UC-NRI 3D? S7fl OM CORN CULTURE G. MQCALL DEPT-OF-AGRtCULTUR- Div- OF- PLANT-PRODUCTS LABORATORY- SERVICES See.a 3 - - mi DEP'T Of AGRICULTURE BROOM-CORN CULTURE By A. G. McCALL II Professor of Agronomy in the College of Agriculture Ohio State University ILLUSTRATED NEW YORK ORANGE JUDD COMPANY LONDON KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & CO., Limited 1912 Copyright, 1912. by ORANGE JUDD COMPANY All Rights Reserved Entered at Stationers' Hall LONDON, ENGLAND - PRINTED IN U. S. A. PREFACE This little book is written in response to a demand for information concerning the culture of broom- corn. For this information the author has drawn upon his own experience in growing the crop, and has supplemented this with the recent experience of practical growers and experiment station workers. The writer is indebted to Mr. C. P. Hartley of the United States Department of Agriculture and to several experiment stations for photographs and other material used in the preparation of this volume. A. G. McCALL. Columbus, Ohio, 1912. M703574 CONTENTS Chapter I. Production of Broom-Corn ............. I II. The Broom-Corn Plant ................ 6 III. Soil and Climatic Conditions ........... 12 IV. Date and Method of Planting ........... 16 V. The Importance of Good Seed .......... 20 VI. Testing the Vitality of the Seed ........ 25 VII. Enemies of Broom-Corn ............... 27 VIII. Harvesting Broom-Corn ............... 29 IX. Broom-Corn By-Products .............. 47 X. The Manufacture of Brooms ........... 49 ILLUSTRATIONS Figure Page Map showing yield of broom-corn in the United States Frontispiece 1. Characteristic heads of sorghums 7 2. Desirable seed heads of the dwarf and standard types 8 3. Good and poor heads of broom-corn 10 4. Coarse imported brush and good domestic heads 9 5. A good sample of broom-corn from Kentucky 11 6. Sorghum, broom-corn and a cross between the two 21 7. Undesirable brush 23 8. Tabling broom-corn in advance of the cutters 30 9. The tabled broom-corn ready for cutting 32 10. The brush cut and laid on the table 34 11. Dump wagon for hauling the brush from the field 36 12. Small power scraper for removing the seed from the brush 37 13. Threshing broom-cofn with a large power scraper__ 38 14. Curing shed for broom-corn 40' 15. Interior of a shed in which light poles are used for shelves 41 16. Baling the crop 42: 17. A well-constructed bale of broom-corn as it was received at the factory 44 18. Dwarf broom-corn in the shock 46 19. Tread-power machine for the manufacture of brooms by hand 51 20. Broom-corn sizer for assorting the brush according to length 52" 21. Broom-winding machine used in large factories 54 22. Broom-stitcher 56 23. Clipper for trimming the ends of the brooms 57 24. Small power scraper with fan for carrying away the seeds and dust 58: CHAPTER I PRODUCTION OF BROOM-CORN Broom-corn is grown almost exclusively in America. In former times the Mohawk Valley in New York and the rich first bottom lands of Ohio and adjacent states supplied the market demand for this crop. But with the opening of the west the center of production has shifted, and Oklahoma has taken first rank among the states in the production of broom-corn, with an acreage more than five times as great as any other state. According to the Thirteenth Census (1909) there are now eight states each of which produces more than 300,000 pounds of brush annually. A list of the states, with their acreage, yield and production is given in Table I, on the following page. At the present time the amount of broom-corn grown in New York and Ohio is quite small. From an inspection of the production table it will be seen that the yield per acre is very much larger in some states than in others. Illinois, with a planting of 38,450 acres, produced more than twice as many pounds of brush as Kansas, with a planting of 40,- 065 acres, and almost half as many pounds as Okla- homa, whose planting is almost six times as exten- sive. Of the states producing more than 300,000 pounds of brush, California has the highest yield per acre, while the lowest yield is found in New Mexico. BROOM-CORN CULTURE TABLE I. STATEMENT SHOWING THE NUMBER OF FARMS, NUMBER OF ACRES, NUMBER OF POUNDS, AND VALUE OF BROOM-CORN, BY STATES, FOR THE CROP YEAR 1909. CENSUS OF IQIO. State Number of farms Acres Yield (pounds) Value Alabama . 115 52 17,910 1,562 Arizona 1 14 6 000 400 Arkansas 294 332 106 576 8 198 California 24 1 023 614250 32509 Colorado 240 5 631 1 187 791 71 717 Connecticut 2 150 14 Delaware 21 13 4198 492 Georgia... 8 22 7,067 694 Illinois 1,854 38,452 19309425 1 457 172 Indiana 335 323 153,259 13,461 Iowa .. . 49 156 75,370 6670 Kansas 1,728 41 064 8 768 853 593 947 Kentucky 1,041 342 157,286 13,641 Louisiana 263 320 92208 7 285 Maryland 291 19 18,599 2,006 Massachusetts 2 2 2,160 168 Michigan 9 4 2200 233 Minnesota 13 13 10,259 738 Mississippi 43 154 60,574 5548 Missouri 1 225 5 339 1 774 536 115 243 Nebraska 51 458 157,146 11,116 New Jersey 10 11 6 760 658 New Mexico 368 4,470 644,892 33,492 New York. 10 2 1 001 97 North Carolina 128 15 6,493 549 North Dakota 3 18 7 250 725 Ohio 383 170 92292 9116 Oklahoma 10,151 216,350 42,741,725 2,559,235 Pennsylvania 727 108 45,582 6253 South Carolina 3 2 650 63 South Dakota 14 64 35,400 3,408 Tennessee 2,220 1,348 347,064 27 733 Texas .. jS. 9,448 2,368,490 140,533 Utah 1 200 12 Virginia 666 107 46016 3586 Washington .. 5 183 45,040 2,905 West Virginia 397 45 30,456 3,229 Wisconsin 12 28 14,830 1,026 Total 23,238 326,102 "78,959,958 $5,134,434 According to the Eleventh Census there were grown in the United States in 1889, 93,425 acres of broom- corn, which produced a total of 39,557,429 pounds of brush. By 1899 the planting had been increased to PRODUCTION OF BROOM-CORN 3 178,584 acres, with a total production of 90,947,370 pounds, or an average yield of 509 pounds per acre. In 1909 the planting was 326,102 acres, which pro- duced 78,959,958 pounds of brush, valued at $5,134,434. Of the total crop produced in the United States in 1879, the states of Illinois, Kansas, Missouri, New York, Nebraska, Ohio and Iowa furnished 94 per cent. In 1889, Illinois, Kansas, Nebraska and Missouri produced 89 per cent of the total crop. In 1899, Illinois, Kansas, Missouri, Oklahoma, Nebraska, Texas, Iowa, California and Tennessee produced 96 per cent of the crop. Of these states California gave the highest yield, 686 pounds per acre, and Oklahoma the lowest yield, 276 pounds. In 1909, four states, Oklahoma, Illinois, Kansas and Texas, produced 93 per cent of the entire broom- corn crop of the United States. Table 2, on the page following, gives the acreage and production for the years 1889, 1899 an< ^ : 99 of all of the states growing more than 100 acres. A comparison of the acreage and production for individual years reveals a great variation, accom- panied by a great fluctuation in price. The high price of $150 to $200 a ton which the crop sometimes commands offers good profit to the successful grower. His success induces a large number of poorly equipped farmers to plant, with the result that a large quantity of inferior brush is thrown upon the market the following year. The poor quality of the crop is due to the inexperience of the BROOM-CORN CULTURE TABLE 2. ACREAGE AND PRODUCTION FOR THE YEARS 1889, 1899, AND 1909 OF ALL STATES AND TERRITORIES GROWING MORE THAN IOO ACRES OF BROOM-CORN. Acres Pounds State or Territory 1909 1899 1889 1909 1899 1889 Alabama 52 152 61 17,910 56,290 25 698 Arkansas 332 879 135 106,576 304,690 52 701 California 1,023 1,669 815 614,250 1,146,000 611,975 Colorado. 5,631 1,241 301 1,187,791 226,550 60 165 Florida 34 171 3390 196 820 Illinois 38,452 95,137 34,340 19,309,425 60,665,520 15,932 502 Indiana . 323 815 413 153,259 384170 157 231 Indian Territory. Iowa.... 156 397 2,220 i,ios 75,370 147,020 1,178,130 567072 Kansas 41,064 34,383 30,717 8,768,853 11,813,310 10,869,434 Kentucky Louisiana 342 320 839 107 195 24 157,286 92,208 384,550 41,120 93,063 11,420 Minnesota . 13 149 80 10,259 76,960 42,090 Mississippi 154 214 41 60574 143 750 24 776 Missouri 5,339 10,219 2,618 1,774,536 3,693,370 1,051,139 Nebraska 458 6,627 16,792 157 146 2,733,290 6,514 763 New Mexico 4470 14 102 644 892 5 800 24 500 New York 2 356 993 1 001 201,060 450,380 Ohio 170 802 1,574 92,292 537,160 801,957 Oklahoma 216,350 12,366 59 42,741,725 3,418,490 16,550 Pennsylvania South Dakota Tennessee 108 64 1,343 221 239 3,444 57 237 1,439 45,582 35,400 347,064 114,610 100,570 1,015,460 36,319 117,200 409,436 Texas 9448 3,743 596 2368490 1 638 150 315 741 Virginia 107 1,762 140 46,016 663,390 43,159 Washington 183 45 040 Wisconsin 28 64 157 14,830 38,850 92,468 grower and his inability to take care of the brush. The marked decline in price which follows this over- production of low-grade material discourages many farmers, and the acreage is greatly reduced for the next season. In 1881, Illinois grew 17,800 acres, and the aver- age price received for the crop was $128 a ton. The year following, 43,000 acres were planted and the price declined to $80 a ton. This low price prevailed until 1891, when, with a planting of 15,800 acres, PRODUCTION OF BROOM-CORN 5 the price went up to $117 a ton. An increased acre- age the following year sent the price down to $94. In 1909 the partial failure of the crop in Oklahoma sent the price up to more than $200 a ton and neces- sitated the importation of a small amount of brush from Europe. Practically all of the broom-corn produced in the United States is made into brooms in this country. The export trade amounts to about $425,000 a year, of which a very large share is with Canada and Cuba. The shipment of broom-corn from this coun- try has increased from $240,164 in 1906 to $424,484 in 1910. CHAPTER II THE BROOM-CORN PLANT Broom-corn belongs to the great group of plants known as the grass family. Within the grass family are a large number of groups, one of which is known as the sorghums. The sorghums are divided into three groups: (i) Kafir corn, grown for forage and for grain; (2) common sweet sorghum, used for making syrup; and (3) broom-corn, the brush or seed head of which is used in the manufacture of brooms. Broom-corn differs from the other plants of the sorghum group in having the seed borne on long straight branches, which constitute the brush from which the brooms are made. In all probability these three different groups of sorghums have been derived, by selection, from a common ancestry. Sorghums have been cultivated in Italy for eighteen hundred years or more, and it is thought that the broom-corn type originated in that country by the continual selection of the sweet sorghum heads which bore elongated branches. The first record of this plant having been used for the manufacture of brooms is from an Italian source. Varieties. There are two recognized agricultural varieties of broom-corn, the dwarf and the standard. The dwarf type produces leafy stalks 3 to 6 feet in height, with a brush 10 to 18 inches long. The head, or brush, is partially inclosed in the upper leaf sheath or boot. THE BROOM-CORN PLANT The standard type grows to a height of 10 to 15 feet and produces a brush 18 to 24 inches in length, which grows out beyond the leaf sheath. B Fig. 1. Characteristic heads of sorghum. A, broom-corn; B, sweet sor- ghum; and C, kafir corn. The brush of the standard type is used for mak- ing large carpet and stable brooms, while the fine brush from the dwarf corn is used largely for the manufacture of small hearth brooms and whisk brooms for clothing. For making large brooms the dwarf corn is not so desirable as the standard type, because the straws are weak and less durable, but BROOM-CORN CULTURE Fig. 2. Desirable seed heads of the dwarf (A) and the standard (B) types. THE BROOM-CORN PLANT for whisk brooms the demand is for straw that is fine, straight, tough, elastic and of a uniform green color without red tints. The dwarf type does not produce as heavy a yield of brush as the standard, but the former commands a very much higher price on the market. Standard and dwarf heads exhibiting desirable and undesirable characteristics are shown in Figure 3. Dwarf heads, inclosed in the upper leaf sheath, are shown at A and B, while C represents a dwarf head of fine quality of brush. Con- trasted with this is the large dwarf head D, which is weak at the attachment of the straws. The other heads shown in the drawing repre- sent good and poor grades of standard heads. Occasionally, when the domestic supply is not equal to the demand, a small quan- tity of foreign grown brush is imported. The imported material has coarse, brittle, straw, as shown at A in Figure 4. It is used in the manufacture of coarse heavy stable brooms, and to some extent it is worked into the centers of the low-grade house brooms. Our seedsmen sell broom-corn seed under several Fig. 4. Coarse imported brush (A) and good domes- tic heads (B). The former is used in the manufacture of coarse stable brooms. 10 THE BROOM-CORN PLANT II different varietal names, some of which are as fol- lows : Improved Evergreen, Tennessee Evergreen, Missouri Evergreen, Imported Evergreen, California Golden, Lit- tle Dwarf, Dwarf Em- erald and Mohawk. Several of our experi- ment stations are con- ducting variety tests of broom-corn, but these have not been conducted for a suffi- cient length of time to be of practical value. The quality of the brush from which the seed was selected and the quality of the seed itself is of more importance to the purchaser than the varietal name under which the seed is sold. Fig. 5. A good sample of broom- corn from Kentucky, which took first place at the National Com Exposition (1911) at Columbus, Ohio. CHAPTER III SOIL AND CLIMATIC CONDITIONS A soil that will produce a good crop of corn is well suited to the production of standard broom- corn. A lighter, sandy soil is better adapted to the production of the dwarf type. The rich corn soils have a tendency to produce a coarse brush, while the light sandy loams produce, when planted to the dwarf varieties, a short, fine, tough brush which is in great demand for the manufacture of fine whisk brooms. For the production of a good crop of long stand- ard brush a fertile soil is required, but the rich bot- tom lands that are subjected to overflow should be avoided, because the weeds will give trouble during the early part of the season when the broom-corn is making slow growth. Soils that are badly in- fested with weeds should not be planted to this crop, because of the large amount of hand labor that will be necessary to keep the weeds in check until the plants are large enough to cultivate. The production of high-grade broom-corn, how- ever, is more dependent upon climatic conditions than upon the character of the soil upon which it is grown. The plant is of a subtropical origin and does best in a warm, sunny, climate where there is suffi- cient moisture during the early part of the season to produce a rapid, healthy growth. It is very essen- 12 SOIL AND CLIMATIC CONDITIONS 13 tial, however, that dry weather prevail at harvest time, in order that the brush may be dried rapidly and in a manner that will enable it to retain its fresh green color. Localities in which frequent rains occur at the time when the brush should be har- vested will be found unsuited to the production of broom-corn. Rain at the time the plants are ripen- ing will cause some of the heads to turn red and thus materially reduce the quality of the brush. Ex- posure to rain after the heads are cut causes the straw to lose its fresh, green color and to take on a yellow, bleached appearance. Hence it is practically impossible to produce a crop of good quality unless dry weather prevails during the normal ripening and harvesting period. Taking both soil and climatic conditions into con- sideration, it is found that the rich prairie soils of the middle West are well suited to the production of the standard type of broom-corn, and that the light, dry soils of the semiarid regions of Kansas and Oklahoma are well adapted to the production of the dwarf types. Since such a comparatively small area is devoted to broom-corn, it would be a very easy matter to increase the acreage devoted to the crop and stay within favorable soil and climatic bounds. But since the market demand for the brush is limited, it is not probable that the area devoted to broom- corn culture will be greatly increased in the near future. The development of the broom-corn industry should be in the direction of better cultural methods 14 BROOM-CORN CULTURE and the production of a superior quality of brush, to meet the demands of the manufacturer for a high- grade material of uniform quality. The Choice of Land. Broom-corn will permit of later planting than most of the principal crops, and for this reason it is sometimes advisable to use it as a gap crop for replacing corn, oats or other cereals that have failed to make a good start. As a rule, however, careful attention should be given to the selection of the land to be devoted to broom-corn. It is quite essential that the soil of the field should be of uniform fertility and free from weeds. A foul piece of land planted to this crop will require a great amount of labor to keep the weeds from choking the young plants, since the broom-corn makes a very slow growth for the first two or three weeks until it gets its root system out into the soil. In localities where broom-corn is grown quite generally, it should be made to take a permanent place in the regular system of crop rotation. The grower can then afford to supply himself with dry- ing sheds, scrapers, a baling press and other equip- ment necessary for the proper handling of the crop. It is unwise to make broom-corn the principal crop, as is sometimes done in Illinois, Kansas and Oklahoma. It is much safer to devote only a part of the farm to this crop and hold the brush until the market permits of a profitable sale. If broom- corn is grown exclusively, the holding of the brush for a higher price will entail a large financial burden, and in addition to this, the work of the farm will be SOIL AND CLIMATIC CONDITIONS 15, very unevenly distributed throughout the year, and it will be extremely difficult to secure sufficient help to harvest the crop and get the brush properly cured. Preparation of the Seedbed. The plowing and the preparation of the soil for broom-corn should be practically the same as for corn. Winter or very early spring plowing is advisable in order that the land may retain the moisture derived from the early spring rains, and that the soil may be worked down thoroughly in order to sprout and destroy the weed seeds that are in the surface soil. This is quite es- sential because of the fact that the broom-corn plant makes very slow growth for several weeks after it comes through the soil, and unless the weed seeds have been sprouted and destroyed a great deal of extra labor will be necessary to keep the weeds down until the plants are large enough to permit of effective cultivation. The seedbed should be worked down to a fine,, mellow condition by the liberal use of the disk har- row, the roller and the smoothing harrow. Stalks,, coarse manure or other trash should be removed or cut into small pieces with the disk and worked into the soil, since their presence at the surface will in- terfere seriously with the early cultivation of the plants. The fine, mellow seedbed is necessary in order to secure a uniform stand of plants, and to insure a prompt and early destruction of weeds. CHAPTER IV DATE AND METHOD OF PLANTING In Illinois and in the other states of the middle West, broom-corn is planted from the middle of May until the middle of June and harvested in about ninety days from the date of planting. Where a very extensive acreage is grown the fields are planted at intervals of a week or ten days, in order to pro- vide ample time for the harvesting of each field while the plants are at the proper stage of maturity. The best date for planting will depend upon the climatic conditions and upon the season, but under no conditions should the seed be placed in the ground until the soil is warm enough to insure the prompt sprouting of the seed. Broom-corn will not stand as early planting as corn, for if the seed is placed in a cold soil it will germinate very poorly and give an irregular stand of weak plants. The fact that it requires later plant- ing than corn is a point in favor of the growing of broom-corn, since it permits of a more satisfactory and equitable distribution of the spring work. Method of Planting. In some regions it may be necessary and desirable to time the planting with reference to the weather conditions at harvest time in order to secure a dry season, during which the proper curing of the brush may be effected. In Cali- fornia the planting is made about one month earlier 16 DATE AND METHOD OF PLANTING 17 than in Illinois, in order to have the crop ready for harvest at a time when dry weather is most likely to prevail. If equipped with special broom-corn plates, the ordinary corn planter may be used for planting the seed. If the special plates are not available, the holes in the plates used for planting corn may be run full of melted lead and then bored out to the proper size for distributing the broom-corn seed at the proper rate. For standard broom-corn the rows should be about 3J/2 feet apart and the plants in the rows approximately 3 inches apart, while for the dwarf type the rows should be 3 feet apart and the plants in the rows about 2 inches apart. Broom-corn is sometimes planted in hills for con- venience in hoeing and cultivating. In this case the hills are spaced about 16 to 18 inches apart in the rows, with five or six stalks of standard or eight to ten stalks of the dwarf type to the hill. Three or four pounds of good seed is sufficient to plant an acre. This rate of planting will apply to fertile corn soils. If the land is thin and lacking in fer- tility, the plants should be farther apart in the drills and a fewer number of stalks should be left in the hills. Every effort should be made to secure an even stand, in order that the crop shall be of uniform quality, but the practice of planting a large excess of seed is to be condemned, since the grower fre- quently neglects to thin his plants to the proper stand. In fact, the thinning process is a very labori- 1 8 BROOM-CORN CULTURE ous task, and frequently takes more time than would be required to plant the field a second time in event of a partial failure of the seed of the first planting. The best practice is to plant the exact quantity of good seed ; then, if conditions are such that a good stand is not secured, the entire field can be culti- vated, harrowed and planted again. On heavy clay soils the seed should be covered to a depth of one- half inch, but on light sandy loams one inch of soil over the seed will do no harm. Care should be taken to have a sufficient amount of moisture in the surface soil at planting time to insure prompt germination. It is sometimes advis- able to roll the ground after planting to bring the soil in close contact with the seed and to induce the movement of the moisture from the subsoil up into the seedbed. Cultivation. Cultivation must be commenced early and repeated frequently, to prevent weeds from getting the start of the slow-growing young plants. As hoeing and hand weeding are too ex- pensive, large weeders, harrows, and very narrow- shoveled cultivators, with fenders to keep the soil off the plants, are employed until the plants attain a height of about a foot, after which they grow rap- idly and will thrive with the same cultivation as does corn. Many find it advisable to harrow lengthwise with the rows with a sharp-toothed harrow just as the plants are coming up. With a wide harrow and plenty of horse-power this operation is quickly accomplished. The plants will probably be large enough to per- DATE AND METHOD OF PLANTING IQ mit of the use of a regular corn cultivator in 15 to 20 days after planting if favorable weather condi- tions prevail. Level culture is most satisfactory from the be- ginning till the crop is laid by, and will leave the field in good condition for harvesting. Cultivations should be frequent enough to keep the soil from becoming crusted and hard, for in this condition the moisture passes off most quickly, leaving the soil dry and the soluble salts or plant food at the sur- face and entirely out of reach of the roots of the plants. An inch or two of finely divided soil or dust serves as a thick blanket in conserving the moisture and keeping the dissolved plant food accessible to the roots. Late in the season the soil may be stirred with a one-horse cultivator by going once in a row with this implement. For this work it should be equipped with a number of small shovels. This practice is not common in the broom-corn sections, but since it gives good results in the cultivation of corn, it should be equally effective in broom-corn culture. CHAPTER V THE IMPORTANCE OF GOOD SEED The matter of good seed is one of great impor- tance to the grower of broom-corn, since the quality and uniformity of the brush is dependent upon the quality of the seed as well as upon the character of the soil. When the crop is harvested for the brush, the seed, removed by the scraper in the preparation of the crop for market, is useless for planting be- cause of its immature condition and its low germi- nating power. The farmer who is engaging in broom-corn cul- ture in a new locality should secure seed from sev- eral sources, and plant each lot of seed in a sepa- rate patch located some distance from any other broom-corn. It is necessary that these test plots be placed some rods apart to prevent the cross fertili- zation of the plants during the flowering period and the consequent mixing of the different varieties. While in the blooming period the plots should be harvested, leaving in each a few choice plants to mature seed. The different lots of brush should be compared, and the superior plants growing upon the plot producing the best brush should be allowed to ripen and produce the seed for planting the follow- ing season. This will enable the grower to judge as to the adaptability of the different strains to his locality and will give him the assurance that his seed came from none but good individual plants. 20 THE IMPORTANCE OF GOOD SEED 21 If the isolated plots cannot be secured, the differ- ent strains may be tested side by side in separate rows, provided some of the original seed is saved for future planting. In this case no seed would be saved from the test plots, since it would show mixture. Experienced growers may greatly improve the quality of the brush they are producing by exercising greater care in the selection of seed. This is particularly true in localities where farmers are growing the three different classes of sorghums, namely, kafir corn for grain and for- age, sweet sorghum for syrup and the broom-corn for the brush. These different plants hybridize or cross with each other quite readily when grown in the same or in adja- cent fields. Sweet sorghum crossed with broom-corn loses much of its value for syrup making, and kafir corn, when mixed with broom-corn, has its value for forage greatly im- paired. When broom-corn seed be- comes crossed with the other sorghums, the quality of the brush will be poor. Figure 6 shows three heads selected from a field of sorghum being grown for forage on a farm where broom-corn is a regular crop. The head shown to the right is a black-seeded sorghum and to the left is seen a good head of broom-corn. The head in the The head to the right is sorghum, while that to the left is a good head of broom-corn. Between the two is an intermedi- ate form, the re- sult of a cross between sweet sorghum and broom-corn. 22 BROOM-CORN CULTURE center is a cross between the sweet sorghum and the broom-corn and exhibits characters of color and form intermediate between the parent forms. It is important, therefore, that the grower keep his seed pure and free from mixture with the plants belonging to the other groups of the sorghum fam- ily. Furthermore, it is important that the grower select his seed exclusively from plants producing fine, straight, tough, elastic straws, for the crop grown from seed produced by any particular plant will be much like the parent. If the seed head is coarse with a large central stem or twisted straws, as shown in Figure 7, many heads of a like kind will be found among its progeny. Of course, the most carefully selected seed will not produce all good heads, because of the influence of more remote ancestors of poor quality, but careful selection of seed from year to year will greatly reduce the num- ber of poor individuals, provided the crossing with other varieties is prevented. It is a common practice to allow a portion of the general crop to ripen and produce the seed for the following year. A separate seed patch will involve more labor, but it will be much more satisfactory in the end. Such a patch should be planted each year with the seed from the choicest plants of the seed plot of the previous season and should be suffi- .cient in size to permit the grower to reject a large number of plants and yet have a sufficient number of individuals left to produce the required amount of seed. The careful breeder will often find it de- sirable to reject ten plants for every one which he THE IMPORTANCE OF GOOD SEED selects for seed. All seed that is intended for the same field should be selected from plants that have ripened at the same time, in order to avoid the an- noyance of having a part of the plants ready to harvest before others have reached the proper stage of maturity. In the principal seed-pro- ducing sections the crop is harvested in September. The yield varies from 1,500 to 2,500 pounds to the acre, from which there will be a loss of about 25 per cent when the seed is recleaned. Good clean seed should weigh 45 to 55 pounds to the measured bushel. The legal weight per bushel is quite variable, ranging from 30 pounds in Oklahoma to 42 pounds in Tennessee and 57 pounds in Minnesota. Where the seed is grown commercially, it is removed from the plant by means of a power stripper, recleaned and stored in bulk; but when the grower has his own seed patch, the seed is best stored in the head. This may be done by piling the heads in a loose heap or by bunch- ing a number of heads together and suspending them from the rafters of the attic or crib by means of a wire or a stout twine. If the heads are handled Fig. 7. Undesirable brush hav- ing large central stems and twisted straws. Seed should be selected from plants pro- ducing fine, straight straws. If seed is selected from heads like the above, many heads of a like kind will be found among the progeny. 24 BROOM-CORN CULTURE in this way and threshed out shortly before plant- ing time, the grower will be assured of a good quality of seed. Suspending the heads will protect the seed from rats and mice and avoid any danger from the heating and molding which might occur when the brush is stored in a heap on the floor. CHAPTER VI TESTING THE VITALITY OF THE SEED No grower can afford to plant seed that has not been tested for vitality. If the seed has been well cared for and gives a germination test of 95 per cent, one bushel will be sufficient to plant 16 to 20 acres. If it can be avoided, no seed should be planted that tests below 90 per cent. The use of seed of low vitality results in an irregular stand, with the result that plants standing alone will produce a coarse brush of poor quality, while the crowded plants will be stunted and irregular in their development. Two dinner plates and a piece of heavy flannel cloth make a convenient tester. One hundred seeds are selected at random and placed between the folds of the moistened cloth. The cloth is placed in one of the plates, and the other plate inverted over the top to prevent the cloth from drying out too rapidly. The tester is then placed where the temperature during the day will be 70 degrees to 80 degrees Fah- renheit, and will fall to 50 degrees during the night. In three or four days the seed should begin to sprout. The tester is examined at intervals and the sprouted grains are removed after having been counted and recorded. If at the end of 10 or 12 days there remain ten or more seeds that have not sprouted, the lot of seed from which the seed was taken is not fit for planting and should be rejected. 26 BROOM-CORN CULTURE A corn germinator or a cigar box filled with sand will serve equally as well for testing the seed. Fill the box to within one inch of the top with moist sand and distribute the 100 seeds uniformly over the sur- face of the sand. Cover the seed to a depth of one- half inch with a layer of moist sand, keep moist, and at the end of 10 or 12 days count the number of plants growing up from the sand. The sand box method is to be preferred, since the conditions ob- tained are more nearly like the field than those secured by the use of the cloth and the plates. CHAPTER VII ENEMIES OF BROOM-CORN Weeds are very troublesome in broom-corn cul- ture on account of the slow early growth of the plants. For this reason the crop should be planted on clean ground if possible, and every precaution should be taken to keep the weeds in check until the plants are several inches high. Broom-corn is sometimes attacked by a smut (Sphacelotheca sorghi) which does great damage by filling the seed heads with a mass of black spores. This injures the brush as well as destroys the seed. Like the smut of wheat this disease is transmitted through the seed and may be controlled by the use of formalin or by the hot water treatment. For the formalin treatment mix four ounces or one- fourth of a pint of formalin (40 per cent) with 10 gallons of water. This will make a sufficient quantity of the solution to treat 10 or 12 bushels of seed. Place seed to be treated on clean-swept, tight floor in piles of convenient size to be stirred throughout. Sprinkle the formalin solution from sprinkling can or nozzle upon the pile, stirring to bottom of pile, until all possible is absorbed. After a few min- utes' interval repeat the operations of sprinkling and stirring ; these are again repeated until at least three quarts of solution per bushel of grain has been absorbed. One gallon per bushel is not too much. 27 28 BROOM-CORN CULTURE The pile is then covered with cloth or canvas for about two hours ; the covering is then removed and the grain stirred at intervals by shoveling over to dry it. It is then ready to plant at any time. In handling treated grain do not get it again smutted. The shovel, the drill, the grain bags and any other portions of floor used should be sterilized by use of the formalin solution. The bags may be soaked in it for half an hour and the others treated by sprinkling. If preferred, the bags of grain may be dipped in the formalin solution contained in a suitable vessel ; after thorough immersing the bags should be left in the formalin for 10 minutes, then withdrawn, the grain allowed to stand 2 hours in the bags and then spread to dry on a sterile surface. A less convenient method, but just as effective to kill smut, is to dip the bags of grain for 10 minutes in hot water at a temperature of 133 degrees Fahren- heit, then dry on sterilized surface. The chinch bug and the plant louse are the prin- cipal insect enemies of broom-corn. Crop rotation and the cleaning up and burning of all rubbish in the fields and fence rows will usually hold these enemies in check. CHAPTER VIII HARVESTING BROOM-CORN Time to Harvest. To secure brush of high qual- ity and good green color the plants should be harvested while in bloom and during the period when the anthers are falling. When cut at this stage of maturity practically no seed is secured, so it becomes necessary to leave a sufficient number of plants in the field to ripen for seed, or to grow a separate seed patch in which the heads are allowed to come to full maturity. The latter method of seed production is to be preferred, since the seed patch gives a better opportunity to exercise care in the selection of good seed plants. In the states where broom-corn is grown exten- sively the crop will be ready to harvest at a time when it will not seriously interfere with the other work ; that is, just after the wheat and oats are out of the way and before the corn is ready to harvest. Where large areas are devoted to broom-corn a very large force of men is necessary to get the crop har- vested while it is at the proper stage of maturity. However, if several plantings are made at intervals of ten days, the fields will not blossom at the same time and the plants may be harvested at the proper time with the minimum number of extra men. In California and in a few other sections the seeds are allowed to ripen before the brush is harvested. 29 30 HARVESTING BROOM-CORN 3! By this means about one ton of seed to the acre may be secured, but the quality of the brush is such that it rarely brings more than half the market price of good green brush which has been harvested at the early bloom stage. The seed secured in this manner is used as feed for hogs and poultry and is sometimes ground into a fine meal and used as a breadstuff. The practice of growing broom-corn for grain production is of doubtful value, since a much better crop can be secured by seeding the land to kafir corn, a crop which has been improved and developed for seed production. The harvesting of broom-corn comprises three operations: (i) cutting or pulling; (2) threshing; and (3) baling. The cost of bringing the broom-corn up to the harvest period is about the same as the cost of pro- ducing a crop of corn, but experienced growers claim that the former crop requires $3 to $4 extra expense an acre for the harvesting. After the bloom stage is reached the quality of the brush deteriorates rapidly, hence it is necessary to employ a large force of men in order to get the crop all harvested at the proper stage of development. Cutting or Pulling. In Oklahoma and in other localities where the dwarf type of broom-corn is grown it is more convenient to pull the heads from the inclosing sheath than to cut the head off with a knife and then remove the sheath which incloses, the lower part of the head. If the seed is selected carefully from plants ripening at the same time, a HARVESTING BROOM-CORN 33 crop may be secured which will ripen so evenly that the entire field may be harvested at the same time by pulling the brush and loading it into the wagons directly. Unless precaution is taken to secure a uni- form stand of plants that will ripen evenly, it will be necessary to go through the field two or three times, each time pulling the heads that have reached the proper stage of development. The heads should be placed in piles on the ground and shaded by a covering of stalks and blades. Because of the partially inclosed head of the dwarf varieties they are easily injured by rain at this period. The sheath around the head holds moisture and causes the brush to turn red, which very ma- terially reduces its market value. The greater height of the standard type makes it necessary to bring the heads down to a convenient height before they are harvested. This is accomplished by a process called "tabling." In the harvesting of standard broom- corn three men can usually work together to good advantage, since one man can table as fast as two men can cut. One man walking backward between the rows in advance of the cutters, bends down a few stalks first from one row and then from the other, in such a manner as to form a self-supporting table of a convenient height, as shown in Figure 8. Three men working together in this way can cut and table about two acres per day. Rapid cutting is an art that is acquired only by long practice. The operator passes down between two tables and with a small sharp knife cuts off the heads, at a point six to eight inches below the attachment of the 34 HARVESTING BROOM-CORN 35 straws. When the upper leaf sheath surrounds the shank it is important that the knife cut through a sufficient distance to sever the head but leave the sheath partially attached, so that it will be left be- hind when the head is removed. A leather stall is worn on the right forefinger, so that by grasping the stalk between the finger and the knifeblade the head may be severed by a pressure of the thumb on the back of the knife blade. Not less than six inches of stem should be left below the attachment of the straws, but if more than eight inches of shank is left the value of the brush is decreased. As the brush is cut it is laid in small piles on alter- nate tables. The brush is so placed as to be within easy reach from either side as a wagon is driven over the empty table between. Figure 9 shows the tabled broom-corn ready for the cutters, and Figure 10 shows the cut brush piled on the table and ready to be loaded as the wagon is driven over the empty table to the right in the photograph. Hauling. Since the quality of the brush is in- jured by rain, it is essential that the cut brush should be hauled to the scraper, seeded and put in curing sheds as soon .as possible. In some sections the brush is cured out of doors, but this method pro- duces a bleached head of very poor quality and one that will not command the full market price. Where broom-corn is grown on a limited scale an ordinary handy wagon may be used to haul the brush, but where the crop is grown on an extensive scale a dump wagon (Figure n) is usually em- j6 BROOM-CORN CULTURE ployed. As the wagon is driven over the empty table a man on either side loads on the piles of brush from the adjacent tables. The seed heads are piled on the rack in a double row with the butts lapping at the middle in order to hold the piles in place. By means of the dumping arrangement shown in the cut, the work of unloading is accomplished very quickly. After dropping a lever to the ground the Fig. 11. Dump wagon for hauling the brush from the field. wagon is pulled forward until the bed is shoved back and tilted so that the rear end rests on the ground. The end gate is now removed and a second forward movement of the wagon allows the brush to slip off onto the ground in the same order as it was piled on the wagon. Sorting. During harvest a number of plants will be found bearing heads with coarse thick centers or with brush so snarly as to be of no value. These plants should be discarded and left in the field uncut. In addition to these useless plants there will always HARVESTING BROOM-CORN 37 be found a small percentage of crooked brush which must be sorted out before the crop is marketed. The amount of crooked brush is greatly increased if the harvesting is delayed until the seeds are well formed, since the weight of the seed may become sufficient to cause the straws to bend over just above the attachment to the . stem, as shown at L, Fig- ure 3. The same result may be produced by wet weather just before har- vest time. The weight of water which clings to the heads may be sufficient to bend the straw down- ward. In regions where the seed is allowed to ripen the plants are broken over before the seed is formed, so that the heads may hang pendent and produce a straight brush as well as a crop of seed. The separation of the crooked brush from the straight heads can be accomplished most easily while the heads are in small piles in the field, where it is easy to distinguish the inferior material. The two grades resulting from this sorting should be handled and marketed separately, since a few crooked heads will lower the value of the entire bale. The crooked material will sell for about half Fig. 12. Small power scraper for removing seeds from the brush. HARVESTING BROOM-CORN 39 as much as the straight heads, and is much more difficult to bale ; hence it is quite desirable that the crop should contain a minimum amount of crooked heads. Careful seed selection and prompt harvesting at the bloom stage will have a tendency to reduce the number of undesirable heads. Scraping or Threshing. Before the broom-corn can be baled and marketed the seed must be re- moved from the brush. This is accomplished by bringing the seed heads in contact with a revolving cylinder the surface of which is set with spikes or long teeth, as shown in Figure 12. If the acreage is limited this small power machine or a hand scraper will be sufficient to thresh the crop, but where broom-corn is grown extensively a large power out- fit (Figure 13) is required. A thresher of this kind costs about $200 and has a daily capacity of 30 to 40 acres if 15 to 20 men are provided to handle the material. In this process the heads do not pass between the revolving cylinders, as in the case of a grain thresher. The brush is held firmly by a toothed belt which brings the seed heads into con- tact with the cylinders in such a manner as to thor- oughly remove the seed. After passing the cylinder the brush is deposited on a platform at the side opposite to the point of entrance. The seed is col- lected at the bottom of the machine and removed by a conveyer situated at the end of the machine oppo- site the cylinders. Curing and Bulking. From the thresher the brush is taken to drying sheds, where it should be allowed to cure for three or four weeks before it is baled. HARVESTING BROOM-CORN It is essential that the curing should proceed rapidly, but exposure to strong light will destroy the fresh color which is demanded by the manufacturer. Brush that has been long exposed to the weather or cured in the field is very inferior in quality and does not command a good price on the market. In the important broom-corn sections spe- cial curing sheds are pro- vided. The building shown in Figure 14 is typical of the Illinois region and exhibits the essential features of a good shed, namely, a tight roof with wide pro- jecting eaves and ample provision for the free cir- culation of air. To care for 20 acres of broom-corn will require a shed about 24 feet long, 16 feet wide and 10 feet high to the eaves. A second 20 acres may be cured in this shed the same season if the planting is so arranged as to have the second field ready for harvest three or four weeks later than the first plant- ing, since the first crop will be ready to bulk down by the time the second planting has reached the harvest stage. During the curing season these sheds are used Fig. 15. Interior of a shed in which light poles are used for shelves. The brush is piled in thin layers to permit a free circulation of air. HARVESTING BROOM-CORN 43 exclusively for broom-corn, but during the remainder of the year they may be used for hay barns or for the storage of machinery. A common method of construction is to support the roof by means of uprights placed eight feet apart, and nail to these uprights narrow strips 4 inches apart and running lengthwise of the shed. A large number of slats or strips 2 inches wide and 8 feet long are provided for shelves upon which the brush is to rest. But these are not put in place until the shed is being filled. Beginning near the ground the first shelf is formed by placing two of these strips across the section parallel to each other and about i foot apart, with their ends supported by the low- est longitudinal strips. The brush is then spread evenly over this shelf to the depth of 3 inches, and then a second shelf is constructed in the same man- ner as the first. This process is repeated until the entire shed is filled with shelves 4 inches apart and each carrying a layer of brush three inches deep. It is necessary to keep the layers thin, in order to secure a good air circulation and thus facilitate the curing and drying of the brush. Figure 15 shows the interior of an Ohio shed in which the shelves have been constructed of light poles instead of sawed strips. If warm, dry, weather prevails the brush will be ready to bulk down in three or four weeks. It should not be taken from the shelves, however, until the stems show no signs of moisture when squeezed or twisted. If left on the slats in the curing shed too 44 BROOM-CORN CULTURE long, the quality of the brush will be injured by bleaching. In the bulking process the brush is removed from the shelves and piled in straight, compact ricks, from which it is taken direct to the baler as soon as it is thoroughly dry. Fig. 17. A well-constructed bale of broom-corn as it was received at the factory. Baling. Practically all of the broom-corn grown in the United States is marketed in the bale. In the process of baling the brush is compressed into tight packages and bound with wire. This is usu- ally accomplished by means of a horse or hand- power machine which requires a force of six or eight men for its operation at full capacity. HARVESTING BROOM-CORN 45 The broom-corn is taken up from the bulk by small arm loads and after butting the brush (Figure 14) it is passed to the man in the baler (Figure 16), who builds up a double tier with the butt ends of the brush to the outside and the tops lapping at the cen- ter. After the pressure has been applied, heavy No. 9 wire is passed around the bale at five different points. It is necessary to use large wire to prevent the brush from being cut. The bale as it comes from the press is usually about 45 inches in length and width by 24 inches in thickness, and weighs 300 to 400 pounds, with an average of about 340 pounds. Figure 17 shows the appearance of a properly con- structed bale. With a crew of seven or eight men a good horse- power baler will put up 10 tons per day. Manu- facturers are becoming more exacting in their re- quirements that the broom-corn which they buy shall have been thoroughly seeded and properly baled. An average-sized bale will make about 15 dozen brooms. ft- n 4C CHAPTER IX BROOM-CORN BY-PRODUCTS In sections where the plants are allowed to ripen the broom-corn seed is used for feed, but in the im- portant broom-corn producing sections the brush is harvested during the blossom stage, and very little seed is secured. Feeding tests with the fodder of standard broom- corn has shown that the stalks are woody and un- palatable, and that they are of little value for feed- ing purposes. But if cut immediately after the brush is harvested the dwarf varieties produce a fodder almost equal in feeding value to corn stover. Fig- ure 18 shows a field of dwarf broom-corn which has been cut and shocked. After threshing the stalks may be used for forage. In 1909 the United States Department of Agricul- ture began a series of tests to determine the value of broom-corn stalks for the manufacture of paper. Since broom-corn has been selected for the produc- tion of a larger quantity and a better quality of brush, it is natural that the production of fiber in one part should be correlated with a higher quality of fiber in the whole plant. As a result of these experiments it was found that the broom-corn stalk is suitable, so far as quality and yield of pulp is concerned, for immediate use in paper making. It reduces to pulp rapidly and with a small consump- 47 48 BROOM-CORN CULTURE tion of steam and chemicals, the time being three to four hours as compared with eight to twelve hours for wood pulp. The most serious disadvantage is the limited pro- duction of the raw material, the total of which does not amount to more than 1,000 tons for the entire United States. The stalks when extracted for an hour under steam pressure, yield a quantity of soluble solids which contain practically all of the food value of the raw material. These tests indicate that if they can be secured in sufficiently large quantities, the broom- corn stalks can be pulped at a profit without taking into consideration the value of the food extract. CHAPTER X THE MANUFACTURE OF BROOMS In former years many farmers raised a small quantity of broom-corn for the purpose of supplying their household with brooms. The crop was har- vested, cured and made into brooms by the farmer and the members of his family. In some cases the entire manufacturing process was completed with- out the aid of machinery, while in other cases the handling of the crop was facilitated by the use of very simple homemade machines which were operated by hand. According to the Twelfth Census, there are in the United States 1,526 broom and brush manufacturing establishments, with a capital of $9,616,000. Among the states, Illinois takes the lead with 156 factories, representing a total capital of $500,000. At the present time the manufacture of brooms in the home has been almost entirely superseded by the factory method. And hand machines have been supplanted by power machines. With the hand machines one man can make seven or eight dozen brooms per day, while with power machines the process is divided between several operators and the output very much increased. Some of the larger manufacturing establishments turn out more than a thousand dozen finished brooms per day. Homemade Brooms. Several years ago a writer 50 BROOM-CORN CULTURE for the American Agriculturist gave the following directions for -, making brooms by hand: "When ready to go to work, take as much as will be needed for the number of brooms to be made, and set the stalk portions in water up to the brush, and leave them to soak an hour or two. When softened, gather in the hands enough for a broom, with the largest and best stalks on the outside in regular order. The good appearance of the broom when finished will depend upon the evenness of the brush and proper arrangement of the outside layers. Next, fasten a strong small cord to the ceiling, with a loop for the foot in the lower end, or tie a stick to the cord as a sort of treadle upon which to place the foot. Wind this cord two or three times around the brush. Grasp the brush firmly in both hands and roll it around several times, increasing the pressure with the foot. Instead of the foot, some use a lever upon the lower end of the cord, one end of the lever being placed under the work-bench, and the other held by a boy, who can give the required pressure. The next operation is to wind on a strong twine for a space of i l /2 or 2 inches. This is best done by rolling the pressing cord close up next to the brush, wind the twine on, and roll off the cord towards the end, following it with the twine. To make a neat knot at the end, double one end of the twine and lay it along the outside of the stalks, letting the loose end lie out at the left. W 7 hen the twine is all on, slip the right end through the loop, and draw the left end so as to bring the loop in under the coil of twine ; then cut off the two ends close in to the coil. No THE MANUFACTURE OF BROOMS knot will now be visible, as the loop is out of sight, and the ends are securely fastened. "If a flat broom is to be made, which is usually the desirable form, press the brush part between two narrow boards fastened near -together at one end with a piece of strong leather nailed on very securely. The other end of the boards may be held Fig. 19. Tread-power machine for the manufacture of brooms by hand. together with a string. Instead of these boards, the brush may be put between two short boards, and screwed into a vise. The sewing is the next step. For this, a large needle of iron or steel will be re- quired, or one of strong hard wood will answer, it should be six to eight inches in length. At the point where you wish to fasten the brush portion, say three or four inches below the winding cord, wind a 52 BROOM-CORN CULTURE twine once, or better twice around, and tie it firmly, leaving enough of one end to sew with. Now sew through and through the brush, letting the twine at each stitch pass around the portion you have tied on, Point the needle forward in making each stitch so as to have it come out on the opposite side a little further along each time. A second twine may be tied around, and a second sewing may then be made Fig. 20. Broom-corn sizer for assorting the brush according to length. further towards the lower end. Three sewings are sometimes made. Two will generally be enough, except where the brush is very long. The broom is now ready for its handle. To put this in place, sharpen the lower end of the handle, and drive it exactly in the center of the neck of the broom, and fasten it with two small nails upon opposite sides, and the broom is complete. The lower ends of the brush may need clipping a little to make them even. THE MANUFACTURE OF BROOMS 55 With a little practice a very neat broom may thus be made. They may be made still more tasteful, though not stronger nor more durable, by using wire instead of twine, and by paring down the stalks, so as to make a smaller, neater shank." A slightly different method is described by an- other writer to the same paper. He says: "Put the butt-ends of the brush in warm water to soak awhile. When sufficiently softened, tack one end of a strong twine to the broom handle, about three inches from its lower end. Fasten the other end of the string, which is about two feet long, to a small round stick upon which you step with both feet. Lay on the brush, one stalk at a time, and give the handle a turn sufficient to hold each new stalk firmly. Con- tinue putting on and winding, until three layers have been secured, pulling upward as the handle is turned to tighten the string. Now commence another row nearer the lower end of the handle, and proceed as before, finishing the third course or tier with the longest and finest brush. Wind the cord around snugly a few times after the brush is all on, and fasten the end with a carpet tack. To make a broad or flat broom, more of the brush may be put upon two opposite sides than upon the other portions. Then tie the two ends of a string the right length, slip it over the handle, and to a suitable place upon the broom, and sew. You now have as neat a broom as you can buy, and stronger than most of those in the market. With a little practice they can be made very quickly. Wire can be used instead of twine." 54 BROOM-CORN CULTURE Factory-Made Brooms. At the present time practically all of the broom-corn grown in the United States is manufactured into brooms in large factories which are equipped with machines for handling the crop in an economical manner. Fig. 21. Broom-winding machine used in large factories. In some of the small factories the machines are operated by hand, but the larger establishments make use of power machines for all of the processes of converting the raw material into finished brooms or whisks. Figure 19 shows a tread-power machine THE MANUFACTURE OF BROOMS 55 by which one man can make from six to eight dozen brooms per day. It consists of a table with a pro- jecting wing under which is a revolving hollow shaft, which serves as a socket (a) to receive the broom handle. The socket is revolved by means of a belt from the treadle (b). The broom-handle is placed in this socket, with seven or eight inches of the butt exposed, and held fast by a setscrew. A tack is driven part way in, about an inch and a half from the end of the handle, and the wire wound around it ; the tack is then driven down, and the wire thus fastened. The han- dle is revolved two or three times to give the wire a firm hold around it before any brush is put on. The wire is wound on a reel, shown in the engraving at c, passes around three pulleys, by which the requisite tension is procured, and then passes to the broom handle. When the wire is properly fastened, the operator takes a handful of coarse, rough brush, and holds the stalks beneath the wire as the handle turns, spreading them smoothly, and pounding them down closely with a flat pounder, made something like a common potato masher, which is used in kitchens, but is flat or oval instead of round. This brush is the filling, and about three small handfuls are needed for each broom. The wire should be wound around the filling three or four times, and as the brush revolves the stalks are smoothed off with a sharp knife just above the last turn of the wire. The wire is then slipped off the brush on to the handle, and wound around it once about half an inch above the smoothed end of the stalks. Then a hand- BROOM-CORN CULTURE ful of the sorted brush, suitable for the kind of broom to be made, is taken in the left hand, and with the knife the stalks are cut half through with a sloping cut half an inch above the straw, and the Fig. 22. Broom stitcher. Capacity, four to seven dozen brooms per hour. half of the stalk split off. The stalks are then placed beneath the wire so that it may be wound exactly over where they were cut. The treadle is turned until the stalks are all bound on, when another handful THE MANUFACTURE OF BROOMS 57 is taken and treated precisely the same way, and then finally another handful. Each handful consists of six or eight stalks, and they should be placed smoothly and close together under the wire. The wire is bound evenly around the stalks until there is sufficient to hold the broom firmly together, when it is fastened with a tack as at the commencement. The pounder is constantly used to pack the brush. The broom is now round in form, and must be placed between a pair of clamps and securely stitched. When the stitch- ing has been completed the broom is removed from the clamps and trimmed by means of a clipping machine, shown in Figure 23. In the large factories the broom-corn is taken directly from the bale and fed into a sizer similar to the one shown in Figure 20. This machine cuts off the extra lengths of stalks and distributes each size of corn into separate compartments, sorting it into seven lengths, from eleven inches upward. One- eighth horsepower is required to operate a machine which will size from 1,000 to 1,500 pounds of brush a day. A broom-winding machine such as used in large factories is shown in Figure 21. A good broom maker, with the aid of a boy, can wind five hundred brooms per day with this equipment. Fig. 23. Clipper for trimming the ends of the brooms. 58 BROOM-CORN CULTURE Figure 22 is the rear view of a power stitcher which has a capacity of from four to seven dozen brooms per hour, according to the skill of the operator and the style and the size of the broom being sewed. All sizes and shapes of brooms may be stitched on this machine by simply changing the shaping jaws which clamp the broom in position. In addition to these machines a factory should have a hurl cutter and sizer, broom clippers (Fig- ure 23), and a power scraper for removing the seed from the brush that has been carelessly handled before shipment. The power scraper shown in Fig- ure 24 is provided with a fan for carrying away the seeds and dust. The fan should be connected with a chute leading outside of the room in which the scraper is being operated. Fig. 24. Small power scraper with fan for car- rying away the seeds and dust. INDEX Page Bales, size and weight ^ 45 Baling the brush 44 Broom-corn, insect enemies of 28 description of the plant 6 price fluctuation 4 varieties 6 Broom factories in the United States 49 Broom machines, hand 55 power 57 Brooms, factory-made 49 home made 49 Brush, causes of crooked 37 curing and bulking . 39 scraping or threshing 39 sorting of 36 By-products of broom-corn 47 Center of production 1 Chinch bug, enemy of broom-corn 28 Choice of land 14 Climatic conditions, dependence upon 12 Clipper, broom 58 Cultivation of broom-corn 18 frequency and method 19 Curing the brush 39 Cutting the brush 33 Date of planting 16 Dump wagon for hauling broom-corn 36 Dwarf broom-corn 6 characteristics 9 uses 7 Enemies of broom-corn 27 Export trade 5 Fodder, broom-corn 47 Harvesting broom-corn 29 bad results from late 37 cost of 31 cutting or pulling 31 piling and hauling 35 Hauling the brush 35 Hurl cutting 58 Insect enemies of broom-corn 28 50 6O INDEX Page Land, choice of 14 Machines used in the manufacture of brooms 55 hurl cutter 58 Manufacture of brooms 49 sizing 57 stitching 57 winding 57 Paper pulp from broom-corn stalks 47 Piling the brush 35 Plant, description of the broom-corn 6 Planting, date and method 16 Preparation of the seedbed 15 Price of broom-corn 3 Production of broom-corn in the United States 2 by states 4 center of 1 Regions best suited for different types 13 Seed, harvesting and storage 23 method of securing good 21 smut treatment of 27 testing vitality of 25 yield and weight 23 Seedbed, preparation of 15 Sheds, curing, construction of 43 dimensions of 41 Sizer 57 Smut, treatment for 27 Soils for broom-corn 12 Sorting the brush 36 Standard broom-corn 7 yield 9 Stitcher 57 Storage of seed 23 Tabling broom-corn : 33 Threshing or scraping the brush 39 Threshing machines 39 Types of broom-corn 13 regions best suited to different types 13 Varieties of broom-corn 6 Vitality of broom-corn seed 25 testing of 25 Wagon, dump, for hauling broom-corn 36 STANDARD BOOKS PUBLISHED BY ORANGE JUDD COMPANY NEW YORK CHICAGO ASHLAND BUILDING PEOPLE'S GAS BUILDING 315-321 Fourth Avenue 150 Michigan Avenue Any of these books will be sent by mail, postpaid, to any part of the world, on receipt of catalog price. We are always happy to correspond with our patrons, and cordially invite them to address us on any matter pertaining to rural booths. Send for our large illustrated catalog, free on appli- cation. First Principles of Soil Fertility By ALFRED VIVIAN. There is no subject of more vital importance to the farmer than that of the best method of maintaining the fertility of the soil. The very evident decrease in the fertility of those soils which have been under cultivation for a number of years, combined with the increased competition and the advanced price of labor, have convinced the intelligent farmer that the agriculture of the future must be based upon more rational practices than those which have been followed in the past. We have felt for some time that there was a place for a brief, and at the same time comprehensive, treatise on this important subject of Soil Fertility. Professor Vivian's experience as a teacher in the short winter courses has admirably fitted him to present this matter in a popular style. In this little book he has given the gist of the subject in plain language, practically devoid of technical and scientific terms. It is pre-eminently a "First Book," and will be found especially valuable to those who desire an introduction to the subject, and who intend to do subse- quent reading. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. 265 pages. Cloth. Net, $1.00 The Study of Corn By PROF. V. M. SHOESMITH. A most helpful book to all farmers and students interested in the selection and im- provement of corn. It is profusely illustrated from photo- graphs, all of which carry their own story anj contribute their part in making pictures and text matter a clear, con- cise and interesting study of corn. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. loo pages. Cloth Net, $0.50 (l) The Management and Feeding of Cattle By PROF. THOMAS SHAW. The place for this book will be at once apparent when it is stated that it is the first book that has ever been written which discusses the man- agement and feeding of cattle, from the birth of the calf until it has fulfilled its mission in life, whether on the block or at the pail. The book is handsomely printed on fine paper, from large, clear type. Fully illustrated. 5^2x8 inches. 496 pages. Cloth Net, $2.00 The Farmer's Veterinarian By CHARLES WILLIAM BURKETT. This book abounds in helpful suggestions and valuable information for the most successful treatment of ills and accidents, and disease troubles. A practical treatise on the diseases of farm stock; containing brief and popular advice on the nature, cause and treatment of disease, the common ailments and the care and management of stock when sick. It is profusely illustrated, containing a number of halftone illustrations, and a great many drawings picturing diseases, their symptoms and familiar attitudes assumed by farm animals when affected with disease, and presents, for the first time, a plain, practical and satisfactory guide for farmers who are interested in the common diseases of the farm. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. 288 pages. Cloth. Net, $1.50. First Lessons in Dairying By HUBERT E. VAN NORMAN. This splendid little book has been written from a practical point of view, to fill a place in dairy literature long needed. It is designed primarily as a practical guide to successful dairying, an elementary text-book for colleges and for use especially in short-course classes. It embodies underlying principles involved in the handling of milk, delivery to factory, ship- ping station, and the manufacture of butter on the farm. It is written in a simple, popular way, being free from tech- nical terms, and is easily understood by the average farm boy. The book is just the thing for the every-day dairy- man, and should be in the hands of every farmer in the country. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. 100 pages. Cloth. Net, $0.50. A Dairy Laboratory Guide By H. E. Ross. While the book is intended primarily for use in the laboratory, it should be of value to the practical dairyman. The time has come when the suc- cessful dairyman must study his business from a purely scientific point of view, and in this book the scientific principles, upon which dairy industry is based, are stated clearly and simply, and wherever it is possible, these prin- ciples are illustrated by practical problems and examples. 90 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth Net, $0.50 (2) 500