a rudder, is given such a position TEAIL, OR FLYIXQ BRIDGES. 13 that its side makes an angle of about 55 with the direction of the current. The force of the current exerted on the side of the float may be divided into two components, one perpendicular to the sheer line, which is destroyed by the resistance of this line, the other parallel to it, which causes the float to cross the stream with a velocity depending on the strength of the current. The most suitable float for the purpose, is one composed of two long narrow and deep boats, with the sides nearly vertical, the interval between the boats, such that the cur- rent shah 1 act on the sides of both through their entire length, when they form the proper angle with it. When timber rafts are used, they should have the form of a lozenge, whose acute angle is 55. When two sides are parallel to the current, the up-stream side will be in the most favorable position for the passage. When the river is more than one hundred and fifty yards in width, the strain on the sheer-line would be very great ; it is therefore usually replaced by a cable, one end of which is attached to the float, the other anchored in the stream, thus forming a flying bridge. The cable is supported by several floats, either small boats, barrels, logs, &c. When an anchor is used, the first float should be as near it as possible, without danger of tripping it; the others should be so arranged as to maintain the cable above the water. The cable is anchored in the middle of the stream, when the current is stronger there ; but when stronger near one shore, it must be anchored nearer the other. If no floats for the cable are used, it must be passed over a gallows-frame on the raft to keep it from dragging in the water. This bridge is manoeuvred in the same manner as the trail bridge. The rope-ferry, trail or flying bridge, furnish the means of passing any stream, and may be' advantageously 14 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOrS. employed in many cases. They may be established without difficulty in a short time with limited material, and such as can often be found in the vicinity. They permit the passage of all arms, and the heaviest loads. They are not liable to injury from floating bodies, and the flying bridge does not interrupt navigation. Bridges. When a river is more than four feet in depth, or when its bottom is of mud or quicksand, recourse must be had either to ferrying, by means of boats, rafts, &c., or to military bridges. The latter method is always to be preferred, when circumstances will permit their establishment. Military bridges are composed of a road-way and its supports; the first consists of beams, or balks, reaching across the adjacent supports, and covered with plank, called chess. The supports, from which the bridge takes its name, may be either fixed, as trestles, gabions, carriages, piles ; or float- ing, as pontons, boats of commerce, rafts, y succesive Ponton over Watercourse. SUMMARY. Plates 6 and 7. 1 No. of 1 | Sections. | Duty. Non-com. Officers. d 8 3 ~ 1st Abutment Section, 2 Construct first abutment, take material for sec- ond across river and construct it 2d. Trestle, 2 8 Construct r:ift of two pontons, load it with sepa- rate trestles, caps mid legs. &c.. take raft to its place, put trestle together, right it, put claws of balks to caps, haul on cables, drop 1. engage raft. 3d. Up-Stream Anchor, 2 8 Two half-suctions.' Boats with up-stream an- chors are above abutment two half ft cuter two boats, row to placv for and. it drop boat to place in bridge and go ashore for another boat. If boat is to bo moored, 4th. Down-StreamAnchor 2 8 down-stream anchor is also placed in stern. Two half-sections. First with boat take anchor from boat already in bridge, drop down and cast it; second half-section bring pontons with no anchors into bridge and give them to balk lashers. 5th. Balk Carriers, 1 10 Brinj: balks by right side of bridge, pass front end to trc.-tfr men or ponton la.-lu-rs. men at front ends take rear ends and assist in placing them for a ponton, the balk carriers pu.-h it oil' and give their end to lashers, all go tor more. 6th. Balk Lashers, 2 17 Four men alternate by twos in fixing spring- lines; two attend up-stream cablo. one down- stream; in placing ponton, ten (rive in alter- nate pontons) receive bulks and lash them down. t 7th. Chess, 1 22 Twenty men bring chesses by right of bridge to other two, who 'face to rear 'and place them. 8th. Side-Rails, 1 8 Bring side-rails and lash them down. When more than seventeen boats are employed, the 3d and 4th sections should be doubled. BRIDGE OVER WATERCOURSE. 23 When the current is very rapid, the 3d section must be increased. "When the bridge is composed of twenty bays or more, there should be two sections for balks alternating ; the same for the chess. To Contruct a Bridge over a Watercourse. Plate 5. The axis of the bridge should be as nearly as possible per- pendicular to the direction of the current of the stream. This direction is determined by throwing a floating body into the stream where the current is the strongest, and as it floats down, mark (with two boat-hooks) a line as nearly perpen- dicular to this as can be determined by the eye. The wag- ons are unloaded as has already been described ; the pon- tons launched. At the command " Construct the Bridge" 1st Section construct the first abutment, as in the pre- vious chapter ; then embark in a ponton with the material for second abutment ; pass over the river, determine its po- sition by sighting at the two boat-hooks marking the axis ; construct this abutment and the road leading from it. If no trestles were used, they would plant pickets thirty paces above and below, and three and one-half paces above and two and one-half below the 1st for anchoring cables, the 2d for spring-lines. 2d Section construct a raft (Plate 5) with two pontons, (I) two balks, (bb) lashed firmly to the gunwales ; a deck is formed of chess (hh) covering part of first ponton, and the interval between the two. The different members of the trestles are embarked, the caps and legs are laid alternately on the balks over the sec- ond ponton, the chains on deck over the first, the false legs and shoes in the bow and stern of first ponton ; the raft is brought opposite the abutment. 24 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOrS. The corresponding files in front and rear rank of the sec- tion have the same numbers. The rear rank performs the same operations for the down-stream part of the bridge that the front rank does for the up-stream side ; No. 4 holds the raft in position by the guys or shore lines until they receive cables from the anchor detachment; Nos. 1, 1 and 2, 2 bring forward a sill, lay it on its side, the bottom toward shore ; Nos. 1, 1 introduce the legs in the mortices of the sill, Nos. 2, 2 the false legs and chains, Nos. 3, 3 place and secure the shoes. The C. S. commands "raise" the trestle is righted; Nos. 1, 1 step on the trestle and hold the legs to keep them from sliding down. Nos. 2, 2 adjust the ends of the balks, which are passed to them by balk carriers; the raft is then pushed off by the balk carriers pushing on the shore end of the balks until the proper distance is attained. The Nos. 4, 4 are directed by the C. S. to haul or slacken their cables as circumstances may require, until the trestle is in its true position. Nos. 1, 1 then thrust down the legs, pressing them firmly into the bottom of the river ; Nos. 2, 2 hook the chains, Nos. 3, 3 drive in the wedges ; C. S. com- mands " disengage" All lift on the cap of the trestle just placed, in order to sink the ponton sufficiently to disengage the balks (bb) from under this cap. 3d Section is divided into two half sections, for casting up-stream anchors. The pontons which nre to receive up- stream anchors are moored above the abutment. If the ponton is to be anchored down stream, a second anchor and cable are placed in the stern. Each half-section embarks in a ponton with an anchor. The anchor is placed in the bow, the flukes projecting over, the cable coiled immediately be- hind it. No. 1 front rank attends the cable ; No. 1 rear rank steers ; Nos. 2, 2 row. The line on which the anchors are to be cast is marked by two boat-hooks, placed about twenty paces apart, on shore. Arriving on this line, and BRIDGE OVER WATERCOURSE. 25 opposite the position which the ponton is to have in the bridge, the C. S. commands " cast anchor" No. 1 throws over the anchor and pays out the cable until the boat arrives at its place in the bridge, the cable is made fast, and the ponton brought, with the boat-hook and oar, along the bridge head ; the short balks, supports, block and sill are arranged, and turned over to the cable detachment, the anchor detach- ment passing to the shore by the bridge after another ponton. The distance of the anchors above the bridge should be at least ten times the depth of the stream, otherwise, when a strain is brought on the cables, the anchors will trip. In ordinary circumstances, an up-stream anchor is required for the alternate pontons, and an anchor down-stream for every fourth ponton. When the river is not over seventy or eighty yards wide, or the current is gentle, a sheer-line may be used in place of anchors. The sheer-line is a cable stretched across the river sixteen or twenty yards above the bridge, to which the pontons are attached by lines. As the strain on this line is generally very great, the points of attachment on the shore must be secured with great care. An arrangement similar to the abutment sill may be used, or if the soil is firm, an anchor buried in the ground. 4th Section. Two half-sections. First half-section cast down-stream anchor ; half section embark in a ponton moored below the bridge ; proceed to the first ponton in the line of the bridge, which lias an anchor on it. No. 1 holds the two pontons together, whilst Nos. 2, 2 remove the anchor and cable to the anchor boat, having previously made the end of the cable fast to the ponton. The anchor boat is then allowed to float down to the line of anchors, No. 1 paying out the cable. The anchor is then cast, and the boat hauled back to the bridge by means of the cable of the anchor just cast. 2 26 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. The boat proceeds to the next boat having a down-stream anchor. Second half-section brings into line those pontons which are not provided with anchors. These pontons are brought into their proper places and held alongside the nearest ponton between thein and the bridge, until the cable men are ready to take charge. The detachment then passes ashore by the bridge. 5th Section Balk Carriers. Duty the same as 4th sec- tion in chapter 2d, except that the front rank push off the ponton before giving the balks to the balk lashers. 6th Section. Balk Lashers. When the French train is used, an additional section is required to lash the balks to the gunwales of the ponton. This section is composed of two non-commissioned officers and seventeen men. Four men alternate, two and two, in fixing the spring-lines, which connect the pontons bow and stern, and are made fast to the mooring-posts ; three men at the cables two for the up-stream and one for the down-stream cable ; ten balk lashers. The five front-rank men enter the first ponton, station them- selves opposite the lashing hooks, facing down stream. They receive the ends of the balks from the balk carriers, lay them in their places on the outer gunwale, and overlapping it by six inches. They then throw their weight on the balks to keep them in place whilst the boat is being pushed off. In the mean while, the rear rank lash the shore ends of the balks to the abutment sill, if claw balks are not used, and pass over into the second ponton. When the second ponton is pushed off, the lashers in the first ponton receive the ends of the second set of balks from the carriers, place them on the gunwales of the ponton in contact with the first set, and overlapping the inner gunwale six inches, lash them firmly to both gunwales, then pass over to the third ponton. 7th Section. Chess Carriers. The same as 5th section, chapter 2d. DISMANTLING BRIDGES. 27 8th Section. Side-Rail Carriers. The same as 6th sec- tion, chapter 2d. dismantling Bridge over Watercoure. 8th Section Remove the side-rails. 7th Section Remove the chess. 6th Section Act on spring-lines and cast them off, tend cables, and unlash balks. 5th Section Remove the balks. 4th Section Two half-sections remove the pontons with- out anchors ; take up the down-stream anchors ; the anchor boat is brought up to the ponton ; sufficient cable is taken into the boat to allow it to drop down the stream to the line of anchors ; the anchor is raised, and the anchor boat hauled back to the bridge. This operation is repeated until three anchors are weighed, when the anchor boat returns to the shore. If the cable to the up-stream anchor is long enough, the readiest way is to allow the ponton to drop down stream by this cable, coiling the down-stream cable until the ponton arrives at the lower anchor line ; the anchor is then weighed, and the ponton hauled by the up-stream cable to the upper line of anchors ; when the upper anchor is weighed, the anchor boat is then dispensed with. 3d Section Weigh the up-stream anchors, and take the boats to the second shore. The section is divided into two half-sections, which enter the first two pontons. "When the boat is anchored up stream, it is hauled up to trip its anchor by its cable. Boats are taken to shore below bridge. 2d Section Take up trestles by the reverse of the pro- cess used in placing them. 1st Section Take up the abutments. 28 MANUAL FOB ENGINEER TROOPS. Construction of a Bridge by Parts* Plate 8. The parts are composed of two or three pontons. If the velocity of the stream is less than two yards per second, they are constructed above the abutment; if greater, below. The abutment and each bay is formed as in the case of successive pontons, and at the same time. The parts are formed by sections of one C. S. and twelve men, each part as follows : a ponton is moored bow and stern to the shore; a second ponton (No. 2) is brought alongside ; chess are laid from the shore to No. 1, for the pontoniers to walk on ; seven balks are brought ; five are placed as for an ordinary bridge, one on the bow and stern; No. 2 is pushed off; a third ponton is brought alongside of No. 2, and is treated in the same manner. The construction is indicated in the plate. m m, crossed spring-lines ; //, balks ; d c7, chess to form the junction with the next part. When the part is above the bridge, it is conducted to the line of up-stream anchors, drops its anchor, then floats down to its place in the bridge ; a line is thrown to the bridge; it is hauled up to the head of the bridge ; the balks are put in place, and the part pushed off, the chess and side-rails lashed. If the construction is from below, the part is towed to it$ place, where it receives one or two cables of up-stream an- chors, as may be necessary, from another boat. To Dismantle by Parts. 1st Section Take up the abutment from the shore of de- parture, and the balks, chess, ating bodies by establishing a guard of ob- servation above the bridge, to arrest these bodies ; by placing PRESERVATION OF BRIDGES. 47 a stockade obliquely across the stream, or by construct- ing the bridge by rafts, and withdrawing that part of the bridge which is menaced, and allowing the body to float past. The guard o observation is stationed about one thousand yards above the bridge. It is provided with boats contain- ing cables, anchors, grapnels, hammers, &c. These boats are stationed at different points across the stream. As soon as a floating body is observed that may endanger the bridge, a boat hastens toward it, fastens the end of a line to it, and endeavors to tow it ashore. If unable to do so, the line is made fast to an anchor, which should be so cast that the first strain on the cable will be in an oblique direction with the current. The body will then swing around and lose part of its momentum, thus relieving the cable of apportion of the strain. The boats should also be provided with chains and grap- nels, to tow burning bodies. The floating btockade is constructed of trees united by chains, and forming a continuous barrier to floating objects. Its direction should form an angle of about 20 with the current, which will require its length to be 24 the width of the river. Each piece is formed of one, two, or three trunks lashed together. As a stockade is not a reliable protection, it should be established some distance above the bridge. A guard should be at the bridge, from which a sentinel is posted at each extremity ; and, if the bridge is long, at inter- mediate points. These sentinels should turn out the guard when the bridge is in danger from any cause. 'They will see that tlie troops march at the route step ; that the cavalry dismount ; that the troops and carriages halt when %.e bridge commences to oscillate dangerously ; that two heavily loaded carriages do 48 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. not enter the bridge ; that not more than five or six head of cattle enter at the same time. The officer in charge of the bridge will frequently inspect the cables to see that they are not chafing, and that the anchors do not drag. He will cause the rack lashings to be tightened when they work loose, and the pontons that have leaked or shipped water to be bailed. There should be formed on the shore, near the entrance to the bridge, a depot of spare balks, chess, cordage, &c., by means of which any injury the bridge may sustain can be promptly repaired. French Ponton & Carriage Pl.l. Birag-o's 'I 1 res tie PI. 2. or THE Y UNIVERSITY Trestle Hrid i -ie ovor Water course. PI. 3. Anchoring pannier ttalk Iftxhing Trestle lirid<_>e over OF THE UNIVERSITY Trestle Hriilvjo over Water course. PI. 5. Bridge bv -successive Pontons. PI. 6. Trostlc S- I'oiitoius combined . Pi. 7 Uridi$e const moled by parts r r r r r r r Britlyo roust rucU'd by Rafts. PI 9. JTH-IH, , \ a R A OF THE UNIVERSITY /:RM\h- -BrirUo by Conversion PI 10. Continuation of Bridge a.h. Canvas l\mton.s. Pl.1t. I 4 4 Flyiny Bridge. PI. 12. imber Hafts X" Timber Rafts ' I'l.l't . Trestles -"Raft of Casks. PI. IS *CT*R**> OF THE UNIVERSITY Pi. 16. RULES FOR CONDUCTING THE PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF A SIEGE A S L E Y. PRACTICAL OPERATIONS, ETC. 1. Or Preparing Timber and Brushwood for Mili- tary Purposes. 1. OF THE LARGE TIMBER REQUIRED IN A SIEGE OR CAMPAIGN. IN the siege of a fortress situated on the sea-coast, plat- forms, timbers for powder-magazines, mine-cases, &c., may be forwarded by sea ; but in inland operations, it is often necessary to cut materials for those purposes in some adja- cent wood, if they cannot otherwise be obtained. In a cam- paign, abatis, stockades, palisades and chevaux-de-frise, are often required to strengthen positions, and temporary pow- der-magazines and bridges are also necessary for field-works. Bridges of trestles, or even floating bridges, as a substitute for pontons, may likewise be necessary in the field. All these services require large timber, or young trees ; the for- mer to be cut into regular scantling and planks, the latter either to be well squared, roughly squared, split down the middle or left round, according to circumstances. 2. OF THE TOOLS, ETC., REQUIRED FOR CUTTING TIMBER FOR MILITARY PURPOSES. The felling axe for cutting down large trees. The cross-cut saw is necessary for cutting large trees trans- versely, after being felled ; the handsaw is more convenient for small ones. The pitsaw is of indispensable necessity for preparing large trees into scantling and planks, fit for platforms, bridges, 52 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. mine-cases, sheeting, &c.; also for sawing them down the middle, if considered larger than necessary, for stockades or palisading. Dogs, iron implements for securing the trees while being sawed, and cant-hooks, for turning over, or drag- ging them, are useful. The carpenter's broadaxe is the most useful tool for rough squaring. The adze may answer the same purpose, but it is more particularly adapted for cutting concave curves, when necessary. Wherever saws are used, setters are necessary; one to each saw, if detached, one to several saws, when working together. One kind of setter is used for the pit and cross- cut saw. Another, of a smaller size, for the handsaw ; and to every individual saw files are required, in a proportion not less than a dozen to each, even for the shortest service. Where cutting tools are used, a grindstone is necessary, to which a proportion of rubstones may be added. The latter may serve in lieu of a grindstone, but not so conve- niently. Ragstones (or whetstones) are also necessary. Recapitulation of tools for cutting and preparing large timber into scantling and planks. Felling axes. Cross-cut saws. Topping axes. Files for ditto, dozens of. Pitsaws. Setters for ditto. Files for ditto, dozens of. Handsaws. Setters for ditto. Files for ditto, dozens of. Chalk lines and chalk. Setters for ditto. Plumb bobs. Carpenters' broadaxes. Squares, iron, 2-feet (divided). Adzes. Compasses, 6-inch. A grindstone. Dogs. Rubstones. Cant-hooks. Ragstones, or whetstones. Pickaxes and shovels are necessary for forming sawpits in the field. Ropes or chains would also be required for mov- PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF A RIEGE. 53 ing the trees. Handspikes, rollers and wedges, may be cut in the wood. If you should wish to raise your timber on trestles in sawing it, in preference to making a pit, wo-inch socket chisels and mallets, with half-inch spike bits, and spikes, will be required for making the trestles, in addition to the carpenter's tools before mentioned. 3. OF THE SMALL TIMBER, OR BRUSHWOOD, REQUIRED IN A SIEGE OR CAMPAIGN. A great number of fascines, gabions and pickets, are in- dispensable in a siege, and are often necessary in field-works. For this purpose, brushwood, not exceeding from one and a half to two inches in diameter at the butt end, is most suitable. The thicker pieces are usually called poles. The smaller ones are called rods. When brushwood is not to be had, branches of trees may be used for the same purpose : and the pickets in particular may always be split out of large timber. 4. TOOLS, ETC., REQUIRED FOR CUTTING BRUSHWOOD. For this purpose no tool is so efficient as the hand-hatchet,* with which the great body of men employed on this duty ought to be supplied. A very small proportion (say one in ten) of topping axes may be used for the larger poles, or young trees, when such, are required. A grindstone or rubstones, and ragstones or whetstones, are, of course, absolutely necessary. * Formerly a two-edged bill-hook was used in the service, calculated to act both as a hand-hatchet and bill, or to chop as well as cut. Recently this complex and loss efficient instrument has been abolished, and a bill- hook of the Kentish pattern, a largo curved knife, with the edge on the concave side, has been adopted in lieu of it. In making hurdles, wood- men sometimes use a block-bill for capping pickets, which has a straight edge, with a small hook at the back: but, bj a little management, the common bill will chop as well as cut, and it is not worth while to use two tools for military purposes. 54: MANUAL FOK ENGINEER TROOPS. RECAPITULATION OF TOOLS, ETC., FOR CUTTING BRUSH- WOOD. Bill-hooks. A grindstone. Ragstones or whetstones. Topping axes. Rubstones. Gloves. Hatchets. 5. DETAIL OF MEN FOR CUTTING BRUSHWOOD. When troops are ordered for this duty, it will be most convenient to tell them off in divisions of twenty-five men each. These must be subdivided into squads, in proportion to the number of non-commissioned officers present, each of whom will be responsible for the work of his own squ.-id, but corporals, as rank and file, are not exempted from their share of personal labor, unless it should be considered that they may be more usefully employed in superintending. The men must be drawn up in single rank, and in extended order, not less than three yards apart ; and if there be not room for the whole of the divisions employed, to work in one line, they may either commence in several parallel lines, at inter- vals of about thirty yards apart, or on different sides of the wood. The brushwood must be made up into bundles, loosely bound together by withes ; the size and weight of each to be such as a man can conveniently carry to the rear. In wood that has attained the proper age, a bundle may con- tain from twenty to forty rods. The average weight of those made by military working parties will scarcely exceed forty pounds. On commencing the work, all the men should cut ; afterward a few should be told off to bind and carry. After the first day's work, the whole may be tasked to clear a certain extent of ground. If the men have to march^ur miles to the wood, a task involving five hours' labor onTne spot, will probably be suf- ficient for each relief or party of men. If the wood should be nearer to the camp, their task may be increased. PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF A SIEGE. 55 II. Rules for Making Fascines. 6. FASCIXES DESCRIBED. FASCINES are a superior kind of fagot, which being built in courses, with a moderate slope, and secured by pickets driven into an earthen parapet, form a revetment useful in field-works. A Fascine, when the term is used without further speci- fication, implies one about eighteen feet long and nine inches in diameter, such as is used in reveting batteries, &c., and which can be cut to any shorter length, as may be required, during the execution of the field-work in which it is used. To make fascines thicker than the above dimension would be a waste of materials. Trench Fascines, six feet long, are used for crowning a line of gabions in a sap. These are formed by merely sawing the common long fascine, or Battery Fascine, into three parts. In like manner, nine-feet fascines, which are useful for cover- ing blinded galleries, and for other purposes, are formed by sawing the common long fascine into two equal parts. 7. DETAIL Or MEN. The men employed in making fascines must be divided into squads of five men each, besides which there must be spare men in the proportion of one to every three or four squads, to prepare pickets. One private in each squad is appointed to direct, but not without taking his share of the labor. One non-commissioned officer has the charge of sev- eral squads. 8. TOOLS, ETC., FOR EACH SQUAD. ' 5 Pairs of stakes for trestles, or more if the brushwood be bad. 5 Lashings, or withes, for ditto. 1 Fascine choker. 1 Fid of hard wood, 1 Bill-hook, each man. 56 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. 1 Maul. 1 Six-feet rod. 1 Handsaw. 1 Gauge for the bands. 8 Bill-hooks, ) at the rate of one cutting tool per 2 Gabion knives, ) man. For the spare Men making Pickets. 1 Chopping block, j" For several Squads. 1 Grindstone, or several rubstones. Ragstones, or whetstones. REMARKS. The size of the common handsaw is con- venient, but its teeth are rather too large for sawing brush- wood expeditiously. If regular six-feet rods cannot be is- sued to every squad, let a rod eight feet long, cut out of the brushwood, be used as a measure for each squad that is de- ficient. Two lengths of this rod will mark the distance between the extreme trestles. The fids of hard wood should be about nine inches long, one inch in diameter, and pointed at one end. The gauges are pieces of wood about fifteen and a half inches long, also cut out of the brushwood. Chopping blocks it is needless to describe ; but if large tim- ber is not to be had, stout stakes driven into the ground, and standing about two feet above the surface, will answer the purpose. If a lower block be used, the man must work kneeling. 9. METHOD OF PREPARING FASCINE TRESTLES. Fascines are made in a cra- dle composed of a certain number of trestles, placed at intervals not exceeding four feet apart. Each trestle consists of a couple of stakes about six and a half feet long, and not PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF A SIEOE. 57 less than from two and a half to three inches in diam- eter, driven obliquely into the ground, touching each other, and crossing at right angles, or nearly so, in the form of a St. Andrew's cross. The upper part of the cross should stand at the perpendicular height of about two feet six inches above the ground, with the ends of the stakes pro- jecting obliquely about two feet beyond it, as in the forego- ing figure. At the centre of the cross, the trestle may be secured by a lashing six feet long, consisting of a piece of spun-yarn or tarred line, of the size of tracing line, or a very little larger. This is done by applying the middle of the lashing to the two stakes, and passing the ends horizontally round both until some three or four turns are taken. The ends are then crossed vertically round the centre of those turns, in the space between the two stakes, and hauled taut; and after taking two or three turns in this new di- rection, as shown in the annexed figure, the ends are tied together with a reef- knot. The turns last taken are techni- cally termed flapping turns, and by straining the first part of the lashing, keep every thing tight. A withe or twisted rod may answer the same purpose when lashings cannot be procured. When one trestle is thus fixed, another is always placed at the distance of sixteen feet from it. The intermediate trestles, which may be three in number when the brushwood is good, making five in all, are then placed at equal intervals of four feet apart, between these two. When the brush- wood is bad, that interval will be too great, and therefore six or even seven trestles may be used instead of five. The head of the squad directs the placing of the trestles, assisted by two men of his party, whilst the others collect brush- 3* 58 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. wood. After the first two trestles are properly fixed, he aligns the others by the eye, looking along the upper side of each stake, on the same principle as in profiling. 'REMARK. At this establishment we sometimes use stakes of fir, of regular scantling, about two and a quarter by three inches square, shod at bottom and hooped at top with iron, like small piles, and connecting each pair by an oak pin pass- ing through holes cut for the purpose in the centre of the cross. Although these make very good fascine trestles, one would scarcely recommend using them on service. 10. FASCINE MAKING DESCRIBED. When the trestles are fixed, straight rods and branches, not exceeding about one and three-quarter inches in diame- ter, are laid over them, with their ends projecting about sev- enteen or eighteen inches on each side, beyond the extreme trestles. The leaves must be stripped off entirely, as well as the refuse ends of the thin branches. When the branches grow out of the stem, with irregular or clumsy bondings, they should be first separated by the bill-hook, as all very crooked parts injure the fascine ; but straight and flex- ible branches may be laid in along with the stem, cutting them half through or not, as may appear necessary. The men piling the brushwood should endeavor to lay the stout- er rods outside, and the smaller stuff near the heart of the bundle. When the cradle is nearly full of brushwood, it will be time to prove the diameter of the proposed fascine, in several places, which is done by the fascine choker ; and more stuff is added in those parts which require it. The fascine is then finished by binding it with withes prepared for the purpose. This is done by four men, two of whom choke, or compress the brushwood near the spot where the other two bind. The first band is applied near the extreme end of the fascine, about six inches from the first trestle. The second is applied about fifteen and one-half inches from PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF A SIEGE. 59 the first, and others are successively added at the same cen- tral intervals, until the whole number of thirteen bands -are completed. The fascine is then removed from the trestle, and the rough ends sawed off. It is to be observed that these ends should be laid as regular as possible in piling the brush- wood, and no more should be cut away than is necessary, al- though the length of the finished fascine should, in this case, prove to exceed the standard of eighteen feet. In regulating the central distance from band to band, the gauge-rod is used as a measure. If the brushwood be very bad, or withes of the desirable length cannot be obtained, the intervals may be diminished to twelve inches, which will increase the num- ber of bands to seventeen, and in this case a twelve-inch gauge must of course be used. Strictly speaking, four men are sufficient for making a fas- cine, when all the materials are at hand, but the fifth may be usefully employed in preparing withes, which is the most difficult part of the work. 11. METHOD OF PREPARING AND USING THE WITHES. For Withes (or Gads as they are also called) to bind fas- cines, very straight rods must be selected, which when after- ward cut to the proper length of about five feet, should not be less than about three-eighths of an inch in diam- eter, nor greater, if possible, than about three-fourths or seven-eighths of an inch at the big end. In choos- ing them, therefore, let no part be smaller than your little finger, or much thicker than your thumb. All the small branches must be lopped off, not close to, or cutting in upon the stem, but so as to leave a small stump projecting about one-eighth of an inch above it ; otherwise the rod will be liable to break at each knot. In preparing them for use, you must put the thick end under your left foot, and twist the rod with 60 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. your hands, from the top downward, with your right hand toward the end of the rod, which you will move in the same manner, nearly, as if working at a winch, so as to turn the rod in the direction technically called " with the sun.'** Great care must be taken to avoid making kinks in the wood, which unpractised persons are apt to do,^as these spoil the withe. After the rod is well twisted at the small end, and mod- erately so downward, you will form a loop about nine inches long, near the small end of it, by taking a half-hitch with the end of the rod round the. body, or standing part of it, as in the foregoing figure. You wih 1 then give the loop a couple of twists in the contrary direction, so as to plait the double part of the rod, and form an eye, or smaller loop at the top o/ it, as in the second annexed figure. At the part where this eye is formed, the rod should not be less than half an inch in diameter. Lastly, the end of the rod must be pointed, after which it will be ready for the use of the fascine ma- kers. In this state it should be at least four feet long, which, after preparing one or two, a man may easily judge of by the eye. In binding the fascine, two men assist, standing on oppo- site sides. They pass the withe under the brushwood, then bring the ends together above it, and pass the big end of the rod through the eye. One man sets his foot upon the eye, and forces it home, it being at this time some inches lower than the top of the fascine. At the same time he hauls upon the end of the rod, turning it with his hands, until the part within the eye is more completely twisted, but, of course, in the same direction of the fibres as before. He then hands * ""With the sun," and "against the sun," are in reference to the appa- rent motion of the sun, as observed by a man standing in the northern hemisphere and looking toward the south. PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF A SIEGE. 61 over the end of the rod thus twisted to his comrade, who bends it back, so as to form a, new loop engaged within the former, like two links of a chain, after which he (the second man) passes the end of the rod from left to right, under the standing part on his own side, over it again, and then under it a second time ; whilst the first man assists with the fid, in disengaging the standing part, which at this time is, of course, jammed close to the body of the fascine. After the second turn, the superfluous part of the rod is cut off; and then the two ends appear exactly alike, excepting that the thicker part has not got a half-hitch at the extremity of it, like the other part. The band when finished accord- ing to this process, is represented in the foregoing figure, in which the fascine supposed to be embraced by it, is omitted. 12. METHOD OF CHOKING A FASCINE. < The instrument called a fascine-choker, consists of a stout chain, attached to a couple of ashen levers, each of which is four feet long, and cut out of one and three-quarters by two- inch scantling, the section of the wood being an oval. The chain is four feet long, between the levers, which it embra- ces by means of a couple of iron sockets. It is fixed at the distance of eighteen inches from one end of each lever, from whence they taper to both ends. There are two small rings attached to the chain, one on each side of the centre, at the distance of twenty-eight and two-sevenths inches apart, which corresponds with the circumference of a nine-inch fascine. In choking the bundle of brushwood, which is done by two men standing on contrary sides of it, the centre of the chain is first brought under the brushwood, and then the ends of it, together with the levers, are brought over and crossed ; 62 MANUAL FOE ENGINEER TROOPS. the men handing over the opposite levers to each other, with the long ends uppermost. The levers and chain will then appear as in the annexed figure, in which the chain is supposed to have made rather more than one complete turn round the fascine. The small rings are also represented, which do not yet meet, as the chain is supposed to be slack. The short ends of the levers press against the contrary sides of the fascine. Commen- cing at this position, the two men press down the long ends of their m spectivc levers, and thus by degrees tighten the chain, until the brushwood is choked, or compressed into as small a space as possible, when it assumes the form of a per- fect circle, or nearly so. At this period the long ends of the levers should be depressed below the horizontal line,* and the two rings, which at first were several inches apart, ought to meet at the top of the fascine. * Hence, if fascines were made of different thicknesses, the length of the chain of the fascine-choker used, should vary according to the diame- ter of the proposed fascine. Five and a half times the diameter is a good pi-oportion. PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF A SIEGE. 63 As soon as each band is finished, the men employed in choking disengage their levers and chain, and commence at a new place. If any part of the fascine has been pinched in choking, it may be turned over when finished, and the bands or fascine beat with a picket, to render the latter quite cylin- drical. 13. REMARKS* In making fascines, the officers and non- commissioned officers superintending, must be very strict, in regard to dimensions and neatness ; more especially in seeing that the withes are properly selected, well twisted, particularly at the eyes, and in every respect made accord- ing to rule, for upon these, the strength of the fascine almost entirely depends. * When good withes cannot be had, spun-yarn may be used in lieu of them, which must be cut into lengths of six; feet. In binding with spun-yarn, the centre of the piece of rope is laid upon the fascine, and the ends are passed under, so as to make one complete round^ turn ; they are then hauled taut, by the two binders pulling against each other ; after which they are brought together at top, and crossed so as to form the first part of a reef-knot. The two men again haul taut, by pulling in contrary directions, after which one man presses down the joint of the spun-yarn with his finger, until the other has taken the necessary turns, for completing * \Vo tried experiments with green willow cut a month before it was used, to ascertain the strength of fascine bands of different kinds, by apply- ing progressive weights, until the withes broke. Eyes formed according to rule, at a part of the rod not exceeding half an inch in diameter, re- quired an average weight of more than four cwt. to break them ; but in some few instances, the standing part broke before the eye. Under the supposition of sucli eyes being the weakest part, another method of forming a fascine band was suggested, in which the thick end of the rod was not ! through the eye, but round it, on the principle of what is called the midshipman's hitch in knotting with ropes; but on trial the round turn thus taken with the thick end, unexpectedly proved to be the weakest part, and invariably broke under an average weight of two cwt. only. 64 MANUAL FOB ENGINEER TROOPS. the reef-knot. Thus the band passes twice round the fas- cine, before the knot is tied. If proper chokers are not to be had, a couple of stout stakes, and a rope doubled by splicing, or rather by tying the ends together, will answer the same purpose. The length of the rope must be equal to that of the chain and sockets, in lieu of which it serves. After the rope is passed round the fascine, and crossed, the ends of the levers are pushed through the bights of the rope, and the operation of choking is then performed in the usual manner. 14. TIME REQUIRED FOE MAKING FASCINES, WEIGHTS, ETC. Every squad of five men may finish fascines at the rate of one in an hour, after a few days' practice.* The average weight of an eighteen-feet fascine, is one and a quarter cwt, or one hundred and forty pounds, after the wood has been cut some weeks. 15. OF FASCINE PICKETS. The men employed in cutting pickets must provide them in the proportion of six or seven to each fascine, and should make them up in bundles of twenty-five. They should not be less than three feet six inches long, including the points, but four feet is better. A sharp triangular point is considered the best way of finishing the picket, and this form penetrates a stout fascine with great ease. The top should also be pointed, but very obtusely, as in the annexed figure ; for if it be cut perpendicularly across, so as to form a plane surface, the picket will be liable to split, in driving. All the branches must be cut off quite close to the stem. Fascine pickets should not exceed one and three-quarter * Expert men may make fascines much quicker when tasked, but it would not be prudent to calculate on making greater progress, with the common military working parties in a siege. PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF A SIKGE. 65 inches in diameter at the thick end, but from one and a quar- ter to one and a half inch is a better proportion. After a little practice, a man's eye is the best guide for judging of the proper thickness. When the stuff much exceeds two inches in diameter, pickets must be formed by splitting it into two or more parts, according to its size. 16. TIME REQUIRED FOR MAKING FASCINE PICKETS, WEIGHT, ETC. After a few days' practice, a man may cut and make up fascine pickets into bundles, at the rate of. one bundle (or twenty-five pickets) in an hour. A couple of withes, or of pieces of spun-yarn, must be used for binding each bundle. The average weight of a bundle of well-sized pickets, three and a half feet long, is about thirty pounds, after the wood has been some weeks cut. 17. OF TRACING-FASCINES. The tracing-fascines, five or six feet long, recommended in all the elementary writers on the attack of fortresses, being of no use whatever, except to measure the task of each workman, in opening the .trenches in a siege ; and it beiog evident, that almost every other mode of effecting this meas- urement, that can be suggested, would be simpler than the above, the use of tracing-fascines has been abolished ; they were made four inches in diameter, in order to waste as little brushwood as possible. 18. OF COVERING-FASCINES. Covering-fascines are those made of stout picket stuff, not less than one inch thick, without any mixture of sin nil brush- wood. They may be used in place of planks for the super- structure of wooden bridges ; and may also be used, if no stout planks or spars are to be had, for the roofs of field 66 MANUAL FOE ENGINEER TROOPS. powder-magazines. They maybe made of the usual diame- ter of nine inches. Their length will depend upon the special purpose for which they are intended. The withes should be particularly good.* 19. OP SAP FAGOTS. A sap fagot is a short but very strong fascine, about three feet long, and nine inches in diameter, composed also of stout picket stuff; which may be used, instead of sand- bags, for filling the interstices between the gabions, at the head of a sap. One picket usually projects five or six inches from the end of the sap fagot, and is driven into the ground to keep it steady, when set upright, in which position it is always placed. Sap fagots are also sometimes used for filling the gabions themselves, to hasten the progress of a sap, under peculiar* circumstances. 20. OF TRACING- PICKETS. These are short pickets eighteen inches long, and about one inch in diameter, which are useful in marking out the details of field-works. When they are to be used in the dark, the bark should previously be stripped of They may be made rather more expeditiously than fascine pickets, and should be tied up in bundles of twenty-five each. Every bundle weighs about eight pounds when the wood is dry. * A covering-fascine, made of willow, twelve feet long and nine inches diameter, was found by experiment to be equal to the calculated strength of a piece of Riga fir, about two inches and nine-tenths square. Conse- quently covering-fascines, although strong enough to bear the weight of any military carriage or wagon, if supported by proper beams, not more than four fe6t apart, are not quite so strong as common three-inch planks. The strength of a common fascine of the same diameter, was about five- eighths of that of the covering-fascine. PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF A SIEGE. 67 III. Rules for flaking Gabions and Hurdles. 21. OF GABIONS. Gabions are cylindrical hampers, open at top and bottom, which, being filled with earth, form a revetment useful in field- works, but more especially in a siege, in the construction of batteries, and in the operations called the regular and flying sap. Light gabions are a species of basket-work,. and it requires greater skill and care to make them than is necessary in making heavier ones, which may be compared to hurdle work. 22. DESCRIPTION AND DIMENSIONS OF GABIONS. For many years past we have made all our gabions of the same size, namely, two feet in exterior diameter, and two feet nine inches high in the web, but averaging three feet in height when used for the revetment of a trench or field- work, in consequence of the projecting ends of the pickets. Hence when the term GABION is used, without further specifi- cation, it implies one of the above dimensions, and no other. To make larger gabions than the above would be useless, for we ascertained by repeated experiments, that two-feet gabions formed as strong and durable a revetment as those of greater diameter ; which result was the more conclusive, having been contrary to our expectations ; and we also found that there was no advantage in using smaller ones.* The batteries being of greater importance than most of the other works of a siege, it is proper to finish them in the most substantial manner, and therefore we use the strongest and heaviest gabions, made of the thickest brushwood, for * At one time we used not only two-feet gabions, as above described, but also twenty-one inch gabions. The latter, being employed exclusively for tho regular sap, were called sap-gabions, to distinguish them. 68 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. this purpose. In other respects there is no difference be- tween Battery- Gabions and Trench- Gabions. 23. BASKET-WORK DESCRIBED. Before we describe the method of making gabions, a few technical terms and observations on basket-work will be in- troduced. The upright parts are called Stakes or Pickets. The 'Wailing, or Web, is composed of Hods, the thick end of which is the Butt, the small end is the Tip. It is a rule that the rods shall always be a little smaller than the pickets. In working with a single rod, which is called randing, an odd number of pickets must always be used. The rod is alternately passed round one picket, and within the next, and thus commencing at the bottom, it goes round in a kind of spiral, until the body of the basket or gabion is finished, as in the annexed figure, which repre- sents the plan of the commencement of the work, the pick- ets being denoted by small circles. Sometimes two or three rods are worked round together, precisely in the manner above described, and still using an odd number of pickets. This is called slueing. The appear- ance of the work so finished is shown in elevation, in the annexed figure. Neither randing nor slueing ought ever to be allowed in making gabions. They are both very weak, especially the latter ; so that the strength of baskets made in this manner, depends entirely upon the top and bottom, which are always finished with greater care. PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF A SIEGE. 69 "Working with two rods together, when braided or plaited, is called pairing. In this case, the two rods are separated by one picket. That which is to the rear is passed over the other rod, round one picket, and within the next. The second rod, which is now to the rear, is passed over the first rod, and also round one picket, and within the next. Thus the two rods cross each other alternately, over and under, as in the annexed figure. In this, and in all the succeeding methods, it is of no consequence whether the number of pickets be odd or even.* Working with more rods than two is called waling. In waling with three rods, they are first placed with the butts inward, and tips outward, each being separated by one picket, as in the annexed figure. Then the first rod, which is to the rear, is passed over the other two rods, round two pickets and within one. The second rod, which will then be to the rear, is also passed over the other two rods, round two pickets, and within one. The third rod is next treated in the same manner. Hence each rod will alternately come to the front in its turn, and they will always be separated * This is the method usually practised in our service. 70 MANUAL FOR ENG^EER TROOPS. from each other by one picket, as in the second annexed figure ; and thus in winding spirally round the pickets, the rods will be braided into the form of a three-stranded rope. Basket-makers sometimes wale also with four or five ro>l , in a manner which I forlrear to describe, as it is not appli- cable to military purposes.* In passing a rod from the outside round the inside of any picket, and out again, the basket-maker does not move it all round by the top, in the way that an inexperienced per- son would naturally do. Holding the rod in his left hand, with the tip pointing upward, he passes the fore-finger and thumb of his right hand into the inside of the gabion, be- tween those two pickets, through which the end is to come out, after making the required turn, and with these bent backward, he grasps the middle of the rod, and pulls it out with a jerk, between the said pickets. In circular waling, the rods should always pass round more pickets outside than inside.f In straight work, with the same number of rods, this is not necessary. When the rods for basket-work, or for withes, are to be used any length of time after they have been cut, they must previously be steeped in water to restore their flexibility^ The only basket-maker's tool applicable to gabion making, is the knife ; which, for gabions, ought to be like a stout pruning-knife. The Iron, used by basket-makers for beat- ing down their rods, may be superseded by a common picket, and the Cleaver, a steel instrument for cleaving a rod into * The best method for a young officer to learn waling, is to provide some wires as pickets, which he may fix on a large pincushion, using pieces of the small round cord called bobbin, as a substitute for the rods. In this way very neat models of gabions may be made. f Because it is desirable that the inside of a gabion, or basket, shall be as nearly circular as possible. But if several pickets be passed inside by each rod, the interior outline will assume the form of a small polygon. J It has also been recommended to heat green withes over a fire, before twisting them. PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF A SIEGE. 71 three parts, may be dispensed with altogether ; for, in the process of gabion making, if any of the rods should be con- sidered too large, .it will be sufficient to split them into two parts, instead of three, which may be done by the bill-hook. 24. DETAIL OF MEN FOR GABION MAKING. The men employed in making gabions may be divided into squads of three men each, of whom one prepares pick- ets, rods and withes, whilst the others level the ground, and afterward work at the gabion. In some cases two men may suffice. One private has charge of each squad, under tho non-commissioned officers, who superintend several. 25. TOOLS FOR EACH SQUAD. 1 Bill-hook. 2 Gabion knives. 1 Four-feet rod, or three sticks cut as gauges, one for the height, and one for the diameter of the proposed gabion, and one for the length of the pickets. 1 Chopping block, or stake. 1 Piece of line, about three feet long. The following tools are useful when heavy gabions are to be made, otherwise they may be dispensed with : 1 Handsaw.* 1 Mallet. Implements for several squads. 1 Grindstone, or several rubstones. Whetstones. When a party of men are sent to make gabions, pickaxes and shovels should be taken to the ground, if necessary. When wooden bottoms are used in gabion making, the proportion is one per squad. 26. METHOD OF MAKING LIGHT GABIONS. The pickets must be from three feet four to three feet six * Even in making heavy gabions, the handsarw may be dispensed with, if the men are expert at the bill-hook. 72 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. inches long ; and their proper thickness is from five-eighths to seven-eighths of an inch. The rods for the web should be from five-sixteenths or three-eighths, to three-quarters of an inch in diameter. Those for the withes should be a little thicker, and the most perfect that can be selected. The number of pickets used in working with brushwood of the above description should not be less than fourteen. Gabions are usually made by driving the pickets into the ground, and therefore in hard or rocky soil small pits about two and a half feet in diameter, and nine inches deep, must be dug at proper intervals, and filled with loose earth, ex- cluding stones and large gravel. A circle of the proper diameter must then be traced, with a piece of string made fast to two short pickets, one fixed into the ground as a centre, the other moving round to mark the circumference. The diameter of the circle thus traced should be one inch less than that of the proposed gabion. Hence the proper radius for a two-feet gabion is eleven and a half inches. When this is done, the circumference must be divided into as many equal parts as there are pickets to be used in the proposed gabion. When twelve pickets are to be used, the best way is to divide it first into four equal parts, and af- terward to subdivide these portions into three each. A small piece of stick may be used as a measure. All the pickets must next be driven, so as to touch the internal circumference, as shown in the annexed figure, and it is proper to place them alternately with the large and small ends upward. The rods prepared for the web must be entirely stripped of leaves and twigs ; no part of any one single rod being used double, although in joining a new rod to the tip of one that PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF A SIEGE. 73 is coming to an end, these two may be laid together for a few inches. The most approved method of forming the web of light gabions, is by waling with three rods, as described in the foregoing observations; but it will be best not to place all the butts, or thick ends, the same way. If the stuff be larger than usual, pairing with two rods may be allowed, but this method must be confined to the body of the gabion only. Five or six inches of the bottom, and as much of the top, must always be waled with three rods. Very thin short rods should not, in any case, be used at the top or bottom of a gabion ; for, unless these portions of the work are finished with more than usual care, they are liable to separate from the remainder of the web, whilst the gabions are carried or thrown about. These portions may be formed of twisted withes, instead of common rods.* In making the gabion, the web must continually be pressed down with the foot or hand, or beat with a stout picket ; and the greatest care must be taken to preserve the proper diameter, for which purpose a couple of rods may be cut as gauges, which may be placed transversely across the finished part and inside of it, pressing against two opposite pairs of pickets. 27. METHOD OF FINISHING GABIONS. When the web is completed to the proper height of two * Twisted withes, braided or plaited, are used in preference to common rods, for all very open wicker-work, as they are less liable to separate from, or slip up and down the pickets with which they are connected. In gabions this is not absolutely necessary. Iron wire may bo substituted for withes in the construction of fascines and gabions. This material is superior both in strength and durability to the withe. When used, a pair of pincers must be added to the list of tools for each party. The wire should be annealed, by heating it rod- hot. 4 74: MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. feet nine inches, it must be bound from top to bottom, with withes, previously well twisted, in four distinct places, and these should be applied, so as to secure the ends of the ex- treme rods, in preference to the middle of them. The centre of the withe being laid over the top of the web, the ends are passed through it, in contrary directions, a few inches from the top ; near to each other, but not between the same two rods. Two men haul upon them, till they are quite taut. They then pass them again through the web, a few inches lower down, in contrary directions, and haul taut a second time ; and thus they proceed by double stitches, as they may be called, like those of shoemakers, until the ends of the withe arrive at the middle of the web. The gabion, being thus secured by four withes from the top downward, disposed at equal distances apart, is pulled out of the ground, and turned upside down ; and an equal number of withes are used, to bind the remaining part of the web, in the same manner, so that the two sets of withes used shall meet, or cross each other, about the centre of the gabion. The ends must be neatly secured, but in what manner is of little con- sequence. The stitches of these bands should be rather close, but not so as to embrace fewer than two spirals, of the original waling of the web. Before the gabion is pulled out of the ground, the tops of all the pickets must be cut off about an inch above the web. This is usually done by a handsaw, but the expert woodman cuts off the heads of pickets by his bill-hook, intro- ducing a stout stake between two of the pickets, which he uses as a movable chopping block, in striking at one of the two. After the gabion is turned upside down, the points which originally stood in the ground may also be cut off, accord- ing to the same rule, if judged necessary ; we always leave them, which appears to be rather^ an advantage than other- wise. PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF A SIEGE. 28. METHOD OF MAKING GABIONS OF VERY SMALL BRUSHWOOD. Lighter gabions than those described in the preceding article are not to be recommended, otherwise than as a mat- ter of necessity on service ; or of economy, where very small brushwood is often used, in order that nothing may be wasted. For example, when none of the brushwood runs larger than about five-eighths or three-quarters of an inch, the pick- ets will not of course exceed from one-half to three-quarters of an inch, and the tods may vary from one-quarter of an inch, or even less, to about one-half, or at the utmost, five- eighths of an inch. In this case, the number of pickets used must be increased from fourteen to sixteen, or even twenty, using the greatest number to the smallest brushwood ; and the making of gabions with such very light materials, requires more than usual dexterity and attention. In other respects the method is the same as in making the common gabion before de- scribed. In gabions made of very small brushwood, the ends of the pickets should always be cut off, after drawing them out of the ground ; otherwise they are liable to break. This is done by the gabion knife, not by the saw or bill-hook. After finishing one gabion, and drawing it out of the ground, the same picket holes will answer for commencing a second gabion, without describing a new circle. 29. OF WOODEN CIRCLES FOR GABION MAKING. In making gabions, wooden circles are sometimes used, consisting of plank leclged together so as to form a circle like the head of a cask. Notches are cut on the circumfer- ence to receive the stakes. The circle is laid on the ground, the stakes driven around it and in the notches, the circle 76 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. raised a foot, and the stakes bound firmly into the notches by means of a rope and rack-stick. The gabion is then wattled above the circle, and withed, turned over the circle removed, and the remaining portion wattled. I am informed that this facilitates the operation, and saves time, when inexperienced men are employed ; but I conceive that no extra implements of this description that can possibly be dispensed with, ought to be used on service. 30. METHOD OF MAKING GABIONS OF THICK BRUSHWOOD. Sometimes thicker brushwood than usual must be em- ployed for making gabions, as a matter of necessity. Some- times stronger gabions may be desired for some special pur- pose, such as reveting the embrasures of a battery, or for the interior of a field powder-magazine, in which case the thickest parts of the brushwood are selected. The pickets for strong two-feet gabions, need not exceed from seven-eighths to one inch, or, at the utmost, one and a quarter inch in extreme thickness. The rods for the web should not be less than one-half or five-eighths of an inch, and need not exceed one inch in thickness, the best being selected for the withes. On account of the greater strength of the brushwood used, the pickets may be reduced to eight or ten for gabions of the above diameter ;* and the whole of the web may be formed, by pairing with two rods only. In other respects, the same method is followed, as in working with smaller brushwood. METHOD OF MAKING IRON GABIONS. Describe a circle two feet in diameter on a wooden plat- form. Divide the circumference into six or eight equal * The proper number of pickets for gabions made of strong brushwood, is in the proportion of one picket to every two and a half or three inches of diameter. PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF A SIEGE. 77 parts (half the number of stakes to be used in the gabion) ; at each of these points insert wooden pins about five inches long. Wrap the hoop iron tightly' around the pins, thus forming a polygonal hoop. The point where this hoop is to be riveted must be marked before it is removed from the form, so that all the hoops may be of the same size. The hoop is then punched and riveted. As the iron used is usually one inch wide, thirty-three of these hoops will be re- quired for a gabion. The stakes are usually made from pine plank one inch thick ; their cross section being a triangle, with three or four inches base and one inch altitude. This is the best form, although round stakes may be used. To set up the gabion, place a hoop on the ground, and a second directly over it, the first as represented by the dotted, the second by the full lines in the figure. Insert a stake in each of the triangular spaces, then place the remaining hoops alternately over the first and second. Drive nails in four of the stakes over the exterior hoops to keep them from coming off. This gabion is much stronger and more durable than those made of brushwood, and is peculiarly adapted to the construction of the cheeks of embrasures, as it is not injured by the blast of the piece. CORRUGATED IRON GABIONS. For this purpose, the corrugated sheet should be six feet long, thirty-three inches wide, and of iron weighing three- quarters of a pound to the square foot. The corrugations running transversely, the sheet is easily bent into a cylindrical form, in which it is retained by two 78 MANUAL FOE ENGINEER TROOPS. clamps, the holes for which are punched near the corners ot the sheet. The chief advantage claimed for the corrugated over the hoop gabion is, the readiness with which it can be put to- gether on the field. It is also rather more portable, and stakes are dispensed with ; but it is inferior to the latter in stiffness. 31. TIME REQUIRED, WEIGHT, ETC. The time required for making gabions, by common mili- tary working parties, after some days' previous practice, may safely be estimated as follows, observing that it increases in direct proportion to the number of pickets and sniallness of the rods used. TIME. Three men will finish a gabion, with eight or ten. pickets, and of large brushwood, in two hours: they will finish a common gabion, of fourteen pickets, and of smaller brushwood, in three hours ; but they cannot finish properly a very light gabion, of from sixteen to twenty pickets, and of the smallest brushwood that can be used, in less than from four to five hours.* WEIGHT. The average weight of gabions may be esti- mated at thirty-six pounds, and they scarcely much exceed forty pounds, even when made of large brushwood. 32. OF SAP-ROLLERS. Finding, by experiment, that a stuffed gabion, six feet long and four feet in diameter, if filled with small brush- wood, was not musket-proof; but that, if filled with pickets, it was perfectly unmanageable ; the sap roller was adopted by us in preference. The sap-roller is a hollow cylinder, formed by making two concentric gabions, each six feet long, one of four feet * In 1839, the men of tho eighth company, who had learned gabion making the year before, finished their gabions in three and a half hours. PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF A SIEGE. 79 in diameter, but the other about two feet six inches in diam eter only, so as to leave a clear interval of nearly eight inches all round between these two, which is afterward stuffed with strong six-feet fascines of a diameter suited to the above in- terval, and with rods not less than about one inch in thick- ness. The larger gabion of these two should have more than the usual number of withe-bands, in proportion to its diameter. As we found it difficult to procure pickets of brushwood long enough, and at the same time perfectly straight, for our sap-rollers, we have often used pickets split out of deal, and about an inch by an inch and a half square. For the larger gabion of the sap-roller, we generally used twenty such pickets, and for the smaller gabion, fourteen. Sap-rollers serve as a substitute for mantlets. In the single sap one sap-roller is used. In the serpentine double sap, two sap-rollers of the ordinary size are used, with one of a smaller size. The latter may be only three and a half feet long, and rather less than four feet in diameter. In the direct double sap, three ordinary sap-rollers and two short ones are required. To prevent the sap-rollers from losing their shape, at one time we introduced internal wheels made of plank ; but re- cently we have adopted the simpler expedient of driving three pairs of strong pickets, not less than about an inch and a half thick, through the large sap-roller, and two pairs of such pickets through the small one, arranging every two pickets at right angles to each other, and cutting off the ends flush with the external surface of the roller. 33. TIME, "WEIGHT, ETC. To make the inner gabion of a large sap-roller requires about six hours, and to make the outer one, nine hours ; to which must be addad about two hours for stuffing and com- bining them into a finished roller. 80 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. The average weight of the large sap-rollers now used by us at this establishment, and stuffed with fascines and pickets, is six and a quarter cwt. When the wood was green they must have weighed more: and it must be evident that if they were of any other form than round, such a weight would be perfectly unmanageable. The small, or rather the short sap-roller before described may be finished in about two-thirds of the above time, and weighs nearly two-thirds of the former; their respective lengths being nearly as two to three, and all other particulars the same. 34. OP HURDLES. Hurdles consist of strong wicker-work, of a rectangular form, and as they may occasionally be useful in a siege, the mode of making them shall be described. The best size for military purposes is six feet long, and two feet nine inches high. The same kind of pickets will therefore answer, as in making very strong gabions ; and, generally speaking, the rods for hurdles should not be much less than an inch in diameter. An even number of pickets must always be used : and I consider ten a good proportion for a six-feet hurdle, although the woodmen in this neigh- borhood generally employ only eight for a hurdle of that length.* In preparing to make a hurdle, it is necessary to Describe an arc of a circle on the ground, with a radius of about eight feet, making the length of the arc six feet. This space must be divided into nine equal parts. A picket is then driven into the ground at each end of it, and others into every intermediate point of division, making ten in all. Then the watling is begun, on the same principle nearly as * The hurdles made by the Kentish woodmen are either eight feet lonp, with ten pickets, or six feet long, with eight pickfts, and are usually three feet high. PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF A SIEGE. 81 in gabion making, excepting that you do not work round a circle, but in a continued line ; and therefore when you come to one of the extreme pickets at either end, you must twist part of your rod like a withe, and bend it round the picket, after which you must work in the contrary direction. ' The woodmen assert that hurdles intended to be straight must always be made curved in the first instance, as above directed, in order to prevent them from being crooked when pulled out of the ground, which they say that those made in a straight line invariably become. And in hurdle making they use a wooden sleeper, moderately curved, with holes for the pickets on its upper surface, which they lay flush with the level of the ground; but it would not be worth while to make use of such sleepers in the field. The an- nexed figure is the plan of a hurdle made in a curve, accord- ing to the above rule. In commencing a hurdle, the men work from the bottom upward, as in gabion making, but the first rod is not pressed down close to the ground, excepting hi the centre. Both its ends are raised about nine inches above the ground, and there bent round the extreme pickets by twisting. Thus the first rods used form an arc of a circle, concave on the upper side. The second and third rods are bent round the extreme pickets, as close to the ground as possible, at each end of the hurdle, but in the centre they rise higher than the first rods used ; and thus the first three or four rods, or rather courses of rods, composing the web of the hurdle, are interlaced in such a manner, by crossing each other tow- ard the centre, as to prevent the separation of that part of the web from the,pickets. The ends of the rods are kept in their places, by pressing 4* 82 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. against a picket, which jams them, and they are cut off about an inch in rear of it. It is not good workmnnship to com- mence or finish with a rod, by cutting it ojf.in this manner, close to either of the extreme pickets, as the twisted joint formed by bending the middle of a rod round those pickets, evidently gives greater firmness to the work. After having commenced as described, the remainder of the web is worked up in parallel horizontal courses, until it reaches the top of the pickets; and at this part one or two of the uppermost rods, after being twisted round the extreme pickets, are passed diagonally downward in an oblique di- rection, toward the centre of the hurdle, passing through and between one or two of the pickets. This arrangement, which is also sometimes adopted about half-way up, as v, vll as at the top, prevents the upper part of the web from sep- arating from the pickets. The annexed figure represents a hurdle in elevation, just finished. In making hurdles for civil purposes, it is usual to work by randing, or with single rods only, for the thick brush- wood generally used in this process is so stiff, that it requires an effort to separate it from the pickets. But as military hurdles would be exposed to greater strains than those used in husbandry, it is better to pair the rods in making them, which may either be done throughout the whole of the web, ^ PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF A SIEGE. 83 from the bottom upward, or at least for several courses at the bottom, middle, and top ; for this undoubtedly gives greater firmness to the work. But the precautions before described for interlacing the lowest, and finishing the upper- most courses of the web, render it unnecessary to use verti- cal withes for binding it, as in gabion making.* 35. NUMBER OF MEN, TOOLS, TIME AND WEIGHT. The men and tools to be nearly the same as for gabion making, but with more bill-hooks and knives, and with a line ten feet long. The probable time for making a six-feet hurdle would be about three hours ; I do not speak with certainty, having made very few ; and it weighs about fifty pounds when the wood is dry. V. IV. Rules for Tracing and Commencing the First Parallel, and the Approaches Connected with it. 36. METHOD OP TRACING THE WORK. In opening the trenches in a siege, the workmen should be drawn up in single rank, and each ought to have a task assigned him, which should be six feet in length. Hence if the Hue marked out be divided into portions of fifty yards each, a working party of twenty-five men may be allotted to each portion. The trenches in a siege are traced by pieces of white tape, previously rolled up into balls, the above color being chosen * The following method has been advantageously employed in construct- ing hurdles, viz. : a stick about seven feet long and five inches hi diam- eter is notched at intervals, corresponding with the spaces between the hurdle stakes. This stick is laid on the ground, and the stakes driven op- posite each notch ; it is then raised horizontally about eighteen inches, and the stakes lashed firmly into the notches, and are thus retained iu place, whilst the upper half is wattled. The hurdle is then reversed, the stick removed and the remaining half finished. 84: MANUAL FOE ENGINEER TROOPS. as the most conspicuous by night. Each tape is one hundred and fifty feet in length, and is marked at intervals of six feet by pieces of the same sort of white tape sewed to it,* which should not be less than six inches long ; besides which it has a short piece of tracing line added at each end, for the pur- pose of making it fast to the pickets or otherwise. When the proposed trenches are extensive, they may be traced in several portions, and by several engineer officers. When two officers are employed in tracing a parallel, they may commence from the same central point, and work out- ward. The mode of proceeding is as follows : each officer will draw up the sappers who are to assist him, in single rank, and will number them from right to left. Every man is to be prepared with a ball of tape, and a white picket. One or two supernumerary men may act as orderlies ; a ser- geant will assist. In tracing part of a parallel, the officer, followed by his party marching in file, will advance upon a point therein previously fixed, where he will order the leading man to halt, and will take his tape from him, and march on with it, in the alignment of the proposed parallel, previously turn- ing to the right or left, as may be necessary. The other men will follow the officer. As soon as this tape is expend- ed, the second tape-bearer will halt at the end of it, and deliver over the end of his own tape to the officer, who will march on with it as before, in continuation of the proposed parallel. When this is expended, the third tape-bearer will halt, and deliver the end of his own tape to the officer, who will proceed in the same manner until all the tapes are ex- pended. The annexed figure represents this movement, in which the party first advance upon the parallel, in the direction A B, by filing in single rank. On arriving at the point B, in the proposed parallel, they distribute themselves from * This improvement was suggested by Captain Jebb, when adjutant. 8765432 1 c B thence along the proper alignment B C, in regular succession, and in extended order. The portion of parallel represented in the figure is supposed *jj to be four hundred yards in length, and to have * been traced by eight tapes. In this operation every *A. tape-bearer, after halting and delivering the end of his tape to the officer, drops the ball on the ground, and lets the tape slip through his fingers. Both parties must keep the tape near to the ground in windy weather, and take care that it be not pulled entirely away from the tape-bearer, when nearly expended. The ends of adjoining tapes must be tied together. Tffe tape-bearers, who are now to act as markers, will place themselves on that side of the white line which is nearest to the fortress, and will face toward the point from which the tracing commenced, as soon as they have taken post opposite to their respective marks ; and if the ground be soft enough, they will fix their pickets into it without knocking, and make fast the ends of the small line to the pickets. They are not to move on any account, before the working parties are properly distributed along the whole line. 37. METHOD OP ARRANGING THE WORKING PARTY, AND COMMENCING THE PARALLEL. Whilst one engineer officer is tracing, another must direct the working party, who will assemble at the engineers' de- pot, at least one hour and a half before sunset, and form in close column, of divisions of twenty-five men, drawn up in single rank. If the extension is to be made to the left of the first point marked in the proposed parallel, the column must be drawn 86 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. up right in front ; but if the extension is to take place to the right of that point, the column must be drawn up left in front. Each division should be commanded by a captain or lieutenant, assisted by a due proportion of offi- cers and non-commissioned officers ; and every battalion furnishing the working parties should also send superior officers in proportion, one to command the whole, others to superintend several divisions. After having formed in single rank, a non-commissioned officer or private of sappers, with a six-feet rod, will be placed on the reverse flank of every division, who is after- ward to assist in extending it ; and every man of the work- ing party will now take up or receive a shovel, which he is to carry in his right hand, and a pickaxe, which he must carry in his left hand. To expedite this arrangement, a fatigue party should pre- viously lay out the tools in such order as to suit the column ; the several sets of tools being placed in successive lines of twenty-five pairs each, at the clear distance of about four feet apart, so as to allow room for the men of each division, when in single rank, to form in rear of their respective tools for the purpose of taking them up. The divisions of the working party, formed as above di- rected, must be regularly numbered, and when all the men are provided with tools, each division must successively be marched off by files from its own right, if the column was formed right in front, or from its own left, if the formation was left in front. Whilst this movement is in progress, the remaining divis- ions are to wait until each preceding division has moved on in the aforesaid order. As every division is successively faced to the right or left, and put in motion, the sapper on the reverse flank of it will lead. The engineer officer must be at the head of the first division, to guide the working party to that point in the parallel where the first marker is PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF A SIEGE. 87 stationed, and from which the proposed extension is to be- gin. On reaching this point, the whole of the working party must be made to form line to the* left or right, in extended order, in rear of the white tape, each man's place being regu- lated by the non-commissioned officer or private of sappers who marched with the division. In so doing, the sapper will be in front of the white tape, that is to say, on that side of it which is nearest to the fortress, and will see that the first man of the working party grounds his shovel parallel to and in rear of the tape, placing the centre of the shovel opposite to the centre of the first six-feet portion marked upon it. He will then see that the second man does the same, opposite to the second six-feet portion of the tape, and thus he will proceed until he shah 1 have arranged all the twenty-five men of whom his division was composed ; who will form up into their proper places behind the white tape, in regular succession, each man marking the centre of his own task by his shovel, when it comes to his turn. The engineer officer superintending is to watch over the whole of this measurement and extension with the greatest care, in order to prevent confusion. He must not allow any man of the working party to take post behind the white tape, until the sapper is ready for him ; and he must also see that the latter does not move on until each successive work- 111:111 is properly posted. As soon as each workman has grounded his shovel in the manner before directed, he must lay his pickaxe in rear of it, and opposite to the centre of it, with the iron to the front, lie will then sit or lie down behind his own tools, so as to be in readiness for work, and waiting the order to begin, in perfect silence. The following figure shows the manner in which the tools are arranged in rear of the white tape, which is represented by a dotted line. The large dots show the marks upon the tape by which the tasks of the workmen are regulated. 88 MANUAL FOB ENGINEER TROOPS. T T 'T T T As soon as the last division is extended on the reverse 'flank of the whole line, the men belonging to it will be or- dered to commence work, and this movement must imme- diately be taken up by the other divisions with all possible dispatch ; the commander of each, as well as the sappers attached to it, being on the alert, to watch the movements of the adjoining ones ; and every commander ordering his own men to rise as soon as he observes the men of the next party on his reverse flank in motion. 8765 48 21 a -. B A ""4 5"" The annexed figure represents the opera- tion that has been described. The working party are supposed first to be formed in close column in single rank, at A, right in front. From thence they are supposed to move for- ward by filing from the' right of divisions to the point B, when the first division begins to form up into line in extended order, in the 1 direction B C, marked by the white tape, the other divisions successively wheeling to * the left as they reach the point B, until it also comes to their turn to form up in the same 7- ... manner. Every division commences its for- mation as soon as the head of it reaches its own marker. In the figure the first two divisions are supposed to be prop- erly formed: the third is represented in the act of forming. The remaining divisions are coming up by files, in single rank. PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF A SIEGE. 89 If the working parties understand what they have to do, the above extension may be executed with precision and without hurry, at the rate of one division in a minute and a quarter, or of one hundred men in five minutes. Thus it will not require more than twenty minutes to extend four hundred men. It is not desirable that a greater number should be extended from the same point, in the same direc- tion; but in extending from a central point, two distinct working parties may be made to file up together, under two different engineer officers, and in this case the total number employed may be greater, and they will of course advance in double files until they reach the point from whence the extension is to take place. It is to be remarked that the extension of the working parties, after the tape is once laid down, is comparatively easy, but that the proper tracing of an extensive parallel the first night that the ground is to be broken before a fortress, may be attended with very great difficulty, apd therefore the officers who are ordered for tlu's duty cannot take too many precautions to avoid error. When the working party begins to break ground, each man will seize his pickaxe and cut a hole in rear of and ex- actly opposite to the centre of his own shovel, which he will then take up, and throw the loosened earth over the white tape, until the whole shall form a continued trench of the dimensions prescribed for the first night's task in a siege, which is usually three feet deep, and in that case should be at least five feet wide, measuring from front to rear. The original pickets, driven in to mark the task of every division, should be carefully preserved ; and the officer of infantry commanding it should be held responsible for finishing his trench, according to the prescribed dimensions, throughout the whole extent of the hundred and fifty feet thus marked out. The field officer commanding the working party fur- nished by each battalion, should enforce the proper execution 90 MANUAL FOE ENGINEER TROOPS. of the work laid out for the whole of the divisions under his command, he himself being held responsible for the same by the general officer on duty in the trenches. The engineers superintending, and the sappers attached to divisions, will only be responsible for tracing and directing the work, and for measuring it when reported to be finished according to order; but not for the diligence of the men, which must entirely depend upon their own good-will and the zeal and attention of their regimental officers. The sappers will assist in working when they are not more usefully employed. 38. METHOD OF TRACING THE FIRST APPROACHES, OR THOSE CONNECTED WITH THE FIRST PARALLEL. In tracing approaches, the same principle must be acted upon. One engineer officer must be employed to lay down the white tape, and to arrange the markers. When any of the angular points of the zigzags does- not coincide with the end of a tape, a spare marker must be placed there with three pickets, one of which he will plant at the angle ; and in order to prevent the tape from moving, it must be passed round this picket, or made fast to it, after which he will cut off about fifteen feet of the tape, from the head of the branch immediately in rear of the angle, and extend-it in continuation of the adjoining branch in front of t it produced toward the rear. The remaining pickets must serve to mark the extremities of the ends of the tape after the angular part has thus been cut.* This arrangement, which is represented in the annexed figure, serves to mark the returns, which are necessary at all the angles of the zigzags. The dotted lines show the first positions of the small portions of the tape, that are afterward cut off and moved in the manner that has been * In our practice at this establishment, the tapes are not to be cut, as on service. PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF A SIEGE. 91 .described. The figures 1,1, rep- resent the positions of the origi- nal pickets, which mark the an- gles. 2 and 3, are the pickets afterward driven to mark the extremities of the branches, after the returns, 18, 13, shall have been tracetl. 39. METHOD OF ARRANGING THE WORKING PARTY, AND COMMEN- CING THE FIRST APPROACHES. Another engineer officer will guide the men of the working party, who will advance by files in single rank, as before direct- ed, until the head of the leading division reaches the tail of the proposed approaches, on the re- verse side of the white tape, that is, on the side farthest from the fortress. The men will then be made to form up in extended order, along the white tape, a non-commis- sioned officer or private of sappers placing them as before directed. As soon as they reach the end of the first branch, which is marked by the point 2 in the foregoing figure, the engi- neer who superintends this measurement will lead the next man to the extremity 3, of the return of the branch imme- diately in front of it ; and will cause him and the men who follow, to extend along the reverse side of the white tape, which marks the second branch of the approaches, in the same manner as before directed, but with this difference, that if in extending along the first branch, they formed up to their right, they must now necessarily form up to their 92 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. left, and vice versa; and at each succeeding angle of the zigzags the formation must be reversed in the same man- ner. 40. GENERAL REMARKS ON THE ABOVE OPERATIONS. It appears essential toward the proper tracing of a first parallel, that the front of attack of the fortress to be be- sieged shall be well Veconnoitred beforehand, and the dis- tances of certain points, from the most advanced works, ac- curately ascertained, by day ; from which fixed points the engineers who are to trace a parallel should measure for- ward toward the place, until they reach the exact position of the intended parallel, by means of a chain or tape, being the most accurate method, and as expeditious as any other ; unless they have confidence in their own accuracy of pacing. If it be possible to obtain a correct plan of the place, it will of course be of the greatest service, as fortresses are usually surrounded by objects, such as roads intersecting each other, buildings, &c., which cannot be destroyed in such a manner but that traces marking their original posi- tion must remain.* Whatever be the reputation of these plans, they should however ^be verified by actual observa- tion, instead of trusting to them implicitly. If correct, the fixed objects before alluded to furnish the most satisfac- tory data for determining, on the ground, the proper posi- tion of the first parallel and of the approaches connected with it. It appears of the most essential importance, that the trac- ing shall be executed before it is dark. Therefore unless the night chosen for opening the trenches is foreseen to be a moonlight night, it is absolutely necessary to commence early, and to have the tracing finished before the end of twilight. If there should be no moon, and a foggy or * At the siege of Copenhagen, we obtained a Danish plan of extreme accuracy. PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF A SIEGE. 93 cloudy night, this operation may be attended with the greatest difficulty and confusion, as has been found by ex- perience. The arrangement of the men, on the contrary, as was before observed, is by no means difficult, after once the white line is marked on the ground ; that is to say, pro- vided that they themselves are well inclined, and attentive to the directions of the engineers. As soon as the trench and parapet are well defined, which will take place in about an hour after the work has been commenced, the sappers should carefully roll up and take care of the several tapes used in the tracing ; but the pick- ets for marking out the work on the ground should not be removed, and it would be useful for those sappers to pro- vide themselves beforehand, with white banderols, or with bundles of straw or other light-colored objects to be used as such, which should be planted on the reverse of the trench, opposite to the original boundary pickets, for the purpose of preserving the task of each party perfectly distinct in the dark ; and such marks would be very useful even after daybreak. 41. METHOD OF COMMENCING THE TRACING OF A PARAL- LEL BY THE COMPASS. PRECAUTION USEFUL IN A FOG. As the bearing by qompass of an intended parallel may always be ascertained beforehand, it appeared desirable to use this instrument for the purpose of tracing in ^a dark night ; but we had found by previous experience that the common dark lantern could not be employed so as to give light in this operation without being seen from the fortress. Lieutenant Frome* therefore suggested a reading lantern, on the principle of those used in observatories, which is repre- sented in elevation and in section in the two figures an- * Then superintendent of the Course of Surveying and Practical As- tronomy, at the Royal Engineer establishment. MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. nexed, having air-holes at top and bottom, screened so as not to be seen from the outside, and having its lens inclosed in a tube, which being first horizon- tal and then bent vertical- ly downward, with an ob- lique reflector at the an- gle, throws a strong circle of light upon any object placed below it. Thus the officer in charge of the tracing is enabled to read the bear- ing of a compass fixed in the middle of a six feet or ten feet rod, which rod being thereby laid in the proper direction of the proposed parallel, the white tape is applied to the side of it, and thus the tracing is commenced, and may af- terward be verified, from tune to time, so long as the direc- tion is to remain unaltered, by applying the rod to the tape, and again using the lantern, to see if the same bearing has been preserved. The best sperm oil must be used. It has also been found useful in a fog for the officer em- ployed to place three men upon the tape facing toward him, and at a short distance from each other, after he has com- menced his tracing, and then to move on himself as long as he can distinguish them clearly, taking care that he guides his own movement by seeing that they always cover each other. When this is no longer practicable he halts with his foot on the tape, and causes them to advance toward him, preserving their distance from each other, and not deviat- ing from the tape, which will enable him to proceed again with his tracing in the same manner, after the first man shall have reached him. It may be advantageous to have these men dressed in white. PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF A SIEGE. 95 42. RULES FOR ARRANGING THE SECOND AND THIRD RE- LIEFS OF WORKMEN, FOR A FIRST PARALLEL, AND THE APPROACHES CONNECTED WITH IT. The engineer will give directions, that after every party of twenty-five men shall have finished their task, each indi- vidual shall lay down his own shovel and pickaxe, close to- gether, in rear of the spot where he worked, on the reverse of the trench, and near to the brink of it. Thus the tools being arranged by pairs, at intervals of six feet apart, or nearly so, will save the trouble of marking out the tasks of in- dividuals a second time. The sappers will take care to pre- serve the original pickets at the end of every one hundred and fifty feet, and if the tools should not be arranged quite regu- larly, one of them, who is to remain on the spot, may employ himself in laying them out better, whilst the other goes to meet and conduct a new party to the same ground. The second relief of men of the line will parade at the engineers' depot, at such hour as may have been previously fixed. There a part of the engineer oflicers on duty, and' one sapper from each portion of the trenches, will be as- sembled to receive them. The engineer will tell off one sapper to each division of twenty-five men, as before ; and the whole will be marched by divisions, the sapper of each party leading it, until they reach the ground allotted for the task of that party. Preparatory to this arrangement, the several parties being drawn up at the engineers' depot in column, let them be numbered from rear to front, so that the rear division shall now be No. 1, and the front division, if there be six- teen in all, shall be No. 16. In this order let them be made to file off, not in a body, but by divisions, singly, and successively, with an interval of some yards between the rear of one division and the head of another, to prevent confusion ; and let each sap- 96 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. per, acting as guide, lead his division straight up to that picket, which marks the extreme boundary of the task al- lotted for it. The stationary sappers will remain at those same pickets, ready to assist in distributing the workmen, as soon as they shall arrive, and as the head of each division approaches them, they will each call out their respective num- bers, that the officer commanding the division, as well as the sapper who acts as guide to it, may know whether it is to be halted there or not; which halt will of course take place, as soon as the number of the division shall corre- spond with that announced by the stationary sapper. When thus halted and fronted, which orders should be given at the same time, the men of each division will be made to extend over the whole space of fifty yards, allotted as their respective task, by forming them in single rank, if that should not have been done before, and by causing each man, after facing the whole to the rear if necessary, to ex- tend until every pair of tools laid out on the reverse of the trench shall be covered by a workman. In this second formation, each party of twenty-five men will begin to work independently, as soon as they shall be ex- tended on their own ground, without waiting for the others. It may perhaps appear almost superfluous to observe, that if there should be more reliefs than two required, to com- plete the parallel, the third relief must be formed precisely in the same manner that has just been described. If, under peculiar circumstances, any strong reason should exist against leaving the tools in the trenches, the stationary sapper will have time enough to mark out each man's task with tracing pickets, during the interval that must elapse between the quitting of one relief and the arrival of the next ; or, if such pickets are not at hand, the new working party may be made to extend themselves between the ex- treme points with sufficient accuracy, without subdividing the space into six-feet portions at all. PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF A SIEGE. 97 43. TIME OF PARADING THE SECOND AND THIRD RELIEFS OP WORKMEN, FOR A FIRST PARALLEL, AND THE APPROACHES CONNECTED WITH IT. In opening the trenches it is absolutely necessary to com- mence at dusk, as the men, having no cover, would be too much exposed to the enemy's fire, if such a thing were at- tempted by daylight. No such necessity, however, exists in respect to the second relief of workmen. If therefore a siege should be conducted, in any country, at a season when the nights are ten hours long or upward, the second relief should be ordered to parade at the engineers' depot, at such time as will admit of all the necessary arrangements being got through, just before daylight, in order that they may commence filing into the trenches with the dawn ; for, considering the number of men usually required at this pe- riod, in a siege of any importance, and the great extent of ground they are to cover, it appears next to impossible to form the second relief of workmen properly in the dark. Indeed the attempt might lead to inextricable confusion, and it is altogether unnecessary; for after cover is once obtained, the work of half a day, even in the short winter days of temperate climates, is better than that of a whole night. Let it therefore be laid down as a rule, that in the formation of parallels and approaches, the second relief of workmen shall never enter the trenches until at or after daybreak : and that the third relief, when three are employed, shall enter them at noon. Hence, in the long summer days of northern climates, the periods of relieving the working parties in the course of every twenty-four hours, may always be at equal intervals of eight hours, not otherwise. 5 98 MANUAL FOE ENGINEER TEOOrS. Y. Rules for Tracing and Commencing the Second Parallel, and the Approaclie connected with it, by the Flying Sap. 44. OF THE TRACING. In commencing the second parallel, one engineer officer must be employed in tracing each portion of it, and another in arranging the workmen on the principle before explained in treating of the first parallel; but there are several variations in the details of the duty; and in the first place it may be remarked that the tracing of the second parallel, and of the approaches connected with it, is a much easier task than that of the first parallel and its approaches. For example, if we suppose the first parallel "finished, and that the second parallel is to be established at any average given distance in front of it, such as three hundred yards, it is obvious that the engineers employed in tracing may mark a certain number of equidistant points in the first parallel, at any intervals apart they may judge most convenient, from each of which they may sally out at dusk and measure three hundred yards straight toward the fortress. This will give them an equal number of points in the proposed second parallel, from which they may detach tape-bearers to the right and left, in sufficient number to overlap each other a little when they go to the full extent of their tapes. If they do not meet, let the officer superintending the tracing move backward or forward, when arrived at the extremity of one party thus detached, and he will be sure to find the end of the corresponding tape, which was intended to have been connected with it. Then let him cause one of the parties to move their own tape forward, and the other to move their tape backward, until they meet, and the error will be cor- rected; and the tapes for marking the second parallel may thus be laid out with sufficient accuracy for all practical purposes. PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF A SIEGE. 99 If the second parallel should not be intended to be exactly parallel to the first, it will be obvious that it may be laid out correctly enough, after consulting the plan of attack fixed upon, by measuring unequal distances toward the fortress instead of equal ones, from the points, of departure taken up in the first parallel. In pushing out approaches from a first parallel, the point from whence any branch is to commence, as well as the proper alignment of it, may be marked or ascertained in the day time, and such approaches may be traced with white tape at dusk, whilst it is too dark for the enemy to discover this operation, but not dark enough to prevent persons out- side from distinguishing the outline of the extreme works of the fortress, from which the proposed approaches are to be defiladed. When the approaches are pushed forward in front of the first parallel, as far as the intended position of the second parallel, previously to the commencement of the latter, which arrangement is very common in a siege, the tracing of the second parallel is of course much facilitated. For in this case all that is to be done will be to connect the heads of the approaches with each other by a line of white tapes, the proper direction of which may be ascertained beforehand, in the day time. 45. OF ARRANGING THE WORKING PARTY, AND COMMENCING A SECOND PARALLEL BY THE FLYING SAP. When a parallel is said to be com- menced by sap, it merely implies that gabions are used. The peculiar ar- rangements and manner of working with them described in this article constitute what is called the FLYING SAP. 100 MANUAL FOE ENGINEER TROOPS. The workmen ordered for the duty of commencing, or, as it is also termed, of opening the second parallel, will parade at the engineers' depot to receive their tools and gabions, in divisions of twenty-five men, who must be formed in column in single rank. Every man is to carry a couple of two-feet gabions, hold- ing them under his arms, by means of a picket two feet nine inches long, driven transversely through each of them, about fifteen inches from the top, which pickets he grasps in his hands. In one of these gabions he also carries a pickaxe, and in the other a shovel, as shown in the foregoing figure. The iron part of the shovel and likewise of the pickaxe, rest on the top of their respective gabions, and are secured from falling, by passing them beyond the picket ends, which pro- ject above the web, whilst their helves hang down inside. In carrying these tools in the gabions, they should be as near to the man's sides as possible. The pickaxe may there- fore come entirely under one of his arms, but the shovel iron standing too high to be carried in this position, must be a little to the rear of his other arm. The transverse pick- ets must not be driven through the centre of each gabion, but nearer to one side of it, namely, that which will touch the man's thighs after he takes it up. (See the more correct figure, afterward given in Article 53.). The implements necessary for each division, consisting of fifty gabions, with their transverse pickets, and a shovel and pickaxe fixed in each alternate gabion, must be previously laid out at the engineers' depot, in successive parallel lines, at central intervals of about six feet apart, so as to suit the formation of the column. The sappers employed in this duty must be well acquainted with the proper mode of arranging the pickets and tools, and strictly cautioned to do so with the greatest care, for which purpose they should be on! to lift up each pair of gabions in succession, by way of trial, PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF A SIEGE. 101 after the pickets and tools shall be fixed, shifting them, ii inconveniently placed. If the working party should be so numerous as to occupy an inconveniently great extent ol ground in this order, the depth of the column may be dimin- ished, by laying out one hundred gabions in each parallel line, in two portions of fifty gabions each, with an interval of about ten feet in the centre, between each adjacent por- tion. This arrangement will suit a working party drawn up in grand divisions, instead of single divisions as before explained. After receiving their tools and gabions, the whole work- ing party must advance by files, in single rank, to the point from whence they are to extend ; on reaching which they will be formed along the line of white tape, previously laid, as before directed in Article 37, excepting that no marks on the tape 'are necessary in the flying sap ; for the two gabions carried by each workman measure his task. As they come up into their proper places on the reverse side of the white tape, the men will successively put down their gabions close together in front of the line, so as to clear it by two or three inches. The sapper who assists in superintending the extension, is to correct the position of every successive pair of gabions, which it is difficult for the workman himself to place proper- ly on setting them down. The engineer officer directing will take care to enforce accuracy, and to prevent hurry and confusion. As soon as each workman has got his gabions placed by assistance of the sapper, he will disengage his tools and pickets, as it is useless to waste the latter by leaving them in the gabions. They may be laid down in r-:ir of, and close to the gabions. The tools must be laid down behind the two gabions, which mark each man's task, in the manner before described in treating of the first parallel. The following figure represents this arrangement, showing 102 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. _| " V I u V 1 u y | u ^_J T T T T T the position in which the gabions and tools of five workmen are placed, the former in front, the latter in rear of the white tape. Whilst the extension of the whole working party is thus' going on progressively, the men first posted will sit doun behind their own gabions and tools, as soon as the latter are properly laid out, and will wait in perfect silence for the order to commence work, which will be passed on from the extreme points of the parallel, as soon as the whole opera- tion shall be completed. Every man will then commence digging in rear of his own two gabions, which he will fill with all expedition, pat- ting the earth well down before he throws any part of it over. 46. OF TRACING AND COMMENCING APPROACHES BY THE FLYING SAP. The approaches in front of the second parallel, and some- times even those immediately in rear of it, are commenced by the flying sap. The method of tracing them is precisely the same as if no gabions were used, and has already been explained in Article 39. The method of extending the workmen, and of commen- cing approaches by the flying sap, is the same as in commen- cing the second parallel. In tracing approaches, which are to be executed by the PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF A SIEGE. 103 flying sap, it is un- necessary to cut the tape for the purpose of forming a return. Instead of which, let four pairs of gabions be moved from the head of each branch adjoining to an angle, and placed in prolon- gation of the next branch in front of it. Thus, for example, in the foregoing fig- ure, if A B and B G be the original form of an angle of the zig- zags, as traced by the white tape, the four pairs of gabions originally placed at the head of the branch A B, are removed from the position d B to B e, where they arc placed in pro. longation of the advanced branch B C, produced toward the rear, and thus they form the return, at the angle B. 47. OF THE PROPER TIME FOR PARADING THE SEVERAL RE- LIEFS OF WORKMEN FOR THE SECOND PARALLEL, AND THE APPROACHES CONNECTED WITH IT. The proper periods for the relief of the workmen must be regulated precisely on the same principle as those of the first parallel. I before named at least an hour and a half before sunset as tin- parade time of the first relief at the engineers' depot. Il is possible that the necessary arrangements may be made in rattier less than this time, but I have doubts on the subject ; 104 MANUAL FOR KXGTNEIOii TROOPS. and one thing is certain, that it would be better for the work- ing parties to be kept waiting an hour longer than the time actually required in those preparations, than that they should be ten minutes too late; for if the dark should surprise them before the necessary arrangements are fully completed, the whole night's work may be lost in a scene of inextricable confusion.* It is of the most essential importance that every thing shall be completely prepared beforehand at the engineers' depot, so that whatever materials and tools shall be as^i-m-d to each individual of the working party to carry, shall be put together and laid out for him, in good order, without giving him any trouble in what belongs to arrangement. Unless this system be adopted for facilitating the commence- ment of the work, it might take the whole afternoon to get through the preliminary arrangements. For the reason before stated (Article 43), the formation and distribution of the second relief of the working parties of men employed in the execution of a second parallel, or of the approaches connected with it, should not be attempted till daylight, when it will be comparatively easy. Let it be understood that the same necessity does not ex- ist for waiting till daylight before the second relief are set to work in the other operations of the siege, in which, when the nature of them shall come to be explained, it will be evident that there is much less risk of confusion, for the men are either more concentrated on particular spots, as in the construction of batteries, or more subdivided, at the same time that fewer are employed, as in the execution of the final operations of a siege, most of which are commenced by the regular sap, or by mining. * At the siege of Flushing, when I was the executive engineer on duty of the first relief, with my brigade, a night's work of about five hundred men was entirely thrown away from this cause, to my extreme mortification. PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF A SIEGE. 105 48. REMARKS ON THE ABOVE ARRANGEMENTS FOR COM- MENCING THE SECOND PARALLEL, ETC. To carry two gabions, with their whole weight, as well as that of the pickaxe and shovel, resting entirely on the hands, may be acknowledged to be rather fatiguing, but there is no means of obviating this inconvenience, except by having shoulder boards and slings, such as are used with milk-pails. But to provide such articles for so temporary a service as the commencement of the second parallel, would not be worth while; and therefore it is best that the working par- ties employed in this operation should submit to the incon- venience for a short time, which cannot bear hard upon robust, able-bodied men like the British iniantry. 49. OBJECTIONS TO CROWDING THE WORKMEN IN COMMENCING A SECOND PARALLEL. If to consult the ease of the workmen in marching from the depot of gabions to the position marked out for the second parallel, each man should be required to carry one gabion only, a much greater evil would follows As every gabion in the flying sap occupies only two feet, it would be absolutely impossible for the whole number of men who carried the gabions to work together properly. Hence one- half of them must either be sent back to the camp after having deposited their gabions, or must get out of the way and re- main idle, thus uselessly harassing or exposing to the ene- my's fire double the number of men that can work to v ad- vantage; for it has been found in field-works, whenever a line of excavators has been crowded into a smaller space than four feet per man, which we consider the minimum pace that ought to be allowed, that instead of expediting the work, it has retarded it; for, being in each other's way, and in danger of being wounded by each other's tools, which has occasionally happened even in working by daylight, :i 5* 10G MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. part of the men have necessarily stood still, and much con- fusion has ensued, which would of course have been con- siderably aggravated had men thus crowded been employed in the dark, and before an enemy. 50. MODE OF CARRYING ONE GABION ONLY, WITH TOOLS. Excepting, however, those em- ployed in the commencement of a second parallel, or of the approaches connected with it by the flying s:ij>, who should carry two gabions, it may not always be necessary to re- quire the workmen in a siege to carry more than one gabion with their tools. In this case the gabion is carried on the left shoulder, with the pickaxe previously attached to it in the manner before described; or, for greater security, with the point of the iron passed between two parts of the web, near the top of the gabion, which must always be to the Year; for this being naturally carried a little higher than the front, prevents the pickaxe from dropping out. The shovel is carried in the right hand, at the trail, with the iron to the front, as shown in the foregoing figure. VI. Of Arming the Working Parties in si Siege. 51. WHETHER WORKING PARTIES IN A SIEGE SHOULD BE ARMED OR NOT. It appears to me that the working parties employed in opening the trenches on the first night of a siege, ought not to carry their arms with them. They must necessarily bo PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF A SIEGE. 107 protected by strong covering parties, destined for the special duty of repulsing sorties. To call upon the working parties also to assist in this service, would only create confusion without adequate benefit; for they are spread over so great an extent of ground, that they could scarcely collect their arms, and form in sufficient time to be of much use ; and if once formed as a military body, no more work could be expected from them. In the event of sorties, therefore, they should remain at their post, if sufficiently protected by the covering parties. If not, let them be ordered to take up their tools, form by divisions, and in that order file independently to the rear, each division being always collected as an organized body, under its own officers, ready to return to its post in the trenches, on receiving orders to that cllirt. This remark applies chiefly to the first parallel, and to the approaches in rear of or near to it. But when the operations are more advanced, as in the second parallel, and in other parts usually commenced by the flying sap, the working par- ties being now much nearer'to the fortress, may be allowed to take their arms in order to give them confidence ; but they should carry the musket and bayonet only, without ac- coutrements, because it is impossible for men to work with their accoutrements on ; and if they take them off, they could not put them on again and adjust them in proper time, in the event of a sudden sortie; besides which, the men of the working parties, if provided with accoutrements, could not be distinguished from the guards of the trenches ; and thris lazy or ill-disposed individuals might often have an op- portunity of skulking from their work for a great part of the niu'lit, without detection. The working parties when armed should therefore only carry a few ball cartridges in their pockets or foraging caps, and they should not even be al- lowed to take their bayonet scabbards with them, which might be liable to be lost. 108 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. 52. METHOD OF ARRANGING WORKING PARTIES WITH ARMS, WHEN THEY COMMENCE A PARALLEL OR APPROACH WITH- OUT GABIONS. In all cases when working parties are to carry their arms, they should sling them behind their backs, after the fashion of the old British grenadiers, that is, with the sling all to the front of the body over the right shoulder, and under the left arm, and with the firelock behind, the butt downward* and muzzle upward ; and as accoutrements are not to be carried, the bayonet should previously be fixed in reverse, or pointing downward. In this order they will march to the engineers' depot and receive their tools, which they will be able to carry with ease, as both their hands are at liberty. As soon as the extension shall r/e made behind the line of white tape, which must be done precisely in the same man- ner, whether arms are carried or not, and which was befo're described in Articles 37 and 38, each workman, after laying down his tools in their proper position behind the white tape, will unsling his firelock, and fix his bayonet properly, and afterward, when the ground behind him shall be clear, in consequence of the remainder of the working party having moved on. he will face about and march three full paces to the rear, and ground his arms, in the manner shown in the annexed figure, in which the dotted line represents so much of the line of white tape as is sufficient to mark the ground occupied by five workmen. O=D O=o O=o O=^J O=-fl T T T T T PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF A SIEGE. 100 53. METHOD OF ARRANGING WORKING PARTIES WITH ARMS, WHEN THEY ARE TO WORK AT A PARALLEL OR APPROACH, COMMENCED BY THE FLYING SAP. Case I. When the men are to carry two gabions each, as well as tools. In this case the tools and gabions are to be arranged beforehand, by pairs, in the manner before de- scribed in Article 45, a picket being driven through each gabion to carry it by. The men of the working party, having their arms slung behind their backs, with bayonets fixed the reverse way, will carry their gabions and tools as shown in the annexed figure, and they will place the former and lay down the lat- ter, after being extended, in the manner explained in Article 45 ; and when this is done, each man will unsling his firelock and fix his bayonet properly, and afterward ground his arms three full paces in rear of his own tools, as directed in Article 52. Case II. When the men are to carry one gabion and their tools, which applies only to the continuation of the work. The firelock will be slung and the bayonet fixed, as in the two preceding articles, whilst the gabion and pickaxe attached to it will be carried on the left shoulder, and the shovel trailed in the right hand, as explained in Article 50. 54. FURTHER REMARKS ON THE ARMING OF WORKING PARTIES. It was before stated, that the working parties who open 110 MANUAL FOE ENGINEER TROOPS. the trenches on the first night of a siege, should not be allowed to take their arms, considering the very extended order in which they are formed for work, and also their dis- tance from the fortress. It is to be remarked, however, that the chief objection to taking their arms is the former circumstance, of their being so much dispersed. But if a greater number of men be concentrated on one spot, as in the construction of large batteries, redoubts, or intrench- ments, the working parties may be allowed to take their arms ; for in this case a considerable body of men may be speedily formed to repulse a sudden attack, who might after- ward resume their work without much confusion, as they would probably be able to maintain their ground, without retiring to the rear. The propriety of this arrangement will be obvious, by considering that a ten-gun battery alone might give employ- ment to nearly two hundred men, within a space of about eighty yards, whereas in a first parallel the same number of men would be spread over an extent of four hundred yards. Even in this case, accoutrements and bayonet scabbards ought not to be taken, for the reasons before assigned. VII. Rulc for Executing tlie First Parallel, and tiic Approaches Connected with it. The methods of arranging and distributing the workmen, in commencing the first and second parallels, and the ap- proaches connected with them, in a siege, having now been fully discussed, it remains to explain the nature and execu- tion of those works in detail, which will form the subject of the present and of the following section. 55. OF THE PROFILE PROPER FOR A FIRST PARALLEL.* The profile usually adopted by us of late consists of a * This profile is illustrated by the figure afterward given in Article 59. PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF A SIEGE. Ill trench eleven and a half feet wide at bottom, three feet deep ill front, and three and a half feet in rear, with a reverse slope having a base of three and a half feet, being equal to its height, and with a step of made earth, one and a half feet w r ide at bottom and one and a half feet high, added to the front of the original trench when half finished, which therefore reduces the net width of the sole of the trench from eleven and a half to ten feet. The earth of the trench, being thrown forward toward the fortress attacked, forms the parapet of the parallel, which is not rammed. A berm of one and half feet is left between the front of the trench and the base of the interior slope of the para- pet, which serves as a banquette, to fire over the parapet, which on being left to take its own form usually proves to be about five feet high, after the trench is finished. The inside of the parapet should then be smoothed, the berm widened if necessary, and any unseemly irregularity in the height of the parapet should be removed, but it is not worth while to cut it generally lower than the form which it may naturally assume; and if therefore its height should be too great to fire over conveniently, let a small narrow step be cut on the interior slope a little higher than the berm, for a man to stand upon whilst firing. A regular banquette, like that of more permanent works, is considered unnecessary. 56. GENERAL REMARKS ON THE TASKING OF MILITARY WORKING PARTIES, IN THE FORMATION OF A FIRST PAR- ALLEL. By repeated experiments at Chatham, tried with the ut- most care, it was found that a portion of parallel of the dimen- sions above stated, which involves two hundred and sixty- one cubic feet, or nine and two-thirds cubic yards of exca- vation, may be completed in an average of five hours per 112 MANUAL FOR ENGINEEK TEOOPS. man, in soft soil, which requires little or no picking, and an average of nine and a quarter hours per man, in hard soil. The most difficult soil that we could possibly find in this neighborhood, which consisted of a concretion of flint- gravel, sand and clay, required an average often and a half hours. In all those experiments, the task of each man was two yards in length ; and we are of opinion, that a shorter portion of trench work ought in no case to be allotted to individual workmen, on the night of opening the trenches in a siege. For, as was before observed, if men be crowded in too small a space, they are liable to wound each other with their pickaxes, and finding that they are in each other's way, a part of them will be tempted to stand still ; and thus by increasing their numbers beyond a certain propor- tion, the casualties from the enemy's fire will of course be increased, without obtaining a proportional increase in the quantity of work performed. The sappers employed in those experiments were gener- ally artificers, not previously inured to labor, with the pick- axe and shovel, until they joined this establishment, and not by any means more robust men than the British infan- try usually are. It is evident, that many intermediate qual- ities of soil may occur on service, between the soft soil, which required only an average of five hours' labor, and the very hard soil, that required ten and a half; and of course, in employing workmen of the same physical powers and dex- terity, the time for completing a parallel might vary, between the minimum average of five hours and the maximum of ten and a half hours. In those experiments, the men were tasked individually, and in all cases some got through their task in nearly half the time of others ; but in the very worst soil, the time of the slowest workman did not exceed thir- teen and one quarter hours. In tasking a working party of the line on service, the task of fifty yards for each party of twenty-five men ought to be PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF A 5IKGE. 113 general, not individual ; for although a good workman may do twice as much as a bad one in the same time, yet if both do their best, it will be no greater exertion to the one than to the other ; and when a whole party of soldiers are jointly responsible, they will scarcely allow any one man to evade his due share of worfc. 57. FIRST TASK IN EXECUTING A FIKST PARALLEL BY THREE RELIEFS. Considering that the first relief of workmen are more har- assed by preliminary arrangements than the others who succeed them, whilst they cut their trench to the standard length of six feet, let them make it three feet deep in front, three feet three inches deep in rear, and five feet wide from front to rear, as shown in the annexed figure. The above will amount. to ninety-three and three-quarters cubic feet, which is nearly but not quite equal to three and a half cubic yards of excavation, which may be executed by able-bodied men, with moderate exertion, in from one hour and three-quarters to three hours and a half, or four hours at the utmost. It really would be trifling with the service, to allot a smaller task than the above to any set of men de- serving of the name. 58. SECOND TASK IN EXECUTING A FIRST PARALLEL BY THREE RELIEFS. In this task, an equal number of men being employed at the standard rate of six feet to each man, as before, let the MANUAL FOE ENGINEER TROOPS. trench f>e widened by cutting it four feet six inches more to the rear, which would make it nine feet six inches wide in all, but for a step of eighteen inches in width in front of the trench, which is formed by this set of men, and which re- duces the net width of excavation at the sole of the trench, to eight feet, as represented in the annexed figure. The depth in rear must be increased to three feet five inches. This task involves ninety cubic feet, or three and a half yards of excavation, being a little less than the former, but the distance to throw the earth is greater, and on the whole it is somewhat more laborious than the former task, and is made purposely so for the reason before implied, namely, that the men of the second relief are exempted from those preliminary arrangements that fall to the lot of the iirst working party. 59. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE THIRD TASK IN EXECUT- ING A FIRST PARALLEL BY THREE RELIEFS. In this task, an equal number of men being still employed, at the standard rate of six feet to each man, as before, let the trench be widened by cutting two feet more to the rear, which will complete the sole of the trench, making it three feet six inches in extreme depth. This being done, let the reverse slope of the trench be formed at an angle of fort y- five degrees, making the base of the slope throe feet six inches, being equal to its depth. PKACTICAL OPERATIONS OF A SIEGE. 115 3'. 6" The quantity of excavation in this task amounts to about seventy-eight and a quarter cubic feet, which is equal to two and eight-ninths cubic yards only, but owing to the great distance that the earth must be thrown to clear the parapet, which cannot be done at one heave, as in the first task throughout, and in part of the second task, and owing also to the necessity of causing this party to make a complete finish of the work, by putting every thing in order, trim- ming the parapet, widening the berm, forming a small step as a banquette on a higher level if required, besides making ools and drains to secure the trench against rain, as will be described in the next article ; I conceive that this task will probably require rather more time than either of the two former tasks to bring it to a conclusion, but it is not a more trying operation, as the men have the advantage of being well covered when they begin. The foregoing figure represents the profile of a finished parallel, such as has been described. CO. REMARKS ON PRESERVING THE TRENCHES DRY. THAT THE WORK NECESSARY FOR EFFECTING THIS OBJECT MAY SOMETIMES REQUIRE A SPECIAL WORKING PARTY. A VI i en the ground is marshy, it must of course be exceed- ingly difficult to preserve the trenches dry in a siege; but when the evil only arises from heavy and continued rains, the following measures must be adopted, in order to effect that object. Let drains be cut from the reverse of the trenches into all 116 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. valleys or hollows, which, by being on a lower level, can carry off the water, and let cesspools of about two feet square, and a foot or two lower than the sole of the trench, be made in the reverse thereof, at intervals of about fifty yards ; not however making such cesspools exactly equi-dis_ tant, but in all low points, where the rain-water shows a ten. dency to stagnate. They must be cut entirely in rear of the trench, so as not to diminish its regular width, and the sides sloped, if necessary, to prevent the earth from falling in. Cesspools of this description will keep the trenches as dry as can be expected ; but in excessive rains it may be neces- sary to bale out the water occasionally, for which purpose shovels will answer. In short the rule to keep a trench dry in rainy weather is, to take such measures as to prevent it from becoming a drain to the neighboring ground which w r ould from time to time convert it into the channel of a torrent. Nothing therefore but the rain which falls vertically down upon the trench itself should be admitted, and this surface water, which cannot be excluded, will never annoy the troops in any considerable degree, provided that the above men- tioned precautions, of cutting cesspools at intervals and of occasional baling, be resorted to. The rear of the sole of the trench may also be cut in the form of a small drain, from cesspool to cesspool. The arrangements described in this article must generally be made a part of the task of the third or last relief of men, employed in finishing any portion of the trenches, ex- cepting when necessity requires any part of them to be can-lied into effect at an earlier period. The formation of a drain leading into a valley may sometimes require a special working party destined for this object exclusively. PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF A SIEGE. 117 61. FURTHER REMARKS OX THE EXECUTION OF PARALLELS. THAT EACH RELIEF OF WORKMEN SHOULD BE. ALLOWED TO QUIT THE TRENCHES, ON FINISHING THEIR TASK TO THE SATISFACTION OF THE ENGINEERS ON DUTY. As a matter of mere labor, it would evidently be better to cut the front step of the trench out of the solid ground, instead of forming it afterward, with loose earth from the rear ; but as the first working parties have to work in the dark, often exposed and always expecting to be exposed to fire, it is of importance to simplify their task as much as possible, which cannot be more effectually done than by the arrangement of leaving the step to be formed afterward, by the second relief, who at this period will have the advan- tage of working by daylight. Sometimes we have formed our parallels, with a reverse step, instead of a slope in rear, making this step eighteen inches in width, and equal in height to one foot nine inches, or to one half of the extreme depth of the trench, as shown in the annexed figure. This construction, which diminishes the labor of the third task by twenty-one cubic feet, or seven-ninths of a cubic yard, is quite as good as the former, excepting for the passage of carriages, which enter into or issue out of a trench, more conveniently by means of a slope, than by steps. When the working parties have a given task allotted to each relief, which in the construction of parallels ai.d ap- 118 MANUAL FOE ENGINEER TKOOPS. preaches is the best arrangement, or rather indispensably necessary ; each party of twenty-five men should be allowed to quit the trenches as soon as they shall have finished their task to the satisfaction of the engineer on duty, who must of course previously ascertain this point by actual measure- ment, in which he will be assisted by the sappers of the di- vision ; and in so doing he should be very strict, rather measuring over than under ; for as all the tasks are easy, it would not be fair to throw any part of the labor of the first upon the second, or of the second upon the third relief of workmen. In case of any gratuity being promised to the working parties by the general commanding, for the execution of a particular work, it should never be granted without. a cer- tificate in writing from the engineer on duty in the trenches, that they finished their task to his satisfaction.* 62. ON THE EXECUTION OF THE APPROACHES CONNECTED WITH THE FIEST PARALLEL. The rules for tracing the approaches connected with the first parallel, and for commencing the work, have already been explained. It now only remains to treat of the exe- cution. The profile of an approach so nearly resembles that of a parallel, and the quantity of labor necessary for the com- pletion of both differs so little, that, generally speaking, the same rules as to the number of relief*, and the pro- portioning of the task of each, may be followed in both cases. The only difference in the practice of this establishment is, that we have made our approaches generally a little deeper than our parallels, and we have usually made tlio * This rule has generally been followed in our sieges, in which an extra allowance of grog or wine has sometimes been ordered to each man of the- military working parties as a gratuity. PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF A 6IEGE. 119 front steps and berm narrower, a banquette not being so essential in the former as in the latter. We have also usually made the parapets of our approaches a little higher than those of our parallels. The reason is, that approaches, being laid out obliquely, require more relief than a parallel, in order to enable them to afford equal protection to the besiegers ; for in the for- mer, a man in the trench is covered by a distant point of the parapet, in an oblique direction, whereas, in the latter, he is covered by that part of the parapet which is near to and perpendicularly in front of him. The subjoined figure represents the profile usually adopted by us, in which the trench is eleven feet wide at bottom, three feet six inches deep in front, and four feet deep in rear. The berm and front step are only one foot wide. The latter, instead of being formed with made earth, was cut out of the solid. In the above figure the tasks of the three reliefs, as repre- sented by the Roman numerals, I, II, and III, are as follows : Each task being six feet in length, the first relief are to cut a trench (I) five feet wide, three feet six inches deep in front, and three feet nine inches deep in rear, which involves one hundred and eight and three-quarters cubic feet, or about f"iir cubic yards of excavation. The second relief are to cut the trench four feet six inches wider, and two inches deeper in rear, which involves a task 120 MANUAL FOB ENGINEER TROOPS. (II) of ninety-nine cubic feet, being equal to three and two- thirds cubic yards of excavation. The third relief are to cut the trench one foot six inches wider, and one inch deeper, which increases the total width of the approach to eleven feet. They will then cut the re- verse slope, giving to it a base of four feet, which is equal to the extreme depth of the trench in rear. This being done, they will cut the front step, making it one foot wide, and one foot nine inches high, or one-half of the depth of the trench in front. These three portions (each marked III, III, III,) amount in all to eighty -five and three-eighths cubic feet, being nearly three and one-sixth cubic yards of excavation. The whole of these tasks added together involve two hun- dred and ninety-three and one-eighth cubic feet, or very nearly ten and five-sixths cubic yards of excavation. Sometimes an approach is made with slopes only, without having any steps in front, as shown in the annexed figure, which arrangement, however, can make little or no difference in the quantity of labor, or in the tasking of the men. 63. THAT ALL TRENCHES OR DITCHES SHOULD BE COMMENCED BY VERTICAL EXCAVATIONS, FINISHING THE SLOPES LAST. Whenever an approach is formed with slopes in front and rear, as represented in the foregoing figure, the body of the trench is completed first, and both the slopes are cut afterward. And let it be understood that this is a rule which we have invariably followed, not only in forming the trenches of parallels and approaches, but in respect to PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF A SIEGE. 121 the ditches of elevated batteries, and other excavations gen- erally, in field fortification. We always commenced with vertical cuts of .a rectangular section, until the great mass of excavation was finished, doing the slopes last of all. In ex- ecuting these, the crest of each slope should first be marked out on the ground, after which small sections should be cut here and there, according to the proper form of the finished profile. Finally the intermediate earth should be cut away between these small sections, which answer the same pur- pose of insuring regularity in an excavation that wooden profiles erected at intervals do in the' formation of a parapet. If, on the contrary, the slopes be commenced from the first without these precautions, the men will either lose time in attempting accuracy, or will cut them at random, and there- by either disfigure the work or injure its stability. Till. Of the Execution of the Second Parallel, and the Approachc connected with it. 64. RULES FOR EXECUTING A SECOND PARALLEL COMMENCED BY THE FLYING SAP. The method of arranging the workmen with their tools behind the line of gabions, so that the space covered shall be at the rate of two gabions, or about four feet per man, has already been explained. In this order the men are rather more crowded than one could desire, but the use of gabions, the size of which is necessarily limited, leaves no alternative. When the order is given to commence work, every man will begin digging in the rear of his own two gabions, which he will fill with all expedition, striking the sides of the gabions from time to time with his shovel, and afterward patting the earth at the top, to shake it down and make it compact, before he throws any of it over. When filled, which may be done by good workmen in from seven to fifteen minutes, the line of gabions will be musket-proof everywhere, except- 6 122 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROCXPS. ing at the intervals between the adjacent ones. The engi- neer officers superintending, and the sappers attached to divisions, will take care to instruct the men to force their gabions forward at top, whilst the work is in progress, in order to give them a slope of about one-fourth of their height, which is necessary to their stability, and which may be judged of, with sufficient accuracy, by the eye. This arrangement may be aided by introducing sods under the back of each gabion. The usual berm of eighteen inches must be left be- hind the line of gabions. The parapet of a second parallel may be crowned with one or more rows of fascines laid over the gabions, with which it is reveted interiorly. In other respects it does not differ from that of a first parallel, and the trenches of both are exactly alike. When fascines are used to crown the gabions in a second parallel, which arrangement however can scarcely be neces- sary under ordinary circumstances, the second and third re- liefs of men ought to take them out with them, each man carrying a six-feet fascine, and two or three pickets. If more fascines and pickets should be required at this period, and generally speaking on any other occasion, when the regular working parties cannot carry a sufficient quantity of mate- rials for their own use, the guards of the trenches may be ordered to call at the engineers' depot for the purpose of re- ceiving materials, which they will deposit on the reverse of the trenches, in such situations as shall be deemed most con- venient. 65. PECULIAR ARRANGEMENTS FOR CONTINUING AND FIN- ISHING A SECOND PARALLEL, BY THE SECOND AND THIRD RELIEFS OF WORKMEN, AT SIX RUNNING FEET OF TRENCH- 1TORK PER MAN. Though the workmen who commence the second parallel by tho flying sap, are extended at the rate of only four feet PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF A SIEGE. 123 per man, the same necessity does not exist for thus crowd- ing the workmen of the second and third reliefs, employed in continuing and finishing the same parallel, who should each be required to execute a task of six running feet per man. IJence the number of workmen demanded for the second and third reliefs should only be two-thirds of the number previously employed in commencing the second parallel. Owing to this change in the arrangements, the workmen in the first relief, after finishing their task, must carry all their tools back with them to the engineers' depot, instead of leaving them in the parallel, as suggested in Article 42, which applied to different circumstances. The second relief must therefore bring their tools out with them. As the task of a division of twenty-five men is only one hundred feet in commencing the second parallel, but is to be increased to one hundred and fifty feet for the same number of men of the second relief, it will be necessary pre- viously to divide the whole extent of the parallel into spaces of one hundred and fifty feet, which must be marked by pickets or banderols, at their extremities, including seventy- five gabions between each pair of such pickets. This must be done by sappers tinder the direction of the engineers, and when the space allotted for the task of each division of the second relief is marked out, a sapper must be stationed at each picket or banderol, on reaching whom each division of the working party must be halted and fronted, in the manner* before explained in Article 42. When this is done, the men composing each division must be extended over their respective spaces, until the whole of the gabions are covered by a line of men posted behind every third gabion, placing the first man behind the second gabion, the second man behind the fifth, the third behind the eighth, and so on until the whole extension is completed* Every man will then be set to work, each preserving his proper place, and 124: MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. continuing the excavation of the trench to the rear, along the whole space occupied by his own three gabions. If the commanding engineer should deem it convenient, the men of the second relief, before they quit the trenches, may be directed to leave their tools behind every third ga- bion, to mark the proper position and at the same time the extent of task of the men of the third relief, who are to work in equal numbers along the same extent of ground, and may use the same tools. The annexed figure is a section of a second parallel, fin- ished with gabions only, not crowned by fascines, in which the tasks of the three reliefs are marked by the Roman numerals, I, II, III. The task of the first relief includes also the excavation of the space now occupied by the front step, which is sup- posed to have been added afterward by the second relief. The clear width at the sole of the trench is supposed to be ten feet, being the same as in the first parallel, with which it likewise agrees in all its other dimensions, as was before stated. 66. STATEMENT, BOTH IN CUBIC FEET AND IN CUBIC YARDS, OF THE QUANTITY OF EXCAVATION IN A FIRST PARALLEL, FINISHED IN THREE TASKS, AT SIX RUNNING FEET OF TRENCH-WORK PER MAN, AS COMPARED WITH THAT OF A SECOND PARALLEL COMMENCED BY THE FLYING SAP, AT FOUR RUNNING FEET ONLY PER MAN, IN THE FIRST TASK, ALL OTHER PARTICULARS BEING THE SAME IX BOTH. (Compare the foregoing figure with that in Article 59). PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF A SIEGE. 125 COMPAKATTVE EXCAVATION. let Parallel. 2d. Pa Cubic Feet. ralleL Cubic Yds. Cubic Feet Cubic Yds. 1st Task (1) 5 feet wide, 3 feet J deep in front, 3 feet 3 inches deep V 93f H 621 n in rear J 2d Task (II) 4 feet 6 inches wider, ) 3 feet 3 inches deep in front, 3 feet > 90 3} 90 H 5 inches deep in rear ) 3d Task (IH) 2 feet wider at botO torn, which completes} the sole of the Trench, making it 3 feet 6 inches deep in rear, and a reverse slope, 781 2f 781 2 having a base of 3 feet 6 inches, equal to its height Total . . 262 t 67. RULES FOR EXECUTING THE APPROACHES CONNECTED WITH THE SECOND PARALLEL, AND COMMENCED BY THE FLYING SAP. These also differ from the first approaches, only in having their parapets reveted with gabions, or with gabions and fas- cines. In the execution no further difference occurs than what must necessarily arise from the use of gabions, the tasks of the several reliefs of men employed being alike in profile, :md proportional to each other, in the ratio of two to three, in the first reliefs of each, in consequence of the men, who commence by the flying sap, being drawn up at intervals of four feet apart, instead of six feet ; but in the second and third reliefs, the tasks are equal, each man having six feet of trench-work to execute. The subjoined figure is the section of an approach of this description, having its gabions crowned by three courses of 1-isciiM's, which should be laid at the same slope of one-fourth which was before prescribed in placing the gabions. These fascines must be secured by pickets driven through 126 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. them obliquely downward into the earth, at an angle of about forty-five degrees. There should be two such pickets to a six-feet fascine. It was before explained in Article 62, that approaches usually require more relief than a parallel ; and for this rea- son it may sometimes be expedient to crown the parapets of approaches commenced by the flying sap, with several courses of fascines, as shown in the above figure ; whereas this precaution might be entirely dispensed with, in a second parallel, situated at the same distance from a fortress of equal command. The want of cover in the trenches of approaches is more felt at the angles of the zigzags, than anywhere else ; and therefore it may sometimes be expedient, even in the ap- proaches in rear of the first parallel, which are generally left unreveted, to revet their parapets, for about ten or twelve feet, at each angle "of the zigzags only. It may also be proper for the same reason, to cover out those angles by raising not only their own parapets, but also certain portions of the parapets of the trenches in front of them, and at some distance from them, one or more feet higher than the general level of the adjoining parapets. Portions of the parapets thus raised, although for a differ- ent purpose, partake of the nature of trench cavaliers, so far as the construction alone is concerned : and therefore when more than usual height is required, it might be pref- erable to use a couple of tiers of gabions, with one inter mediate row of fascines, instead of gaining the whole height necessary, by crowning one course of gabions entirely with PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF A SIEGE. 127 fascines, in the manner represented in the foregoing figure. But as well reveted parapets, which are always essential in gun batteries and trench cavaliers, are only required occa- sionally in approaches, I shall not enlarge further upon the construction of such revetments at present. When small portions only of a set of approaches are to be reveted, or when small portions only of the parapets of the trenches are to be raised, it is better to employ extra men for the purpose of executing such details, than to make them a part of the task of any of the regular working parties. 68. STATEMENT, BOTH DC CUBIC FEET ANI> IN CUBIC YARDS, OP THE QUANTITY OF EXCAVATION IN THE FIRST APr PROACIIES, FINISHED IN THREE TASKS, AT SIX RUNNING FEET OF TRENCH-WORK PER MAN, AS COMPARED WITH THE MORE ADVANCED APPROACHES AFTERWARD COMMENCED BY THE FLYING SAP, AT FOUR RUNNING FEET OF TRENCH- WORK PER MAN, IN THE FIRST TASK, BUT AT SIX RUNNING FEET PER MAN, IN THE OTHERS. ( Compare the foregoing figure with the first figure in Article 62). 1 COMPARATIVE EXCAVATION". First Approaches. Advanced Approaches. Cubiq Foot. C-nl)i Yds. Cubic Feet. Cubic Yds. 1st Task, 5 feet wide, 3 feet 6 inches ) deep in front, and 3 feet 9 inches deep V 1033 4 721 2f 2d Task, 4 feet 6 inches wider, 3 ) feet 9 inches deep in front, and 3 feet > 99 3| 99 8| 1 1 inches deep in rear .... ) 3d Task, 1 foot 6 inches wider at ^ bottom, and 4 feet extreme depth, be- M<1(!S a reverse slope of 4 feet base, > 85| S 8*f H and a front step of 1 foot wide, and 1 Total . . 2931 10$ 128 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. 69. THAT TWO RELIEFS OF WORKMEN MAY BE SUFFICIENT FOR FINISHING PARALLELS AND APPROACHES IN EASY SOIL. Having kept records of the various periods of time em- ployed by every individual of successive parties under in- struction, in finishing parallels and approaches at Chatham, in all varieties of soil, from the easiest, which required very little picking, to the most difficult, which demanded the con- stant use of the pickaxe, I shall subjoin an abstract of two of these reports of parallels, one of which was finished in the shortest time known at this establishment, and the other in nine and a half hours, in as difficult soil as can be expected to occur anywhere, without coming under the definition of rock. On one occasion, as noticed in article 56, one hour more was occupied in finishing a parallel in the same sort of difficult soil by another party of men, but the report of this latter experiment was not entered in the record book in sufficient detail to make use of it. ABSTRACT OF TIME, ETC., IN MAKING A FIRST PARALLEL. Date, No. of men employed and Soil. Tasks, No. of. Cubic Feet Time of Individuals. Avernpe Time of all the men. Shortest Longest. Hours, Min. Hours. Min. Hours. Min. Mar. llth and 12th, 1828. 20 men. Very difficult soil. First . . . Second . . Third . . . 93? 90 781 1 10 2 25 2 35 3 10 4 4 30 2 17 3 23 3 50 The whole Parallel. 262 6 12 11 55 9 30 October 12th and 13th, 1828. 30 men. Very easy soil. First . . . Second . . Third . . . 93 90 78{ 16 1 5 4 1 30 2 40 4 44 1 36 2 34 The whole Parallel. 262 2 41 g 4 4 54 PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF A SIEGE. 129 In the various records, it was observed that the individual who was the most expeditious in performing the first task, was sometimes slower than other men, in executing the second and third, and vice versa / but as the whole of the parallel in very easy soil in one of these examples was fin- ished by one very active and zealous workman in two hours and forty-one minutes,* and by the worst workman out of thirty men, in eight hours and four minutes, and as it was executed by the average labor of the whole party in four hours fifty-four minutes, it will be evident, that the number of tasks proper for finishing a parallel in such soil may be diminished from three to two ; but the details of executing a parallel by two reliefs of men only will afterward be ex- plained. A working party of men of the line might not perhaps finish quite so soon, but even if entirely unaccus- tomed to labor, it is not likely that in completing the same task, they would require more than one-third of additional time, over and above the periods stated in the above table ; and even if one-half more, making an average of seven hours twenty-one minutes in all, should be required for fin- ishing the parallel: to do this in two tasks only would not involve a greater personal exertion, than able-bodied men are capable of undergoing without over-fatigue. 70. OF FLANKING BOYAUS, OR SUCH PORTIONS OF THE AP_ PROACHES, IN A SIEGE, AS PARTAKE ALSO OF THE NATURE OF PARALLELS. When a set of approaches are on the extreme right, or on the extreme left of the trenches, in a siege, those branches of them which have their parapets facing outward, are termed flanking boyaus, and may be made to answer the * Private Hugh Lanyon, since promoted to the rank of Serjeant, after having been employed for several successive years with a party of R. sappers and miners, at the R. M. College, Sandhurst, in making field-worka for tho instruction of the gentlemen cadets. G* 130 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. double purpose of acting also as places of arms, or parallels, for containing the troops destined to repulse the sorties made by the besieged, if such sorties shoitld be attempted, as is most frequently the case, on the flanks of the trenches. Thus, for example, if we suppose the first and second parallels, and the approaches from the rear to the second parallel in a siege to be finished, and that an enemy makes a sortie at this period, it will be evident, that if he advances in front, the troops in the parallels will oppose him by a direct fire ; but if he should attempt to penetrate in rear of the second or first parallel by either flank, troops placed in flanking boyaus, will be more conveniently situated than those in either of the two parallels for defeating this object. Flanking boyaus, therefore, should never be finished with a front slope, as shown in figure 2, Article 62, nor with nar- row steps ; but with broad steps and a banquette, like a parallel. In other respects, they need not differ from com- mon approaches. IX. Modifications in the Construction of Paral- lels and Approaches that may Become Neteary, from Circumstances. In the above rules and examples, we have supposed the fortress to be situated on a plain, and to have only that moderate degree of command over the country to which the foregoing profiles are suited, and we have also supposed the soil to be favorable for the works of the besiegers. If the soil were unfavorable, it might be necessary to alter the profiles both of parallels and approaches in the manner about to be explained. 71. MODIFICATIONS THAT MIGHT BE REQUIRED IN MARSHY OR ROCKY SOIL. First, supposing water to be found a few feet below the surface, as in Holland and other marshy countries, it would PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF A SIEGE. 131 not always be practicable to excavate the trenches, in which the troops are to be posted, to the extreme depth of three or four feet as before supposed, without inundating, and thereby rendering them unserviceable. Hence it may be necessary to make shallower and wider trenches, and even to cut a ditch in rear of such trenches and below the usual water level, in order to supply earth for the parapet which in such soil must be raised much higher above the ground, than in dry soil. The subjoined figure represents the sort of profile now alluded to. Secondly, supposing rock to be found one or two feet be- low the surface, it would in this case also be necessary to make a shallower trench, and a parapet much higher above the natural ground, than in the regular profile suited to deeper soil, and it might perhaps also be necessary to carry earth from the rear, in sand-bags or otherwise, instead of throw- ing it all forward by shovels. Under both of these suppositions, whether of water or of rock below and near to the surface, it may be expedient, in working by night, to obtain earth not only from the rear, but also from the front; and more gabions, fascines, and other materials, will be required than under ordinary circumstances. In making the trenches alluded to, in proportion as the depth is diminished the width necessary for the task of the first relief of men should be increased ; and in the second and third reliefs the number of men may also be increased to more than the number proper for more favorable soil: but I would not generally recommend employing more men than usual in the first relief, because it might produce confusion. 132 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. 72. CONSIDERATIONS TO BE KEPT IN MIND IN RESPECT TO PARALLELS AND APPROACHES ON IRREGULAR GROUND. THAT APPROACHES SHOULD NOT BE MADE DOWN HILL. First, if the fortress should be situated on a very com- manding eminence, it is obvious that the trenches must be cut deeper and the parapets raised higher than the profiles before described, which apply to ordinary circumstances, that is, supposing the parallels or approaches of the besiegers to be constructed on level ground. But if we suppose the ground on which these parallels and approaches must be made to slope regularly down on all sides, from the commanding eminence crowned by the fortress, this ground being naturally defiladed, is not unfa- vorable, and may not require deeper trenches or higher para- pets than usual. Secondly, supposing that there are heights opposite to the fortress, and divided from it by an intervening ravine, at the distance of from five or six hundred yards or upward, these heights should be occupied by the besiegers, as they will be favorable for the construction of parallels or bat- teries; but approaches should not be made from thence down the declivity, because they will be seen and plunged into by the guns of the fortress. The reason is, that every branch of an approach being always very oblique, in reference to some part of the works of a fortress of any magnitude, the men in the reverse of the trench are not covered by that part of the parapet of the same branch, which is perpendicularly in front of them, but by some distant part of it, which may be thirty or forty, or even so much as sixty feet lower down the slope. Hence, if we suppose the ground to dip at the rate of one foot in five, the part where the reverse of a descending approach would require to be excavated, may be six or eight, or even twelve feet higher than the other part of the same ground, where PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF A SIEGE. 133 the parapet that ought to cover it from some of the guns of the fortress would be situated. Hence, instead of a total re- lief of about eight feet, which is sufficient for the parapet of an approach against a fortress situated on a plain, which agrees With the profiles before given in articles 62 and 67, it might require the parapet to have a relief of fourteen or sixteen, or even twenty feet, to cover every part of the trench of an approach so situated. IP These particulars are exemplified in the fbregoing figure, in which the parapet of the parallel P, crowning the sum- mit of a height opposite to the fortress F, from which it is divided by a ravine, affords good protection against the shot, 1, fired from the fortress; but the parapet of the approach A, on the ground below, sloping toward the fortress, af- fords no protection to the men behind it, against the shot, 2, of the fortress, nor could it possibly afford such protec- tion unless it were raised to the very inconvenient, or one may say impracticable height, shown by the dotted outline above it. In short, approaches should never be carried down the slope of a hill occupied by the besiegers, but should be car- ried round from the rear of the hill, so as to turn the flank of it, which I believe may always be done.* * For example, m the attack of Burgos, supposing the hornwork to be taken by the besiegers, the high ground on which it is situated ought to be occupied by a portion of parallel with approaches from the rear, as well as by gun and mortar batteries; but instead of carrying approaches from thence down the slope of the hill, I would recommend the turning of that 134: MANUAL FOE ENGINEER TROOPS. I do not think that there is any example of a fortress being situated in a hollow at the extreme bottom of a de- scending slope ; and therefore, except to draw attention to a principle, it may be deemed scarcely worth while to ob- serve, that it would be less objectionable to make approaches down hill against such a fortress. In fact, whenever the path of the Shot fired point blank from the guns of a for- tress, is parallel to the surface of the ground outside, the ap- proaches of the besiegers will not be subject to inconveni- ence, or require any extraordinary relief, whether the ground, on which they are.to be executed, be horizontal, or an as- cending or descending plane. To return to the consideration of our former supposition of heights occupied by the besiegers, and separated from the fortress by a valley, it may be remarked, that parallels on the descending slope immediately below such heights are also objectionable, from their requiring a deeper trench and higher parapet than would suffice on level ground, but not in so great a degree as approaches, because^ as was be- fore stated in article 6 2, the men in the reverse of the trench of a parallel are protected by those parts of the parapet which are either perpendicularly opposite to them or nearly so, not exceeding about twenty feet at the utmost. Even this, however, would evidently be a very great inconvenience, if the slope were steep. To investigate the farther modifications in the outline or profile of parallels or approaches, that might be required by other varieties of irregular ground not yet noticed, would be superfluous in a treatise of this kind, because the expedi- ents necessary for overcoming or evading the difficulties thereby occasioned, will readily suggest themselves to an intelligent officer, on the scene of action. height by going round it, without attempting nny direct communication from thence to whatever works might afterward be executed in front of it, on the ascending slope opposite. PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF A SIEGE. 135 X. Of the Arrangements and Regulations Proper for Military Working Parties in a Siege. 73. OF THE BEST MODE OF SUPERINTENDING THEM. THAT THE REGIMENTAL OFFICERS OF THE WORKING PARTIES SHOULD BE HELD STRICTLY RESPONSIBLE, FOR THE EXE- CUTION OF THE QUANTITY OF WORK ORDERED TO BE DONE. THAT MIXED WORKING PARTIES, COMPOSED OF MKX OF DIFFERENT CORPS, OUGHT NOT TO BE EMPLOYED. The subject of this article is of such importance, that it ap- pears proper to treat of it in some detail, although the general principle about to be developed, might have been inferred from some observations to the same effect, previously made. It has already been implied, that the engineers on duty should only be responsible for marking out the several works, for supplying materials and tools, and for making such arrangements and giving such directions, as will enable the working parties of the line to execute their tasks to proper advantage. If the soldiers of the working parties do not exert themselves as they ought to do, let the engi- neers make their representation to the general or field offi- cers on duty in the trenches. The regimental officers of the corps which furnish the working parties, should be held solely and most strictly re- sponsible, for the diligence and exertions of the men under their command. The captains, subaltern officers and ser- geants, attached to each division of the working parties should move about continually, to encourage the diligent, and reprove the idle; and the field officers in charge of several divisions should in like manner move about the whole line of workmen under their charge, to see that the men are diligent, and that the officers and sergeants* are * It was before mentioned that corporals, as rauk and file, take their of the work in the British service. 136 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. doing their duty. These field officers should be held re- sponsible for the diligence of the working parties under their command, by the general officer or officers, on duty in the trenches ; and the latter should be responsible for the proper execution of the operations of each period of twenty- four hours, to the general officer in command of the besieg- ing army. It is of the most vital importance to the success of a siege, that this system of responsibility, from the regimental officers of working parties to the general officers on duty in the trenches, shall be established, and fully understood, and inflexibly adhered to ; for which reason the command- ing engineer ought to apply to the commander of the forces, to issue a general order to this effect, previously to the opening of the trenches ; for if this precaution be neglected, it is but too likely that many officers of the working parties will remain perfectly inert, and leave every thing to the engineers, who cannot be expected to keep the workmen diligent, when the latter see that their own regimental offi- cers, who have more influence over them than any others, are either asleep, or grouped together in some corner, in conversation, in a state of apparent indifference to the progress of the work. Such an order is also necessary, to counteract a pernicious and unreasonable prejudice, which appeared to prevail amongst the officers of some regiments of the line, at the commencement of the late interesting wars with France, against being employed on working par- ties at all. Too much pains cannot be taken to prevent the recurrence of a feeling so radically opposed to the success of all siege operations. To carry this subject further, it may be considered of great importance in the execution of a parallel, and the same re- mark may generally apply to other works of a siege, that the praise of diligence, and the disgrace of failure shall not PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF A SIEGE. 137 be frittered away by employing mixed working parties ; but that one particular division of the army shall have the whole of the operations of the first twenty-four hours, whether the men be relieved three times or only twice within that period* and that each brigade and battalion of this division shall have its own distinct portion of the work, which no men of any other corps shall meddle with. Thus, if the whole of the work directed to be done in the twenty-four hours should be well executed, the whole division generally will have the credit of it. If the whole should be badly executed, or in- complete, the disgrace will attach to the division as a body ; but if part only should fail, the disgrace will attach to the particular regiment, which either neglected or proved in- competent to its share of the duty. In the construction of the first batteries, which are usually commenced the second night, the same system should be followed with a second division of the besieging army, each battalion of which might have its own distinct battery al- lotted to it ; and by pursuing this system, both regimental officers and men would take a strong interest in siege opera- tions, and would feel their own honor and reputation involved in them, which beneficial feeling, by all accounts, has hitherto scarcely ever prevailed amongst the troops in general, in any of the sieges carried on by the British army. Indeed the operations of those sieges, as recorded by Colonel Jones,* in his able and useful work, speak for themselves. When we find that in the sieges of the Peninsula a task of no more than four feet in length, three feet in depth, and three and a half feet in width, being only forty-two cubic feet, or about one and half cubic yards, of excavation, was only executed by each individual of the military working parties as their first night's work, which task we know by experience may be finished by an able-bodied man, with very moderate ex- * Now Major-General Sir John T. Jones, K. C. B. 138 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. ertion, in twenty minutes,* in easy soil, that requires little or no picking ; and in less than one hour in the hardest and most difficult soil that does not exactly come under the defi- nition of rock ; one cannot but feel mortified and ashamed that the exertions of the British army, on such occasions, should have fallen so miserably short of their brilliant ex- ploits in the field.f It was not so in the royal navy, where officers and men equally disdained to skulk from useful labor as to shrink from danger ; and where the watering of Nel- son's fleet on the coast of Barbary, in an extraordinarily short space of time, just before he proceeded to the West Indies, was regarded with almost as much pride as the mem- orable victory of Trafalgar, that was gained not many months afterward. I attach so much importance to having the duty of work- ing parties done by regular divisions, brigades, battalions, and companies, that I am confident that any number of work- men furnished according to this system, will do as much as twice their number of mixed working parties, each com- posed of officers and soldiers of different regiments, fur- nished according to the roster: a system which, in our ser- vice, has been too often carried from the garrison guard- mounting! mto tne camp of the besieging army, and which, * Sergeant Lanyon finished his first task of a parallel, nearly one hun- dred and nine cubic feet, in sixteen minutes, iu easy soil (see the note to article 69). At this rate, an active workman might have finished his first night's task in the British sieges in Spain, in seven minutes. f Always, however, making an honorable exception in favor of the work- ing parties furnished by his majesty's foot-guards, who did as much as officers and men could do, so that I really do not think that their exertions in making batteries, &c., on service, have been exceeded in our practice at this establishment. I speak to this fact not only from my own observation, but from that of- Colonel (now Major-General) Sir John F. Burgoyue, K.C.B., and other brother officers of much greater experience than myself. \ In garrisons in which the duty is regulated by roster each corps fur- nishing a daily detail in proportion to its number, nothing is more com- PRACTICAL. OPERATIONS OF A SIEGE. 139 in all cases, more or less injures that organization upon which discipline depends, and to a certain degree converts an army into a mob. 74. OF T5IE NUMBER OP TIMES THAT THE WORKING PARTIES, GUARDS OP THE TRENCHES, ETC., OUGHT TO BE RELIEVED IN THE TWENTY-FOUR HOURS. It must be evident, on a little reflection, that the marching ing backward and forward between the trenches and their camp or cantonments may occasion considerable fatigue to the troops of a besieging army, besides occupying a good deal of 'time. Hence, if the total number of reliefs or changes of men be limited, which is always the case, it follows that the oftener they are relieved in the twenty-four hours, the more harassing it must be to- those men, who might, even by increasing the number of times they were sent on duty within that period, be kept in almost constant movement, or preparation for movement, without due time for rest. For this reason the guards of the trenches, who, unless the enemy makes a sortie, are usually in a state of rest, with the exception of pickets or sentinels, or men employed as sharpshooters, are not relieved oftener than once in twenty- four hours ; and the same system is followed in relieving the artillery, whose exertions are not generally of a very labori- mon than to see a guard composed of an officer of one regiment, non-com, missioned officers of another, and privates of two or three others. Hence no one regiment or corps can drill to advantage, for no regiment is ever off guard in a body. Thus the discipline of all suffers, and if the duties of such mixed guards involved any serious exertions or responsibility, it is my opinion that the service would be much more likely to suffer through neglect than under the more salutary system of causing each guard to be furnished by officers, non-commissioned officers, and privates of one and the same corps. At the same time I admit that the roster system in gar- risons, if only used occasionally, does good, by destroying a prejudice, which young soldiers are apt to entertain, that they ought only to be commanded by their own regimental officers. 140 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. ous nature, because the ordnance in a siege is not fired fre- quently and incessantly, as in battle. The working parties, on the contrary, must necessarily be relieved oftener* "for a man cannot work for more than eight hours, without being exhausted ; and if he be stimulated by taskwork four, five, or six hours, at the utmost, of actual ex- ertion will be quite sufficient. On the other hand, it may be observed, that to bring a body of men into the trenches, to execute any task involv- ing much less than four or five hours' labor, would really be trifling with the duties of a siege. Now if the soil be of any easy description, requiring little or no picking, and if the whole parallel be divided into three tasks or portions, such as were before described, each party might finish their respective tasks in less than two hours. ^ In case therefore of very hard soil, it is proper to divide the execution of a parallel or parallels into three tasks, to be executed by three reliefs of men, the first relief to com- mence their work at dusk, as explained in Article 37, the second at daylight next morning, and the third at noon. But in very soft soil, as was before implied in Article 69, it will be better and less harassing to the troops, to divide the work into two tasks only, and consequently to have no more than two reliefs of workmen in twenty-four hours. We shall now consider the details of this arrangement as ap- plied to a first parallel. 75. FIRST TASK, IN EXECUTING A FIRST PARALLEL BY TWO RELIEFS, IN EASY SOIL. Being drawn up at the usual rate of one man to every six feet of trench-work as before, each man must cut his portion of trench to the width of seven feet six inches from front to rear, making it three feet deep in front, and three feet four inches in rear, which amounts to about one hundred PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF A SIEGE. and forty-two cubic feet, or rather more than five and a quarter cubic yards of excavation. 76. SECOND TASK, IN EXECUTING A FIRST PARALLEL BY TTTO RELIEFS, IN EASY SOIL. The second relief of men should be marched into the trenches at daylight, and should make the front step, and add four feet to the width of the original trench, which will increase it to the width of ten clear feet at bottom, over and above the base of the said step, and to the extreme depth of three feet six inches in rear ; after which they must finish the trench^ either with a reverse slope, having its base equal to its height, according to the profile before represented in the figure in Article 59 ; or with steps in rear, according to the figure given in Article 61. When the parallel is finished with a reverse slope, the task of the second relief amounts to about one hundred and twenty cubic feet, or to four and a half cubic yards nearly ; but when it is finished with reverse steps, the task of the second relief amounts only to about ninty-nine cubic feet, or to three and two-thirds cubic yards. In either case, after completing the excavation according to the profile prescribed, the second relief of workmen must make a perfect finish of the parapet, and cut cesspools, J 1 1 I! =p I ftt u x t*T\ti~ xl-^ \ x Having arrived at the position from which the debouche is to be made, the chief of sap cautions the sappers to throw no earth in rear of the last eight gabions, which are to be overturned, in order to allow a passage for the new roll- In most cases these last gabions can be placed in the ers. same line with those of the gabionade preceding them, dis- pensing with the crochet used in the former example. The head of the sap having arrived at the last gabion, the 168 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. chief of sap commands, " Prepare to debouch by the double sap." The sappers then execute all that has been indicated at the analogous command in the simple sap, and in addi- tion, the first and second assistants of the brigade, or two sappers of the new brigade (necessary to execute the double full sap, excavate a second retreat in the reverse similar to the first, and opposite the Cth *nd half of the 7th gabion. Two sap-rollers are then placed on the planks that have previously been laid across the sap. The rollers should be so situated that their outer extremities should be opposite the first and eighth gabions to be overturned. The sap-rollers are moved back on to the reverse. The chief of the double sap then causes the first brigade to debouch, replace the first gabion and fill it, then retire. The second brigade then advance, debouch with their sap in similar manner, and replace and refill the eighth gabion. The double sap is then conducted by the ordinary commands. It may happen that after the debouche, the two rollers are not in contact ; in this case the opening must be masked with a wool-sack, and the rollers brought together with the levers. It requires about one hour and a half to execute the de- bouche, from the command " Prepare to debouch" until the first gabion of the double sap is replaced. The following method for debouching from a sap in course of construction, appears to be both of simple and easy exe- cution. A frame is provided, having been previously pre- pared to receive the new roller, also three rollers 4" in diam- eter and 40" long, and a plank 7' long. The sap having received its full depth, and the berme being cleared off, the chief of sap commands, " Prepare to de- bouch" No. 1 places a roller across the trench. No. 2 places the plank also across the trench and opposite the third gabion. These two sappers then pass to the rear and receive from the other sappers the frame, which they lay with one end on the small roller, the handles on the plank. THE FULL SAP. 169 2d. Sap-roller." At this command an empty roller is passed to the head of the sap by the assistants, placed by the sappers on the frame and against the first roller, then stuffed. 3d. " Prepare to advance" Nos. 1 and 2 leave the sap ; crawl on their bellies along the sap-roller ; No. 1 is charged with pushing the first sap-roller, renewing the rollers under the frame, and giving warning by the words "more" or " too much" of the progress of the new roller which No. 2 holds upon the frame. . Nos. 9 and 4, with a sap-hook passing between the gabionade and new roller, hold themselves in readiness to push the first sap-roller forward. The first assistant places himself under the new 170 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. sap-roller, the second between the handles of the frame, and the 3d and 4th at the extremities of these handles. The chief of sap then glides behind the new roller and commands, " Forward" All push (in silence, that they may hear the commands of No. 1). When the chief sees that the new roller is unmasked ho commands, "Halt" No. 3 disengages the sap-hook, and places a wool-sack in the joint of the new roller and gabionade. The second assistant yields his place to the first as soon as the roller has arrived at the end of the trench, and goes to the assistance of sappers 1 and 2. "Forward." At this command, Nos. 1, 2, and second assistant push the new roller of the frame into the required position. To ef- fect this they should lie flat on the ground, and push with their shoulders, until the command is given, " Enough." The second assistant then passes the wool-sack to sapper No 1, who places it in the joint of the two rollers. The op- eration is terminated by the command, " To your posts" Each sapper retakes his place, the frame and small rollers are carried to the rear by the assistant. This method requires not more than five or six minutes, not including excavating the sap to the full depth and stuffing the new roller. It would therefore appear that the process, with some slight modification, would be equally safe and much more expedi- tious than that now in use. TO DEBOUCH BY THE SIMPLE SAP FROM ONE OR BOTH SIDES OF THE DOUBLE SAP. When the debouche is to be made on both sides of the double sap, the chief of sap will cause the last five gabions of each parapet, to be placed 1' within the lines, and the form of each of the first sappers to stop within 20" of tliu rollers, THE FULL SAT. 171 when in their per- manent position. He will then com- mand, " PrejHire to debouch by tJie simple sap" Each No. 1 will then fix his sap roller with ^ pickets. Then \ turning their J forms at right an- P- gles, they will - : move toward each other, mak- ing their excava- tions 40" wide and deep, the pre- ceding portions of the sap are also enlarged to the same dimen- sions. They will I all avoid throw- | ing the earth H against any of ^ the gabions that f are to be over- 2 : turned. The brigade that first completes this task (that on the right for example) will bring forward an empty roller, place and stuff it, as in the preceding cases. The chief will then command : 2. u L<'ft In'iffit.th retire. Riyht brigade prepare to debouch." 3. 172 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. At the second command the left brigade will retire to the rear of the sap, and the right will execute the debouche on the right side of the sap. When they have replaced and re- filled their first gabion, the chief commands : 4. "Right brigade retire. Left brigade prepare to debouch" 5. "Debouch." The right then retire and the left brigade execute the de- bouche from the left side of the sap, in a similar manner ; when they have refilled their first gabion, the chief will command : 6. "Might brigade, to your posts." The two saps will then proceed in the ordinary manner. About one hour is required to execute the double d'ebourho, which is composed of two successive debouches. If the de- bouche is to be executed on one side only, but forty minutes will be required. The processes described in the three preceding articles consume one or two sap-rollers, which remain in their places. As these rollers are of difficult construction, it may be desir- able to withdraw them from these positions to use elsewhere. To eflect this, earth is thrown in rear of the roller to be removed, until a parapet is formed 40" high ; two beams are then laid in front of the roller, upon which it is rolled down into the trench, the position which it occupied is then imme- diately supplied by three or four ordinary gabions, which are filled and crowned. TO UNITE TWO SIMPLE SAPS INTO ONE DOUBLE SAP. THE FULL SAP. 173 When the gabionade? of the two saps to be united have approached to within 13' 6" of each other, the chief of the double sap causes their junction by the following commands : 1. "Prepare to unite in the double sap." 2. "Lever. Fagots." 3. "Hooks." 4. " Change direction." 5. "Halt." 6. " Commence working." 7. "Forward." At the first command each brigade prepares to execute simultaneously the manoeuvres which will here b$ described for one of them. Nos. 1, 2 and 3 enlarge their forms, making them 7" wider and 40" deep. No. 1 must not pass beyond the middle of the first gabion, or throw earth behind this gabion. The second, third and fourth commands are executed in 174 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. the same manner as the same commands in the simple change of direction of the sap, with this exception, Nos. 1 and 4 dr:i\v toward the interior of the sap, the end of the roller on the bcrme ; by these means the direction of the roller is changed 70 or 80 ; it should then be entirely within the line of gabions. The fifth command is given when the direction is so much changed that No. 2 can no longer act with his lever ; the lever, fagots and forks are then passed to the rear. At the sixth command No. 1 commences a form 20" wide and deep in rear of the roller, and as near it as possible ; he works kneeling, and is followed closely by No. 2, who deepens it 12". The earth is thrown on the reverse. When No. 1 has excavated to within 12" or 16" of the further end of the roller, he retires, and when the form lias been sufficiently enlarged, Nos. 2, 3, 4, and first assistant enter it, provided with two forks and two hooks, taking care to keep themselves perfectly covered by stooping. At the seventh command these sappers push forward the rollers with their hooks and forks, causing them to enter the interval left between the gabionades. The two brigades will so concert their movements that the two rollers shall be exactly joined, forming thus one roller whose direction is parallel to the sap. In the mean while No. 1, stationed at the head of the sap, directs the motion of the roller by warning the sappers who are pushing, and if he perceives that the motion of the roller is hindered by the last gabion of the gabionade (as is almost always the case), he, aided by the second assistant, overturns it in the trench with a sap-hook, and supplies its place with a wool-sack, using a fork to place it. Finally, when the two rollers have entered the opening, the c.hief commands, "Gabions;" the two gabions that were overturned are replaced, and the double sap is continued by the ordinary commands. THE FULL SAP. 175 In ordinary ground the time occupied in this mano3uvre is as follows : Enlarging the two saps about to be united, 25 minutes. Changing direction of sap-rollers 70 or 80, 15 " Excavating forms in rear of sap-rollers, 25 " Advancing the rollers, overturning the ex- treme gabions of the two saps, and re- placing them, 15 " Total - 1 hr. 20 minutes. It must, however, be remarked that No. 1 has to turn his form around the replaced gabion, in order to take the new direction of the double sap, which employs about ten minutes, making the total length of time consumed one hour and thirty minutes. If the two simple saps are merely to be united the two rollers which are to form the parapet are united as above, and, if necessary, may be withdrawn by the process before described. In this case the first command is changed into "Prepare to unite the saps" The overturned gabions are not replaced, but the openings left by them closed with fagots or sand-bags. TO DEBOUCH BY THE DOUBLE OR SIMPLE SAP, FROM A SAP NOT ENLARGED. FIRST CASE. TO DEBOUCH BY THE SIMPLE SAP. Let A be the gabion selected as the first of the new gabion- ade. The chief of sap commands : 1. "Prepare to debouch" 2. " Commence working" At the first command, No. 1, directed by the chief, traces on the berme and slope of the sap a form 12" to the left of gabion A, 40" wide and deep. He is provided with a pick and shovel. No. 2 places across the sap on each side of this form a plank, one end resting on the benne, the other on the reverse, lie is furnished with 176 MANUAL FOB ENGINEER TROOPS. two drags, one having a handle 3' and thQ other 6' The 3d and 4th sappers pull down the crowning fascines from gabions A, B, C, and D, with their forks. The assistants bring forward an empty roller, place it on the planks against the four gabions to be removed, one end opposite the middle of A, and prepare to stuff it. At the 2(1 command No. 1, kneeling under the roller, commences THE FULL SAP. 177 to excavate his form. No. 2 draws the earth thus obtained along the bottom of the sap (and to the right), with his drag. Nos. 3 and 4 throw it over the parapet. During this time the assistants stuff the roller and adjust the crowning of the gabions adjacent to the debouche, if they have been dis- arranged. As soon as No. 1 has advanced 16" or 20", No. 3 also s under the roller, on the side opposite No. 2, and drags away a portion of the earth excavated by No. 1. The first assistant throws this over the parapet. No. 1 pushes his form until he has passed the line of gabions passing under C and B ; he then drags the earth out of these gabions into his form, pulls the gabions themselves through 8* ITS MANUAL FOR EXGIXKFR TKOOPS. 1lio opening into the trench, overturns gabions A and D, and < I nigs them also into the sap, clears away tlie earth whirh might impede the progress of the roller with his drag. During this operation he is covered from the fire of the place by the mask of earth (about '32" high), which remains in advance of the roller. Nos. 2 and 3 move forward the roller until it rests against this mask, closing the openings that may be dangerous l>r- twi'i-u the roller and gabionade witli sand-bags, wool-sacks, fagots, &c. No. 1, under the roller, which is gradually moved forward, continues his form (40" wide and dee})), passing the earth to the rear. Nos. 2 and 3, who work standing, pass this earth to No. 4 and the first assistant. The gabion A should be replaced as soon as there is suffi- cient space for it. When the form of No. 1 has attained a length of about 5' 4", a second gabion is placed, and the work is continued as in the ordinary sap. It must, however, be remarked that the places of the 2d, 3d and 4th gabions must be prepared with the drag previous to setting them, and that the roller has to be forced over a small mound of earth, the remains of the parapet which has been cut through. The time necessary for this debouche, including the crown- ing of the third gabion, is about two hours and a half, viz. : From the commencement until the overturn- ing of gabions, 30 minutes. Overturning gabions, 17 " To advance the roller to the outer surface of gabionade, 6 " The roller entirely engaged in the gabionade, 32 " First gabion filled, 35 " Second " 10 Third " " crowned, and No. 1 form reaches the middle, - 20 " Total, - - 2 lirs. 30 minutes. THE FULL SAP. 179 In the case of an oblique debouche the roller is placed per- pendicular to the new direction, and No. 1 excavates in this direction. The operation is similar to that just described, but longer. It is therefore generally preferable to debouch perpendicularly first, and then change the direction, if necessary. SECOND CASE. TO DEBOUCH BY THE DOUBLE SAP. Two gabions of the gabionade 13' 4" apart, are chosen as the first of the double sap. The chief commands, I. ''Pre- pare to debouch by the double sap" 2. " Commence working." Each brigade executes all that has been prescribed above for these commands. The assistants, in stuffing the rollers, should bind them together, causing the fascines of one to project into the other. The earth, inthis case, can only be drawn away on one side of the sap, instead of both, as in the preceding case, which renders the execution somewhat longer. 180 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. ' TO DEBOUCH BY THE SIMPLE OR DOUBLE SAP, FROM A OF THE ORDIN.WIY AVIDTH. FIRST CASE. TO DEBOUCH BY SIMPLE SAP. Let A be the gabion chosen as the first of the new gabion- ade (on the right of the new sap). The chief commands, 1. "Prepare to ikbouch." 2. "Ready." 3. "Debouch." 4. "Halt'' 1 At the first command, the assistants brine: for- ward a sap-roller, place it against the reverse, in the trench, and opposite the gabions A, B, C, and D, and if not already filled, fill it. Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4 are provided with two sap- hooks, two forks, two beams, 10' 6" long, and notched 011 one THE FULL SAP. 181 side, two ropes 30' or 40' long, having a hook at one ex- tremity of each, a long and a short handle drag. At the second command, Nos. 1 and 4, each taking a fork, place themselves opposite A, B, C, D (the first on the right), and first take down the crowning fascine, then overturn the into the trench. The same sappers place the beam, one end under the roller, and about 12" from its extremity, the other on the parapet, which has been previ- ously formed into a ramp, by dragging the earth inward with a hoe. Nos. 2 and 3 lay two hooks on the reverse, op- posite and perpendicular to the roller, fasten the hooks of the in roller, and plant two strong stakes on each side of it. 182 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOrS. The assistants are placed two on each side the 1 and 2, provided with forks. At the third command the roller is pushed up to the top of the parapet, first by hand, then with forks ; the sappers having the following positions Nos. 2 and 3 assistants near the right beam, acting with the same hook ; Nos. 3 and 4 assistants do the same on the opposite end ; the first and second assistants opposite the middle of the roller, pushing with the forks, and prevent it from rolling back when the hooks are disengaged to take a new hold ; Nos. 1 and 4 at each end of the roller, and outside the beams, also pushing, and in case of need assisting at the hooks. THE FULL SAP. 183 When the roller arrives at tlie crest of the parapet, it is still pushed with the hooks, but the first and second assistants taking the ropes, give them a turn around the pickets (in the bottom of the trench), allow the roller to roll gradually down the exterior slope of the parapet, keeping it parallel to its first position. At the fourth command, which the chief gives when he judges the roller N has nearly reached the foot of the parapet, the ropes are made fast to the pick- ets, and the beams, hooks, &c., taken away and laid on the reverse and berme. The sap is then commenced with the usual command, "Gabion" &c. 184 MANUAL FOB ENGINEER TROOPS. It should be remarked, first, That the new gabionade should be so directed that, arriving at the sap-roller, the last- placed gabion shall be at least half covered by it. Second, That No. 1, being perfectly covered by the par- apet, having cleared away the earth of the parapet, places the first two gabions on the natural ground, and then com- mences his form in the usual manner, throwing the earth to the rear ; the sappers in the rear fill these two gabions ; No. 1 fills the following one, throwing the excess of earth to the rear. Third. Any accidental openings are closed immediately with wool-sacks. The time required to execute this debouche, from the command "Prepare to debouch" until seven ga- bions are placed, is about four hours. SECOND CASE. TO DEBOUCH BY THE DOUBLE SAP. This case is executed in the same manner as the preced- ing. The assistants, in placing the two rollers, take care to bind them well together, that they may not separate in the man In this case the mode of commencing is the same as ex- Fm. 9. 222 MANUAL FOB ENGINEER TROOPS. cavating a gallery from the lower part of one side of a shaft, it being understood that the floor of the branch always com- mences from the bottom of the gallery. The entrance of the branch is of course cut half way between two adjacent gallery frames. 3. A branch may be commenced obliquely from the side of a gallery. In this case, if the soil be good and not wanting much support, the first branch frame is placed as near to the side (see fig. 10) of the gallery as possible, but at right angles to the direction of the intended new branch. Hence, one stanchion only of the first branch frame can agree with the side of the gallery; the other side will be more or less distant from it in proportion to the degree of obliquity. If, on the con- trary, the ground cannot be trusted the first branch frame must be placed so as to line with the side of the gallery it- self (see fig. 11), and consequent- ly a longer cap- sill than the or- dinary ones will be necessary. FIG. 10. FIG. 11. PRACTICAL OPERATIONS IN MINING. 223 MINING WITH CASES. Having described the method of mining with frames and sheeting, it remains now to point out the difference when mine-cases alone are used. These descriptions of cases have long been known under the name of Dutch cases ; these consist of four pieces two stanchions, a cap-sill, and ground- sill. For ordinary work they are made out of two-inch deal, and have a three-eighths of an inch round iron bolt driven transverse- ly through the middle thickness of the wood of each piece, about four and a half inches from each end, to prevent them from split- The stanchions have tenons Tic,. 12. ting. 2" long by 3" wide at each end, and mortices of correspond- ing dimensions are cut in the ends of the cap-sill and ground- sill to receive the tenons; the most convenient width for the piece would be twelve inches, but this is not a matter of consequence, and they may be made of whatever sized planks, not less than two inches thick, that can most readily be procured. In great galleries which require stronger ma- terials, the stanchions may be four inches thick, the ground- sill three inches and the cap-sill five inches ; notches, as shown in the figure, are cut in the stanchions for the pur- pose of rendering them more manageable, both in putting them up and taking them down ; they also serve for places in which to drive pickets to support the case in a descend- ing gallery. The size in the clear of cases, both for shafts and galleries, is the same as that of frames, and the same precautions and arrangements in their adjustments are necessary. In sinking shafts when the excavation has advanced about 224 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. one foot in depth, it becomes necessary to fix the first case, which is done in the following manner : One of the short pieces is first placed in its proper position into the excavation; the tenons of the two long pieces are then fitted into the mor- tises of this, and then the mortise at one end of the fourth side is fitted on its tenon ; but to adjust the corresponding mortise and tenon, it will be necessary to push back either this short piece or the long one full two inches, in order to bring the mortise and tenon together ; and whichever plan is adopted, as little earth as possible should be cut away. The first case being placed the excavation is proceeded with, and the second case is placed close under the first, and in a similar manner, and so on to the bottom of the shaft. This is the mode of proceeding when the soil is so bad as to re- quire close casing ; under ordinary circumstances, how- ever, it will be sufficient to introduce a case at every three or four feet ; and when this is done, it is usual to cut out the earth to the thickness of the plank, so as to admit of the case being placed flush with the sides of the excava- tion. When it is intended to push a gallery from the bottom r 4-.- .-> of a close-cased shaft, it is evident, before proceeding, it will be necessary to remove one side of the cas- ing ; and to do this without causing the adjacent sides to col- lapse, and the casing to tumble in, a frame somewhat similar to a door frame must be introduced its ground-sill being ad- Fio. 18. PRACTICAL OPERATIONS IN MINING. 225 justed so that its upper side may be on a level with the floor of the intended gallery ; the exterior dimensions of the frame must exactly correspond with the width of the shaft, and the interior dimensions may be exactly those of the gallery, or exceed them by an inch or two. When this frame is first put up it should be made to stand about one foot from the side of the casing which is to be removed ; and when this is effected, it must be forced up against that side. These details having been attended to, the casing on the side from which jthe gallery is to start may be removed, commencing with the side of the lowest case ; to remove which Avill be a work of some difficulty, as the earth must be picked away from behind it in order to admit of its being pushed back to clear it of its tenon. It will be neces- sary, in the first instance, to excavate the ground underneath it in order to admit of the introduction of the pick and push-pick, but the removal of each successive side will be easier. In driving the gallery, the mode of using the cases is as nearly similar as possible to that described for shafts, making allowance for the difference of direction; the ground- sill is first placed next the stanchions, and to fix the cap-sill the same mode of proceeding is to be adopted as has already been described for fixing the fourth side of the shaft case ; the space which is necessarily left between the earth and the top of the cap-sill should be filled in before proceeding to place the next case. Close casing will seldom be required in a gallery, but the roofing should in most cases be sup- ported ; this can easily be effected by using pieces of the cases as top sheeting, extending from the top sides of the cases which it may be found necessary to use. Great gallery cases are somewhat different from other cases. In order to give greater strength, the stanchions are marie without tenons at their lower ends, which are kept in their places by cleats two inches thick nailed on to the sill ; the mortises in the cap-sills need not be more than two 10* 226 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. inches deep. In driving great galleries in loose soil, after setting up the first frame it becomes necessary to support the top-sill, whilst the miner excavates the ground for the ground-sill and stanchions. For this purpose two upright FIG. 14. , pieces of timber, carrying each a cross-piece, as represented in the annexed figure, are made use of. The upright part rests on the sill of the frame already placed, and is steadied by being wedged up. The cross- piece is two feet long, and the part that projects in ad- vance, as will be seen from the fig- ure, is made an inch higher than the rear part, to support the top-sill somewhat higher than its final level. FIG. 15 PRACTICAL OPERATIONS IN MINING. 227 The rear part of the cross-piece is braced by a piece of iron to the upright. These are called crutches, and the materials of which they are made should be as light as a due regard to strength will admit. In working with cases, the direction of a gallery may be easily and gradually changed, as shown in fig. 16. If the soil is good, the inter- vals which occur between the cases may be left open ; if bad, they may be filled up with small pieces of wood. When it is necessary to break out from the side of a gallery in a direction perpendicular or oblique to it, the requisite number of cases must be removed, and the roof of the interval lined with pieces of board extending across and supported on the ex- treme cases, as in fig. 17. If the soil is very bad,. the stanchions only from the side whence the new gallery is to proceed need be removed, and the intervening cap-sills can be supported as in fig. 18. But this method has the in- convenience of lowering the headway, a serious objection. When a gallery branches from another in an oblique di- rection, it will be better to obtain the obliquity gradually, than by introducing an oblique case, like the frame indi- cated in fig. IG. FIG. IG. s FIG. IT. 228 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. Flo. 18. When cases are used, the w o r k will ad- vance at nearly double the rate it would with frames and sheet- ing, viz. : great galleries and shafts about one foot an hour ; common gal- leries one foot and a half per hour. CHARGING OP MINES. The receptacle for the powder is called the chamber, and is usually at the extremity of a branch, either in its pro- longation or on the flank. When the charge does not exceed one hundred pounds, the ordinary powder-barrel may be used to contain it. When it is greater a cubical box is constructed in such a manner as to be readily put together in the excavation for the chamber. When the charge is very large, the lining of the chamber is formed with the ordinary mining- frames and sheeting or with mining-cases. When the weight of the charge is given, the size of the box may be determined by allowing thirty cubic inches to -the pound. TAMPING MINES. The tamping of mines consists in filling up the gallery with solid material for a certain distance from the chamber, with the view of preventing the force of the explosion from expending itself in the gallery, rather than in the direction in which the mine is required to act. The tamping should extend from the charge for a distance equal at least to 1 times the line of least resistance ; and if the material used for forming the tamping be not heavy, i- PRACTICAL OPERATIONS IN MINING. 229 otherwise but loosely packed, this distance should be double that line. The materials usually employed in tamping consist of earth which has been excavated in the formation of the gal- lery, sods, sand-bags, or indeed, of any heavy substance which may be at hand. If the soil be argillaceous, it may be roughly moulded into bricks, which form an excellent mate- rial, and one with which the operation proceeds quickly. The most expeditious mode of tamping is, however, gen- erally considered to be with sand-bags. Split or cleft timber, in lengths of four or five feet, and of about 9 inches girt, jammed together in the gallery, is also very applicable, and when mixed with common earth at intervals of 10 or 12 feet, forms a good tamping. Indeed, in the demolition of revetments, by an arrangement of mines in an escarp gallery, it would be found sufficient if both extremities of the gallery were tamped with cleft timber. In tamping wholly with common earth, it is desirable to strengthen the mass by pieces of scantling crossing each other, and placed diagonally in the gallery. These pieces of scantling must be secured in their position by letting their ends into the sides of the gallery, or by simply jamming them. In a permanent system of countermines, it is usual to leave grooves in the walls of the galleries, for the purpose of receiving the ends of the scantling above alluded to. In a common gallery (4| by 3 feet), the tamping, when executed with, common earth and well rammed, will not be completed at a greater rate than from 2 to 3 feet per hour. In proportion as the charge is increased, the value of the tamping diminishes. Experiments were made by Mouze for the purpose of determining in what ratio the charge must >be increased to produce the same effect with a dimin- ished tamping ; and he concluded that when the tamping is diminished by I, the charge should be increased]; when 230 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. the tamping is diminished by |, the charge should be in- creased | ; and when the mine is not tamped, the charge should be doubled. FIRING MINES. Mines are usually fired, or, as it is technically termed, sprung, by a powder-hose, or by Bickford's fuze. The powder-hose consists of a tube of strong linen, reach- ing from the chamber to the outside of the tamping. To protect the hose, it is enclosed in a hollow wooden case represented in profile as follows : Pp., sions of the case being 3 inches, P~^ the exterior dimen- and the interior 1 inch. The case is fastened to the side of the shaft or gal- lery by wooden pegs ; and in galleries and branches, after it has been secured, it is usually covered with earth, to pre- vent accidents during the operation of tamping. The mine is fired by a piece of port-fire inserted into the end of the powder-hose, of such length as will give time to the man who fires it to escape before the explosion takes place. The port-fire is then covered all round with moist clay, well kneaded with the hands ; and earth is applied around all, so as to render it impossible for any fire to communicate with the powder-hose till the port-fire shall have burnt out. When if is desired that several mines should explode simul- taneously, being fired from one point, it is necessary that equal lengths of powder-hose should extend from the focus or point of ignition to all the mines. To effect this object, the hose of the mines nearer to the focus must be bent more frequently than those leading to the more distant ones, as in the annexed diagram (fig. 19). a Thebendingsofthe _ _ II . hose retard the pro- FMkit - r~ s ress of ig nition but only in a small degree, so small as to be safely neglected. PRACTICAL OPERATIONS IX MINING. 231 Bickford's fuze consists of a train of gunpowder enveloped in the strands of a rope which has been steeped in a pecul- iar composition, and the rope protected by a coat of pitch ; it is not injured by damp, and will burn under water ; it burns at the rate of 12 feet in five minutes. The Voltaic battery is a means which may be resorted to for igniting mines ; but the care and attention required to isolate the wires, and the difficulty of arranging securely so great a length of them, render this application of the bat- tery, however desirable, hardly available for military pur- poses. The rocket is also employed to fire the charge. Like the powder-hose, it requires a case or hose-trough. Wherever a change of direction takes place in the case, care must be taken that it is not made too quickly. At each angle it is usual to place a fresh rocket, with its quick-match secured round a nail ; the first rocket, arriving at the point where the second is placed, fires it. In order better to secure the first rocket firing the second, a quantity of powder should be strewed about the match of the latter, protected by a triangular slip of deal, nailed to the bottom of the trough ; the first rocket then ignites the powder, and so fires the second, which its rapid motion might otherwise fail to do. AVhen by the explosion of a charge of powder in a mine, a conical excavation or crater is formed in the ground. The radius at the surface is called the radius of the crater. The distance from the centre of the charge to the surface is the line of least resistance. The slant height of the cone is the radius of explosion. When the crater radius is equal to the line of least resistance, it is called a one-lined crater, when double a two-lined crater, &c. When the crater is two-lined, the mine is called a common mine, when less an undercharged, and when greater an over- charged mine, or globe of compression. The charge of powder necessary to produce these craters 232 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. will of course depend on the nature of the soil as well as the depth of the charge below the surface. In ordinary soil, the charge to produce a common mine may be found by cubing the line of least resistance taken in feet ; this number divided by ten will give the charge in pounds. For the other classes of mines the charge has not as yet been well determined. The following table has been derived from the most relia- ble experiments. L L R 3 X aV g ave 1 -lined crater. ".2 " LLR 3 Xi " 3 " " LLR X4* " 6 " The following general rules will give approximate results Subtract the given line of least resistance from the radi us of crater; multiply this difference by ,85. Add this prod uct to the given line of least resistance ; the result will givt the L L R of a common mine, requiring the same charge as the globe of compression, which may be determined as be- fore stated by cubing the line of least resistance, and divid- ing by ten. The effect of the explosion of the charge in a mine, is not confined to the formation of a crater. The earth in every direction within certain limits, called the radii of rupture, is pulverized and compressed to such a degree as to destroy any gallery that may be within the sphere of action. As one of the principal objects of offensive mines is the de- struction of the enemy's galleries, it is important to ascertain the lengths of the radii for different charges. When the charge placed at A is insufficient to form a crater, the effect is, to produce a spherical compression M N O, whose radius will depend on the charge and nature of the soil. This sphere is termed a camouflet. PRACTICAL OPERATIONS IN MINING. 233 c O FIG. 20. When the charge is sufficient to produce a crater, the solid of rupture becomes an elipsoid, a b c. When A B = B C, or the mine is a " common" one, a A will be = 1.7 A B, and A b = 1.3 A B. In the globe of compression, although the crater radius cannot be increased much beyond three times the line of least resistance A B, yet the radius of rupture may be, al- most indefinitely, by increasing the charge. In the case of a six-lined crater, the transverse axis A a'= 4| A B, and the vertical axis A 6'=1 A B. It will be ob- served that the radius of rupture increases much more rap- idly in the horizontal than in the vertical direction, with the increase of charge. VENTILATION. Great attention must be paid to ventilation in driving ex- tensive galleries, as the gases generated by the explosion of gunpowder or contained in the soil, have sometimes suffocated the miner before the extinction of his light have warned him of its presence, and even under ordinary circumstances, the air becomes so much vitiated by the presence of the work- men alone, that branches cannot be safely driven more than about 60 feet ; beyond this distance apertures should therefore be bored, if possible, up to the surface of the ground at intervals, taking care to conceal their position from the enemy. Communications may also be made with adjacent galleries to create a draught. Mechanical means are sometimes employed to produce a 234: MANUAL FOB ENGINEER TROOPS. circulation, so as to substitute fresh air for that which is im- pure; for this purpose tubes are laid along the galleries through which fresh air may be forced in, or bad air extract- ed. As there may be a large quantity of noxious gas in the soil, ready to supply the place of that extracted, the system of forcing air in is to be preferred. The tubes used for ventilation have ordinarily been made of wood or tin, but vulcanized india-rubber would probably answer the purpose better. For forcing the air through the tubes, the fan-blower, such as is used in reverberatory furnaces and forges has been employed advantageously. The ordinary blacksmith's bel- lows may be used where the length of the tube is not great. ATTACK AND DEFENCE OF A SYSTEM OF COUNTERMINES. When the besieger arrives in the vicinity of the glacis of a countermined fortress, he is obliged to move slowly, and dares not advance on the surface of the ground further than what he may be master of below. He then commences to excavate the earth, in order to try to discover the galleries of the besieged, and to seize them, or else he endeavors to blow them in by firing mines. To accomplish this, in the middle of his third parallel he sinks shafts from sixteen to twenty-one feet deep, he then pushes forward a gallery, tak- ing care to stop working at intervals, to listen if the enemy is coming to meet him. Often the besieged, especially when his galleries extend to a great distance, drives a branch almost under the third parallel, and fires one or more mines. The besieger, under this supposition, ought to make a lodgement on the edge of the crater, and sink a shaft, in his own lodgement, This shaft is not sunk from the bottom of the crater, because it would be the reservoir of all projectiles thrown from the place. Care must be taken, however, at the same time, to PRACTICAL OPERATIONS IN MINING. 235 clear away the excavation caused by the globe of compres- sion, in order to discover the direction of the branch which joins it, and which necessarily communicates with a main gallery. While the besieger is sinking the shaft, he ought fre- quently to listen, for there is not a doubt that he is now in the vicinity of the mines of the besieged ; and when he ar- rives at the depth of eighteen or twenty feet, he commences a branch, breaking out on that side where he imagines the enemy's gallery to be situated. When the besieger finds himself sufficiently near to the gallery of the place, a*nd is in danger of being forestalled, he hastens to dig a chamber at the extremity of his branch, in which he places a certain quantity of powder. He then tamps as fast as possible, and endeavors to fire his mine be- fore the besieged can find time to establish one to destroy his works. The besieged, on their side, directly they cease to hear the sound of the pickaxe, work with the greatest possible diligence, because they suppose from that instant their ene- my, is engaged in tamping their mine. If they have the good fortune to fall in with the mine, they endeavor to seize the powder, or else to saturate it by an inundation of water. If, on the contrary, they discover a part of the branch al- ready excavated, they ought, without delay, to inundate it, in order to destroy the hose, and so prevent the powder from exploding. These artifices are made use of in like manner by the besieger. It sometimes happens that two miners, who are working to meet each other, are only separated by a slight parti- tion of earth. This is an occasion seized upon to give the "camouflot," which is performed in this manner : The most active of the two pierces a hole on the side of his enemy, with borers of different diameter, in order to enlarge it gradually, and to give it a diameter of six inches. He digs 236 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. this hole as deep as he can from six to eight feet, for in- stance. He then introduces a large cartridge of the same size, containing from twelve to twenty pounds of powder. He drives in this species of mine with a plug of wood, which he fixes and props up strongly with a piece of wood across the branch. Finally, he fires this little mine, by means of a fuze which goes through the middle of the plug. If the gallery of the enemy is but four or five feet from the head of this cartridge, he may be sure that it will be driven in by the explosion. To produce the same effect, two or three shells, fixed to- gether, are sometimes employed. But this method requires a great deal of care and attention, in order that one's own labor be not exposed to destruction. In subterranean warfare, when two miners are working to meet each other, they take care to try the ground fre- quently with a borer, to find out exactly what distance they are off. In such a case, he who sees the end of his enemy's borer appearing, keeps a strict watch on the moment it is drawn back. He then introduces quickly into the hole it loaves a pistol loaded with ball, and fires it the moment he imagines the hole is clear. This ought to be followed by three or four more ; after which a probe is pushed into the opening, to clear it, and prevent the enemy coming through on that side. Vauban recommends the following articles to be provided, in attacks of this description : 1st. A frame of wood, like a shield, 3" or 4" thick,with a bolt in the middle to manage it with, and to place it against the hole perforated by the probe. 2d. Smoke balls. They are pushed in through the same hole, when lighted, and care is taken to stop the hole on one's own side, so that all the smoke goes into the enemy's gallery, by which means their miner is driven away for time. During his absence the mine is charged and fired, PRACTICAL OPERATIONS IN MIXING. 237 which, by blowing in the gallery, prevents the return of the enemy. If the opening is wide enough, a shell or port-fires, to suffocate, or grenades, may be introduced. The shell is to be preferred, when it can be used, because it destroys the part of the gallery where it falls. *When a thin partition of earth divides the combatants, a petard is used to blow it in. Such are a great part of the artifices made use of by miners. To avoid them the besieger should, as soon as ho can, fire a mine to blow in the branches, and even the gal- leries, of the besieged, if within reach. He is sure, by this means, of driving him #way for some days. It is well known that the firing of a mine shakes the ground to a considerable distance, so that if a gallery be within this limit, the gases of the powder penetrate and poison the air with such effect that no one can breathe it. This is not so much felt by the besieger, as he has more air, not being obliged to use such long galleries. CONSTRUCTION OF BATTERIES. PART V. CONSTRUCTION OF BATTERIES. IN the follow- ing pages the t e r m battery is applied to those positions prepared for the reception of artillery in such a manner as to cover the pieces and cannoniers from the ene- my's fire. Fig. 1 repre- sents the plan of a battery for six pieces. The covering mass in front is the parapet. That at the side is the epaulement. The earth for the construc- tion of these embankments is generally fur- nished from an 11 FIG. 1. 242 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. exterior excavation or ditch. In batteries the different slopes of the parapet, ditch, * 2*- + FIG. 4. Let a b represent the foot of the interior slope of the parapet, a c that of the epaulement. Lay off a, 1 = 9', 1, 2=18'. 1 and 2 will give the positions of the first and second errfbrasures. The next interval is 24' as a traverse which will occupy six feet, will come between the second and third gun. The other intervals are laid off in a similar manner, 15' being allowed for the extreme merlon on the side where there is no epaulement. The object of the epaulement being to screen the interior of the battery from oblique fire, the length and direction of the line a c will be dependent on the direction of this fire. The angle cab having been previously determined, may be laid off either with a field level, or by constructing the triangle a e d. By inspecting figure 1, the thickness of the parapet at its base will be found 28' and that of the epaulement 20 feet. These distances must be laid off on the perpendiculars, b m, a n t and a 0, cp. Stout pickets are driven at c, a, b, wi, ?i t s 9 CONSTRUCTION OF BATTERIES. 245 s, 0, and />, and tracing-tape or white cord stretched around them, thus enclosing the ground to be covered by the para- pet. The ditch is marked out in a similar manner, giving it a width of -24' in front of the parapet and 20' for the epaule- ments, and leaving a space of three or four feet from the foot of the exterior slope for the berme. DISTRIBUTION OF THE WORKING PARTY. The working party, provided with tools and reveting ma- terial, are conducted to the site of the proposed battery, as soon as it is dark enough to avoid being seen by the be- sieged. The line representing the foot of the exterior slope is divided into intervals of six feet ; for each interval two ex- cavators are placed in the ditch, one shoveller on the berme, one on the parapet, to level and ram the earth thrown in, and one sapper to level the terreplein and prepare the ground fbr receiving the platform. When earth has been thrown into the parapet to the depth of two feet, the revetment of the interior slope is commenced ; for this purpose five sappers for each one-gun portion of the battery are required. FIG. 5. FIRST NIGHT'S WORK. During the first night the terreplein should be pre; arecl, the parapet and revetment carried to the height of the sole of the embrasures, the traverses commenced, and the com- munications finished; the latter are constructed by the flying FIG. 6. WORK AT END OF FIRST DAY. 24:6 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. sap. As the excavation of the ditch is the most fatiguing part of the work, the men thus engaged change places with thosqjpn the benne and parapet every two hours. The working party for the day arrive, just before dawn, bringing with them gabions, fascines, 15 - The arrangement of the ; first course of gabions is shown in the figure. When nearly / filled, the opposite rows should be tied together and across CONSTRUCTION OF BATTERIES. 251 FHJ. 17. the corners, with wire or rope ; when filled they are crowned with fascines. In the second course there is one less gabion on each side than in the first. The two rows meet at top, where they are tied together. The earth is rounded over the top to the depth of IS". EMBBASUEES REVETBD WITH GABIONS. Fio. 19. f252 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. The sole is prepared and one course of fascines laid, as in the fascine embrasure. The revetment of each cheek is formed as follows : com- mencing at the throat, six gabions are placed in a line, and resting on the fascine abave mentioned. The first gabion is vertical, the last has an inclination given it of , from the directrix. In these positions they are filled and secured, and the intermediate gabions aligned on them at top and bottom. All the gabions are securely anchored to pickets driven 3' within the merlon. The strongest gabions should be selected for this part of the revetment. Those of hoop iron, make the most substan- tial embrasure. Although it is essential that the embrasure gabion should be well anchored 3 they should never be tied to each other. The independence of the parts in this revetment, renders the gabion superior to any other mate- rial, for the upper portion of the battery ; as one portion may be torn away by a shot without endangering the adja- cent parts. The merlon is carried about 18" higher than the revet- ment, and its superior slope united to it by a slope of 45. SAND-BAG BATTERIES. When the presence of rock, water, or other obstacle ren- ders excavation on the site of the battery impossible, the work is executed by means of earth brought forward in sand-bags, some of which are built into, and others emptied on the parapet. The bags are filled before dark and are brought as near the proposed battery as possible without attracting the ob- eervation of the besieged. CONSTRUCTION OF BATTERIES. 253 The battery is traced after dark, the%urface to be covered by the parapet is marked by tracing-tape, The working party is divided as follows : For each one-gun portion twenty-five men to fill and tie, and forty to carry bags ; eight sappers to lay the bags, and two to level and ram the earth. The carriers pass from the depot to the battery in single file, each carrying a filled bag on his shoulder. These are received by the sappers, who immediately commence form- ing a mask or wall of bags (a b) extending the whole length of the battery. The lower part of the mask is 40" thick, the remainder 20". The bags are laid alternately, headers and stretchers. The usual height is G' 6", but this may be increased, if it does not afford sufficient protection. It may also be found necessary to carry the mask round into the epauleinent. The revetment of the interior slope, which is carried on at the same time, is formed of sand-bags laid in alternate courses of headers and stretchers. The tie of the bag is kept in the parapet. From time to time bags should be an- chored by passing a rope around them and making it fast to a stake driven within the parapet. Whilst the 'revetment is going on, a second party of car- riers bring up untied bags of sand, which they empty be- tween the mask and revetment to form the parapet and outside the mask to form the exterior slope. The embrasures should be reveted with gabions or fascines, if possible. When sand-bags are employed they must be covered with raw hides, or hurdles, otherwise they are soon destroyed by the blast of the piece. About twelve hundred sand-bags are required per gun, for the revetment and mask, and four thousand bags of sand to form the parapet. This battery may be constructed in a single night. In consequence of the celerity and safety with which the 254- MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. work is executed, lis method may often be employed with advantage, even when the soil will permit the use of the ordinary form. HALF-SUNKEN BATTERIES. Tina term is applied to those batteries in which the earth to form the parapet is derived partly from a ditch in front, and partly from the excavation of the terreplein. To trace the battery, first mark out the base of the parapet and epaulemcnt. Then a line 20' in rear of and parallel to the parapet, which will give the position of the foot of the reverse elope of the terreplein. The construction is as follows : taking the case where the terreplein is to be lowered 2'. For each one-gun portion, six excavators are placed in the ditch, and six sappers commence the interior revetment by half imbedding a fascine at the foot of the interior slope. Paral- lel to this they commence excavating a trench 2' deep and 3' wide, leaving a berme of 18" on the side next the parapet. At, the same time, six men are employed excavating along the rear line of the terreplein, throwing the earth toward the revetters, who pass it into the parapet, where it is levelled and rammed by two sappers, assisted by two workmen. The terrepleiu has an inclination to the rear, where it is finished with a trench to carry off the rain-water. If there is no low ground in the vicinity to which this trench can be con- b10 ' 2 ' ducted, it should terminate in a cesspool. The revetment of the interior slope is carried up to the level of the sole of the embrasure with fascines. It may be finished either with fascines or gabions. CONSTRUCTION OF BATTERIES. 255 The method above described is only applicable when the soil is sufficiently firm to stand without revetment in the excavated portion of the interior slope. When this is not the case, a trench is dug at the foot of the interior slope, and to the full depth of the terreplein. At the bottom of this trench the revetment is commenced and carried up, as in the elevated battery. Under ordinary circumstances, this battery may be con- structed in eleven hours. PIG. 22. FULL-SUNKEN BATTERIES. In full-sunken batteries the terreplein is low- ered 3'. Sufficient earth is thus furnished for the parapet, and no ditch is required. There are two methods employed in their construction: The first is the same as for half- sunken batteries, the whole of the interior slope usually being reveted, and the ditch omitted. The second consists in first constructing a trench by the flying sap, 10' in advance and parallel to the interior crest of the proposed battery. The terreplein is traced 20' wide, taking the foot of the interior slope 10' from the gabionade (c). The working party is distributed along the trench, and commences excavating from the re- verse (a >), throwing the earth against e d. When the trench has been carried back 3' or 4', the revetment (i k) is commenced. This is executed as in the elevated battery. The em- brasures are laid out, and the revetment of the cheeks carried as far as the gabionade (c), which is allowed to remain until the parapet has at- tained its full height, when it is overturned, and the embrasure finished. These batteries may 256 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. be constructed in a parallel, instead of making a trench especially for the purpose. In this case, a trench must be cut around, and thirty yards in rear of, the battery, to replace the portion of the parallel thus occupied. There is still another method of changing a trench into a sunken battery, which will be described under the head of " Breaching Batteries." MORTAR BATTERIES. As mortars are fired at an angle of elevation of at least 30, greater latitude is allowed in the selection of the posi- tion of their batteries, than for those of guns and howitzers. The least exposed position is on the capitals of the works attacked. Frequently the labor in their construction may be very much abridged, by taking advantage of the irregu- larities of the ground. Thus the greater part of the parapet may often be formed by a natural ridge. Under ordinary circumstances they are placed in rear of the second parallel. Unless the nature of the soil is unfavorable, these batteries are always sunken. They are without embrasures, and un- less the soil is very light, are not reveted. TO CONSTRUCT A BATTERY FOR FOUR MORTARS. FIG. 28. CONSTRUCTION OF BATTERIES. 257 FIG. 24r SECTION ON p q. The intervals between the axes of the mortars should be 15'. Six feet is added to the interval in which the traverse occurs. A space of 10' is allowed between the axes of the extreme mortars and the epaulement. The width of the terreplein is 20' at bottom ; its depth, iu front, 3' 6", and in rear, 4'. TRACE. Mark on the ground the line representing the foot of the interior slope, and lay off on this line 71' (the sum of the intervals). From each extremity lay off the epaulements ; their direction will depend on that of the enemy's fire. Par- allel to the first line, and 20' from it, lay off the foot of the reverse slope. Then mark, with tracing-tape, the lines, A, e, g, f t 30' ; outside the lines first laid out. These lines will be the intersection of the interior slopes o*f the parapet and epaulements with the natural surface of the ground. The excavation is commenced on the line (a ), by sinking a trench 40" deep and 4' wide.' The earth is thrown into the parapet, and passed forward by a relay of shovellers, to form the exterior slope. When the trench is finished, the excavation is carried back toward the reverse. As soon as the parapet has attained its full height on the exterior, the sappers commence building j,he interior slope (e, m), which will be one of f in ordinary soil. The earth required for this purpose is thrown on the bcnric. When the excavation of the terreplein has been carried back to the line (r q), the step (a m p) is cut away, and the earth thrown on the parapet. The earth obtained from theex- cavution of the terreplein is about sufficient for the con- 258 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. struction of the parapet. That for the epaulements will be furnished by the ditches (x y) on the exterior. The splinter-proof traverse is of the usual form and con- struction. When the soil is of such a character as to require the in- terior slope to be sustained, the usual revetments of gabions, fascines, or sand-bags, may be employed. The working party is distributed as follows : For each one-mortar portion, 4 picks, 4 shovels, 2 rammers. For each epaulement, 9 picks, 7 shovels, 4 rammers. For each traverse, two picks, two shovels, two revetters. Or, for the four-mortar battery, ninety men, four being added for the increased interval opposite the traverse. Fia. 25. Portions of a trench or parallel are frequently converted into mortar batteries. To effect this it is only necessary to increase the width of the trench to 20'. The earth thus fur- nished is thrown in front of the parapet, thus giving it the requisite thickness. BREACHING AND COUNTER BATTERIES. The crowning of the covered way is a trench constructed by the full sap, the crest of the parapet being parallel to and 14' from that of the covered way. In this trench, the breaching and counter batteries are constructed. The traverses employed for the defilement of the trench, are usually far enough apart to allow the introduction of two pieces between them. The intervals between the pieces may be reduced to 14'. The line of fire in the broaching battery should be as nearly perpendicular to the scarp to be Breached as possible; if the angle is less than 30 the shot will ricochet and the breach cannot be CONSTRUCTION OF BATTERIES. 259 I./*' Fio. 20. The profile of the scarp to be breached, and the ditch and covered way in front should be ascertained. This will de- termine the position of the directrices, -and inclinations of the soles of the embrasures. The parapets of breaching batteries are 14' thick and 8' high. Those of counter batteries, have the same height, but should be five or six feet thicker, as they are more ex- posed to the enemy's fire. In each the terreplein is 27' wide. CONSTRUCTION OP BREACHING BATTERIES. During the day all the necessary material is collected, the terreplein excavated and the platforms laid. If the trench has been well constructed, and the soil is good, the revetment of the trench may be retained for that of the battery, otherwise a new revetment is formed, simi- lar to those described under the head of full-sunken batteries, MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. with this exception, that the upper course of gabions must be crowned with three fascines to bring the parapet to the required height. The line marking the reverse of the terreplein is laid out parallel to and 27' from the interior slope. The directrices of the embrasures are deter- mined and four pickets driven to mark the posi- tion and height of the corners of the platforms. The excavation of the terreplein is commenced, part of the earth thus furnished is used in form- ing the foundation of the platforms, the remain- der in increasing the height of the adjacent traverses. The figure shows the necessary al- terations, from a trench to a breaching battery. To construct the embrasure, a double row of gabions filled with fascines, is formed along the exterior crest of the parapet, as a mask, or pro- tection against musketry. A gabion of the revetment of the interior slope is removed, to form the throat ; into this opening a sapper enters, and commences the ex- cavation of the embrasure, throwing the earth on the merlons, until he has formed a seat for the second pair of gabions of the cheek, which he places, and is then relieved by two sappers, who continue the excavation, throwing the earth into the gabions just placed, until they are full, then on the merlons ; they each place a gabion, forming the third pair in the em- brasure. In the 'same way a third relief places the fourth pair, &c., until six pairs are placed. During this operation, the direction of the cheek and inclination of the sole, are indicated to the workmen by a straight-edge resting on the heads of two pickets, one in the throat of the embrasure the other in the terreplein. FIG. 27. CONSTRUCTION OF BATTERIES. 261 After the embrasure is finished, the mask is either removed by drawing the gabions into the battery, with sap-hooks, or is left to be blown out by the first discharge of the piece. FIG. 28. SECTION ON at a/. The parapet of the counter-ba-ttery being five or six feet thicker than that of the trench, which increase is gained on the inside, it will always be necessary to renew the interior revetment. In other respects the construction does not dif- fer from that of breaching batteries. MAGAZINES Are usually built fifteen yards in rear of the parapet of the battery or communication, sometimes at the end of the batteiy parapet or in that of the communication. The figure represents a rectangular magazine in rear of the parapet. An excavation 4' deep receives the five mining frames, each composed of a cap-sill 6' X 8" X 6", two stanchions 4' 6"X6"X6", and one ground-sill 5' 6"X6"X3". The in- tervals between the frames are 2' 6". The ground-sills are brought to the same level, and surrounded with sheeting one inch thick, and covered with timber or plank at least 6" thick. The frames for the communication may be of somewhat smaller scantling, that of six inches square will answer for the cap-sills. These frames are 2' 6" wide in the clear, and of the same height as those in the magazine. The sheeting is also the same. The roof may be still further strengthened by layers of timber or fascines. The whole must be covered with earth to the depth of 7'. As a precaution against moisture, a mound of earth is raised over the magazine, in the form of a roof, and about 2' 262 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. high in the middle, over which a tarpaulin is laid and the re- -2j* mainder of the earth thrown on. The earth for this covering is partly furnished by the exr cavation for the magazine, and the remainder from a trench cut around it, leaving a suffi- cient berme to prevent the em- bankment caving in. I Fio. 29. When the soil is favorable the magazine may with advan- tage be sunk two or three feet lower. The magazine is connected with the battery, by a trench 4' wide, and 3' 6" deep, whose direction is such as to avoid being enfiladed. The entrance to the covered passage should be turned from the enemy. The passage having a return or change of direction, so that there may be no danger of fragments of shell finding their way into the magazine. CONSTRUCTION OF BATTEKIES. 203 264 MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS. FIG. 82. When suitable timber cannot be obtained for the above construction, those shown in the following figure may be used, in which the interior revetment is principally of fas- cines and gabions. CONSTRUCTION OF BATTERIES. 265 FIG. 84. REMARKS. The dimensions given for the preceding constructions are not invariable. In ordinary soil, the thickness of parapet and covering of the magazine, are a sufficient protection against the artillery usually employed in the defence of a work. In the case however, of a light soil, or when the enemy is provided with very heavy ordnance, as in the siege of Sebastopol, this thickness may frequently require an addition of six or eight feet. The throats of the embrasures must also correspond with the pieces which are to be fired through them. For how- itzers the width should be 2' 6", and when pieces are intend- ed for ricochet firing only, an embrasure of peculiar form may be employed, the sole having a reverse slope, and but two gabions being used in the revetment of each cheek. The subject of siege platforms is fully treated in a work on heavy artillery, published by the war department, and is therefore omitted here. 12 INDEX. PAGK. Advance-guard bridge equipage 31 Anchoring paniers 40 Approaches, execution of the, connected with the first parallel 118 executing the, connected with the second parallel and commenced by the flying sap 125 " modifications in the construction of 130 " on irregular ground 132 " reliefs of workmen for, in easy soil 128 " tables of comparative excavation in 127 Arming working parties in a siege. . . ; 106, 108, 109 Arrangements for military working parties in a siege 135 Attack of a system of countermines 234 Balk carriers 20 Basket-work described . 68 Batteries, breaching and counter 258 " construction of , 241 " distribution of the working parties in the construction of . . 245 " fullsunken 255 " half sunken 254 " mortar 256 " remarks on the construction of 265 " sand-bag 252 " tracing of 243 Blindage | 197 Blinded descent 193 Boats 10 " of commerce, bridges constructed of 38 Branches 207, 221 " dimensions of 208 Breaching batteries 268 Bridge, construction of trestle and ponton by successive pontons over watercourse 22 268 INDEX. PAC1 Bridge, to construct a, over a watercourse 23 " construction of, by parts 28 " " " by rafts 29 " construction of a, by successive pontons when the balks are not lashed 32 11 constructed of boats of commerce 38 " by conversion 29 " dismantling over a watercourse 27 " dismantling by parts 28 " dismantling by conversion 31 " equipage, modified French 17 " equipage 18 11 floating 11 " flying 12-34 " gabion 15 " miUtary 14 " pile 15 11 ponton 14 " ponton and trestle, construction of 17 " preservation of 46 " Rhine flying 36 " trestle, to dismantle 22 " to construct a, over a'watercourse 23 " trail -.. 12 " trestle 14, 45 Brushwood, detail of men for cutting 54 - " preparation of, for military purposes 51 " required in a siege or campaign 53 " tools required for cutting 53 Canvas pontons 32 Carriers, balk 20 I " trestle 20 Casks, raft of 44 Cavalier, trench 184 Charging of mines 228 Chess 21 Construction of batteries 241, 246 " of breaching batteries 259 of a bridge over a watercourse 23 " " " by parts 28 " " " by rafts 29 INDEX. 269 PAGB. Construction of a bridge by successive pontons when the balks are not lashed 32 of flying bridges 34 of ponton and trestle bridges 17 " of a raft 41 of trestle bridge over dry ravine 19 of trestle and ponton bridge by successive pontons over watercourse 22 Corrugated iron gabions 77 Counter batteries 258 Countermines, attack and defence of a system of 234 Covered w ly, descent into the 199 Covering-fascines 65 Debouche by the simple or double sap from the extremity of the simple sap in course of construction 162 " by the simple sap from one or both sides of the double sap 170 " by the double or simple sap from a sap not enlarged 175 " by the simple or double sap from a trench of the ordinary width 180 " by the double sap from a trench of the ordinary width 184 Defence of a system of countermines 234 Descent into the covered way 199 " " " ditch 189 " time for executing the 199 Discharge of material. 18 Dismantling trestle bridge 22 bridge over a watercourse 27 " by parts 28 " constructed by rafts * 29 " by conversion 31 Ditch, descent into the 189 " passage of the 199 " main 200 Double sap 157 " debouching by the 167 " debouche by the, from a trench 184 " to debouch by the, from a sap not enlarged 179 Drag 1 49 Embrasures 242 revetted with fascines 248 " " gabions 251 2 TO INDEX. PAGE. fepaulement 241 Equipage, advance-guard bridge 31 Excavating and blinding 196 Fascine-choker 61 Fascine-pickets 64 " time required for making 65 " weights of 65 Fascine-trestles, method of preparing 56 Fascines described 55 u detail of men for making 55 " making, described 58 " method of choking 61 " revetment with 247 " rules for making 55 " time required for making 64 " tools for each squad of men, making 55 " weights of 64 Firing mines 230 First approaches, arranging the working party and commencing the, 91 ' method of tracing the, connected with the first par- allel 90 " remarks on commencing the 92 " rules for executing the 110 First parallel, arranging the working party and commencing the 85 " execution of the approaches connected with the 118 " first task in executing a, by three reliefs 113 " " " " by two reliefs hi easy soil 140 " method of tracing 83 " profile proper for a v 110 " reliefs of workmen for a, and its approaches 95-97 " remarks on commencing the 92 " rules for executing the 110 " second task in executing a, by three reliefs 113 " " " " by two reliefs hi easy soil. 141 tasking of military working parties in the formation of a 111 " third task in executing a, by three reliefs 114 Flanking boyaus 129 Floating bridges 11 Flying bridge 12, 34 Flying sap 99 " executing a second parallel, commenced by the 121 INDEX. 271 PAGE. Flying sap, rules for tracing and commencing approaches by the 102 Fords -. 7 French bridge equipage 17 Full sap 147 " change of direction of the 161 " to the right or left 161 " execution of the 149 " time required for executing the 154 Full-sunken batteries 255 Gabionade, crowning the, with fascines 163 Gabion bridges 15 Gabions, corrugated iron 77 " description and dimensions of 67 " detail of men for making 71 " embrasures revetted with 251 " method of finishing 73 " method of making light 71 " " " of very small brushwood 75 iron 76 " " of thick brushwood v . 76 " mode of carrying, with tools 106 " revetment with 249 " time required for making 78 " to place new 151 tools for each squad of men, making. 71 " weight of 78 " wooden circles, for making 75 Galleries 207 " dimensions of 208 ' " driving, with mine frames 214 " incUned 217 " men and tools required for driving 216 " ventilation of 233 Gallery-frame 214 Half-double sap 159 Half-full sap 156 Half-sunken batteries 254 Hurdles 80 " number of men required for making . . 83 " time required for making 83 " tools for making 83 272 INDEX. PAGE. Hurdles, weight of 83 Ice , 9 Inclined galleries 217 I " soil, observations relative to 155 Iron gabions, method of making 76 Large timber required in a siege or campaign 51 Magazines 261 Marshy soil, construction of parallels and approaches in 130 Material, discharge of 18 Men required for driving a gallery 216 " for sinking a shaft 210 Military bridges 14 Mines, charging of 228 " firing of 230 " tamping of 228 Mining operations, tools required for 208 " practical operations in 207 " with cases 223 Mortar batteries 256 Parallels, commencing the tracing of, by compass 93 " execution of 117 " modifications hi the construction of. 130 " on irregular ground 132 " reliefs of workmen for, in easy soil 128 " rules for tracing and commencing the first, and the ap- proaches 83 " rules for tracing and commencing the second, and ap- proaches, by the flying-sap 98 " tables of comparative excavation in 125 " tracing of, in a fog 93 Parapet 241 Passage of rivers 7 " " by fords t " " " byice 9 " " " onboats 10 " " " on rafts - 10 Pile bridges 15 Ponton bridges 14 " " construction of 17 Preservation of bridges 46 Bafts.. 10 INDEX. 273 PAGK. Rafts, construction of 41 " " " a bridge by 29 " dismantling bridge constructed by 29 " of casks 44 " of timber 40 Regulations for military working parties in a siege 135 Reliefs, number of troops necessary to furnish proper, in a siege 142 " of workmen for the first parallel and its approaches 95-97 " " second parallel and its approaches 103 Revetment with fascines 247 " gabions 249 Rhine flying bridges 36 Rivers, passage of 7 Rocky soil, construction of parallels and approaches in 130 Rules for executing the first parallel and approaches 110 " second parallel and approaches 121 " " making fascines 55 <; " " gabions and hurdles 67 ". " tracing and commencing the first parallel and approaches. . . 83 " " " " " second parallel and approaches by the flying sap 98 Sand-bag batteries 252 Sand-bags, saps constructed with 203 Saps constructed with sand-bags 203 Sap-faggots ^ 66 Sap-fork 149 " hook . 148 Sap-rollers 78 " time for making 79 " weight of , 79 Sappers, to change the posts of the 154 Second parallel, arranging the working party and commencing the, by the flying sap 99 " crowding the workmen in commmencing a 105 " reliefs of workmen for the 103 " " " " " in executing a 122 " remarks on commencing the, 105 " rules for executing the, and approaches, 121 " " rules for executing a, commenced by the flying sap,. .121 ' * tracing of,. 98 Shafts 207 12* 274 INDEX. PAGK. Shaft, men and tools required for sinking a, 210 " sinking a, in bad soil 219 Side-rails 21 Siege, arming working parties in a 106, 108, 109 " arrangements and regulations proper for military working par- ties in a 135 " practical operations of a 49 Simple sap 147 " " debouching by the 162 " " debouche by the, from a trench 180 " " to debouch by the, from a sap not enlarged 175 " saps, to unite two, into one double sap 172 Small timber required in a siege or campaign -, 53 Splinter-proof traverses 242, 249 Stockades 47 Tamping mines 228 Terreplein 242 Timber, large, required in a siege or campaign 51 " preparation of, for military purposes 51 " rafts 40 " small, required in a siege or campaign 53 Time required for executing the full sap 154 " " " making fascines '. 64 " " " " fascine-pickets 65 " " " " gabions 78 " " " *" hurdles 83 " " " " sap-rollers 79 Tools for each squad of men making fascines 55 * " " " " " " gabions 71 " " making hurdles 83 " mode of carrying gabion 106 " required for cutting timber for military purposes 51 11 " " " brushwood 53 " for the full sap 148 " required for mining operations 208 " " sinking a shaft 210 " " driving a gallery 216 Trace 257 Tracing-fascines 65 Tracing of batteries 243 Tracing-pickets 66 INDEX. 275 PAGE. Trail bridge 12 Traverses 250 Trenches 120 " preserving the, dry 115 Trench cavalier 184 Trestles 44 " fascin/e, method of preparing 66 Trestle bridges 14, 45 " construction of 17 " bridge over dry ravine, construction of. 19 " carriers 20 " to construct the 20 Troops, number of, necessary in a siege to furnish proper reliefs 142 Uncovered descent 199 Ventilation of galleries 233 Weight of fascines 64 " " fascine-pickets 65 " " gabions 78 " " hurdles 83 " " sap-rollers 79 Withes, method of preparing and using 59 Wooden circles.for gabion making 75 Wooden linings 209 Working parties, arming, in a siege 106, 108, 109 " " mixed 135 " " relief of ^ 139 " " regulations proper for military, in a siege 135 " " superintending 135 " " tasking of, in the formation of a first parallel Ill Workmen crowding the, in commencing a second parallel 105 " reliefs of, for a first parallel and its approaches 95-97 " " "for the second parallel and its approaches 103 " " " in executing a second parallel 122 " " " in finishing parallels and approaches in easy soil. . 128 CATALOGUE OP Military, Naval, and Scientific BOOKS, PUBLISHED BY D. VAN NOSTRAND, 192 BROADWAY, NEW YORK. * llc * On receipt of price, copies of any of these Books will be sent by mail, postage paid, to any part of the United States. D. VAN NOSTRAND, PUBLISHER, IMPORTER, AND BOOKSELLER, 192 BROADWAY, NEW YORK, would respectfully solicit orders from Public and Private Libraries for the purchase of any Books, Apparatus, or Philosophical Instru- ments, in this country or Europe. From his long experience in the Book Business, he is confident of giving satisfaction in any commission that may be entrusted to him. Books imported from London and Paris by every steamer, and at the lowest possible rates, and, for Public Institutions, free of duty. Owing to the high rate of Exchange, and the increased tariff, the prices of foreign books have been advanced ; but only sufficient to cover the extra cost of importation. A LARGE STOCK OF THE PRINCIPAL French, English, and American MILITARY, NAVAL, AND SCIENTIFIC WORKS ON HAND. * Catalogues sent free by mail, on application. D. VAN NOSTRAND S PUBLICATIONS. coTT's MILITARY DICTIONARY. Comprising Technical Definitions ; Information on Raising and Keeping Troops ; Actual service, including makeshifts and im- proved materiel, and Law, Government, Regulation, and Admin- istration relating to Land Forces. By Colonel H. L. SCOTT, Inspector-General U. S. A. l vol., large octavo, fully illustra- ted, half morocco, $6; Half russia, $7.50 ; Full morocco, $9. " It is a complete Encyclopaedia of Military Science, and fully explains every thing dis- covered in the art of war up to the present time." Philadelphia Evening Bulletin. " We cannot Bpeak too much in legitimate praise of this work." National Intelligen- cer. " It should be made a text-book for the study of every volunteer. 1 " Harper's Mag- aine. "We cordially commend it to public favor." Washington Globe. "This comprehensive and skilfully prepared work supplies a want that has long been felt, and will be peculiarly valuable at this time as a book of reference." Boston Commer- cial Bulletin. "The Military Dictionary is splendidly got up in every way, and reflects credit on the publisher. The officers of every company in the service should possess it." N. Y. Tablet. " The work is more properly a Military Encyclopaedia, and is profusely illustrated with engravings. It appears to contain every thing that can bo wanted in the shape of informa- tion by officers of all grades.'''' Philadelphia Nortfi American. "This book is really an Encyclopaedia, both elementary and technical, and as such occu- pies a gap in military literature which has long been most inconveniently vacant. This book meets a present popular want, and will be secured not only by those embarking in the profession but by a great number of civilians, who are determined to follow the de- scriptions and to understand the philosophy of the various movements of the campaign. Indeed, no tolerably good library would bo complete without the work." New York Times. "The work has evidently been compiled from a careful consultation of the best author- ities, enriched with the results of the experience and personal knowledge of the author.'' N. Y. Daily Tribune. " Works like the present are invaluable. The officers of our Volunteer service would all do well to possess themselves of the volume."^ Y. Uerald. u It is a book to be referred to on the spur of the moment, to be consulted at leisure, and to be read with deliberation. It reflects honor on the military service of the United States, and gives new glory to one of the noblest of the names connected with that service." Boxton Traveller, D. VAN NOSTRAND'S PUBLICATIONS. C AVALRY; ITS HlSTORY, MANAGEMENT, AND USES IN WAR. By J. ROEMER, LL. D., late an Officer of Cavalry in the Service of the Netherlands. Elegantly illustrated, with one hundred and twenty- seven fine Wood Engravings. In one large octavo volume, beautifully printed on tinted paper. Price $5.00. SUMMARY OF CONTENTS. Cavalry in European Armies ; Proportion of Cavalry to Infantry ; What kind of Cavalry desirable ; Cavalry Indispensable in War ; Strategy and Tactics ; Organization of anArmy ; Route Marches ; Rifled Fire- Arms ; The Charge ; The Attack ; Cavalry versus Cavalry ; Cavalry versus Infantry ; Cavalry versus Artillery ; Field Service ; Different . Objects of Cavalry; Historical Sketches of Cavalry among the early Greeks, the Romans, the Middle Ages ; Different kinds of Modern Cavalry ; Soldiers and Officers ; Various systems of Training of Cavalry Horses; Remounting ; Shoeing ; Veterinary Surgeons, Saddlery, etc., etc. WHAT GENERAL It'CLELLAN BATS OF IT. u I am exceedingly pleased with it, and regard it as a very valuable addition to our military literature. It will certainly be regarded as a standard work, and I know of none so valuable to our cavalry officers. Its usefulness, however, is not confined to officers of cavalry alone, but it contains a great deal of general information valuable to officers of the other arms of service, especially those of the Staff, " With the hope that it may find a large circulation in our armies, I am, very truly yours "GEO. B. MCCLELLAN, Maj-Gen. U. 8. A." "We can truly say that, from no single volume have we obtained so much information on the art of war as from this." Phila. Press. " Beading, culture, and practical experience united, give this work a value and impor- tance that will cause it to be regarded as a standard authority." Saturday Eve. Gazette. "By far the best treatise upon Cavalry and its uses in the field, which has yet been published in this country, for the general use of officers of all ranks, is this elaborate and {Interesting work. Eschewing the elementary principles and tactics of cavalry, which may be learned from any hand-book, the author treats of the uses of cavalry in the field, of strategy and tactics, and of its general discipline and management. The range of the work includes an admirable treatise upon rifled fire-arms, a historical sketch of cavalry, embod- ying many interesting facts, an account of the cavalry service in Europe and this country and a treatise on horses, their equipment, management, Ac. The work is copiously illus- trated and elegantly printed. It is interesting not alone to military men but to the gen- eral reader, who will gain from its pages valuable historical facts and very clear ideas of pome branches of the art of war, such as the employment of spies, gaining information in nn enemy's country, advance movements and other strategical maneuvrcs. Boston Journal' B D. VAN NOSTRAND'S PUBLICATIONS. ENfir's MILITARY LAW. A Treatise on Military Law and the Practice of Courts-Martial, by Capt. S. V. BENT, Ordnance Department, U. S. A., late As- sistant Professor of Ethics, Law, &c., Military Academy, West Point. 1 vol., 8vo, law sheep. "$3.50. "This book is manifestly well timed just at this particular period, and it is, -without doubt, quite as happily adapted to the purpose for which it was written. It is arranged with admirable method, and written with such perspicuity and in a stylo so easy and grace- ful, as to engage the attention of every reader who may be so fortunate as to open its pages. This treatise will make a valuable addition to the library of the lawyer or the civilian ; while to the military man it seems to be indispensable." Philadelphia Evening Journal. "Captain Bene"t presents the army with a complete compilation of the precedents and decisions of rare value which have accumulated since the creation of the office of Judge- Advocate, thoroughly digested and judiciously arranged, with an index of the most minute accuracy. Military Law and Courts-Martial are treated from the composition of the latter to the Finding and Sentence, with the Eevision and Execution of the same, all set forth in a clear, exhaustive style that is a cardinal excellence in every work of legal reference. That portion of the work devoted to Evidence is especially good. In fact, the whole performance entitles the author to the thanks of the entire army, not a leading officer of which should fail to supply himself at once with so serviceable a guide to the intricacies of legal military government" IT. Y. Times. " This volume has been carefully prepared by the author in order to present in a col. lectcd form, the able decisions issued from the War Department since the establishment of the office of Judge- Advocate of the Army, and the opinions given by the Attorneys- General on points requiring legal interpretation. It is full of information for military men, founded on the authority of these decisions and opinions, and is a valuable contribution to the science of military law." Providence Journal. JtTDGE-AnVOCATE GENERAL'S OFFICE, ) October 18, 1862. f * * * So far as I have been enabled to examine this volume, it seems to me carefully nd accurately prepared, and I am satisfied that you have rendered an acceptable service to the army and the country by its publication at this moment In consequence of tho gigantic proportions so suddenly assumed by the military operations of the Government, there have been necessarily called into tho field, from civil life, a vast number of officers, unacquainted from their previous studies and pursuits, both with the principles of mili- tary law and with the course of judicial proceedings under it To all such, this treatise will prove an easily accessible storehouse of knowledge, which it is equally tho duty of tho eoldier in command to acquire, as it is to learn to draw his sword against the common enemy. The military spirit of our people now being thoroughly aroused, added to a growing conviction that in future we may have to depend quite as much upon the bayonet as upon the ballot-box for the preservation of our institutions, cannot, fail to secure to this work an extended and earnest appreciation. In bringing the result- of legislation :md of decisions upon tho questions down to so recent a period, tho author has added greatly to the interest and usefulness of the volume. Very, respectfully, Tour obedient swvaut, J. HOLT. D. VAN NOSTRAND S PUBLICATIONS. E LEMENTS OF MILITARY ART AND HlSTORY. By EDWARD DE LA BARRE DUPARCQ, Chef de Bataillon of Engineers in the Army of France ; and Professor of the Military Art in the Imperial School of St. Cvr. Translated by Brig-Gen. Geo. W. CULLUM, U. S. A., Chief of the Staff of Major-Gen. H. W. HAL- LECK, General-in-Chief U. S. Army, i vol., octavo, cloth. 4. " I read the original a few years since, And considered it the very best work I had seen upon the subject Gen. Cullum's ability and familiarity with the technical language of French military writers, are a sufficient guarantee of the correctness of his translation." U. W. HALLECK, Major-Gen. U. S. A. " I have read the book with great interest, and trust that it will have a large circulation. It cannot fail to do good by spreading that very knowledge, the want of which among our new, inexperienced, and untaught soldiers, has cost us so many lives, and so much toil and treasure." M. C. MEIGS, Quartermaster-General, U. 8. A. "I have carefully read most of General Cullum's translation of M. Barre Dnparcq's 'Elements of Military Art and History.' It is a plain, concise work, well suited to our service. Our volunteers should read and study it I wish it could be widely circulated among our officers. It would give them a comprehensive knowledge of the different arms of the service, and invite further investigation into the profession of arms which they have adopted. A careful study of such works will make our officers learned and skilful, as well as wise and successful ; and they have ample time, while they arc campaigning, to improve themselves in this regard." S. K. CURTIS, Major-Gen. U. 8. A. "Barre Duparcq is one of the most favorably known among recent military writers in France. If not the very best, this is certainly among the best of the numerous volume* devoted to this topic. Could this book be put into the hands and heads of our numerous intelligent, but untrained officers, it would work a transformation supremely needed. "We can say, that no officer can read this work without positive advantage, and real pro- gress as a soldier. Gen. Cullum is well known as one of the most proficient students of military science and art in our service, and is amply qualified to prepare an original text- book on this subject" Atlantic Monthly. " That Gen. Cullum, Chief of Staff to the Commanding General, should have chosen to translate and edit his work, rather than to prepare an original one himself, gives tho highest professional testimony to its value. The work contains a History of the Art of War, as it has grown up from the earliest ages; describes the various formations which have from time to time been adopted; and treats in detail of the several arms of tho service, and the most effective manner of employing them for offensive and defensive purpose.". It is fully illustrated with diagrams, displaying to the eye the formations and evolutions which find place in ancient and modern armies. Though the book is especially designed for tlie instruction of oflicers and soldiers, the non-professional reader cannot fail to perceive the clearness of its statements and the precision of its definitions." Harpers" Monthly. B D. VAN NOSTRAND'S PUBLICATIONS. ENTON'S ORDNANCE AND GUNNERY. Course of Instruction in Ordnance and Gunnery; compiled for the use of the Cadets of the United States Military Academy, by Capt. J. G. BENTON, Ordnance Department, late Instructor of Ordnance and Gunnery, Military Academy, West Point. Principal Assistant to Chief of Ordnance, U. S. A. Second Edition, revised and enlarged, l vol., 8vo, half morocco, cuts. $5 oo. " TTo cannot commend this work too highly, both for the substance it contains, and th highly finished manner in which it has been issued by the publisher. There is no one book within the range of our military reading and study, that contains more to recommend it upon the subject of which it treats. It is as full and complete as the narrow compass of a single volume would admit, and the reputation of the author as a scientific and prac- tical artillerist is a sufficient guarantee for the correctness of his statements and deduc- tions, and the thoroughness of his labors."^. Y. Observer. "The present edition is the second one, and is revised and enlarged, being rendered al- together invaluable, not only to the student, but as a standard book of reference on the subject of which it treats. Apart from its great merits as a treatise, it is as respects bind- ing and printing, a truly splendid work." Louisville Journal. "A GREAT MILITARY "WORK. "We have before us a bound volume of nearly six hundred pages, whii-.h is a complete and exhaustive ' Course of Instruction in Ordnance and Gun- nery, 1 as its title states, and goes into every department of the science, including gunpow- der, projectiles, cannon, carriages, machines, and implements, small arms, pyrotechny, science of gunnery, loading, pointing, and discharging fire-arms, different kinds of fires, ef- fects of projectiles and employment of artillery. These severally form chapter heads and give thorough information on the subjects on which they treat. The most valuable and interesling information on all the above topics, including the history, manufacture, and use of small arms is here concentrated in compact and convenient form, making a work of rare merit and standard excellence. The work is abundantly and clearly illustrated." Boston Traveller. "This work is designed for a standard work, not only for the soldier and the sailor, or as a vade mecumfor reference on the quarter-deck and in the officer's tent, but from its plain and forcible diction and familiar illustrations, must interest the general reader in the na- ttiro and effects of 15-inch Columbiads, and all kinds of artillery, down to a signal rocket. All who desire a work of reference upon the subject at large, will find this book a useful nd interesting informant." C/ycago Journal. T D. VAN NOSTRAND S PUBLICATIONS. HE ARTILLERIST'S MANUAL: Compiled from various Sources, and adapted to the Service of the United States. Profusely illustrated with woodcuts and engrav- ings on stone. Second edition, revised and corrected, with valuable additions. By Gen. JOHN GIBBON, U. S. Army, i vol., 8vo, half roan. $5. This book is now considered the standard authority for that particular branch of the Service in the United States Army. The War Department, at "Washington, has exhibited its thorough appreciation of the merits of this volume, the want of which has been hither- to much felt in the service, by subscribing for 700 copies. "It is with great pleasure that we welcome the appearance of a new work on this sub- ject, entitled "The Artillerist's Manual,' byCapt John Gibbon, a highly scientific and mer- itorious officer of artillery in our regular service. The work, an octavo volume of 500 pages, in large, clear type, appears to be well adapted to supply just what has keen hereto- fore needed to fill the gap between the simple Manual and the more abstruse demonstra- tions of the science of gunnery. The whole work is profusely illustrated with woodcuts and engravings on stone, tending to give a more complete and exact idea of the various matters described in the text. The book may well bo considered as a valuable and impor- tant addition to the military science of the country." New York Herald. H AND-BOOK OF ARTILLERY, For the Service of the United States Army and Militia. New, re- vised, and greatly enlarged edition. By Maj. JOSEPH ROBERTS, U. S. A. 1 vol., i8mo, cloth. $1. " A complete catechism of gun practice, covering the whole ground of this branch of military science, and adapted to militia and volunteer drill, as well as to the regular army. It has the merit of precise detail, even to the technical names of all parts of a gun, and how the smallest operations connected with its use can be best performed. It has evidently been prepared with great care, and with strict scientific accuracy. By the recommenda- tion of a committee appointed by the commanding officer of the Artillery School at Fort Monroe, Va., it has been substituted for ' Burns 1 Question and Answers,' an English work which has heretofore been the text-book of instruction in this country." ITeic York Century. The following is an extract from a Report made by the committee appointed at a meet- ing of the staff of the Artillery School at Fort Monroe, Va., to whom the commanding officer of the School had referred this work : * * * "In the opinion of your Committee, the arrangement of the subjects and the selection of the several questions and answers have been judicious. The work is one which may be advantageously used for reference by the officers, and is admirably adapted to the instruction of non-commissioned officers and privates of Artillery. " Your Committee do, therefore, recommend that it be substituted as a text-book in place of ' Burns' Questions and Answers on Artillery.' " (Signed,) I. VOGDES, Gnj*. \st ArfiBtry. (Signed,) E. O. C. ORD, Capt 3d ArtiUcry. (Signed,) J. A. HASKIN, Btt. Maj. and Capt. lt Artillery. D. VAN NOSTRAND'S PUBLICATIONS. T HE AUTOMATON REGIMENT; OR, INFAN- TRY SOLDIERS' PRACTICAL INSTRUCTOR. For all Regimental Movements in the Field. By G. DOUGLAS BREWER- TON, U. S. Army. Nearly put up in boxes, price $1 ; when sent by mail, $ 1 . 40. The "Automaton Regiment" is a simple combination of blocks and counters, so arranged and designated by a carefully considered contrast of colors, that it supplies thy student with a perfect miniature regiment, in which the position in the battalion of each company, and of every officer and man in each division, company, platoon, and section, ia clearly indicated. It supplies the studious soldier with the means whereby he can con- sult his " tactics," and at the same time join practice to theory by manoeuvring a ininiio regiment. HEAD-QUARTERS, MILITARY GOVERNOR, ) Department of the South, Beaufort, South Carolina, Oct. 21st, 1SC2. ) I hereby certify that I have examined the "Automaton Regiment," invented by G. Douglas Brewerton, late of the U. S. Regular Army, and now serving as a Volunteer Aide upon my military staff, and believe that his invention will prove a useful and valuable assistant to every student of military tactics. I take pleasure in recommending it accord- ingly. K. SAXTON, .- General Volunteers. T HE AUTOMATON COMPANY ; OR, INFAN- TRY SOLDIERS' PRACTICAL INSTRUCTOR. For all Company Movements in the Field. By G. DOUGLAS BREWER- TON, U. S. A. Price in boxes, $1.25 ; when sent by mail, $1.95. T HE AUTOMATON BATTERY; OR, ARTIL- LERISTS' PRACTICAL INSTRUCTOR. For all Mounted Artillery Manoeuvres in the Field. By G. DOUGLAS BREWERTON, U. S. A. Price in boxes, $1 ; when sent by mail, $1. 40. D. VAN NOSTRAND S PUBLICATIONS. QYSTEMS OF MILITARY BRIDGES, In Use by the United States Army; those adopted by the Great Eu- ropean Powers ; and such as are employed in British India. With Directions for the Preservation, Destruction, and Re-establish- ment of Bridges. By Brig.-General GEORGE W. CULLUM, Lieut.- Col. Corps of Engineers, United States Army, i vol., octavo. With numerous Illustrations. $3.50. " It is a trito remark that of all the operations of war none is more difficult and hazard- ous than the passage of a large river in the presence of a bold and active enemy. The importance to this country of such a work as the present, when our armies have to pass so many great rivers, cannot be over-estimated. We have no man more competent to pre- pare such a work than Brigadier-General Cullum, who had the almost exclusive supervi- sion, devising, building, and preparing for service of the various bridge-trains sent to our armies in Mexico during our war with that country. The treatise before us is very com- plete, and has evidently been prepared with scrupulous care. The descriptions of tha various systems of military bridges adopted by nearly all civilized nations are very inte- resting even to the non-professional reader, and to those specially interested in such subjects must be very instructive, for they are evidently the work of a master of the art of military bridge-building." Washington CJironide. M ILITARY AND POLITICAL LlFE OF THE EMPEROR NAPOLEON. By BARON JOMINI, General-in-Chief and Aide-de-camp to the Emperor of Russia. Translated from the French, with notes, by H. W. HALLECK, LL. D., Major-General U. S. Army. 4 vols., Royal octavo. Fully Illustrated by Maps and Plans. In press D ELAFIELD'S REPORT. Report on the Art of War in Europe in 1854, 1855, and 1856. By Col. R. DELAFIELD, Corps of Engineers U. S. A. i vol. folio, cloth. With maps and views. $5. D. VAN NOSTRAND'S PUBLICATIONS. A UTHORIZED U. S. INFANTRY TACTICS. For the Instruction, Exercise, and Manoeuvres of the Soldier, a Com- pany, Line of Skirmishers, Battalion, Brigade, or Corps d'Armee. By Brig.-Gen. SILAS CASEY, U. S. A. 3 vols., 241110. Cloth, lithographed plates. $2.50. , VOL. I. School of the Soldier ; School of the Company ; Instruc- tion for Skirmishers. VOL. II. School of the Battalion. VOL. III. Evolutions of a Brigade; Evolutions of a Corps d'Armee. The manuscript of this new system of Infantry Tactics was carefully examined by Gen- eral MCCLELLAN, and met with his unqualified approval, which ho has since manifested by authorizing General CASEY to adopt it for hia entire division. The author has retained much that is valuable contained in the systems of SCOTT and HARDEE, but has made many important changes and additions which experience and the exigencies of the service re- quire. General CASEY'S reputation as an accomplished soldier and skilful tacticiau is a guarantee that the work he has undertaken has been thoroughly performed. "These volumes are based on the French ordonnancea of 1831 and 1845 for the manoeu- vres of heavy infantry and cJidftseurti & pied : both of these systems have been in use in our service for some years, the former having been translated by Gen. Scott, and the latter by CoL Hardee. After the introduction of the latter drill in our service, in connection with Gen. SCOTT'S Tactics, there arose the necessity of a uniform system for the manoeu- vres of all the infantry arm of the service. These volumes are the result of the author's endeavor to communicate the instruction, now used and adopted in the army, to achieve this result." Boston Journal. "Based on the best precedents, adapted to the novel requirements of the art of war, and very full in its instructions, Casey's Tactics will be received as the most useful and most comprehensive work of its kind in our language. From the drill and discipline of the in dividual soldier, or through all the various combinations, to the manoeuvres of a brigade and the evolutions of a Corps D'Armns are not only copious in detail, but aptly illustrated with thirty- nine elegant steel-plate engravings." Bulletin* u S. TACTICS FOR COLORED TROOPS. U. S. Infantry Tactics, for the Instruction, Exercise, and Manoeuvres of the Soldier, a Company, Line of Skirmishers, and Battalion, for the use of the COLORED TROOPS of the United States Infantry. Prepared under the direction of the War Department, i volume, plates, 81.50. "WAR DEPARTMENT, WASHINGTON, March 9, l^CO. "This system of United States Infantry Tactics, prepared under the direction of the War Department, for the use of the Colored Troops of the United states Infantry, having been approved by the President, is adopted for the instnicli army, from ,'the company' to the ' corps d' arme>.' Indeed, it is emphatically the hook for the times; and a copy should be in the hands of every man in the army, as also bank- ers, contractors, claim agents, &c." JV r eio York Herald. D. VAN NOSTRAND'S PUBLICATIONS. R IFLES AND RIFLE PRACTICE. An Elementary Treatise on the Theory of Rifle Firing ; explaining the causes of Inaccuracy of Fire and the manner of correcting it; with descriptions of the Infantry Rifles of Europe and the Uni- ted States, their Balls and Cartridges. By Capt. C. M. WIL- cox, U. S. A. New edition, with engravings and cuts. Green cloth. $1.75. " Although eminently a scientific work, special care seems to have been taken to avoid the use of technical terms, and to make the whole subject readily coinprchensililo to the practical enquirer. It was designed ch icily for the use of Volunteers and the Militia : but tlu- War Department has evinced its approval of its merits by ordering from the pub- lisher one thousand copies for the use of the United States Army." Louixville Journal. ' The book will be found intensely interesting to all who are watching the changes in the art of war arising from the introduction of tho new ri tied arms. We recommend to our readers to buy the book." Jf Hilary Gazette. " A most valuable treatise." Xew York Herald. u This book is quite original in its character. That character is completeness. It ren- ders a study of most of the works on the rifle that have been published (juitc unnecessary, AVi- eordially recommend the book.'' United Service Gazette, London. "The work being in all its parts derived from tho best sources, is of the highest author- ity, and will be accepted as the standard on the subject of which it treats." New Yorker. N TEW BAYONET EXERCISE. A New Manual of the Bayonet, for the Army and Militia of the United States. By Colonel J. C. KELTON, U. S. A. With thirty beautifully-engraved plates. Red cloth. $1.75. This Manual was prepared for the use of the Corps of Cadets, and has been introduced at thi! Military Academy with satisfactory results. It is simply the theory of the attack and defence of the sword applied to the bayonet, on tho authority of men skilled in tho use of arms. The Manual contains practical lessons in Fencing, and prescribes the defence against Cavalry, and the manner of conducting a contest with a Swordsman. ' This work merits a favorable reception at the hands of all military men. It contains all the instruction necessary to enable an officer to drill his men in the use of this weapon. The introduction of the Sabre Bayonet in our anny renders a knowledge of the exercisu more imperative." 1 New York Times. MANUAL OF SWORD. AND SABRE Ex ERCISE. By Colonel J. C. KELTON, U. S. A. Thirty plates. In press. D. VAN NOSTRAND S PUBLICATIONS. E WAR IN THE UNITED STATES. A Report to the Swiss Military Department. Preceded by a Dis' course to the Federal Military Society assembled at Berne, Aug. 18, 1862. By FERDINAND LECOMTE, Lieut.-Col. Swiss Confed- eration . Author of " Relation Historique et Critique de la Cam- pagne d'ltalie en 1859," "L'ltalie en 1860," and "Le Ge- neral Jomini, sa Via, et ses Ecrits," etc., etc. Translated from the French by a Staff Officer, i vol., I2mo. $1. " Returning to Switzerland from a campaign authorized by the Swiss Military Depart- ment, Col. Lecomlo addressed a discourse to the Federal Military Society, at Berne, in which he stated very clearly and concisely the circumstances leading to the present war, the situation of the country at the time of the commencement of the troubles, and the progress of events up very nearly to the present time. "In his quality of a Swiss federal officer, Col. Lecomte, bearing the recommendations of the Federal Military Department of Switzerland, of Mr. Fo^ir. Ambassador of the V. EL :;t Berne, and of others, was well received by Mr. Soward, Secretary of State, and by Geni-ral McClellan, and by the Swiss Consul at New York. General McClellan, at Washington attached him to his staff as a voluntary aide-de-camp, he retaining his Swiss rank of Major, and with the condition of being able at any time to return to his country, should he bo called thither by his government. He met on that staff with other European office; cupyingthat position on the same terms with himself. So that he had good opportunities of being informed on the merits of the war, and the manner of its conduct, and being an intelligent man, as this report demonstrates, he made the most of that opportunity. "He very lucidly describes the theatre of the war, statistically and geographically, the parties in the strife and their relations to each other ; the causes of the war ; the earliest hostilities; the relative strength of tho armies; the principal military acts, from Big Bethel onwards; the armament, equipment, clothing, materials, subsistence, &c., of the service; armored vessels and their transactions ; his own personal impressions in regard to the de- fects of the American Army, &c. Then there is a supplementary report of great interest, describing the later events of the author's observation and experience : the -whole making one of the most valuable contributions to the literary history of the war we have had." Express, LAW OF FREEDOM AND BONDAGE IN THE UNITED STATES.' By JOHN CODMAN HURD, Counsellor at Law. 2 vols., octavo. Price, bound in cloth, 87. Law sheep, $8. "Mr. Kurd has completed a work which must take its place as the standard authority in the branch of Law to which it relates. It is strictly a legal work, committed to no theory, designed to sustain no individual phase of opinion, but comprising an outline of the entire legislation, constitutional and statutory of the general government and the individual <>:>. the. subject of slavery, with an analysis of all the legal decisions and judicial <1<'<-t,i i :: out of sucli legislation." Forth American Review. D. VAN NOSTRAND'S PUBLICATIONS. E "C. S. A.," AND THE BATTLE OF BULL RUN. (A Letter to an English friend), by J. G. BARNARD, Lt.-Col. of Engi- neers, U. S. A., Brigadier-General and Chief Engineer, Army of the Potomac. With five maps. 1 vol., 8vo, cloth. $1 50. "This hook was begun by the author as a letter to a friend in England, but ns he pro- .i:i o>nts bearing upon it have been well considered previously to expressing an opinion." London Mining Journal. u Every engineer should have it in his library." American Engineer, D. VAN NOSTRAND'S PUBLICATIONS. TACTICAL TREATISE ON LIMES, HYDRAU- LIC CEMENTS, AND MORTARS. Papers on Practical Engineering, U. S. Engineer Department, No. 9, containing Reports of numerous experiments conducted in New York City, during the years 1858 to 1861 inclusive. By 8. A. GILLMORE, Brig.-General U. S. Volunteers, and Majo* . S. Corps of Engineers. With numerous illustrations. One volume octavo. $3.50. ~^HE CONTRACTORS' MANUAL AND BUILD- ERS' PRICE-BOOK. By A. B. CLOUGH, Architect, l vol., i8mo. 5? cents. PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF EMBANKING LANDS FROM RIVER FLOODS, As applied to the Levees of the Mississippi. By WILLIAM HEWSON, Civil Engineer, l vol., 8vo, cloth. $2.00. W OODBURY ON THE ARCH. Treatise on the various Elements of Stability in the well-proportioned Arch. With numerous Tables of the Ultimate and Actual Thrust. By Captain D. P. WOODBURY, U. S. Corps of Engi- neers, l vol., 8vo. Engravings. Cloth, $2.50. CjouADRON TACTICS UNDER STEAM. Bv FOXHALL A. PARKER, Commander U. S. Navy. Published by authority of the Navy Department, i vol., 8vo., with numer- ous Plates. $5,00. D. VAN NOSTRAND S PUBLICATIONS. M ODELS OF FORTIFICATIONS. VAUBAN'S FIRST SYSTEM. One Front and two' Bastion? Scale, 20 Yards td an Inch. THE MODERN SYSTEM. One Front Scale, 20 Yards to an Inch. FIELD-WORKS. The Square Redoubt Scale, 5 Yards to an Inch. The above models are moulded from those made by Mr. KIMBER, of London, and are intended as illustrations of his works upon For- tifications. They are beautifully modelled in papier mache, colored in oil, and mounted in strong covered cases. They are admirably adapted for teaching the first principles of fortification, and should be in every College, Military, and High* School. Mr. KIMBER'S three volumes, viz., Vauban's First System, the Modern System, and Field-Works, will accompany the models. Price for the set of three, with books, $60. R IFLED ORDNANCE : A Practical Treatise on the Application of the Principle of the Rifle to Guns and Mortars of every calibre. To which is added, a new theory of the initial action and force of Fired Gunpowder. By LYNALL THOMAS, F. R. S. L. Fifth edition, revised. One volume, octavo, illustrated. $2.00. F IELD TACTICS FOR INFANTRY, Comprising the Battalion movements, and Brigade evolutions, useful in the Field, on the March, and in the presence of the Enemy. The tabular form is used to distinguish the commands of the General, and the commands of the Colonel. By Brig.-Gen. WM. H. MORRIS, U. S. Vols., late 2 d U. S. Infantry. i8mo, Illustrated. In Press. M D. VAN NOSTRAND'S PUBLICATIONS. GORE'S TREASON OF LEE. "Mr. Lee's Plan March 29, 1777. The Treason of Charles Lee, Major-General, Second in Command in the American Army of the Revolution. By GEORGE H. MOORE, Librarian of the New York Historical Society, i vol. 8vo, cloth. Two Steel Portraits, and Two Lithograph Fac-similes of Documents. $2. ** It is a clear and most interesting development of one of .the strangest events in tho history of the Eevolution. It is as important as it is curious, for the acts and motives of a man who held so high a rank in the army and in the public estimation should be known. They affect the character of others, and throw light on transactions which could not otherwise be explained." JARED SPARKS. "Your paper was certainly the most instructive one over presented (within my obser- vation) to any one of our Historical Societies. "The work does you great credit; it is full of interest, of facts collected from far and near. The story is well told, tho criticism careful and discriminating. I feel certain it will bring you much reputation for its completeness and manner of execution. * * * Go on ; and you will win honor for yourself, while you will assist to make American His- tory what it ought to be." GEORGE BANCROFT. " I have read it with great interest, It is a curious, valuable, and conclusively argued contribution to our revolutionary history." GULIAN C. VEEPLANCK. " I am greatly indebted to you for a copy of your beautiful monograph. * * * I re-. Joice that you have found the means (and made such good use of them) of putting his worthlessness beyond all question." EDWARD EVERETT. "You have done a good service to history. I ran it through with the greatest interest." I:OP>EET C. WINTHROP. " Many thanks for Lee's Treason. * * * * Moore has made out the case against him," AV. F. DE SAUSSURE, (of S. C.) "Tho Treason of !><, is pl;wd beyond doubt, and the original documents eslaMisliin- It are published in the 'recent hi^hlv valuable monograph of G. II. Moore, Es>q., on !!i:it ubj^ct EDtretC* Life, of Washington. D. VAN NOSTRAND'S PUBLICATIONS. "We commend Mr. Moore's work aa the most valuable contribution to our Revolution- ary history that has appeared for many a day, and assure our readers that the perusal of its elegant and eloquent pages cannot but repay the few hours that it will require." His- torical Jfagasin*. " "We commend this essay to the attention of historical students, admiring the sim- plicity and lucidity of its style." Ettprew. * A work which we have read with great pleasure, * * * * well worthy the at- tention of our readers, and we take great pleasure in recommending it to them." Boston " This beautifully printed volume is an important contribntion to the history of the war of the Revolution. It establishes beyond a question the treason of one of the most dia- ti m:uished generals of that war, who was second in command to Washington." Provi- dence Journal. " The researches of Mr. Moore reflect great credit on his Industry and penetration as a historical student, and we unite with those better capable of judging than ourselves, that he has brought to light important facts, which tend more to clear up obscure points in our revolutionary history than any thing that has appeared since the events alluded to took place." Providence Journal. "The volume abounds with curious details, and will be read with great interest by the student of American history." 2f. 1'. Tribune* " No student of American history can afford to be without this book." It. I. School- master. " We recommend this valuable contribution to the history of the American Revolution to the attention of our readers. * * * * Apart from its value as an authentic and original account of an important episode in the American Revolution, it shows in strong a id instructive contrast the pictures of the infamous traitor and true patriot, * * * Charles Lee, * * * and George Washington. These pictures are good even to study t the present time." Courier and Enquirer. "One of the most valuable contributions to our Revolutionary history that has ever been published. * * * Mr. Moore's carefulness and completeness of research ore fine quali- ties of the historian, happily exhibited in this volume." Christian Intelligence)'. " Another of those startling and unique works that occasionally blaze out upon the sea of literature, amazing every one with its strange developments. The author fixes black and damning treason upon General Lee, by indubitable testimony, as strongly and clearly as ever it was attached to Benedict Arnold." Chautavqua Democrat. " Sound judgment, thorough research, just appreciation of character, an acute perception of the logical connection of events chronologically disjoined, and a ready command of clear, precise, and appropriate language, have enabled Mr. Moore to make a volume, which, taken in all its bearings, may unhesitatingly be pronounced the most important mono- graph ever contributed to the history of the War of Independence." Xew York Times. " Crammed with the valuable results of original investigations. Many of the docu- ments never published and throwing a new and unexpected light on a very intercctiQ' episode of the Revolution." Evening Pvs{ .. Of UNIVERSITY 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED LOAN DEPT. ' This book is due on the last date stamped below, or on the date to which renewed. , ^ Renewed books are subject to immediate recalL MOV ' General Li 1 of California Berkeley ; > y rjv