'y/ '2yCc/cc<%/^on, Ex lAhrv C. K. OGDEN HISTORY NAPOLEON. GEORGE MOIR BUSSEY. ILLUSTRATED BY HORACE VERNE T. IN TWO VOLUMES. VOL. L LONDON: JOSEPH THOMAS, FINCH LANE, CORNHILL. M D C C C X L. ; Palmkr «n(l Clayton, PrinKri, 9, Crant-tourt, Fleft-JtreH. MBFARY UNIVERr>^'"Y OF ^^IJFORNIA SANTA BARBARA ■^ TO THE RIGHT HON^LE LORD HOLLAND, CHANCELLOR OF THE DUCHY OF LANCASTER, WHOSE NAME WILL ALWAYS BE ASSOCIATED WITH THAT OF NAPOLEON, FOR THE NOBLE EXPRESSION OF HIS SYMPATHY WITH THE GENIUS AND MISFORTUNES OF THE FALLEN EMPEROR, DURING THE LONG PERIOD OF HIS EXILE, THESE VOLUMES ARE, WITH HIS LORDSHIP'S KIND PERMISSION, RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED, BY THE AUTHOR. PREFACE. N COMPILING a new History of Napoleon, it has been the object of the Author to relate, as clearly, concisely, and impartially as possible, the great events which his work necessarily embraces. The previous Biographers of the French Emperor have, for the most part, been men who were themselves partisans or actors in the long struggle produced by the French Revolution, and therefore, though perhaps unconsciously, biassed by feelings excited by passing occurrences. Hence the cha- racter of Napoleon has been exalted or depreciated, and his actions magnified or disparaged, according to the political or personal views of the writers who have recorded his achievements. The principal aim of the writer of the present work has been to review the Life of Napoleon as a whole ; not only in its chivalric details, but as to its influence upon the state and prospects of Europe, and the progress of civilization through- out the world. The Author was not old enough at the termination of the extraordinary career of the Emperor, to participate in any of the various feelings which then agitated all classes of society ; and he is still too little of a partisan to be influenced by a consideration of the mere persons engaged PREFACE. in opi)osition to, or in support of, the politics pursued during that eventful period. He has been only solicitous, therefore, to render strict justice to all that his duty required him to narrate. Nothing, that was deemed necessary to a faithful portraiture of the man and his actions, has been wilfully omitted, exaggerated, or misrepresented ; but praise or blame, when either has been thought requisite, has been distributed accordino; us the facts themselves seemed to demand. The authorities which have been consulted for the work are chiefly those which Rave been, from time to time, pre- sented to the Public, by statesmen, ofiicers, and others, who had served under Napoleon : persons of all shades of opinion, but whose veracity is generally to be relied upon (if for no other reason), because they speak of things which were seldom matters of confidence, or confined to the know- ledge of a few. ^A'ithout trusting, however, implicitly to these, their statements, whenever it could be done, have been carefully compared w^itli those of the best English authors on the sul)ject, and nothing admitted but what at least had the semblance of perfect authenticity. The accounts con- tained in the majority of publications concerning Napoleon, which appeared previously to 1821, differ so materially from those of later date, and from each other, that their authority has been almost wholly rejected, as unworthy of credit. It has been considered advisable to prefix to this History, a Sketch of the Rise and Progress of the great French Revo- lution ; without some knowledge of which, it would be scarcely possible riglitly to understand the state of France,- and the condition of its people, when Napoleon appeared upon the scene to influence, and eventually to control, the destinies of the Nation. This, however, from the space to PREFACE. which it has been necessarily limited, is not intended for a full or perfect history of that perilous change : it forms simply a requisite introduction to the Life of him who has been called its " Child and Champion." The object has been to give a fair, general view of the occurrences as they happened, without entering into elaborate detail, or attempt- ing to draw thence philosophical deductions : the Author has endeavoured merely to relate the circumstances and incidents of the period, so that they may be comprehensible without imposing on the reader a necessity for reference to other volumes. Of the manner in which he has executed his task, it remains for the Public to decide : the writer feels it his duty, however, to avail himself of this opportunity to tender his thanks for the many flattering notices with which the Work in its progress has been honoured ; and to which, although it may seem like vanity to allude, it could be but aftectation to pretend to feel indifferent. London, January, 1840. CONTENTS OF VOLUME I. Dcilicatiou Preface . . . Introductory Sketch of the French Revolution. Causes of the Revolution — Assembly of Notables — States General — National As- sembly — The Bastille — Constituent Assembly — Declaration of Rights — Flight and Arrest of the King — Legislative Assembly — Coalition against France — The Convention — Execution of Louis XVI. — Insurrections — The Queen guillotined — Christianity abolished — Reign of Terror — Fall of Robespierre — Effects of the Revolution. 1784 — 1794 ^ xiii CHAPTER I. The Family of Bonaparte — Birth of Napoleon — Boyhood — Military Education — First Commission. 1 769 — 1 785. 1 CHAPTER IL Napoleon's First Love — Literary Efforts — Revolution — Recall and Treachery of Paoli — Toulon. 1 785—1 793 12 CHAPTER III. Generals Cartaux, Doppet, and Dugommier — Junot — Duroc — Little Gibraltar — Fall of Toulon — Promotion of N&poleon — Army at Nice — Female Represen- tative — Arrest — Resignation. 1793 — 1795 20 CHAPTER IV. Difficulties — Projects — Revolt of the Sections — Napoleon Commander of Paris — Famine — Madame Bcauharnais — Marriage. 1 795 — 1 79G. , 33 CONTENTS. Page CHAPTER V. First Campaign of Italj' — Montenotte — Millesirao — Dego — Passage of the Po — Fiombo — Lodi — Milan — Pavia — The Mincio — Mantua — Lonato — Castiglione — Roveredo — Bassano — St. George — Areola — Rivoli — La Favorita — Surrender of Mantua — Tollentino — Tagliamento — Leoben — Venice — Pichegru — The Directory — Montebello — Josephine — Treaty of Campo Formio. 179G — 1797. . 40 CHAPTER VI. Napoleon quits Italy — Journey to Rastadt — Paris — Embarkation for Egj'pt. 1797—1798 134 CHAPTER VII. Voyage to Egypt — Malta — Alexandria — Battle of the Pyramids — Cairo. 1798 151 CHAPTER VIII. Ibrahim Bey — Battle of the Nile — Administration of Napoleon in Egj'pt — March to Syria — El-Arish — Gaza — Jaffa — Acre — Return to Egj'pt — Aboukir — Napoleon Embarks for France. 1798—1799 170 CHAPTER IX. Voyage — Arrival at Frcjus — General Rejoicings — State of France — Eighteenth Brumaire. 1799 222 CHAPTER X. Provisional Consulate — Reforms — Constitution of the Year Eight — New Consulate — Pacification of La Vendee — Letter to the King of England — Embassy to Prussia — The Emperor Paul — The Luxembourg. 1799 249 CHAPTER XL Removal to the Tuileries — New Campaign of Italy— Army of Reserve — Passage of the Great St. Bernard — Montebello — Marengo — Return to Paris — National Fete. 1800 271 CHAPTER XIL Correspondence with the Bourbons — Death of Kleber — Negociations with Austria, England, and the United States of America — Conspiracies— Parallel. 1800. .. .311 CHAPTER XIII. Special Tribunals— Public Works— Renewal of Hostilities — Ilohenlindcn— Treaty of Luneville — Death of the Emperor Paul — Evacuation of Egypt— The Con- cordat-Peace of Amiens, 1800—1801 ; . . 323 CONTENTS. CHAPTER XIV. Napoleon, President of the Cisalpine Republic — Marriagre of Louis Bonaparte — Education — Civil Code — Recall of Emigrants — Consul for Life — Carnot and La Fayette — Expedition to St. Domingo — Helvetic Confederation— The Press. 1802—1803 342 CHAPTER XV. Rupture of the Peace of Amiens — "War with England — Invasion threatened — Con- spiracy of Georges Cadoudal, Pichegru, and Moreau — Seizure and Execution of the Duke d'Enghien. 1803—1804 3G1 CHAPTER XVI. Establishment of the Empire — Trial of Georges and the Conspirators — Protest of the Count De Lille — Imperial Visit to the Camp at Boulogne — Brussels — The Rhine— Return to Paris. 1804 379 CHAPTER XVII. Arrival of the Pope at Paris — Votes of the People for Hereditary Succession — Coronation of the Emperor and Empress — Distribution of Eagles to the Army. 1804 39G CHAPTER XVIII. Opening of the Legislative Chambers — Statue of the Emperor — Second Letter of Napoleon to George III.— Reply of the British Secretary of State. 1804—1805. . 405 CHAPTER XIX. Napoleon, King of Italy — Departure from Paris — Turin — Alessandria — Marengo — Milan — Genoa annexed to France — Coronation — Order of the Iron Crown — Eugene Beauharnais, Viceroy — Return to Paris. 1805 412 CHAPTER XX. Preparations for War — Austrian Invasion of Bavaria — War with Austria — Napoleon joins the Army — Bridge of Lech — Expulsion of Prince Ferdinand from Bavaria — Ulm — Capture of Vienna — Austerlitz — Treaty of Presburg. 1805 422 CHAPTER XXL Prussia and Sweden — Battle of Trafalgar — Peace of Presburg — Bavaria and Wur- temburg Kingdoms — War with Naples — Adoption and Marriage of Eugene Beauharnais — Return of Napoleon to France. 1805 — 1806 465 CONTENTS. Page CHAPTER XXII. Public Rejoicings — The Legislative Session — New Nobility — Joseph Bonaparte, King of Naples — Louis, King of Holland — Confederation of the Rhine — Treaty with the Porte — Death of Pitt — Negociations with England — Death of Fox — Domestic Life of the Emperor. 180G 485 CHAPTER XXIII. Northern *Confederacy — Second Visit of Alexander to Berlin — Renewal of the War with Russia and Prussia — Saalfcld — Death of Prince Louis — Jena — Auerstadt — The Duke of Brunswick wounded — Potsdam — Visit to the Tomb of Frederick the Great. I80G 50.') CHAPTER XXIV. French Entry into Berlin — Clemency of Napoleon — Berlin Decree for the Blockade of the British Isles — Fall of Stettin, Custrin, Lubeck — Suspension of Arms — Levy of Eighty Thousand Men — Polish Addresses — Proclamation of Posen — Decree. 180G 530 CHAPTER XXV. Campaign in Poland — Napoleon at Warsaw — Pultusk — Breslau — Eylau — Fall of Dantzic — Deppen — Friedland — Evacuation of Konigsberg — Armistice of Tilsit — Peace — The Elector of Saxony and Jerome Bonaparte, Kings. 180G — 1807. . 547 ^^^^ NAPiiLEON. INTRODUCTORY SKETCH THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION — ASSEMBLY OF NOTABLES — STATES GENERAL — NATIONAL ASSEMBLY THE BASTILLE CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY DECLA- RATION OF RIGHTS FLIGHT AND ARREST OF THE KING LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY COALITION AGAINST FRANCE THE CONVENTION EXECUTION OF LOUIS XVI. INSURRECTIONS THE QUEEN GUILLOTINED CHRISTI- ANITY ABOLISHED REIGN OF TERROR FALL OF ROBESPIERRE EFFECTS OF THE REVOLUTION. 178" 1794. GUIS XV., during whose reign an approaching revohition in France became perceptible, died in the year 1774. He was a weak and effemi- nate man ; lavish in expenditure, gay, gallant, good-humoured, and indolent ; and entirely governed, as to political matters, by his fa- ^ vourite courtiers and mistresses. The people were utterly neglected during this reign, or were regarded only as the soiu'ce from which the Coiu't obtained its means of vicious indulgence. Civilization seemed to have retrograded throughout the country. The luxury of Louis XV. and his minions could only be INTRODUCTORY SKETCH OF exceeded by the poverty and general debasement of the humbler classes of society. There was nothing to keep alive the spirit of endurance among the populace. The reign of Louis XIV, had^ perhaps, been equally burdensome to his subjects, but the Grand Monarque had shed the light of glory over his kingdom, and thus made his people participators of the costly splendour with which he surrounded his crown. To be a Great Nation, the first in the world for arts and arms, the arbiters of Europe, Frenchmen had forgotten their individual grievances and privations, submitted to hard fare and harsh restrictions, and bowed to the stern desiiotism of absolute dominion without a murmur. But the extravagance and misrule of the Ministry of Louis XV. was sordid and selfish, and had been attended \A\ki national defeat and disgrace. The people had, there- fore, become disgusted, and began to look at the Government as the cause of the misery in which all, save the princes, nobility, and clergy — the privileged classes of the realm — were involved. The pomt of positive resistance, indeed, had been reached; and to those who then looked at the internal condition and aspect of France, reflectively, a convulsion seemed inevitable. All that was base and vile of the feudal system, and which in every state where practical freedom was kno^vn had occasioned the over- throw of that system, was in fall vigom* in the French provinces. "The age of chivalry," as fai- as it consisted of courtesy, generosity, and honour in the nobility, and of enthusiastic attachment on the part of the serf to his chieftain, had passed away; but the arrogant assumption and arbitrary laws and impositions, which it had estab- lished on the one hand, and the inseciu-ity and degradation of vassalage on the other, remained to rankle into hostility, and even- tually, as a natural consequence, to produce a war of classes. Arthur Young, in his 'Travels in France,' just previously to the breaking out of the Revolution, has given a striking picture of the grossly unjust exactions to which the French people were subjected. The enrolments for the militia, he informs us, were a dreadful scourge upon the peasantry; and as married men were exempted from them, premature marriages and superabundant population followed as matters of com-se, and permanently increased the general distress. The system established for making and repauing public roads was THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. iniquitously oppressive, and annually occasioned llic ruin of many hundreds of farmers. More than three hundred were reduced to beggary in filling up one valley in Lorraine. From these burdens the nobility, Avhich embraced about eighty thousand families, and the clergy, who were excessively numerous and enjoyed great portion of the wealth of the country, were wholly exempt. The penal code, which was rigorously enforced for the infractions of the revenue laws, inflicted punishments utterly disproportioned to the offences committed. It has been computed that there were annually consigned to prison or the galleys upwards of thi-ee thousand four hundred persons, — men, women, and children, — for 'smuggling salt. The occupiers of land were oppressed by the creation of Capi- taineries, or paramount lordships of districts, in favoui* of princes of the blood, and others, who by money or influence could procure them from the King. By these devices, the absolute property in all game, within the seigniory, was vested in the holders of grants, extending even to manors long before presented to private individuals. Tlie extreme hardship connected with this privilege can only be appreciated by a knowledge that the game comprised whole di'oves of wild boars, and herds of deer, which wandered at will over the country, destroying the crops and fences of the farmer and peasant, and involving those who presumed to kill or injure them, in order to save or procure the means of subsistence, in condemnation to the galleys. In four parishes of the district of Montceau, the mischief is said to have amounted to upwards of a hundi-ed and eighty-four thousand francs (nearly seven thousand seven hundred pounds) per annum. Among the numerous edicts for the perservation of game, there were several which prohibited weeding and hoeing, lest these operations should distmb the young partridges; steeping the seed, lest it should injure the game ; the use of certain kinds of manui-e, lest the flavour of the birds should be deteriorated ; and the mowing of hay before a certain fixed date, Avhich, in some seasons, occasioned the destruction of the crops. The exercise of this tyranny extended over four hundi-ed leagues of territory; and was so rigorous, that many persons abandoned the cultivation of the land rather than submit to it, and large tracts of fertile country, consequently, lay waste and desolate. INTRODUCTORY SKETCH OF The clespoti«ni of the lesser feudal lords and of the clergy was nearly as oppressive as that of the Crown and the high nobility. The manorial courts, purporting to be established for the dispensation of justice, seemed to have been framed for the encouragement and protection of fraud and chicanery, by interminable processes and appeals, involving expenses and delays, which rendered submission to wrong preferable to litigation. The judges were absolutely dependent upon those by whom they were appointed ; and in most instances owed their situations to their servility, without the least regard to their qualifications or integrity. Decrees and judgments were, therefore, sold to the highest bidder, almost undisguisedly. The tenant and vassal were compelled to grind their corn at the seigneur's mill, to press their gi'apes and apples at his press, and to bake their bread in his oven. Under these regulations, heavy tolls were exacted, and not only was the bread frequently spoiled, but the cider and wine also; the latter especially, since in Champagne those grapes which, pressed immediately, would have made white wine, by waiting for the press were damaged, so that red wine only could be procured from them. The charges upon the occupiers of land, partook of the same odious and tyrannical character. There were heavy contract rents, and arbitrary rents for protection, road- way, right of common, and for windows and fires. On every change of property, in direct as well as collateral descent, disproportionate fines were payable ; and on ahenation, the fines amounted to an eighth and even a sixth penny. The barbarous and detestable laAv of merclieta remained in operation, and was a fertile source of vexatious exaction. In every way the people were depressed, and their feelings outraged by the most cruel and capricious customs and observances, instituted solely for the pleasure or profit of the princes or nobility. Nor was this all. There had arisen in the kingdom two or three classes of persons, upon whom the enactments which had arisen out of the feudal system could operate but feebly, — the lawyers, who had chiefly sprung from among the wealthier commoners, literary men, merchants, tradesmen, manufacturers, and mechanics; — especially in the large towns which were in possession of municipal privileges. For the torture of these, the supreme laws had made express pro- vision. 'J 'he King had the power to grant Icttrcs-de-vdchct to any THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. extent against whomsoever he thought proper ; a prerogative under which the ^dctims, Mithout being informed of the nature of their crimes, were immured in the Bastille or other state prisons for indefi- nite periods, without the right to demand trial or liberation. This also was made a source of revenue to the Crown and the parasites of the Court. The left res were frequently sold, sometimes with blanks, that the purchasers might insert the names of those whom they wished to destroy; and, occasionally, they were granted at the solicitation of a mistress or favoiu'ite against individuals who could pay well for Court intercession on their behalf. " In the mild reign of X-ouis XV. alone," says ]\Ir. Justice Blackstone, " there were no less than fifteen thousand lettres-de-cachet issued." The local courts of appeal were other objects of deep and settled hatred. These were the Provincial Parliaments, the conduct of a majority of whose members was profligate in the extreme. Upon almost every cause that came before them, interest was openly made with the judges by bribery or corruption of a still blacker dye, which paralysed while it outraged every sense of honesty, morality, and virtue. It was customary with the members to sit in judgment concerning the disposal of private property to which themselves were claimants. These parliaments also possessed the singular privilege of framing decrees, which in their several jurisdictions had the force of laws ; and infringements of which, being punishable by their makers, were treated with the greatest severity. From this privilege, and another, by which several of the provinces were permitted to compound for their contribution to the national revenues, and to impose taxes upon the inhabitants at pleasure, arose a diversity in the mode and rate of taxation ; a means by which some classes were enabled to procure exemption from payment, while others had great difficulty to subsist upon the small resources they were suffered to retain. What the law encouraged in one district was deemed highly criminal in another. The duties upon merchandise, and even the weights and measures, differed in the different provinces; and the exchange of their several productions was in many cases prohibited under heavy penalties ; so that neither corn nor wine could circulate freely throughout Prance : but while one part of the kingdom was suffering the horrors of absolute famine, the rest might superabound INTRODTJCTOKY SKETCH OF in every necessary of life. In fact, the law was a convenient instru- ment in the hands of the rich against the poor. " He who went into a court of justice," says ]\Ir. Hazlitt," Avithout friends or money, to seek for redress, however gross his provocation, was sure to come out of it with insult added to the original injury, and with a sicken- ing and humihating consciousness of his own helpless and degraded situation." The Parliament of Paris alone was free from the taint of slavish submission to the Court, and from known venality and flagrant injustice. Under such a state of things, rectitude of mind, manly confidence, and a bold frankness of character and conduct, were neces- sarily sui:)erseded by cunning, deceit, servility, and want of public spirit and principle. And such was the condition of the French people when Louis XVI., at the age of twenty, ascended the throne. The elements of combustion were everywhere diffused, and the printing press had been quietly doing its work to ignite them. The eloquent and profound Montesquieu had explained to his niimcrous readers the general rights of the people and the principles of good government, without, however, attempting to shew how his obser- vations could be applied to the reform of the existing institutions of his country. Had he ventured, indeed, upon such a commentary, he would have been certain of committal for life to a gloomy cell or dungeon of the Bastille. Unsanctioned discussions on religion, or practical politics, were punished with the utmost rigour. Kousseau, the Abbe Raynal, and Diderot, in all their writings addressed them- selves to the heart as well as to the understanding, and depicted Liberty as arrayed in all the beauty and glory of immortality, while despotism and slavery were pourtrayed as gaunt and hideous fiends, preying upon and devouring each other; but having excited an enthusiastic love and reverence for freedom — civil and religious — they left their readers unassisted to draw their own conclusions as to the best means of obtaining and preserving the object of their desires. So also the works of Turgot, Du Quesnay, and others, abounded in moral and philosophical maxims of government, but they were all defective, inasmuch as they had no practical direction or aim. Voltaii-e, on the other hand, sought merely to destroy what he disapproved, without bestowing more than a cursory thought upon the necessity of reconstruction. He does not appear to have loved THE FRENCH KEVOLUTION. fi-eeJom, nor to have hated despotism; but his keen perception of the subUme and the ridiculous made him the occasional pancgyi'ist and satirist of each. The superstitions of priestcraft and the harsh restrictions of arbitrary power, by imposing fetters upon the exercise of his own extraordinary genius, interfered -with liis self-love and vanity, and thus incurred his scorn and kindled his passion for vengeance. Under his shrewd and subtle criticisms, folly, in what- ever disguise, was stripped and exposed to laughter and contempt. His wit, learning, and sound knowledge of mankind, lent to his speculations, often on the most abstruse subjects, a charm which made them popular even with those against whom his bitterest attacks were directed. Thus, while merely seeking to gratify his own capricious mind, and to increase the measui'e of applause which was on all sides freely awarded to him, he was gradually preparing the public mind for a great change in the very institutions, which, as a man of aristocratical predilections, apart from literature, he would have been among the last in deshing to overthrow. By the writers above enumerated, and many others of less note, all the abuses and grievances which oppressed the nation had been indirectly pointed out, ridiculed, and assailed with indignant repre- hension, for many years before the shock of the Revolution shewed that the French people had not been inattentive to their teachers. The public opinion which had been thus created, however, was visionary and wild, without applicability to the circumstances on which it was intended to bear, or indeed a definite form or object, riiilosophical speculations, of men who reasoned from abstract prin- ciples, abounded ; but knowledge and experience, which alone could give congruity to the mass of floating materials, were entirely wanting. It required a master spirit to go before and guide and govern the changes that were inevitable, in order that reformation might be prevented from degenerating into positive and ruthless destruction. Louis XVI., unhappily, had neither the requisite sternness nor talent to turn the crisis to advantage. He was a man of mild and peaceful character, of amiable disposition, pure manners, and inexpensive habits ; but he was altogether deficient in the strength of will neces- sary to keep in check contending factions, in a struggle to efiect an organic revolution in the State. INTRODUCTORY SKETCH OF In 1778, the French Government, hoping thereby to humble the power of England, which it had always regarded with jealousy, was induced to recognise the then recently declared independence of the United States of America, and to conclude a treaty of alliance and commerce with that Republic. This was a false step throughout. A numerous army was sent across the Atlantic to learn, not only the doctrines but the practice of rights and liberties more extensive and absolute than the boldest of the French philosophers had ventured to contend for. The principle that resistance to royal authority might be justified, was thus sanctioned by the Crown itself; and a flood of light suddenly let in upon the people, wliich could not have been produced by mere argument in a century. The return and disbanding of the troops, at the close of the war, spread over France a new kind of knowledge, and adcled tenfold strength to the general discontent which already prevailed. From this period, the progress of the impending Revolution was rapid. The extravagance and maladministration of the preceding reign had ruined the resomxes of the country. The revenue was unequal to the expenditure; the treasury was empty, and public credit destroyed. The Government had long subsisted, from year to year, Tipon loans contracted at ruinous interest, and secured by leases of the treasury receipts to farmers-general. The existing debt amounted to one thousand six hundi-ed and forty-six millions of francs (upwards of sixty-eight milKons and a half in pounds sterlmg). This soiu'ce exhausted, there remained no way of providing for the public service but by the imposition of new taxes, w^hich could not be legally done >vithout the sanction of the Provincial Parliaments. The annual deficiency was a hundred and forty millions of francs (more than five millions eight huudi-ed thousand pounds). It was well known to the jSIinistry, that the Parliaments regarded the derangement of the finances as being solely attributable to the Government; instead therefore of applying directly to these bodies, an expedient was resorted to in order to approach them through a more popular- intermediate agent. A meeting was convened of the chief men from the several provinces, under the title of " Assembly of Notables," for the purpose of recommending certain edicts for taxation to the Parliaments, or to act themselves as a parliament. No similar assem- THE FRENCH KEVOLIJTION, bly had been called since 1G17. The members were nominated by the King, and amounted to a huncbed and forty : but so far had the sphit of resistance become general, that the assembly proved nearly as refractory as the Parliaments could have been; and, instead of doing what it was desired, brought charges of malversation against the Ministers, and recommended that the national expenditure should be accommodated to the revenue, and not the revenue to the expen- ditui-e. The Marquis de la Fayette, who had held a command m the American army, went so far, indeed, as to propose the abolition of lettres-de-cachct, the Bastille, and the state prisons throughout France, as a means of lessening the public expenses; and declared that new taxes could onlv be imposed by the States General— a body which had lain in abevance since 1014. Eventually, after refusing to act as a parliament itself, the Assembly of Notables agreed to recommend two edicts— one for the creation of a stamp duty, and the other of a territorial or land tax, which it was estimated would together produce enough to meet the annual deficit,— to be registered by the local Parhaments. ' The Assembly having dissolved itself, the edicts were sent to be enroUed by the Parliament of Paris, which, however, instead^ of complying, demanded a statement of the finances; and on this being refused, both the edicts were indignantly rejected, and the ISlinistry were informed that, with such a revenue as the nation then supported, taxes ought not to be mentioned by the Government except for the purpose ''of being reduced. Brienne, Archbishop of Toulouse, who was Prime Minister at the time, advised that recourse should be had to a Bed of Justice, an obsolete device for compelling obedience to the will of the Monarch. Accordingly, on the Gth of August, 1787, the Parliament was summoned to Versailles, and the edicts were there registered by order of the King; who, however, in order to appease the popular rage which it was foreseen this measure would call forth, declared in the same sitting that Protestants were thence- forth restored to all the rights of citizenship, that an annual statement of the finances should be published, and that the States General should be convoked before the expiration of five years. Next day, the Parhament returned to Paris, declared the compulsory registry to be illegal, and ordered it to be erased; protesting, at the INTRODUCTORY SKETCH OF same time, that the edicts of the King, even though they should be voluntarily registered by the Parliaments, -were insufficient to impose permanent taxes upon the people, for which the States General alone were declared to be competent. For this bold assertion of popular rights, the Parliament of Paris was exiled to Troyes ; but the other Parliaments had caught the tone of that of the Capital, and not only refused to register the edicts, but announced their intention of punish- ing any person who should attempt to collect taxes under them. The Com-t was now faii'ly in collision with the Nation; which almost unanimously supported the pretensions of the Parliaments. Seeing, therefore, that banishment was not likely to effect the desked object, and that the absence of the highest judicial court in the kingdom was productive of much evil, the decree of exile was recalled, and the Parliament returned to Paris. The 'edicts were again tendered by the King in person, and again unanimously rejected. The Ministry now conceived a project for defeating the Parliaments, by depriving them of all save their judicial functions, and of vesting the powers of government in a body to be chosen by the King, and called the Cour Pleniere, or Supreme Court. To this court the King conceded his asserted right of imposing taxes ; and granted authority to frame a new code of criminal laws, and to estabhsh new forms of legal proceedings. The Edict for the formation of the Cour Pleniere, was at once thrown out by the Parliament of Paris, which denied that there existed, anyv.^here but in the States General, a power to alter the form of government. The Duke of Orleans, and MM. Freteau and I Sabatier, judges of the Supreme Court, were exiled for their strong animadversions on the conduct of the King and the Ministry on this occasion ; and the Parliament, refusing to obey a decree for its prorogation, was forcibly expelled by the military, and several of its principal members imprisoned. These arbitrary acts effectually roused the spirit of the whole nation. Some of the most influential of those who had been nominated members of the Cour Pleniere refused to accept their appointments. The nobles, the clergy, the commons, all protested against the new court, and demanded the immediate con- vocation of the States General. Partial insurrections broke out in Dauphiny, Britany, Provence, Flanders, Languedoc, and Berne. The Ministry was the necessary sacrifice to popular clamour and fury. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. Necker, an able financier, who had previously held office, and given o-eneral satisfaction, was substituted for Brienne, the Cour Pleniere o was abohshed, the Parliaments re-estabhshed, and the promise of the Kin"- siven that the States General should be called together for May, 1789. A question now arose as to the mode of convening the States. A hundred and seventy years had elapsed since their last meeting, and times and cii'cumstances had so materially changed during that period, that Avhat might have been suitable at its commencement, was not at all adapted to the present age ; and even in remote times the number and proportion of the nobles, clergy, and commons, of whom the States General were coinposed, had not always been the same. The majority of examples were in favour of the privileged classes ; but the increased consequence and intelUgence of the people demanded some concession in their favour. Necker was desirous of supporting the middle classes against the pretensions of the nobility and clergy, who had united with the Parliaments,— which consisted of a minor aristocracy, — in a struggle to diminish the authority of the Crown, and keep the powers of government in their oaa^i hands. " Each order," says M. Mignet, " sought to maintain a contest for power, and not for the pubHc good. The Noblesse had joined the Tiers-etat against the Government, but not in behalf of the people." In order to avoid the responsibility of deciding upon so important a question, the Mi- nistry again convened the Assembly of Notables, which merely recommended, that the example of 1614, when the number of representatives from each order was equal, should be followed. This decision, however, raised a general outcry throughout the country. The press, which amid the recent confusion, had assumed a degree of freedom totally unkno^vn in France at any former time, sent forth the most violent denunciations against the Notables, who, being for the most part members of the privileged classes, were said to be interested in preventing the people from being fairly repre- sented. France was inundated with pamphlets and personal satn-es, in which every branch of political enquiry, and the motives of men of all parties, were discussed with a boldness which seems, by alarming, to have entirely paralysed the Government. Among the works which produced the greatest effect, were that of the Abbe Sieyes, entitled. INTRODUCTORY SKETCH OF ' What is the THrd Estate ?' and that of D'Entraigue's, on the ' Con- stitution of the States General.' Necker, who was undoubtedly a man of good intentions, thought it better to yield to the nine-tenths of the French population, of which the Third Estate was said to consist, than to the aristocratical minority, which was alike opposed to the prerogatives of the Crown and to the rights of the humbler classes. He advised, therefore, that the number of deputies from the Third Estate to the States General should be equal to the number from the other two orders united ; and this being adopted by the Council, conformable letters of convocation were issued for assembling the representatives of the nation. The elections were conducted peaceably, and with scarcely a contest. The suffrage was almost universal, and the qualification for Deputies so low, that the necessary representation of property seems to have been entirely overlooked. The majority of members chosen by the Nobles and Clergy were men devoted to the interests of their respective orders ; but among them were a sufficient number of popular men to give animation to a debate, and to prevent their decisions from obtaining the weight usually attached to unanimity of sentiment. The Deputies of the Third Estate embraced a great number of the most talented persons in the kingdom; but, with few exceptions, they were mere theorists and speculators, to -vvJiom the business and details of govern- ment were new, and whose minds were preocupied with doctrines derived fi-om sedulous study of the Constitutions of the ancient Republics — doctrines as little adapted to the advanced intelligence, and the commercial and other institutions which had arisen before the close of the eighteenth century, as were those feudal customs which the people were intent upon abolishing. The number of members returned was twelve hundred : six hundred for the Com- mons, and three hundred for each of the other orders. The States General met at Versailles, on the 5th of May, 1789. " Amid the pageantry," says Sir Walter Scott, " with which the ceremonial of the first sitting abounded, it was clearly visible that the wishes, hopes, and interest of the public were exclusively fixed upon the representatives of the Commons. The rich garments and floating plumes of the nobility, and the reverend robes of the clergy, had nothing to fix the public eye ; their sounding and emphatic titles had THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. nothing to win the ear : the recollection of the high feats of the one, and long sanctified characters of the other order, had nothing to influence the mind of the spectators. AU eyes were turned on the Members of the Third Estate, in plebeian and humble costume, corre- sponding to their lowly birth and occupation, as the only portion of the assembly from which the lights and the counsels which the time demanded were looked for." The first question that arose, was concerning the mode of taking the votes — w^hether it should be by head, or by order. A majority of the Nobles claimed the privilege of voting as a separate body, and of thus giving their assent or negative to all measures discussed ; and many of the higher class of the Clergy contended for the same right on behalf of their order. To this arrangement the Third Estate absolutely refused to conform ; and when the Nobles and Clergy withdrew to separate chambers to verify then* powers, the popular Deputies declared their resolution to remain inactive till the whole assembly was united. After much altercation, which occupied several weeks, the King ofiered his mediation, but without effect ; and after inviting the Nobles and Clergy, for the last time, to join them, the Commons proceeded, on the 17th of June, on the motion of Sieyes, to declare that they were " The Representatives of the Nation," and that the two aristocratical orders were henceforth to be considered as deputies of corporations only, possessing no deliberative voice except as individual members of the National Asseynbly. Upon the passing of this motion, many of the Clergy and a few of the Nobles withdrew from their separate chambers and joined the Commons ; and the high nobility, seeing that no resource was left them but to make common cause with the Crown, which they had previously sought to degrade, adopted the Count d'Artois as their leader, and engaged the King in an attempt to overthrow the Assembly. The measures required to accomplish this, Avere concerted during an excursion made by the King, Queen, and Princes of the blood to Marly; and the change of royal policy was speedily announced by closing the halls of the National Assembly, and surrounding it with troops. Refused admittance to their proper meeting-place, the Deputies, on the morning of the 20th of June, repaired in a body to a Tennis Coiu't, and there, in the presence of an applauding crowd. INTRODUCTORY SKETCH OF and a number of soldiers who had followed them, with heads uncovered and upraised hands, all, except one man, took an oath not to separate till they had given to France a Constitution. On Monday the 22nd, the Princes took possession of the Tennis Court, in order to exclude the Assembly; but the latter transferred its meeting to the church of St. Louis, and was there joined by the Archbishops of Bourdeaux and Vienne, at the head of a hundred and forty-seven deputies of the clergy. On the 23rd, the hall of the States was reopened, and the King attended the sitting in person. A numerous guard was drawn round the place, and the public were carefully excluded. The Sovereign addressed the Deputies in a tone of authority, condemned their conduct as illegal, rescinded their resolutions, laid down a course of proceeding for their adoption, threatened to dissolve them if they ventured to offer any further opposition, and commanded the clergy and nobles, who were present, to withdi*aw, and the Deputies to adjoiu'n their sitting. The Commons, however, remained firm in their seats; and being shortly afterwards reminded, by the grand master of the ceremonies, of tlie King's order to separate, "Go," exclaimed Mirabeau, "tell your master, that we are here by order of the people, and that we shall not retire, but at the point of the bayonet." Upon the motion of Camus, the Assembly confirmed all its previous acts ; and, at the instance of Mirabeau, decreed the inviolability of its members, and declared its resolution to adhere faithfully to the oath of the Tennis Court. That night the King went to Trianon ; but, says Marmontel, " though a vast concourse from Paris and the neighbourhood had assembled at Versailles to learn the result of the day's proceedings, the customary shout of ' Vive le Roi,' no longer greeted the royal departure." Next day the National Assembly was augmented by the accession of a hundred and sixty additional deputies of the clergy, including the celebrated Talleyrand, Bishop of Autun; and forty-seven of the noblesse, led by the Duke of Orleans. At this time, also, addresses began to pour in from the cities and provinces throughout the kingdom, thanking the Assembly for its courageous firmness, and intimating that, in case of danger, the deputies might rely on the support of twenty-five millions of Frenchmen, whose future happiness was confided to them. XX vi THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. At these demonstrations, the Court became alarmed, and the King personally solicited several of the most influential of the nobility to Avaive their privileges and unite with the Thud Estate. The Count d'Artois, indeed, openly declared that unless this recommendation were complied with, the life of the King would be endangered. Accordingly, on the 27th of June, the three orders met, for the first time, in one body ; and the gloom of the populace seemed to have been suddenly converted into universal joy. The crowd surrounded the palace and demanded to see the King, whose appearance at a balcony with his beautiful Queen and infant son, was greeted with long and loud acclamations. Versailles was illuminated, and confidence seemed to be restored between the Sovereign, the Nobles, and the People. From the general agitation which had been produced by the events above related, much hcence had arisen among the people ; and a spirit of insubordination began to be manifested among the French soldiery, who publicly professed to sympathize with the peox^le in their struggle for freedom. Under the pretext of repressing whatever might tend to violence, a large body of troops, consisting chiefly of foreign regiments in the pay of France, was drawn around the capital. Versailles exhibited the appearance of a camp. The hall of the National Assembly was surrounded by soldiers, and access was forbidden to all but the members; and Paris seemed in a state of siege. On the motion of Mirabeau, an address was presented, on the 8tli of July, to the King, praying him to remove the troops from the scene of legislative deliberations; "more especially the foreigners, paid to defend, and not to disturb the national tranquillity." Louis, misled by incompetent advisers, who believed him strong enough to contest the point, refused to listen to this proposal; but ofiered, instead, to transfer the meetings of the States General to Noyon or Soissous. The answer of Mirabeau was firm and just. "It belongs," he said, " to the troops to remove from the Assembly, and not the Assembly from the troops. We petitioned for the withdi-awal of the army, not for our own banishment." On the 11th of July, the Ministry, which had advised the King to convoke the States General, and to make the few popular concessions which had been granted, was dismissed. On the 12th, Sunday, the news of this unwise proceeding reached Paris. In the evening, it INTRODUCTORY SKETCH OF ■sras made knoM'n in the theatres. The perfonnances were instantly- suspended, and tumult was spread through the city. Above ten thousand persons assembled in the gardens of the Palais-Eoyal ; and, after listening to a furious harangue from Camille Desmoulins, tore each a green leaf from the chesnut trees which grew there, and, wearing it as a badge, traversed the streets of Paris, bearing in procession, covered vnXh. crape, the busts of the exiled minister, Necker, and the Duke of Orleans, which were taken from a sculptor's shop. At the Place Vendome, the crowd encountered a detachment of the German Royals, but put them to speedy flight with a volley of stones : but troops continuing to arrive, the multitude was again assailed at the Place Louis XV. by the dragoons of Prince Lambesc, and the bearer of one of the busts and a soldier of the French Guard were killed. The mob now fled into the gardens of the Tuileries, where, being still pursued, an old man, who was unconcerned in the riot, was wounded; upon which the confusion and uproar became universal, and a general shout burst from the pcoj)le, " To arms!" which was echoed thi'ough the Tuileries, the Palais-Royal, the City, and the Faubourgs. During the whole night, Paris continued in a state of ferment. The French Guards, who were known to be well- affected towards the populace, had been ordered to remain in their barracks; but, on learning what. was passing in the city, they seized theii- arms, and, marcliing to the scene of action, fired upon the foreign troops, to whom the restoration of order had been entrusted. The alarm-bell was rung in every church, and the authorities of the districts hastily assembled to concert measures for the safety of the capital. The citizens began to form bands of volunteers, who paraded the streets, iu which large fii-es were Hghtcd, and drew up in the squares and public gardens, enjoining all who appeai-ed disposed to break the peace to remain quiet till morning. At daylight, on the 13th, a number of persons went from house to house, demanding arms : but, though the confusion was such that almost any crime might have been committed with impunity, the only pillage that took place Avas at the armourers' shops, and from these nothing was taken but guns and swords, for which receipts were given. Every place in which arms or ammunition was supposed to be deposited was ransacked; but still the supply was inadequate to THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. the demand. It was finally resolved, by some of the electors of Paris, who had formed a Permanent Committee among themselves, and taken the power of governing the City into their own hands, to order fifty thousand pikes to be instantly forged; and, in the meantime, that a burgess guard, to the number of forty-eight thousand men, should be organized, in which all the citizens were invited to enrol themselves. The command of this body was offered to the Duke d'Aumont, who required twenty-four hours for consideration ; and, in the interval, the INIarquis de Salle was appointed in Ids stead. The green chesnut leaves were displaced by the red and blue cockade, the colours of the capital : the citizens thronged to fill the ranks of the new army, and were joined by the medical students,* the soldiers of the city watch, and the French Guards. Patrols were formed to guard the streets, and at night every precaution was taken to prevent disturbance ; but the inhabitants continued to be in a state of the most dreadful alarm and anxiety, not only lest the city should be attacked, and subjected to martial law, by the troops quartered without the walls, but for fear that the clamorous multitude, who had entirely ceased from work, should be driven, by rage and hunger, to desperate excesses. It was observed, too, that a number of half- famished, ragged, ferocious-looking, and apparently homeless wretches, who formed no portion of the ordinary population of the capital, began to mingle with the throng, and urge it to deeds of violence and blood- shed. " They were," says an eye-witness, " men armed like savages ; creatures such as no man ever remembered to have met in open day. Whence came they ? Who, or what had di-awn them from their dark retreats ?" If it had been intended to act with vigour against the insurgents, the 13th was probably the time when it might have been done with most effect. The crowd were badly armed ; few of the higher classes of citizens had joined them; they had no artillery, no ammunition, were famishing for want of provisions, and without a leader, whose skill, courage, or fidelity could be relied upon : but the King and his Council, although seeking to intimidate, were desirous of sparing the people ; and the orders issued to the troops were, that they should refrain from all acts of severity, and never, unless at the last extremity, and in their own defence, fire upon their opponents. The Coui't hud INTRODUCTORY SKETCH OF adopted the mistaken notion, that forbearance would have some effect upon the mob ; and that a revolt might be suppressed without in- flicting personal injury upon the rebels. Early in the morning of the 14th, the people, in momentary expectation of being attacked by the military, and informed that the Bastille was about to be reinforced with a strong garrison, hastened to the Hotel des Invahdes, Avhere a large magazine of arms was said to exist. The Governor made no resistance when summoned to surrender ; and, although six Swiss battalions and a body of eight hundred horse lay in the immediate neighbourhood, every thing was left at the discretion of the rioters. Twenty-eight thousand muskets, and a considerable quantity of spears and sabres, were found in the vaults beneath the dome, which, with the cannon from the Esijlanade, were immediately conveyed to the Hotel de Ville. The cannon were placed at the entrance to the Faubourgs, at the castle of the Tuileries, upon the quays and bridges ; and the small arms were distributed among the newly-raised army of citizens. It was pre- sently resolved to attack the Bastille, before the troops intended for its defence should arrive ; and orders having been given by the Committee to that effect, a general cry arose from all sides, " To the Bastille ! to the Bastille ! " From nine in the morning till two in the afternoon, nothing but this reiterated shout could be heard throughout Paris. It seemed, from the immense concourse hastening thither, armed with all kinds of weapons, — guns, swords, pikes, halberts, hammers, axes, scythes, pitchforks, spits, and clubs, — that the whole population of the capital, men, women, and children, had devoted themselves to the destruction of this odious prison, which had long been considered one of the chief bulwarks of despotism in France. Of the procession itself, no description would afford an adequate idc a. Although totally unprepared for an attack, De Launay, the governor, from the commencement of the insurrection, had taken the precaution to raise the drawbridge, and to post sentinels on the walls and towers. Three guns, loaded with cannistcr - shot, commanded the entrance ; and about fifteen pieces were placed upon the walls, and pointed towards Paris. A member of the National Assembly, named Thuriot de la Rosiere, demanded an interview with the Governor, and being admitted to his THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. presence, required the surrender of the fortress. This was too un- reasonable to be complied with; but De Launay promised that the o-arrison- which indeed consisted but of thirty-two Swiss solchers, and about eighty invahds - should not fire upon the people, unless in self-defence. It was observed, however, that on the towers of the drawbridge a mass of stones and broken iron had been collected to crush those who should advance to the foot of the walls. Thui-iot, returning to the besiegers, related what he had heard and seen; but the knowledge that any preparation had been made for defending the place, served to exasperate the crowd, who shouted more furiously than ever, " Down with the Bastille !" A few determined men then suddenly rushed forward, knocked do^^ai a sentinel, and struck the chains of the great bridge with axes. The soldiers within called upon the assailants to fall back, or they would fire; but the assaidt was continued till the drawbridge fell, and gave admittance to the firs court When the mob had reached the second bridge, it was fared upon by the soldiers; and one man being killed, and several wounded, the crowd was for an instant put to flight, and called out for mercy. A deputation from the people was sent to parley, and the faring ceased; but the insui-gents still pressing forward, regardless ot the remonstrances of the soldiers, towards the inner drawbridge, the carrison was compelled a second time to fire, in order to disperse them. This discharge did considerable execution; but it rendered the people, whose number was increasing every moment, bolder and more enraged. They destroyed the guard -house, plundered the shops and 'barracks of the fore-court, and gave the Governor's house to the flames. A cannon was now fired upon the besiegers, accom- panied with a third discharge of musketry. A young officer of extraordinary courage, named Elie, then advanced, at the head ot about a dozen citizens, to the edge of the moat, and called out to the o-arrison, that if the fortress were surrendered not a man should be hurt. De Launay, whose whole stock of provisions consisted of two sacks of flour and a little rice, and who knew that the invalids were not to be depended upon, was in no condition to sustam a protracted siege, and therefore ofl-ered to capitulate on Elie's terms; insisting however, upon having these in writing, ratified by the Committee of the Hotel de ViUc. While this ofter was being debated by the INTRODUCTORY SKETCH OF leading citizens, the French Guard arrived with the cannon, taken from the Hotel des Invalides. The mob, encouraged by this im- portant reinforcement, would not henceforth listen to anything but instant and unconditional surrender ; and De Launay, seeing the hopelessness of resistance, and fearing the consequences of defeat, seized a lighted match from a cannon near him, and rushed towards the powder magazine, determined to blow up the building, and bury himself and the besiegers in the ruins. The sentinels on duty pre- vented this act of desperation, by opposing their bayonets to their commander's breast; and in the midst of the confusion, within and without the fortress, the drawbridge was lowered, and the insurgents became masters of the Bastille. Elie, who again pledged his word for the personal safety of the garrison, received the keys of the place, but refused to accept the Governor's sword which was tendered to him. The brave Elie exerted all his eloquence to be permitted to perform his promise of protection; but the mob, as soon as they were out of danger, became implacable, and yelled frantically, " Give up those who have fired on their fellow-citizens — they merit death ! " Several invalids and Swiss soldiers, Avith two or three officers, were torn from their defenders and assassinated upon the spot; a few who were dressed in common linen frocks, escaped unnoticed among the crowd, the rest were dragged in triumph through the streets, first to the Place de Greve, where two of their number were hanged, and thence to the Hotel de Ville, where De Launay and his major, — after sustaining every indignity which a mob, intoxicated with unexpected success, and, it must be admitted, unaccustomed to acts of mercy or justice, could inflict, — had their heads inhumanly hacked oflf. The intercessions of Elie, to which were added those of La Salle and ISIorcau de St. Mery, were successful in saving the lives of twenty- two other persons, whose blood was demanded. The heads of De Launay, De Lornie, and several of their murdered comrades, were then stuck upon pikes, and carried in procession through the streets and squares of the capital to the Palais-Royal. But still insatiate, the rabble demanded more victims. It was pretended that a letter had been found implicating Flcsscllcs, the mayor, in a conspiracy to mislead tlic citizens, and relieve the Bastille. He demanded to be heard at the Palais-Royal; but on the way thither, one of his THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. accusers despatched him M'ith a pistol shot. At night, barricades and entrenchments were formed in the streets, stones and other missiles were carried to the tops of the houses, a great number of pikes were forged and bullets cast, and everything indicated the fear of an immediate attack from the miUtary. In the meantime, the Bastille was searched and ransacked in every part. There were but seven prisoners found, not one of whom had been incarcerated during the reign of Louis XVI. Fom- were confined for forgery, and three, — one of whom was an insane Englishman, of the name of White, — for unknown ofiences. The populace expected to find many more, and explored every turning and crevice to discover places of concealment ; but the fearful cells and dungeons, Avith the exceptions mentioned, and one vault in which a skeleton was found hanging to an iron cramp in the wall, were tenantless. It was unfor- tunate that, in their blind fury, the captors destroyed the house and ofiices of the Governor, in which were kept the official books and papers, which might have thrown additional light on the history of the prison. During the night, the Duke de Liancourt carried to the Kmg the news of the plunder of the Hotel des Invalides, the attack and capture of the Bastille, the massacre of its garrison, and the defection of the French Guards. " It is a revolt ! " exclaimed the astonished Louis. '•No, Sire," replied the Duke, "it is a revolution!" By the advice of this excellent man, orders were instantly issued for the withdrawal of the troops from Paris and Versailles; and the Monarch was persuaded to dismiss his new Ministry, and go next day to the National Assembly to announce these changes in person, and to reassure the Members of his good intentions. Accordingly, on the 15th, the King, without guards, and attended only by his brothers, repaired to the Legislative Chamber, and announced that he desii'ed nothing more than to be incorporated Avith his people, to whose representatives he entirely confided himself, and for whose safety and that of the State he earnestly implored the Assembly to provide. At this speech shouts of applause echoed from every part of the hall ; and -nhcn the King was about to depart, the Members rose spontaneously, and formed his retinue back to the palace. The news spread rapidly from Versailles to Paris, accom- INTRODUCTORY SKETCH OF panied by an aunouiiccmcnt that Neckcr was recalled, and that Louis himself would come to the capital, in order to conciliate the affections of the citizens, on the following day. All was now joy and enthusiasm; and with the cry of "Vive la Nation!" was again mingled that of " Vive le Eoi !" Bailly, the president of the National Assembly, was immediately nominated Mayor of Paris ; and La Fayette was appointed to the command of the burgess, or, as the corps was henceforward called, the National Guard. This period was the commencement of the first emigration. The Count D'Artois, the Princes of Conde and Conti, the family of Polignac, and a majority of the Ministry, who had superseded Necker and his friends, fearing the vengeance of the populace, fled in dissfuise from France. Of those who remained, Foulon and his son-in-law, Berthicr, were discovered in Paris, di-agged to the Place de Greve and beheaded, their heads carried through the streets upon pikes, and their bodies torn to pieces in the Palais-Royal. To shew the nature of the ferocity which the terrible incidents of the few preceding days had freed from restraint, it will be sufficient to mention, that when Lally Tollendal drew the attention of the National Assembly to the assassination of the two INIinisters, Barnave, a young man, in mourning for the recent death of his father, interrupted the recital, by exclaiming with a snce-i--, " Is, then, the blood which has been shed so pure ?" Insensibility, indeed, had begun to be regarded as a virtue by the more violent democrats, who from seeking for freedom already aspired after dominion. The insurrection in Paris was the signal for distui'bances of the most terrible character in other parts of the country. In one province, thirty-six country seats were burnt and destroyed; in Languedoc, M. de Barras was hacked to pieces in the presence of his pregnant wife; and in Normandy, a paralytic old man was cast upon a burning pile, formed of his own property. The title-deeds, patents of privilege, and family papers of the nobility and gentry, were special objects of vengeance to the peasantry; who thus evinced a degree of ignorant barbarism not inferior to that of the followers of the English rebel, Wat Tyler, upwards of four centuries earlier. On the 4th of August, tlie National Assembly, on the motion of the Duke de Noaillcs, proceeded to frame decrees for the redemption THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. of oppressive feudal rights, and the suppression of compulsory servi- tude. These were immediately followed by the voluntary renunciation by a great number of the nobility of their hereditary privileges and titles. The Duke du Chatelet proposed the abohtion of tithes, and the substitution of a small pecuniary tax; and the Bishop of Chartres moved for the suppression of seignorial rights and magisterial juris- diction. In short, in a few hours, all the abuses which had been so loudly complained of, previously to the meeting of the States General, were formally abolished. This was the beginning of what the Eevo- lutionists called the Reign of Equality. A medal was struck to commemorate the events of the day, and Louis XVI. received the title of " Restorer of French Liberty." The National Assembly henceforward took the name of " The Constituent Assembly," and devoted itself to the framing of a new Constitution for the kingdom. The celebrated " Declaration of the Rights of Man " followed, and the power of the Monarch was virtually abolished. It was scarcely to be expected that the King would readily sanction such a total and abrupt change of the national laws and institutions. Time was, accordingly, taken to deliberate on the subject ; and in the meantime, the Ministry took what precautions they could to delay the publication of all official reports in wliich the nature of the decrees were mentioned. The Assembly, however, who in all their proceedings displayed strong suspicions of the King's want of sincerity, promulgated the decrees themselves; and a rumom- was circulated, that the reason of delaying the Royal assent was the contemplated flight of the King to the frontier, where the emigrant princes and nobles were already assembled. The people, upon this, became impatient, and gave vent to their indignation in angry menaces against the Court and its ad\dsers ; and so Httlc circumspect were the King's councillors, that an occasion for insiu-rection was speedily fmnished to the disaffected. Alai-med by the events which had occurred in Paris, and by the agitation still existing there and throughout the provinces, which was greatly increased by a scarcity of provisions, additional troops had been summoned to Versailles, to protect the person of the King, and the Gardes-du-corps had been doubled. Tliis was industriously mag- nified into proof of an intended attempt to bring about a counter- INTRODUCTORY SKETCH OF revolution, to annul the decrees, and dissolve the Assembly. During this period of suspense and apprehension, namely, on the 1st of October, the Gardes-du-corps imprudently gave a splendid fete, at the palace, to the officers of several regiments of foreigners, then stationed at Versailles. The gi-and banquet-hall, which it had never been customary to use, except for state festivals, -was thrown open on this occasion. The King, Queen, and Dauphin graced the fete with their presence, and the guests exhibited a degree of loyalty which appears to have been rendered exuberant by wine. When the Royal Family had withdi-awn, all reserve was banished. The party drew their swords, and vowed eternal attachment to the Monarchy ; they threw their tri-coloured cockades on the floor, and trampled on them; the band sounded a charge, the officers rushed as to an assault into the galleries, and were there received with caresses by the ladies of the Coui't, who decorated them with white ribbons and cockades. The whole scene was ridiculously extravagant ; but its details being reported in Paris, created the greatest fermentation. With a folly, which is utterly unaccountable, the banquet was suffered to be renewed in the same place two days afterwards. By the .5th, the fear of counter-revolutionary conspiracies, and want of food, had excited the people to absolute frenzy. A young woman, most probably tutored for that purpose, rushed into a guard-house, seized a drum, and ran along the streets beating it, crying, " Bread, bread!" She was soon surrounded by an immense crowd of persons of each sex and of all ages, who, after forcing their way to the inte- rior of the Hotel de Ville, and plundering it of a large quantity of arms, sounded the tocsin, and prepared to march to Versailles. The National Guards, notwithstanding the opposition of La Fayette, their chief, and the French Guards, in the evening, followed the mob, and took with them a train of artillery. The late and unexpected appear- ance of such a numerous cavalcade, which has been computed to have consisted of thirty thousand persons, created the utmost terror in the Court. The Gardes-du-corps were drawn up in the court of the palace, and the other regiments were ordered to keep themselves in readiness to repress any tumult that might arise. At first, all was tranquil ; but it was scarcely possible that such an assemblage, enter- taining feelings of the most determined hatred to the soldiers Avho xxxvl THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. remained attached to the King, should refrain from expressing their hostility. After tAvo or three hours, a quarrel arose, and the Gardes- du-corps were attacked by the populace, who pursued them to the interior of the palace. In the midst of the fray, La Fayette and the National Guard arrived, and speedily restored order. The Marquis, by his prudence and moderation, gained the esteem of both parties, and became the mediator between them. By his advice, the Parisians accepted the hospitality of the citizens of Versailles, and retired for the night ; and the King was induced to send for the President of the Constituent Assembly, and sign the disputed decrees and the " Decla- ration of Rights." At dawn, however, a fresh disturbance arose. Some of the mob having penetrated to the inner court of the palace, the entrance to which had been left unguarded, perceived an officer of the Gardc- du-corps at a window, and accosted him with taunts and abuse. The officer fired, and wounded one of his assailants. The crowd, which was by this time numerous, rushed furiously on the soldiers, who defended the entrance and passages of the palace, foot by foot ; but, being over- powered, they were driven back to the doors of the royal apartments, from which the Queen had barely time to escape, half dressed, ere her chamber was forcibly entered. La Fayette, who had not retired to rest above an hour, when the news of this outrage was brought to him, was quickly on horseback, and hastened to the palace. He instantly put himself at the head of some French Guards, who had been attracted to the spot, and succeeded in dispersing the populace, and rescuing the few survivors of the gallant Garde-du-corps from the massacre with which they were threatened. The mob now rallied in the marble-court, under the King's balcony, and demanded the appearance of Louis. On the guarantee of La Fayette for their safety, the King and Queen went forward, and, with loud cries, the people insisted on their immediately accompanying them to Paris, under a pretended apprehension of their contemplated flight. In order to reconcile all differences, the earnest and sincere La Fayette then led into the balcony an officer of the Royal Guard, and, after placing in his hat a tri-coloured cockade, embraced liim in the presence of the multitude, who immediately, with one accord, shouted, " Long live the Gardes-du-corps ! " The Royal Family immediately afterwards INTRODUCTORY SKETCH OF sot out for the capital, escorted by the National Guard. " These events," says Mignet, " destroyed the ancient regime of the Court, by taking away its guard, transporting it from the Royal toM-n to the scene of the Revolution, and placing it under the surveillance of the people." The Constituent Assembly forthwith removed its sittings to Paris, and shortly afterwards passed a decree for dividing the kingdom into departments, and for the abolition of local jurisdictions. To these alterations considerable opposition was offered, not only by individuals, but by the Local States of two entire provinces — Languedoc and Britany — and the Parliaments of Metz, Rouen, Bourdcaux, and Toulouse. The clergy, also, and many of those who had promoted the Revolution, while it appeared to have a constitutional object only, began to exclaim against the assumption of power by the As- sembly, which, in truth, had already grown to be more arbitrary than the Sovereign had ever been. The first decided opposition, however, which was offered to the Assembly by the people, was manifested on the attempted sale of the church property, which the Revolutionary Government sought to appropriate to its own use. Individuals refused to buy, and few could be prevailed on to accept the securities issued, under the name of Assignats, for loans on the estates of the clergy. Hence diseord arose in the Assembly itself; and many of the members, both of the clergy and laity, with a prophetic foresight of what would ensue, resigned their seats as representatives, and quitted the country. The people, too, began in the departments to call upon the Assembly, "svhich had so far exceeded the powers originally delegated to it, and which had only been appointed for a year, to dissolve itself, in order that new Deputies might be elected, and tlie kingdom be fairly represented under the new system of government which had been created. " The founders of liberty," said the Abbe jSIaury, who advocated compliance with these requisitions, " should respect the liberty of the Nation. The Constitution being made, the rights of the people, over their repre- sentatives, should be respected." The Assembly, however, refused to listen to these just demands; and, on the motion of Mirabeau, declared, that it would only cease to act as a Legislative body when its work ^^'as accomplished. In other words, that it intended to THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. maintain its usurped authority, till deprived thereof by a power supe- rior to its own. It would be unjust to the Revolutionists, however, to deny that several of their decrees were moderate, wise, and just. They abolished the sale of offices of justice; rendered the judges independent of the Crown ; and established trial by jury, the freedom of the press, and universal liberty of conscience. The King, it may be added, after having been forced to quit Versailles, considered himself, as in reahty he was, a prisoner, and hesitated not to sanction whatever was proposed to him by those who held him in custody, tacitly reserving the right of rescinding his acqmcscence, at a favour- able opportunity, as having been extorted by fear. The 14th of July, 1790, the anniversary of taking the Bastille, was appointed for a grand confederation of the kingdom in the Champ clc Mars, where the King, the Constituent Assembly, the National Guard, and Deputies from the several departments, were to take an oath of obedience to the New Constitution. As a prelude to this festival, all distinctive titles, armorial bearings, liveries, and orders of chivalry were formally abolished; "in order," says a democratic writer "that vanity might forego its privileges as power had already done." The people assembled at seven in the morning, on the site of the Bastille, and proceeded thence to the scene of the cele- bration. The Champ dc ]Mars was surrounded by steps of green turf, rising above each other, which Avere occupied by upwards of four hundred thousand spectators. In the centre was an antique altar, around which were places for the King and his family, the Assembly, and the Municipality. The federates of the departments were ranged under their respective banners ; the deputies of the army according to their ranks under the colours of their several corps. The Bishop of Autun, in pontifical robes, officiated at the altar, assisted by four hundred priests, in white surplices and tricolourcd scarfs. !Mass was celebrated to the sound of military music, and Talleyrand blessed the oriiiamme and the banners of the departments. La Fayette, borne to the altar in the arms of the grenadiers of the National Guard, pronounced the following oath, which was repeated after him by the whole assemblage. "AVe swear to be for ever faithful to the Nation, the LaAv, and the King; to maintain the established Constitution, and to remain united, as Frenchmen, by INTRODUCTORY SKETCH OF indissoluble ties of fraternity." Discharges of artillery, blended witli martial music, the clashing of arms, and the applauding shouts of the people then rent the aii", and the ceremonial was closed by a hymn of thanksgiving. In the evening, the theatres were thrown open at the pubhc expense, Paris was illuminated, and balls and enter- tainments were given by the citizens. The spot on which the Bastille had stood twelve months before, was devoted to dancing; and many persons thought that the Revolution was happily terminated. The fierceness of faction, however, only slumbered for a time, to awake with tenfold energy, and deluge the country with blood. In the meantime, the King, becoming daily more anxious for the safety of his family and himself, sought the means of escape from captivity. In his intercovu-se with Mirabeau, as leader of the As- sembly, Louis had discovered that the patriotism of the orator was subservient to the gratification of his profligate pleasures, and that wealth and honours were deemed by him of more worth than principles. Mirabeau had consequently been won to promise assist- ance to the Royal Family in escaping from Paris, if it should be found impracticable to restore the kingly authority by means of the Assembly, which had overthi'own it. He accordingly opened a com- munication with the Marquis de BouiU^, governor of Metz, an officer of knowTi courage and talent, and an avowed royaUst, who agreed not only to facilitate the King's escape, if necessary, but to endeavour to bring over the troops under his command to the royal cause. The sudden death of Mirabeau, which happened in April, 1791, put an end to the project of converting the Assembly, and postponed the period of the royal flight. In order, however, to ascertain how far he was to be permitted the exercise of personal freedom, the King, immediately after the death of Mirabeau, announced his intention to go for change of air to St. Cloud. The royal carriages were accord- ingly drawn out, and Louis and his consort had ahcady taken their seats, when an outcry was raised by the spectators, and echoed by the National Guard upon duty, that the departure of the King should not be permitted. La Fayette was sent for, and, on his arrival at the palace, remonstrated with the refractory soldiers, but to no ])urpose : they absolutely refused to allow the carriages to quit the precincts of the Tuilerics. From this experiment, it was seen that it would be THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. necessary to conceal every movement that might indicate a meditated flight : the profoundest secrecy was, therefore, observed in all the preparations. De Bouille, upon pretence of a movement of the emi- grants on the frontier, had established a camp at Montmedy ; and shortly afterwards placed detachments of soldiers, on whose fidelity he placed reliance, along the route the King was to follow : assigning as a reason for these dispositions, that they were made for the protection of the military chest about to be sent for the payment of the army. On the night of the 20th of June, the King and Queen, with theii* two children, attended by one female, and escorted by three gentlemen of the Gardes-du-corps, succeeded in quitting the Tuilcrics separately, and in disguise ; and arriving at the Place du Carrousel, immediately set ofi", in a carriage which was in readiness, in the direction of Montmedy. After a multitude of mii-aculous escapes, the Royal fugitives reached St. Menehould, where they were met by one of the detachments sent for their escort by Bouille. Here, however, while they halted to change horses, the King, emboldened by the distance between him and Paris, imprudently ventm-ed to shew himself in front of the post-house, and, from the fatal likeness of liim depicted at the head of the public documents, was instantly recognised by Drouet, the postmaster's son, an earnest Revolutionist. Drouet, in order to prevent the escape of his Sovereign, mounted a fleet horse, and galloped to Varennes, where he gave such information as led to the detention of the Royal party, on the evening of the 21st. The National Guard was already under arms ; and the soldiers of Bouille either feared, or were unwilKng to attempt a rescue. The IMarquis, having been informed of the arrest, hastened himself, with a regiment of cavahy, to Varennes, on the following day; but the King had been several hours on the road to Paris when he arrived, and the di'agoons refusing to proceed, and betrapng other symptoms of dis- afiection, Bouille hastened to quit the kingdom. Monsieur, the King's eldest brother, afterwards Louis XVIII., who quitted Paris at the same time with the King, reached Brussels in safety. The Assembly and the Parisians, when they had first heard of the King's flight, were seized with panic. It was confidently prophesied by all parties, that he would speedily return, at the head of an army of emigrants and foreigners, to annul all the proceedings of the Revo- INTRODUCTORY SKETCH OF lutionists, and re-establish the ancient despotism. Bailly, La Fayette, and a number of others, were charged as being accessories to the escape. In short, it was easy to perceive, that had the King at this time been able to reach a foreign asylum, the philosophical Consti- tution of France would not only have proved insufficient for the maintenance of order, but would have presently become an utter wreck in the hands of its makers. The King and Queen, on reaching Paris, were recommitted to the Tuilcries, and the Assembly at once took measures to provide against the inconvenience of a similar escape, by first suspending the Royal authority, and afterwards decreeing that the Crown should be forfeited in case the King retracted his oath to the Constitution, or should put himself, or suffer another to do so in his name, at the head of an army hostile to the nation. It was significantly added, that any act involving such forfeiture would reduce the King to the condition of a mere citizen, and that his person would then cease to be inviolable. The Eepublican, or, as it was called from its original place of meeting, the Jacobin party, was averse even to this small extension of favour, and instigated the mob to petition for the immediate dethronement and trial of the King. The meeting for this purpose took place in the Champ de Mars, and the petition was placed, for signature, upon the altar of the Federation.- In order that the proceedings of the day might not be unmarked, the blood of two invalids, who, unconscious of offence, were found at breakfast under the scafiblding which supported the altar, was poured forth as a libation. These poor men M'cre stigmatized as spies, and instantly put to a cruel death ; and their heads, being placed upon pikes, were displayed as standards to the multitude. Danton and Desmoulins harangued the meeting, inciting it to persist in the prayer of the petition; but the object of the tumult being by this time known, and the municipality having received orders from the Assembly to disperse the rioters. La Fayette and Bailly arrived on the field, at the head of twelve hundred of the National Guard ; and having vainly enjoined the peaceable departure of the rabble, unfurled the red flag, and pro- claimed martial law. The enraged multitude vociferated, " Down with La Fayette ! — Down with the red flag ! " and assailed the soldiery with a volley of stones. La Fayette gave orders to fire THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. over the heads of the crowd ; but this, instead of intimidating, rendered them more insolent, and it became necessary to order a second discharge, which, being poiu-ed du'ectly into the thi'ong, killed uj)wards of a huncked upon the spot. The mob fled with the utmost precipitation ; and, in less than five minutes, not one of the petitioners remained on the Champ de Mars. " The Constituted authorities," says Sir Walter Scott, " thus, for the first time since the Revolution commenced, remained masters of a contested field." Tliis was the first real struggle between the Revolutionists themselves; and had their triumph been followed up by the Constitutionalists, with the trial and punishment of the ringleaders of the Republicans, the Jacobins and Levellers might have been entirely crushed. Their leaders, Danton, Desmoulius, and Marat, anticipating such a result, skulked in conceahnent till a public decree of amnesty was passed by the Assembly. The public discontent, however, was noAV more openly manifested against the Legislature ; and the Deputies, after com- pleting and revising their Code of Constitutional Decrees, procuring the acceptance of them by the King, and appointing the 1st of October for the meeting of a fresh body of Representatives, under the title of the " National Legislative Assembly," relinquished their functions, and departed to their several provinces, to agitate for a new election. The Session of the Constituent Assembly had commenced A^dth the States General. In the changes which it had introduced, there can be no doubt that it had exceeded its powers as well as its duties ; and in some instances passed decrees from passion and prejudice, instead of reason and necessity — hurried away by the torrent of eloquence w^hich, in matters of pohtical discussion, now fii'st gushed forth m France, as from a long pent spring, to break do"\m and overwhelm the barriers with which despotic power had envii-oned freedom. Reference has been previously made to the want of practical knowledge in the Deputies. This appears to have induced most of the errors of the Assembly, which sought to estabhsh a \-isionaiy scheme of perfection, without sufficiently considering that men are creatures of habit, upon wiiom systems and theories, at variance with established modes of thought and action, are not Hkely to have an effect beyond the moment of being presented -vWth the gloss of novelty. The intentions of a xliii INTRODUCTORY SKETCH OF majority of the Deputies were good ; and tlieir practice embraced no personal proscriptions, but admitted to its fullest extent the freedom of debate, and afforded the requisite protection to life and property. The violence that occm-red, durings its sittings, was neither directly instigated nor sanctioned by the Assembly, but arose principally from the unsettled state of men's minds, produced by the sudden and great changes which the government of the country had midergone; and the necessary disappointment of the absurd expectations which the poorest and most ignorant classes had grounded upon these changes. Many of the members were, perhaps, themselves the dupes of their extravagant zeal for the " regeneration of mankind ; " and, when the fabric of their labours parted and went to pieces, became victmis to the rage which their failure had excited. This explanation is due to the First Assembly, in order that it may not be confounded with that which succeeded. The Legislative Assembly was composed almost wholly of demo- cratic members. None of the Deputies who had been sent to the States General were ehgible for immediate re-election : hence the Legislature was again composed of men entirely unpractised in their duties ; and who coidd proceed to make laws only by way of experi- ment. To add to the inefficiency of such a body, it has been well observed by Sir Walter Scott, that " as the Constituent Assembly contained the first and readiest choice among the men of ability whom France had in her bosom, it followed that the Second Assembly could not be equal to the first in abundance of talent." The parties into which the Assembly, at once, divided itself were the Feuillants, or Constitutionalists, who adopted the principles of the Constituent Assembly, and were led by Dumas, Raymond, and Vaublanc ; the Girondists, or Republicans, headed by Condorcct, Brissot, Vergniaud, and Isnard ; and the Jacobins, or INIountainists, who sought to aboHsh the form as well as the power of Monarchy, and to estabhsh perfect cquaUty. The leaders of the last party had been actors in the insur- rection of the Champ de Mars, being Chabot, Bazhe, and INIcrlin, Avithin the Assembly; and in the clubs, Robespierre, Danton, jNIarat, Collot d'Herbois, and Dcsmoidins. The first proceedings of the Assembly were to demand an expla- nation of certain warUke movements on the frontiers of France, xliv THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. directed by Austria, Prussia, Sweden, and Spain, assisted by what was called External France, which comprised many thousands of emigrants, who, deeming theii- oAvn countiy an unsafe residence, had sought refuge in the Austrian Netherlands, and there formed a considerable army. The alarm of the Revolutionists was certainly not without cause. The Allied Powers demanded that Louis XVI. should be placed at liberty; that the Assembly should desist from its attacks upon the power of the Crown ; that it shoidd reinstate the Nobihty and Clergy in all their privileges ; and that the revolutionary clubs, which had acquii'cd sufficient power to overaAve the Legislature itself, should be immediately suppressed. At the same time, the French Princes protested against the King's acceptailce of the Act of the Constitution, asserting that he had no power to alienate the rights of the ancient Monarchy. The nobles throughout the king- dom quitted theii* castles and mansions. The officers left the army^ and whole companies of soldiers deserted with theii- arms and accoutrements, and crossing the frontiers swelled the ranks of the emigrant army. In the departments of La Vendee, Calvados, and Gevaudun, alarming insurrections broke out ; and the people declared their resolution to maintain the authority of the King, the Nobles, and the Clergy. It was absolutely necessary, therefore, that the Assembly should at once take the necessary steps to vindicate its aiithority, or quietly renounce its pretensions. To check future emi- gration, and to intimidate those who had already fled, three decrees A\'ere framed, in which it was declared that unless Monsieur, the King's eldest brother, returned to France Mithin two months, he should be deprived of the Regency, and all other rights as a Prince of the Blood ; that all Frenchmen who remained beyond the ft-ontiers after the first of the ensuing January, should be deemed conspirators against their country, and treated accordingly; and that all ecclesiastics who refused to take the ci\dc oath, by which Papal supremacy was denounced, were to be deprived of their benefices and imprisoned. The King sanctioned the decree which affected his brother, but put his veto upon the other two. Eiu-aged at this refusal, the Assembly demanded the immediate dismissal of the Ministry, and a declaration of war against the Princes of the Germanic Confederation, who not content ^vith assisting the emigrants openly, menaced an invasion of xlv INTRODUCTORY SKETCH OF France. These demands were so unanimously and resolutely insisted on, that Louis had no alternative, but was forced to comply. Accordingly, a new administration was formed under Dumouricz and Roland; men popular among the Girondists, but without the requisite talents or steadiness of principle to conduct the government under such extraordinary cii'cumstances as those of France at the commencement of the year 1792. This change was followed by a declaration of war, on the 20th of April, against Francis II., King of Himgaiy and Bohemia, shortly afterwards elected Emperor of Germany, the brother of the Queen of France. The news was received everyAvhere with joy ; troops were rapidly raised, contri- butions voluntarily offered, factions seemed to be reconciled, and general enthusiasm succeeded to fear and distrust. The forces of the Idngdom were divided into three armie's : — that of the North, under Marshal Rochambeau, nmnbered forty-eight thousand men ; La Fayette had the command of the Central Army, about fifty-two thousand strong , and the Army of the Rhine, consisting of forty-three thousand soldiers, was entrusted to Marshal Luckner. The first opera- tions of these troops were ill-concerted, and brought nothing but defeat and disgrace to the French arms. Instead of stiiking terror in the Allies, therefore, the armies were speedily reduced to act on the defensive. Rochambeau threw up his conunission, and gloom and panic again took possession of the revolutionary leaders and their supporters. The Jacobins went so far in theii" clubs, as to denounce the unsuccessfid soldiers as traitors to the State, who wished to con- tribute to a counter-revolution, and restore the Kmg to absolute power. La Fayette, annoyed by these attacks, and fearing a renewal of outrage in the capital, A\Tote on the 16th of June to the Assembly, demanding the immediate suppression of the anarcliical clubs, and the re-establishment of order and the sovereignty of the laws. The Assembly, however, by this time was itself under the absolute domi- nion of the clubs, and dared not, even if it had been disposed to do so, to act against the Democrats. The mob and its leaders had become supreme ; and in a public petition presented to the Legislatiue on the 20th of June, they demanded the cause of the disasters of the army, and added, that if the executive authority was in fault, that authority should be annihilated/ The crowd which accompanied xlvi THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. the bearers of this docinnejit, is said to have consisted of up^rards of thirty thousand persons, headed by the Marquis of St. Hurugnes, and escorted by a body of National Guards and persons armed -sWth pikes, scythes, and pitchforks. EepubHcan banners and ensigns floated above them; and as they traversed the streets, and filed thi'ough the Hall of the Assembly, they sung the revolutionary chorus, " ca ira," and shouted, " The Nation for ever ! Long live the Sans-culottes ! Do-mi Math the Veto!" That the animus of their proceedings might not be mistaken, five or six thousand of the multitude, on leaving the Assembly, went du'ect to the palace, and demanded to see the King. The outer gates were dashed open with sledge hammers, and the fm-ious rabble rushed into the interior, and began demolishing the doors -with their axes ; but Louis, undismayed, ordered them to be adnutted, even to the royal apartments. For a moment his assailants were abashed and confounded at his tranquil demeanour and unruffled brow, and the progress of the mob was arrested ; but those behind continuing to press forward, the King was forced into the recess of a ^^indow, and compelled to mount upon a table, that he might be distinctly seen by the crowd below. Never was greater courage displayed by man than Louis XVI. dis- played on tliis humihating occasion. One of the frantic rabble placed a red cap upon his head, and another offering liim a bottle, insisted on his drinking to the Nation, " Fear nothing, Sii-e," said a brave grena- dier of the National Guard, who was near to defend him : the King took the citizen's hand, and pressing it to his breast, replied, " Judge yoiu'self if I fear." At length the arrival of tw^enty-five Deputies from the Legislative Assembly, and the exertion of Petion, then INIayor of Paris, put an end to the tumult, and the palace was cleared without the effiision of blood. This gratuitous outrage called forth strong remonstrances fi-ora the whole party of the Constitutionalists, and from all sober-minded men thi'oughout the kingdom, who poured in petitions subscribed by many thousands of persons, praying that the insiu'gcnt leaders might be brought to instant punishment. La Fayette repaired to Paris in person, to demand not only that the authors of the insurrection should be dehvered up to justice, but that all revolutionary meetings should be suppressed, and the clubs in which they originated closed. But the xlTii INTRODUCTORY SKETCH OF Assembly, though it adopted a motion of enquiry into the cause of the proceedings of which the General complained, feared to take any ulterior measures ; and La Fayette, after discovering that his influence with the National Guards had been diminished during his absence, and mainly imploring the King to attempt a new escape under his giddance, returned to the army to aAvait the approach of the Alhed troops. The revolutionary stream now swept onwards %vith greater vigour and fury than ever. The courage and determination, as well as the sentiments of La Fayette, were well known, and it was feared that he would march his army upon Paris, or concert measures with the Allies to restore the Monarchy, and overturn all that had been eifectcd for the people. The Jacobins and Girondists, therefore, united then* influ- ence in order to destroy the reputation of the General, and if possible to procure his impeachment and trial as a culprit. Meanwhile the Allies crossed the Rhine, and entered the French territory; and on the 25th of July, 1792, the Duke of Brunswick pubhshed his cele- brated ^Manifesto, in which he denounced those who had overthrown the legitimate Government of France, and attacked the King and his family. The Allied Sovereigns, he said, had taken up arms to put an end to anarchy, to repel the aggressions which had been made upon the altar and the tlirone, and to restore to the King the Hberty and authority of which his rebellious subjects had deprived him. The Addi-ess concluded with a threat, that if the people did not instantly return to thcii' fidchty, and restore the King to full hberty, they should be punished as rebels, and their houses given up to pillage and destruc- tion ; but that, on the contrary, if the demands of the Coahtion were complied with, the Duke liimself would engage the good offices of the Allies in pleading \vith Louis, to pai'don the manifold errors and offences of his subjects. Scarcely anything could have been worse-timed or more impohtic than this vauntmg and insolent bravado. It diverted the sympathy of the middle classes and the better informed among the lower orders from the objects of the Constitutionalists, who desired only that rational liberty to which a great and enlightened nation was entitled, and fixed their attention upon a triumphant aristocracy, returning to enforce, Avith additional horrors, the odious system of exclusive tyranny and xh-iii THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. slavery from which the nation liad but just escaped. It awakened the pride and the indignation of the Avhole people, who thus saw them- selves disposed of en masse, as victims of conquest, ahnost before a sliot had been fired. It asserted the right of foreigners to impose a form of government upon France ; and, by treating as invahd the sanction which the King himself had given to many acts of the revolution, even before he could have been considered as subject to coercion, it virtually annulled the independence as well of the cro^^^l as of the country. The war henceforth, therefore, could not be faii-ly regarded other- wise than as one of freedom, in wliich Frenchmen could take part only as patriots or traitors. The immediate consequences of the Manifesto fell upon the head of the King, whose cause it identified with that of the invaders, and consequently set in oi')position to the interest of the kingdom. The dethronement of Louis — " the man whom the Consti- tution had elevated as its chief, and whom pei*fidious advisers had rendered its enemy" — was loudly and earnestly demanded by the Girondists, the Jacobins, and many who had formerly attached them- selves to the Constitutionalists. Several motions on the subject w^ere made in the Assembly ; but the proceedings of that body, in a matter of such moment, being too tardy for the violence of democracy, the leaders of the mob sought to accomplish their object in less time, and more effectually, by an insurrection. At midnight, on the 9th of August, the tocsin was sounded through- out Pai-is, a single cannon was fired, the generule was beat, and the well-organized insiu'gents assembled in the faubourgs St. Antoine and St. Marceau. The Court had been aheady apprised of an intended attack on the palace; and had hastily called to its assistance the Swiss Guards, amounting to eight or nine hundred, about'foiu- hundred grenadiers of the National Guard, whose loyal devotion could be relied on, and a small body of noblemen and gentlemen, Avho were usually in attendance on the Royal Family. Mandat, commander of the National Guard, repaired to the Tuileries, with his staff, accom- panied by Petion, the Mayor of Paris, whose presence was necessary to authorize the repelling of force with force. The National Guard, at the summons of their chief, marched also, with theu- artillery, to the scene of action, and filled the gardens and com-ts, while the Swiss and Royalists Hned the passages and apartments of the palace. INTRODUCTORY SKETCH OF As soon as the conspirators had disposed the numerous forces which had assembled at thcu* signal, some of their number hastened to the hall of the Legislative Assembly, and placed A^ergniaud, a fui'ious repubhcan, in the chaii", to be prepared to turn any circumstances that might requu'o their interference to the advantage of the insurgents. Others took possession of the Hotel de Ville, resolved to arrogate to themselves the municipal authority mitil their plot had triumphed, and royalty was abolished. As soon as it was knoA\Ti that Petion had accompanied Mandat to the palace he was sent for, and, on his arrival, placed under a guard of insui-rectionists. Mandat also received an order to repair to the Town-Hall, Avhcre he was accused of having ordered the guards to fire upon the people. This charge he repelled with scorn, and was forthAvith ordered to imprisonment in the Abbaye ; but, on leaving the hall, he was shot dead b'y an assassin. Santerre, a rich brewer, was then invested with the command of the National Guards mstead of Mandat. About five o'clock in the morning of the 10th, Louis, by the advice of those who had come to defend or die >vith him, visited the different posts where soldiers were stationed for the defence of the palace. He appeared deeply dejected, and wore, instead of uniform, a suit of regal mourning. His expressions were hasty and disjointed ; the energy which he had displayed on other occasions seemed entirely to have forsaken him. It was in vain that the beautiful Queen, who appears to have been endued with a masculine courage which rose amid dangers, snatched a pistol from the belt of Count d' Affray, and thrust it into her husband's hand, exclaiming, " Now is the moment to shew yourself as you arc !" His gloomy forebodings seem to have infected all who beheld him. Even the troops within the palace, whose fidelity was undoubted, observing how deeply he was affected, uttered but faintly and feebly the cheering cry of " Vive le lloi ! " and when he reached the terrace to visit the Pont-Tournant, the general shout was " Vive la Nation !" while some exclaimed " Down with the Tyrant ! " The King said nothing to stimulate his adherents, nor to discourage his enemies ; but returned to the palace, pale and trembling, to hold counsel with his few remaining fiiends. Tn the meantime upwards of twenty thousand insurgents had in- vested the Tuilerics, and occui)icd all the avenues by which entrance THE FRENCH R E VOI,T'TT O X. or escape could be efFccted. The artillerymen of the National Guard speedily declared for the mob, and pointed thcii- guns upon the palace; and several whole battalions, after ^vitnessing the King's humiUating depression, joined in the popular cry of " Down mth the Traitor ! The Nation for ever !" The Procurator-synchc, Roedcrer, behe^'ing that a contest was hopeless, proposed, as a last resource, that the Royal Family should fly for safety to the Legislative Assembly, to which, after some hesitation, Louis assented; and confiding himself, his Queen, his chilcben, and the Princess Ehzabeth, his sister, to an escort of thi-ee hundred Swiss Guards, and about an equal number of the loyal grenadiers of the National Guard, they were conducted to the Hall of the Assembly— assailed in their progress- by the impre- cations, abuse, and \iolence of the most ruffianly male and female rabble, that even the revolution had yet called from the stews or the galleys. On entering the Chamber of the Legislatui-e, the King, with great dignity and composure, exclaimed, " Gentlemen, my family and I are come among you to prevent the commission of a great crime." The Assembly received him coldly, and assigned liim and Ms family a place in the reporters' box, behind the President's chair ; and scarcely had he reached this indifferent asylum, ere a heavy rolling fire of musketry and cannon announced that the insui'gents, though baffled of the prey they had expected, were not to be satisfied without bloodshed. Indeed they attacked the palace; and after a severe struggle, which the brave S^ass maintained with unsui-passable gal- lantly, the overwhehning numbers — about thuty to one — of then- assailants, assisted by many cannon, gave victory to the rabble. The Royal Guards were borne down and massacred almost to a man ; and the crowd rushing into the palace, committed almost every species of enormity which hatred, vengeance, or even madness, could devise or execute. Pillage alone seemed excluded from the catalogue of crimes, of which the revolutionists on that day permitted the com- mission with impunity. When the carnage was over, hundreds of foi-ious men and women hurried to the Assembly to demand the hves of the King and the Royal Family; and the Legislature, wliich had merely waited for such authorization, decreed that the King was suspended from his functions; that the INIiuistry was dismissed; that a National Con- I^TRODrCTORY SKETCH OF vention sliould forthwith be called to conduct the government; and that Louis, in the meantime, should be committed for safe custody to the Luxembourg. La Fayette was the only distinguished man in France who attempted to raise his voice against this absolute domination of the lower orders. He had been one of the earhest assertors of rational freedom, but he desired nothing more. His object was Hmited to the equahty of all classes in the eye of the law, a representative government, the pro- tection of property, the free and impartial administration of justice, and the levying of taxes in proportion to the necessities of the state and the means of the people. He had not calculated upon entirely reversing the order of society, and placing in the hands of the mul- titude an irresponsible power, to defy and overthrow both Legislature and Law ; and he was prepared to resist the 'establishment of such a state of anarchy, as the -^'orst and most fearful of all tyrannies. At the time of the virtual abohtion of monarchy, his head-quarters w-ere at Sedan. He at once communicated with the Municipality of that town and the Dii'ectory of Ardennes ; and finding them disposed to support hun, as soon as the three Commissioners, sent by the Legis- lative Assembly to secure the army to the revolutionists, arrived, he sent them to prison, and appealed to his troops to renew their oath to the Constitution of 1789. The advance of the AUies, however, frustrated all his endeavour's. The soldiers were well-disposed to the restoration of order, but not at the price of a foreign conquest of their country ; so that, after being deserted by many of the officers and regiments in whom he had most confidence, he found it necessary to abandon liis projects, and seek for personal safety in flight. He accordingly quitted the army, accompanied by MM. Bureau de Pusy, Latour-lNIaubourg, Alexander Lameth, and several other officers of his stafi", and crossed the frontier into Holland, with the intention of passing thence to the United States of America ; but, being dis- covered by the Austrians, they were arrested and consigned, first to the dimgeons of Magdeburg, and afterwards to those of Ohnutz, where they endured four years of the most distressing imprisonment. La Fayette was offered his freedom, on condition of lending his assistance to. restore the ancient absolute monarchy, but preferred captivity to the abandonment of his principles. THE FRENCH REVOLUTIOX. Having effected their great purpose of dctlu'oning the King, the Jacohins, led by Danton, Marat, and Robespierre, procured his re- moval to the prison of the Temple, and demanded the trial of the " Conspirators of the 10th of August!" that is, of all who had then opposed the proceedings of the rabble. The Assembly had now no power but that of giving legal sanction to the will of the mob. The desired tribunal was accordingly appointed, Math Danton at its head ; and several of the adherents of the King were tried and executed : but the delay necessary to even a form of law, and its requisition of evidence, enraged the victorious party, who resolved to take the matter into their own hands. They accordingly invested the self- appointed commune of Paris with all the powers of" government ; caused the arrest of all who were suspected of being favourable to the King, or the Constitution wliich they had all sworn to maintain ; and openly declared their intention of striking terror to the Royalists. The troops of the Coalition, meanwhile, had bombarded and taken Long^vy and Verdun. The news reached Paris on the 1st of Septem- ber, and excited in the whole population a degree of rage and terror which has scarcely a parallel in history. After a brief consultation among the insurrectionary chiefs, it was resolved that the domestic enemies of the Revolution should be massacred. At midnight the tocsin was accordingly sounded, the drums beat, and the prisons, con- taining several thousands of persons, placed at the disposal of the armed mob. The sequel is too horrible for detailed description. Bands of men and women assembled in the gaol-yards, to whom the unhappy captives were sent out, one by one, to be despatched with axes, hammers, pikes, and sabres. Among those who were thus butchered were the Princess de Lamballe, a friend of Marie Antoinette, and many other ladies of rank, whose heads were stuck upon pikes and paraded through the city. In the brief intervals of the carnage, which lasted iox four days, from the 2nd to the 6th, the executioners ate, drank, and slept ; awaking from slumber, or arising from table, to resume their work with fresh ^dgour and appetite. The assassins received from the Commune a louis a-day for their hire ; and thus encoiu-aged, when political victims were no longer to be found, they attacked the prison of the Biceti-e, where ordinary offenders were confined ; and meeting here with unexpected resistance, they were INTRODUCTORY .SKETCH OF obliged to employ cannon in tlieir work of extermination. It has been computed that upwards of four thousand persons perished. The citizens of the capital took none, or little part in these scenes of blood; but stood by and gazed in stupefaction and horror, afraid to express an opinion lest they too should be singled out as objects of vengeance. Notwithstanding the revolting character of this massacre, it seems to have had the desirable effect of rousing the spirit of the French soldiers on the fi-ontier ; who shortly afterwards rallied under Dumouriez, Kellerman, and Bournonvillc, expelled the Allied troops from the French territory, and once more assumed the oifensivc. The National Convention met for deliberation, on the 21st of September. It consisted of but two parties, the Ghonde, or moderate RejDublicans ; and the Mountain, or Terrorists. In this Assembly, fourteen out of the twenty representatives of Paris were INIembers of the Commune which had authorized the massacres of the 2nd of September ; and their partisans formed a strong majority of the -\^hole body. At their first sitting, the Deputies unanimously abohshed Royalty, and proclaimed France a Rcpubhc. After a few unimportant quari-els between the factions composing the Convention, in which Robespierre and Marat, upon pretty good e'S'idence, were denounced as aspiring to a Dictatorship, it was resolved to gratify the mob by bringing the King, or as he was now called Louis Capet, to trial for treason against the nation ; and, in the interim, the name as well as the office of King was proscribed ; the statues and pictures, not only of Louis XVL, but of the former Kuigs of France, were taken do\\Ti; all emblems of royalty were defaced ; even the royal sepulchres at St. Denis were broken to pieces, and the relics they contained exposed and dispersed. The preparation of a report for the accusation of the Sovereign had been entrusted to twenty-one persons, the result of whose enquiries was, certainly with such judges, anything but favoui-able to Louis. It was proved against him, that he had secretly corresponded M-ith the Emigrants and the Coalition, and approved their projects to restore the ancient despotism, and annul all that had been done since 1788. Upon these grounds, a decree of attainder was moved for, on the 1 3th of November. The furious Robespierre wished for his con- demnation at once. "Louis was King," said this man of blood; riv THE FRENCH KEA'OLUTION. " the Republic has superseclccl him ; he is not, therefore, to be tried, he has been tried and condemned ah'eady, or the Republic is not settled. I demand that the Convention declare Louis Capet a traitor to the French people, and condemn him to death, on the instant, by A-irtue of the insurrection of the 10th of August!" The majority of the Members, however, had still sufficient courage to resist this species of illogical appeal; and decided that their prisoner should be brought to the bar of the Convention, to undergo, at least, a form of trial. He was, accordingly, summoned to appear before his judges on the 11th of December, 1792. "I will attend you," said Louis to the Commissioners sent for him, " not as acknowledging the right of the Convention to summon me, but because I must yield 'to its superior power." — " Louis," said Barrere, the President of the Assembly, when the King appeared in the hall, " you may be seated ; " and even this act of condescension was disapproved by the Mountainists. On being interrogated, Louis denied all knowledge of the correspondence with which he was charged; and demanded he assistance of two advocates — Tronchet and Target — for his defence. On being reconducted to prison, the King found that he was doomed to solitude. His wife, his sister, and his children, had been removed during his absence; and though he wept and implored to be informed of their fate, his prosecutors would not deign to reheve his agonizing apprehensions. The Convention, as soon as Louis had departed, became a scene of savage tumult. The more violent Jacobins, fearing that the calm dignity of their intended victim might create reaction among the multitude, demanded his instant condemnation. One of their number, Duhesme, made a motion that the King should be executed that very night; but it was decided by the majority that he should be previously heard at length, and that coimsel should be allowed him. Target, from fear or disinclination, refused the office conferred on him ; but the venerable and honest Malcsherbes voluntarily undertook it. " I have been twice called," said he, " to the council of him who was once my master, at a time when office was an object of ambition : — I owe him the same duties now that his service is attended with peril." Malcsherbes and Tronchet associated with them the learned and eloquent De Seze ; and though without hope of saving the life of their INTRODUCTORY SKETCH OF client, exerted themselves to the utmost to shew that the accusations against him were groundless, and that his persecution was contrary to law and to justice. The King's final hearing took place on the 2Gth of December. De Seze, in a speech which was rendered more affecting and impres- sive by the absence of oratorical display, and of all appeals to the passions or feehngs of his auditors, pronounced the defence, to which Louis liimself added a few words of manly remonstrance against the coufse piu'sued by those who sought to shed his blood. The ]Monarch was then remanded to the Temple, and a long and stormy debate ensued among his judges. The Jacobins clamorously demanded that the votes should be taken immediately; but this the Gu-ondists, who wished to save the life of the ])i"isoner, strenuously oj^posed. In the midst of the uproar Lanjuinais arose, and, with an animation and cou- rage such as he had never before displayed, charged the Mountainists themselves "v\'ith instigating and conducting the insurrection of the 10th of August, in order that they might have an opportunity to accuse the King of opposing the people. This bold speech occasioned the most fmious gesticulations and outcries amongst those whom it denounced. " Let the despot's friends die with him !" vociferated a hundi'ed voices. " To prison — to the scaffold with the traitor who dares to slander the victors of the 10th of August." The immoveable firmness of Lanjuinais, however, overawed his enemies. He calmly replied to their threats. " It were better to die innocent, than incur the guilt of passing an unjust sentence." Still Robespierre, and a few of his friends, continued to call for instant judgment. " Is it for a people," asked St. Just, " Avho have declared war against all tyrants, to be tender of the life of their o\vn ?" Robespierre added, " The case has been already decided by the unanimous voice of the supreme and virtuous people, and it only remains for the Convention, as their representatives, to execute their Mill." Eventually, the King was declared guilty by a large majority; but when the question of his sentence was discussed, his counsel lodged an appeal to the nation, which was ably supported by several Girondist Deputies; and, among others, by Vergniaud, who had presided in the Convention during the insurrection of the 10th of August. This spealcer alleged, that the people, in the Confederation of the Champ de Mars, had sworn to slix THE FRENCH REVOT.rTTON. maintain the Constitution, the Law, and the King inviolate, and that the Convention had no power to release them from that obli- gation. In reply to the assertions of the Jacobins, that an appeal to the nation would lead to civil M'ar, he urged that the Jacobins, who threatened with daggers the Convention itself, and openly pro- pounded in the Tribune doctrines subversive of social order, wished for civil war. " It is they," he said, " who accuse Justice of pusilla- nimity, because she wiU not sti-ilce before conviction; who adduce the exercise of common humanity as a proof of conspiracy; and charge all who will not join in acts of robbery and assassination as traitors to their country." The appeal was rejected by a majority of one himdi'ed and forty votes. The next proceeding was to pass sentence. The sitting in which this question was discussed lasted upwards of forty hours. One end of the hall had been fui-nished with boxes like a theatre : these were occupied chiefly by female revolutionists, who sat as at an entertain- ment, and were served with ices, oranges, and liqueurs, recei\'ing and retiu-niug the salutations of the Deputies as they went and came. The galleries above were fi.Ued vrith. men and women of the lowest class, who drank wine and brandy, jested, laughed, and made bets as to the issue of the trial. The Gii'ondists still endeavoured to save the King. They pro- posed that he should remain a prisoner till the proclamation of a general peace ; but the Jacobins would hear of no compromise, and declared, that if Louis was not condemned by the Assembly, they would themselves go to the Temple, destroy him and his family, and add to the massacre all who might seek to oppose them. When the votes were called, the most intense anxiety prevailed on all sides. The fate of the nation was universally believed to depend on the issue. A muiunur pervaded the Chamber, but it seemed to arise fi-om whis- pers, and gave solemnity to the scene. "When the Duke of Orleans, or, as he was then called. Citizen Phihppe EgaHte, was asked for his vote, there was a deep unbroken silence, and all eyes were turned on the degenerate prince; but when he answered, "Death/'' there ran a suppressed cry of horror through the hall. At length the President announced, that of seven hundi'ed and tn^enty-one members, three hundred and seventy-one had voted for Louis Capet's death. The Ivii INTRODUCTORY SKETCH OF advocates -wlio had defended the King again appeared at the bar, and endeavom'ed to arrest execution of the sentence, on account of the smallness of the majority. But they were interrupted by a fierce Jacobin, who exclaimed, " Decrees are passed by a simple majority." — " True," replied a voice from the opposite side, " and decrees may be amended ; but the life of a man cannot be recalled." Malesherbes attempted to spcalc, but sobs choked liis utterance ; and the Assembly could only gather his sentiments from his imploring looks and dis- connected ejaculations. The triumphant Jacobins, however, had no remorse. His sentence was announced to Louis by his voluntary defender, who found him sitting in darkness, absorbed in profound meditation. The King, roused by his entrance, arose, and said, " I have been endeavouring for the last two hoiu's to reeollect, whether at any tune, during my reign, I have merited the ill-will of my subjects. I assiu'e you, my friend, in all sincerity of heart, and as a man about to appear before God, that I have constantly desired the welfare of my people." He begged Malesherbes not to abandon him in his last moments, but to retui'n and afford liim the consolation of his presence ; which the good old man promised, and repeatedly endeavoured, but was unable, to perform. Louis further entreated the assistance of a confessor, and to be permitted to take leave of his wife and children; requests which, after some hesitation, were granted. His last interview with his family seems to have been the final struggle of his feehngs; from that time he was calm and resigned. He charged Clery, his faitliful valet-dc-chambre, with his last adieus, and -svith all that his inexorable gaolers permitted him to dispose of — a ring, a seal, and some hair. Tliis was on the morning of the 21st of January, 1793, the day appointed for his execution. The guillo- tine had been erected in the Place Louis XV. The road thither was guarded by a double line of soldiers, to repress any attempt of the citizens at a rescue. Louis ascended the scaffold with a firm step, and after receiving the blessing of his confessor (a member of the talented Lish family of Edgeworth), he attempted to address the cro\\ d of spectators which was gathered in the square ; but at this instant tlie drums were ordered to beat, and the three executioners seized him. As the instru- ment of death descended, the priest, raising his hands to heaven, fer- Iviii THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. vently exclaimed, " Son of St. Louis, ascend to Heaven!" and, a moment afterwards, the King had ceased to exist. A ruffian, -who was present, tasted the blood, and exclaimed^ with a brutal grimace, that it was " shockingly bitter." The character of Louis XVI. has been given by an author, distin- guished as an apologist of the Revolution. " He was the best but weakest of monarchs," says Mignet ; " and his reign of sixteen years and a half was passed in endeavouring to do good. The Revolution was an inheritance bequeathed to him by his ancestors. He was, perhaps, the only prince who had not even a passion for power, and who united the qualities of a good King — a love of God and of his people. He perished, the victim of passions which he* did not share, and which he had not excited. There are few kings who have left behind them so excellent a memory. With a little more strength of mind, he would have been a model for constitutional sovereigns." The execution of the King disgusted the moderate Republicans in France, and augmented the number of her external enemies. The French Envoy in London was dismissed, the British Minister recalled from Paris, and war declared against the Revohitionary Government. Spain, which had withdrawal from the Coalition, rejoined it. Russia, Holland, Naples, and the Pope — all denounced the sanguinary act of the Jacobins, and declared their resolution to punish its perpetrators. Immense armies were accordingly raised by the Allied Powers, and marched to the frontiers of France, while the Enghsh nKvj blockaded her ports, and crippled her commerce. The Convention ordered a levy of three hundred thousand men, to defend the Republic, In the meantime anarchy was spreading through the country. The self- constituted authority of the Assembly was not universally recognised; or, if admitted on unobjectionable matters, it was generally rejected on others. The Girondists, defeated in their efforts to save the King, and to estabKsh the Republic without bloodshed, took no pains to conceal their- apprehensions of the idterior designs of the Jacobins, to whom they attributed the most sordid and selfish motives, and whom they charged with instigating the daily increase of crime in all parts of the Republic. With the members of the Government thus at war among themselves, whole classes of the population proscribed, justice openly set at defiance by those who pretended to be its con- lix I>TRODL'CTORY SKETCH OF servators, and the nation threatened with invasion, little security for persons or property could be hoped for. Every one, therefore, seemed to feel at liberty to act according to his ability, and to defend himself or attack his neighbour, as either might best answer the purpose of the moment. Assassinations became frequent. The ordinary course of law bemg perverted, men took vengeance into their own hands, tiQ fear, distrust, and familiarity with wrong and violence, goaded almost every one to a species of madness. The Koyalists and Constitution- alists poniai'ded the Jacobins, who were not slow to execute similar atrocities upon then- enemies. Pillage became fasliionable, being advocated indeed even in the Convention by the infamous Marat, who accused the merchants of Paris and the Departments, " the aris- tocracy of the middle classes," with attempting to raise the price of food. The fanaticism of the period appears as incomprehensible as it was terrible : yet the " Reign of Terror" can scarcely be said to have commenced. Uncertainty with respect to the part which the army might be disposed to take, contributed, for a time, to prevent any attempt at concentrating a party in opposition to the Government. Dumouriez, after having compelled the Duke of BrunsA^ick to recross the Rhine, had invaded the Flemish territory, and by the \dctory of Jemappes secured the conquest of Belgium. He was at the head of an army of upwards of seventy thousand riien, and a declaration of his senti- ments was earnestly looked for by each party as likely to operate decisively on the nation. Instead, however, of pursuing an honest and steady coiu'se, Dumouriez entered into a series of intrigues, and exhibited a desire to avail himself of his position to become Dictator of the Republic. This being discovered, his influence was under- mined by the Commissioners sent to attend his army; and, eventually, when he sought to arouse his soldiers to action, he found himself in a similar situation to that of La Fayette some time before, and was obliged to fly for refuge to the camp of the Austrians. To the Royalists and Constitutionalists no resource now remained, save the dreadful expedients by which power had been attained by the Jacobins — insurrections of the people. In La Vendee, a general rising among the bold and hardy peasantry, was organized by Cathelineau and Stofflet, two men of humble birth, and Chai-ette, TIIK FRENCH REVOLTTION. a naval officer. They attacked and defeated the gcns-d' amies, who endeavoured to repress them, sounded the tocsin tlii-oup;hout the country, and in a short time were supported by all the available force of nine hunch-ed communes, and numbered in theu* ranks several of the most influential of the nobility and gentry of the pro\ince. The troops of the line and National Guards, sent agamst them by the Convention, were beaten. Marce, Gauvilliers, Quetineau, and Ligon- nier, who marched from different points vnth. orders to sujipress this formidable revolt, were successively overthi'own and driven to flight, and the insui'gents became masters of the district. The news of these events contributed to stimulate the Convention to atrocities. The Jacobins declared the Convention permanent, and established a revolutionary tribunal of twelve members, called " The Committee of Public Safety." To this body were delegated powers of hfe and death, without jury or appeal. The opposition of the Girondists to this worse than Inquisition, served but to endanger their personal safety, and to hasten the ruin of their party. Robes- pierre at once denounced Brissot, Guadet, Vergniaud, Petion, and Gensonne, as enemies of the Repubhc ; and Marat, in a newspaper which he conducted, called upon the people of the departments to send to the capital " the thunder of petitions and accusations against all unfaithful delegates." The mob thus excited, besieged, from day to day, the Hall of the Convention itself, dictated to the members how they should vote, and maltreated all who dared to act independentlv. At length it was resolved, as the easiest method, to get rid of the Girondists in a body. Accordingly, on the 3 1st of May, the Jacobin leaders summoned their ready satcUites, the National Guard and the rabble, to pm-ge the Legislature. Early in the morning of that day, the tocsm was sounded, the generale beat, and the insurrectionary force marched towards the Tuileries, where, for some time the Con- vention had sat. The cannon of the National Guard was pointed upon the Hall, and one gun fii-ed, to intimidate the members. A few remonstrated agamst this outrage. Thmiot demanded that the Com- mittee of Twelve should be suppressed. Tallien opposed this, saying, that " the sword of the law ought to be raised to smite the conspirators in the bosom of the Convention." Vergniaud proposed that all the members should bind themselves by an oath to die at their posts. Ixi IXTRODUCTOKY SKETCH OF The day passed in noisy discussions, and nothing was decided ; the mob refraining fr-om violence, only because their leaders were in the Hall. The next day passed in nearly the same manner ; but on the the 2nd of June, the assembled crowd became furious, and insisted that something decisive should be done. " The people," said Heiu'iot, to the President of the Convention, when asked what was demanded, " the people are not risen to listen to phrases. They demand that at least twenty-foiu* criminals be given up to them." — "Let us all surrender to them," exclaimed a Girondist. Henriot retui'ned to his followers vrith. flashing eyes and flushed countenance, and shouted, " Cannoniers, to your guns ! " Marat finally mounted the tribune, and denounced the requii-ed number of victims, who were forthwith delivered to the multitude, and led to prison, whence about three months afterwards twenty-two of them were conducted to the guil- lotine. The remaming members of the Gironde fled fi'om Paris, and the party, in the Convention, became extinct. These proceedings were followed by insurrections throughout the country. The inha- bitants of Normandy, Britany, Lyons, Marseilles, Bourdeaux, Toulon, and upwards of sixty departments, armed themselves against the Convention, and the " Reign of Terror " commenced. A young and beautiful gii-1, named Charlotte Corday, a native of Caen, resolved to punish INIarat, who, as the leader of the insiu'rection of the 2nd of June, was considered the author of these calamities. She travelled on foot to Paris, obtained admission to the house of the demagogue, and stabbed him to the heart. Her heroic motives are explained in her answers to the interrogatories of the revolutionary tribunal. "I killed Marat to put an end to the troubles of France. It was he who corrupted her, and proscribed the Deputies of the people. I have killed one man, to save a himdi-ed thousand ; a depraved wretch, to save the innocent; a ferocious monster, to procure peace to my country." Her appearance and behaviour at her trial so captivated a young republican, named Lux, that he entreated and obtained permission to share her fate at the guillotine.. Marat, after his death, was honoiu-cd, fc)r a while, by the Jacobins as one of " the gi-eat men of the nation ! " The insurrectionary movements throughout the provinces, the advance of the Allies, the defeat of the French armies upon the Ixii THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. Rhine and at the Pp-enees, threatened the Convention with speedy annihilation. Its members, however, having no hope of safety in retreat, were compeUed to pursue their career. They framed a new Constitution, expressly to establish the supreme power of the multi- tude, but it was found incapable of workhig, and was, therefore, never acted upon. A law for the arrest and punishment of all suspected persons was passed. AU Frenchmen from eighteen to twenty-five years of age were called upon to take arms in defence of the Repubhc; the armies were recruited by large levies of men, and contributions of provisions were raised for their support. By these means, the troops on the frontiers soon amounted to twelve hundred thousand men; and six thousand soldiers and a thousand artiUerjoncn were appointed to guard the interior. " The whole country," says Mignet, "became a camp and workshop for republicans, and a prison for theii- opponents." In order to ascertain the opinions of the people, certificates of citizenship were granted by the Jacobins, to their known adherents; and every poor citizen of Paris was aUowed forty sous a day, that he might be enabled, without inconvenience, to neglect his proper business, and assist in the incessant debates of the Sec- tionary Assembhes. The pubhc functionaries were subjected to the surveillance of the Clubs, and revolutionary committees were estabhshed in every district where the authority of the Convention was recog- nised. Tliis activity led to important results. The insurrection of Nor- mandy was easily quelled: the insm-gents, led by members of the Gii-onde party, themselves republicans, had merely armed to restore their deputies to power, and finding tHs hopeless, they submitted to the Commissioners of the Convention at Caen. Tliis was the first triumph of the Jacobins since the so called "purification" of the Legislatui-e. In the south, General Cartaux defeated the MarseiUais PoyaUsts, and djrove them into Toulon, where, by the assistance of the British Admiral, Hood, and a body of Spanish auxiharies, they were enabled to maintain themselves for a considerable time. It was in the siege of tliis city, that the military talents of Napoleon fii'st became conspicuous. T^e details belong to Ms personal history. Lyons, after a weU-sustained siege, sui-rendered to General KeHermun. The Vendeans, after losing thcii' able chief, Cathclineau, m an Ixiii INTRODUCTORY SKETCH OF unsuccessful attempt to capture the city of Nantes, were compelled to retreat into their own territority, and act on the defensive; and, eventually, being totally defeated in four successive engagements, they resolved to retire into Britany, where they expected to be supported by a body of Enghsh troops, and a general rising of the inhabitants. They were pursued, however, by the \ictorious Repubhcans, and after two or three battles, were defeated with dreadful slaughter at Mons, by Generals Westerman, Marceau, and Kleber. Fifteen thousand men, women, and childi'en perished in tliis battle and the massacre by which it was followed. The remnant was again encountered at Savenay, and almost wholly destroyed. The Committee of Public Safety ordered the utter extermination of the Vendeans, and sent General Thurreau, with a large army, to execute the command. Twelve divisions of soldiers, known as the Infernal Columns, ravaged the country. The houses were consigned to the flames, the inha- bitants subjected to \'iolation and massacre, the cattle houghed and slaughtered, and the crops bui-nt and destroyed. At Pillau, they forced all the women and children they could find into heated ovens. " At the to\ATis of St. Herman, Chantonnay, and Herbiers," says an eye-witness, " I did not see a single H\dng male. A few females alone had escaped the sword. Country-seats, cottages, all kinds of habi- tations, were in ruins. At night the wavering and dismal blaze of conflagration hghted the Avhole country ; and to the bleating of disturbed flocks, and the bellowing of afliighted kine, were joined the hoarse croaking of the carrion-crow, and the deep bark of the wolf, coming forth to prey on the carcasses of the dead, which lay unburied by the roadside and in the fields." These horrible severities succeeded for a time in suppressing the ci^dl war in La Vendee ; but they excited in the breasts of those who escaped a deep and unquenchable hatred towards all revolutionists : a feeling which has not been eradicated by the lapse of nearly fifty years. Diuing these events, the armies of invasion had also been defeated, and driven beyond the frontiers. The Allies were beaten by Jourdan, in the North; by Iloche and Pichegru, on the Moselle; and by Kellcrman, on the Alps. The new generals were appointed by the Jacobins ; and the able Carnot, who was unstained by crime, directed the Re2)ubhcan campaigns. Jxiv THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. In the meantime, the Committee of Public Safety directed vengeance to be taken on the defeated Royalists of Lyons, Bom-dcaux, and ^lar- seiUes. The Commissioners of Execution at Lyons, were Couthon, Fouche, and CoUot d'Hcrbois ; the last having sohcited the office to gratify his personal hati-ed against the inhabitants, who had formerly hissed him from the stage, in his capacity of an itinerant actor. The instructions and authoritv of these men amply protected them m the commission of any conceivable atrocity. The prmcipal sti-eets, squares, and pubUc buildings were to be leveUed with the ground, and the name of the city changed to that of ViUe-Affianchie ; wliile all the inhabitants, who had taken part in the revolt, were to be put to death, to avenge what was caUed the mm-der of Chaher, a Jacobm officer, who had threatened to "make one fogot of three hvmdred Lyonnais, and dehver them at once to the guiUotine!" The ordinary process of the tribimals, summary as were those of the Revolution, were too slow for the Commissioners of Lyons, who therefore thought of a more speedy mode of despatching theu- victims. They caused them to be dragged, three or four hundi'ed at a time, to one of the largest squares in the city and fired upon with grape shot; despatchmg those who suiwed the cannonade with bayonets and sabres. The bodies of the dead were thrown into the Rhone, in order, D'Herbois affii'med to intimate at Toulon, which had not yet been captm-ed, the nature ot repubUcan vengeance. At Marseilles and Bom-deaux, smular scenes were enacted; while at Nantes, Cambray, and Ai-ras, the cruelties were, if possible, more aggravated by the demoniac mgenuity of Joseph Lebon and Carrier. At Nantes, especially, several boat loads of young men and women, stripped and tied together, were sunk m the river to celebrate " a Republican marriage." The municipal offi- cers and inhabitants of several towns were shot by way of sport as they came out to meet the troops and Commissioners to tender then- submission. "The whole comitiy," says Hazhtt, "seemed one vast conflagration of revolt and vengeance. The shi'ieks of death ^were blended with the yell of the assassin and the laughter of buffoons The accounts of the massacres in the pro^-inces were received ^ath so much applause in the capital, and conferred such immense popularity on the Commissioners who directed them, that the Convention thought its own glory would be eclipsed unless it adopted similar measures INTRODUCTORY SKETCH OF to secure its credit and gratify the Parisian rabble witli the actual sight of a few of those marvels of crime, the mere recital of which had created such earnest admiration. The unfortunate Queen of Louis XVI. was at this time sent to the scaffold in Paris, from mere wantonness and lust of bloodshed: Her accusation contained charges too gross for repetition, and utterly incredible ; but had there been no accusation at all, her condemnation was resolved on for the reasons before alluded to, and for the hatred borne her by the revolutionists for her courage, and for the unyielding spirit of regal dignity which she had exliibited in every stage of her mis- fortunes. She was beheaded on the 16th of October, 1793, in the thirt^--ninth year of her age. Her many sorrows had already turned her hair to grey. The Princess Elizabeth, sister to Louis, was beheaded in ]May, 1794. The Dauphin, Louis XVII., was given in charge to a shoemaker, named Simon, who, by the dii'ection of his employers, treated him with such severity, in order to get rid of him, that he died on the 8th of June, 1795. The Princess Royal was subsequently dehvered from capti^dty; and still lives, the wife of the thrice exiled Duke d'Angouleme. Twenty-two of the Girondist Deputies, whom Marat had denounced on the 2nd of June, were brought to the bar on the 30th of October, 1793. They appear to have been- prepared for their a2:)proaching fate. La Source, when his sentence was pronounced, replied to his judges, " I am about to die at a time when the people have lost theu* reason : you wall die the moment they recover it." The death of Bailly, formerly ]\Iayor of Paris, whose proclamation of martial law in the Champ de INIars had not been forgotten, followed the execution of the "twenty-two;" and Bailly 's decapitation was succeeded by that of the regicide Duke of Orleans, who had been for some time suspected of aspiring to the throne, since occupied by his son, Louis- Philippe. Madame Roland, the accomphshed wife of a member of the last ministry of Louis XVI., suffered death in the beginning of November. She was accompanied to the scaffold by a man named Lamarche, dii-cctor of assignat printing, whose dejection she endea- voured to cheer. Arrived there, to use the expressive phraseology of Mr. Carlylc, she asked for pen and paper to write the strange thoughts that were rising within her; a remarkable request, which Ixvi THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. was refused. Looking at the statue of Liberty Avhich stood in the square, she exclaimed bitterly, " O Liberty, what crimes are com- mitted in thy name ! " For Lamarche's sake she would suffer first, to shew him how easy it was to die. " It is contrary to the order," said Samson, the executioner. " Nay," replied the courageous woman, "you cannot refuse the last request of a lady;" whereupon Samson yielded. The scene was spoken of by the bystanders, who had become amateurs in cruelty, as a magnificent spectacle. " "NMiat sense, what wit, what courage, the scaffold sustained in INIadame Roland ! " Her husband, hearing of her death, quitted his place of concealment, and committed suicide in the high-road. From this period, to the death of Robespierre, who was now at the head of the Government, the torrent of terror continued to roll on, and gather strength in its progress. The guillotine was almost ceaselessly at work. The public accusers, the members of the Tribunal, and the executioners, knew no holiday, had no pause nor relaxation. " The enemies of the Republic," exclauned Robespierre, " must be destroyed, or we shall perish ! The enemies of liberty must be subdued by terror. The Government of the Revolution is the despotism of fi-eedom arrayed against tyranny!" The good and the bad shared an awfiil equahty in these times of systematic murder. " Vanquished enemies are not secure," said Barrere. " There are none but the dead who do not retm-n!" — "The more the social body perspu-es," added D'Herbois, " the healthier it becomes!" — " Dilatoriness," exclaimed Couthon, " is a crime. Every indulgent formality is full of pubUc danger. The only delay that ought to be allowed in the punishment of our enemies, is the time occupied in their discovery!" The accused were, there- fore, tried in multitudes, and not allowed to be heard in their defence ; and even thus a smgle tribunal was found insufficient. Three others were estabhshed; the number of judges was augmented, and empow- ered to act, without law or jmy, upon the dictates of their consciences. Neither sex nor age was spared; all classes, all sects, were subjected to the test of the guillotine ; till men, and women also, ceased to stand in awe of death, but frequently invoked it as a refuge. All kinds of actions, and even .want of action, were declared crimes, at the discretion of indiATiduals. The number of persons ai-rested, between September, 1792, and August, 1794, has been computed at upwards of three Ixvii INTRODUCTORY SKETCH OF hundred thousand, one-third of whom are said to have been women. Among those who perished it is necessary to record the names of the good INIalesherbes, and the learned and scientific Barthelemy Lavoisier, Nicolai, and Gilbert de Voisin. Some were executed simply because they were wealthy, and the Committee of Safety wanted money. INIagon, when carried before the Tribunal, and asked liis name, replied, " I am rich!" and disdained to say more. All that could excite en\y by then- reputation for genius, virtue, or patriotism, unless they were Terrorists, were sacrificed to the madness of the period. Natm-al ties and affections were outraged in mere wanton cruelty. Whole families were slaughtered for their relationship to proscribed persons or emigrants. Sisters for shedding tears at the fate of their brothers, wives for lamenting their mui'dered husbands ; one woman for merely saying, as a group was led to the scaffold, " Much blood seems to be shed for trifling causes." The presiding demon of this desolating storm was Maximilian Robespierre, a law)-er of Arras, the " Inflexible" and " Incorruptible," as he was called in the Jacobin clubs, and among the rabble. He sustained himself as a leader by absolute want of the requisite quali- fications for his post. His talents were not of an order to dazzle or excite envy ; his personal cowardice was well knoMTti ; his want of individual s}Tnpathy and fellowsliip had, at the commencement of his career, frequently placed him in juxta-position mth each of the rival parties ; his unostentatious mode of life, and contempt of wealth and luxuiy, covered liim, like a mantle, with an external appiearance of patriotic and purely republican virtue. He obtained his elevation with the consent of all, because all had separate hopes of being able to govern him. He had been extolled by each party, till the mob believed liim to be what he was proclaimed ; and when fear (hove him to the commission of the most remorseless cruelties, and he began to be publicly exclaimed against, the " poor and vir- tuous people," as he cantiugly termed the canaille, believed that his enemies merely sought his fall from factious motives. The continuance of the Reign of Terror, however, in the end afilighted even those who were originally pleased with its novelty. Danton was the first who ventured to remonstrate against the pro- ceedings of the Committee of Safety. He declared, that it was time THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. to distinguish between the innocent and the guilty." — " And who told you," asked the callous Eobcspierre, " that an innocent person has suffered?" Danton, turning wdth a sneer to a friend near him, exclauned, " AVhat sayest thou? Not an innocent person has perished ! " From that time, there was no association between Danton and Robespierre, and the latter, chcading the influence of his oppo- nent, sought to destroy him. In the meantime, the Convention, or rather the Revolutionary Com- mittee, which arrogated to itself all power, was desirous of honouring the Republic with an era of its oa\ti. The Clmstian calendar was abohshed, and an entirely new one substituted. The decade super- seded the week, and the tenth day the sabbath. The year was divided into twelve equal months of thirty days each, taking its date from the 22nd of September, 1 792, the period of founding the Repubhc. The five supernumerary days requu-ed for the actual year, were x^laced at the end, and, imder the designation of Sans-Culottides, were consecrated, according to the revolutionary ritual, to the festivals of Genius, Labour, Deeds, Rewards, and Opinio7i. The Commune of Paris established a new kind of worsliip — that of " reason and nature," or absolute atheism. The Bishop of Paris was compelled to abjure Christianity at the bar of the Convention, and assent to a decree that the Catholic religion shoidd give place to that of "reason." The churches M'cre shut up, or transformed into heathen temples, most of the scenes exhibited in which are too scandalous and disgusting to narrate. In one, tlic ridiculous was carried to its extreme. An immoral opera dancer was installed as Goddess of Reason, and received the homage of the public authorities, and a vast concoiu'se of easy converts. Marriage was reduced to a cxvA contract, which the parties who formed it were at hberty to annul at pleasure. " The impudence of vice, the audacity of "wickedness, the emulation of licence, even to the most unbridled dissoluteness," says INIarmontel, "were openly professed, and con- stituted Republican morahty." This utter depra\4ty could not and did not last. Danton, and his friend Camille DesmouHns, made no secret of their scorn and contempt for such degrading and senseless follies. They had been violent and cruel diu'ing the struggle with monarchy; but they had desired to destroy despotism, not to place it in other and worse hands. INTRODUCTORY SKETCH OF Danton, in the Convention, and Desmoulins, in his joiu'nal, ' The Old Cordelier/ attacked the ferocious system pursued by the tribunals and that of public atheism, which Mere undermining whatever remained of social order in the country. These attempts, however, to bring the nation back to reason and mercy, afforded Robespierre his desii'ed opportiuiity of sacrificing the man whose rivalry he feared. Danton was misrepresented in the Clubs, and dcnoimced in the Convention ; and, disdaining to save himself by flight, or to resort to the usual artifice of turning the popular indignation against his accusers, he suffered himself to be arrested, and a few clays afterwards was cbagged to the scaffold, with Desmouhns, and several of his friends. At the i:)lace of execution, he prophetically exclaimed, " We are sacrificed to the ambition of a few cowardly brigands, but they wdll not long enjoy their triumph. I drag Robespierre after me. 'I was the only man who had influence enough to save him." He was right. When Robespierre began to act independently, his weakness and folly were at once perceived, and contemned. It was then resolved by the fi-iends of Danton, to attempt his overthrow. He soon furnished them with an opportunity. Seeing that a party, which daily grew stronger, had sprung up in the Clubs, the Convention, and the Committee of Safety, Robespierre mounted the tribune to denounce his enemies as those of the Republic, and avowed his intention to crush all factions " lest the State should be endangered." When he had ceased, Cambon arose, and said, " It is time to speak out. A single indi-\T.dual has paralyzed the IS. ational Convention — tliis is Robespierre!" Several other sjjeakers urged the same argument; and the Dictator that day left the Assembly with a conviction, that if he failed to " purify" the Government immediately, his ovra death was at hand. Next morning, the 2v*th of July, 1794, the meeting of the Convention was fuller and earlier than usual. Robespierre took his seat in front of the tribune ; and at noon, his friend, St. Just, commenced an harangue. " I am about," he said, " to lift the veil." — " It must be torn asunder ! " said TaUien, interrupting him. Billaud Varennes stated, that on the previous evening a scheme was debated among the Jacobins, to massacre the members of the Convention. " I see," he added, " one of the assassins amonsr the ISIountainists." — " Let him . be ai-rested ! " exclaimed a hundi-cd voices. " The Convention," con- ixx THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. tinned Billcaud, " is placed in the most eminent peril, and if it be irresolute it ^dll perish." He then denounced Robespierre by name, and presented a h.t of his accomplices. The terrified and trembling Dictator, unable to restrain his emotion, rushed to the tribune, but was driven thence by a loud and general cry of " Down with the tp-ant!" Talhen followed Billaud Varennes, and, drawing forth a dagger, declared that, if the Convention had not sufficient courage to decree the despot's accusation, he would himself avenge the injured Repubhc. Robespierre repeatedly attempted to speak, but the As- sembly would not hear him ; and he at length sunk into liis seat exhausted with rage and fear. " Miserable man," cried a Deputy, near him, who observed foam on his hvid lips, "the blood of Danton stifles thee!" About four o'clock, the Convention unanimously decreed the arrest of the two Robespierres, St. Just, Couthon, Lc Bas, and Henriot, who were forthwith delivered to the gendarmerie, and conducted to the Luxembourg. The Commune of Paris, knowing that its own existence depended on that of Robespierre, ordered a rescue, which was speedily effected by the mob, and the Dictator was conveyed to the H6tel de Ville in triumph. Henriot placed himself at the head of the revolutionary guard, and the Hall of the Convention was surrounded with cannon. The Assembly, however, was not overawed. It had no safety but in victory; and, with courage gathered from despair, it outlawed Henriot, and its Members resolved to die at their posts. The can- noniers, tired of anarchy, when ordered to fire, refused to obey their commanders; but, at the direction of the Legislature, received Barras as their chief, and returned to besiege the Commune. Hem-iot fled, to inform his accomplices of their danger ; and Robespierre, to avoid public execution, attempted to blow out his brains, but his hand was too unsteady even for suicide, and the bullet merely shattered his jaw-bone. Le Bas was more successfid, and died by his own hand. The younger Robespierre tlii-ew himself from a third-story window, but survived his fall. Li a few minutes, the Dictator, stretched on a litter, was on his way to the prison of the Conciergerie ; whence, at about five o'clock in the evening of the 28th of July, he was borne on a tumbril, with Henriot, Couthon, St. Just, and his brother, to the place of execution. SKETCH OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. The head of him who had, for nearly two years, governed France was now bonnd with a dirty cloth, his eyes were sunk, and his face ghastly. An immense crowd pressed round, and congratulated each other. The procession paused opposite his house, in the Rue St. Honore, when a group of women formed a circle, and danced around him. One, says Mr. Carlyle, sprung upon his tumbril, and waving her hand over him, exclaimed, " Thy death gladdens my very heart. Go down to hell, with the curses of all wives and mothers !" He was carried on to the scaffold last. Samson wrenched the bandage from his jaw, which instantly fell powerless, and drew forth a cry of agony. A^'hen the head of the monster fell, shout upon shout of applause burst from the multitude, and was echoed throughout Paris, and speedily repeated in every corner of liberated France, The restoration of order, although not the work of a moment, was at once commenced by the victors — called, from the period of their success, the Thermidoriens. The tribunals and committees were gradually suppressed; and eventually the day of the Sections, the 13th Vendcmiaire (4th October), 1795, gave a new character to the Revo- lution, and connected its further details inseparably vdth the history of Napoleon. Society, in the meanwhile, passed from a state of turbulence to tranquillity, from constant public agitation to the duties of pi'ivatc life. Labour supplanted Tapine, and the rich and indus- trious were no longer subjected to the dominion of the ignorant, the idle, and the dissolute. Perhaps, much good had been accom- plished by breaking the fetters of absolutism, and destroying the illusions of a millennium ; but much evil remained in the unsettling of faith and the confusion of ideas concerning liberty, religion, morality, and social obligations. ' Ixxii HISTORY OF NAPOLEON. THE FAMILY CHAPTER I. OF BONM'ARTE-BIRTH OF NAPOLEON -BOY HOOD-MILITARV EDUCATION- -FJKST COMMISSION. 17'>i^ — 1/S5. H E Bonapartes of Corsica were desceaulcd from a noble Italian family, which, during the middle ages, had frequently supplied senators to the Republics of Florence, Bo- logna, and San Miniato, and was allied to ^^the houses of Medici, Orsini, and Lomellini. ] ^'Becoming impoverished, however, during '' the struggles between the Guelph and GhMline factions, which for so long a period distracted Italy and desolated its chief cities and states, a younger branch of the fanny had retired to Corsica, where its high extraction would probably have been soon forgotten, but for the circumstances which were destined to give an extraordinary interest to everything connected with so memorable a name. Napoleon himself had little reverence for the pride of ancestry; and when, during the consulate it was souc^ht to flattei' him with a genealogy which traced Ins family from a line of kings, he treated the matter with the ridicule it merited and ended by observing, that the patent of his nobility was dated FAMILY. from the battle of Montenotte. The indifFerence of mankind to the glory which has no better source than heraldic fame, warrants ns in treating the subject in a similar manner. Charles Bonaparte, the head of the expatriated family, having studied for the law at Rome and Pisa, settled at Ajaccio, as an advocate of Session, and was married to Lgetitia Hamolino, a Corsican lady of Neapolitan extraction, of whom he appears to have become enamoured, as much for her courage and the energy and decision of her character, as for her great beauty and accomplishments. They w^ere united about the time of the commencement of the struggle of the Islanders, under Paoli, to maintain the independence of Corsica from the domination of France ; and, taking part with the patriots, were involved in all the troubles and vicissitudes of thS,t gallant but unsuccessful band. When the French troops took possession of Ajaccio, Paoli and his little army retreated to the mountains in the centre of the island. Thither Charles Bonaparte was followed by his wife, then scarcely eighteen, and an infant son, Joseph, wlio had been born on the 7th of .January, 17G8. Laititia is said not only to have shared tlic ordinary dangers of niiUtary life with her liusband, HIRTH. but to have accompanied him on horseback in some of his expeditions, even when a second time about to become a mother. As the period of her travail, however, drew near, she sought and obtained a safe conduct to return to Ajaccio, in order that her child might be born in a place of security. On the 15th of August, being the Feast of the Assumption, in the year 1769, Madame Bonaparte, whose bodily as well as mental vigour was scarcely to be surpassed, was desirous of participating in the solemnities of the mass, and attended church for that purpose ; but, being seized with her pangs during the service, she was compelled to hasten home, and, before she could be conveyed to her chamber, was delivered of a son, upon an old-fashioned carpet representing at full length some of the heroes of antiquity. This was the future hero of a hundred battles — Napoleon. There has been much idle speculation about the name conferred upon the infant : it appears, however, that Napoleon was a name which had been borne by the second sons of the same family for several generations, having been a distinguished one among the Bonapartes of San ISIiniato, to whose care the education of the children of the Corsican branch had usually been entrusted from the period of their first emigration. In the Greek Calendar there had also been a saint of that name, to whom, nevertheless, so little homage had been paid, that his place was no longer retained, nor could the date of his festival be ascertained. It was the fortune of CHILDHOOD. Napoleon Bonaparte to make the name an imperishable one ; and, when he had cflbctcd this, the Pope, in compliment to him, restored his namesake, St. Napoleon des iJrsins, to a post among the canonized, assigning to him the 15th of August, the birth-day of the victorious soldier, and that on which he had signed the Concordat, for a festival : thus, as one of his biographers observes, according to the protege the rare honour of promoting the patron. The childhood of Napoleon offers little beyond a few anecdotes indicative of his after character. He has related of himself that he was a wilful and inquisitive child ; hardy, bold, and mischievous ; quarrelling with, and making himself formidable to all his associates, especially to his brother Joseph, who, being older than he, was not at first disposed to submit to his caprices ; but who was eventually bitten, beaten, scratched, abused, and misrepresented into subjection. His early education devolved upon his mother, who was a prudent and amiable, as well as a strong-minded woman, and who watched the progress and mental development of all her children with the utmost solicitude and tenderness. Hers, however, was not the foolish affection which prevents the detection of faults : she mingled severity with encouragement, punishment with reward ; and rested her claims to their love on the understandings of her pupils. Slie insisted on obedience, abhorred falsehood in all Its shapes, and suffered nothing to be eulogised in her presence that was not really elevating to a generous and informed mind. To her training he afterwards attributed the success of his career; and frequently insisted that "on the lessons of the mother depend the good or evil conduct of the child." He was a handsome but slovenly boy ; and part of a song has been preserved, which is supposed to have been written in ridicule of the mixture of gallantry and carelessness exhibited in his person, and M ith which, it is said, he was frequently saluted by the children of his own age in the streets of Ajaccio : — " Napoleone di mezza calzetta, Fa I'amore a Giacominetta." At a very early age, Napoleon appears to have acquired that habit of studious reserve which he retained through life. His father had a summer retreat about a mile from Ajaccio, in the pleasant grounds of which, planted with the olive, the cactus, the clematis, and the SCIIOOI. DAYS. almond-tree, and overhung -with the fig and the -vvikl vine, was an isohited granite rock, with a natural grotto beneath, which looked out upon the sea. Hither Napoleon frequently came during his school vacations ; and, with or without a book, remained for hours together in solitary meditation. It has been eloquently remarked upon this, by Sir Walter Scott, — " How the imagination labours to form an idea of the visions which, in this sequestered spot, must have arisen before the eyes of the future hero !' Through the interest of Count INIarbceuf, the French Governor of Corsica, to whom, after the conquest of the island and the exile of Paoli, Charles Bonaparte had gradually become reconciled, and by whom he had been appointed to the honourable and lucrative situation of Assessor to the Tribunal of Ajaccio, Napoleon, in his tenth year, obtained an appointment to the Royal Military School of Brienne. Thither he was taken, through the Tuscan States, the south of France and Paris, by his father, who formed one of a deputation from the government of Corsica to the Court of Versailles, in the spring of 1779. He entered this celebrated academy on the 23rd of April. Of his school days a lively account has been given by M, de Bour- rienne, his school-fellow and friend. In person he was remarkable for his dark Italian complexion, quick, penetrating eyes, and a head disproportioned to his dimmutive body. He was also distinguished by his Corsican dialect, which was a source of frequent ridicule to his companions, who from the manner in which he pronounced his name, as if written Napoillone, were accustomed to call him la paille cm nez. He set earnestly to work at his studies, however, and soon mastered the French language, and made considerable progress in history, geography, and mathematics. In classical and elegant literature he never acquired great proficiency, and at fifteen years old was still low on the fourth form in Latin ; being satisfied probably witli the ability to read Plutarch, Tacitus, Polybius, and Arrian, his fiivourite authors. He was as fond of seclusion at Brienne as in Corsica, and generally kept aloof from the sports of the other students. He seemed averse to form attachments ; and indeed, from various causes, came to entertain a dislike, almost amounting to disgust, towards all Frenchmen ; and was in tiu'n derided by his French companions as the son of a Corsican attorney. He spoke warmly of Paoli, as a great ENDURANCE. man and a patriot, and was somewhat incensed against his father for liaving forsaken the fortunes of such a leader, and assented to the union of Corsica with France. AVith these sentiments, it will be readily conceived that his retorts were exceedingly bitter when the island of his birth was spoken of with scorn. But if he had few friends, he does not appear to have had any enemies among his fellow-students. He made no complaints of their conduct towards himself, which at times was certainly flagrant, nor of their other transgressions, even when the duty devolved upon him of reporting violations of discipline. On one occasion he preferred to suffer a confinement of three days rather than denounce a culprit. His chief amusements at this time consisted in the cultivation of a little plot of garden ground, of which one was assigned to every pupil, and in reading the numerous historical works with which the library of the school was stored. MILITARY SriRlT. His early love for military life and adventure was evinced even when a child, his favourite plaything having been a brass model of a cannon ; but it was more strongly manifested during the winter of 1783 — 4. The snow then lay upon the ground to the depth of six or eight feet, and necessarily deprived the students of their accustomed exercise and recreation; the only resource left being to promenade the great hall, and amuse themselves with in-door games, as they best might. As a means of escape from this monotonous hfe, it was proposed by Napoleon that they should clear passages through the snow in the great court-yard, dig trenches, erect horn- works, platforms, and parapets, and form a siege. The project was received with enthusiasm, and Napoleon at once unanimously appointed to direct the attacks. Brooms and shovels were put into immediate requisition, a fort was constructed, the scholars divided into regular platoons, and the mimic combat commenced. The siege was main- tained during the play-hours for fifteen days ; nor would it, perhaps, have then ceased, but that stones and gravel became mixed with the snow of which the balls were made, and several of the students, besiegers as well as besieged, Avere seriously hurt, when the principals thought it right to interfere and put an end to the diversion. Of the pride and high spirit, and at the same time of the implicit obedience of Napoleon, the following incident, which occurred about this period, will afford an illustration. The quarter-master, for some REMOVAL TO PARIS. fault, had condemned Napoleon to wear a serge coat, and to dine on his knees at the door of the refectory. This public disgrace so stung the ardent and aspiring spirit of the young student, that he was seized with violent retching and hysterics. The principal of the school, who chanced to pass at the time, remitted the punishment, and reproved the tutor for his severity and want of discernment ; and the professor of mathematics, Father Patrault, when informed of the cuxumstance, was greatly chagrined that his first mathematician should have been subjected to such humiliation. The person who inflicted the punish- ment appears to have been Pichegru, who was quarter-master at the time, and teacher of the four rules of arithmetic in the mathematical class. In after years, Pichegru had learned to form a sounder estimate of the character of his pupil ; for when consulted b*y one of the Bourbons, if means might not be devised to engage the Conqueror of Italy in the royal interest, he replied, " It will be a waste of time to attempt it. I knew him when a youth ; his character is inflexible : he has taken his side, and will abide by it." Father Patrault was proud of Napoleon's acquirements in the branch of study over which he presided ; and it was probably owing in some measure to his recommendation that, in his fifteenth year, he was one of the five scholars selected by the Chevalier de Keralio, inspector of the military schools of France, to be passed to the military college at Paris to complete their education. This was no ordinary compliment to the proficiency of the young student, who had not even attained the requisite age ; and when it was suggested by one of the masters, that he had better remain for another year, to aflEbrd time for further improvement in general learning, Keralio merely replied, " I know what I am about, and if I transgress the ordinary rules, it is not on account of family influence. I know nothing of the youth's friends, and am actuated only by my opinion of his talents. There is a spark of genius in him which cannot be too early fostered." In October, 1 784, he accordingly proceeded to Paris, where he soon found that the college was conducted upon too expensive a scale to suit the circum- stances of most of the king's scholars; and he therefore addressed a memorial to M. Berton, the sub-principal, complaining that, instead of improvement, the students derived from their residence only notions of vanity and a love of ostentation ; so that, when required to enter EDUCATION. upon life or return to their homes, they were likely to be incapable of relishing the frugality of the camp, or the modest enjoyments of the domestic circle. This singular document concluded with a recommendation of reform; and proposed, that, instead of being allowed to retain numerous servants, each student should do what was necessary to personal convenience and cleanliness himself; that the usual dinner of two courses should be reduced to the rations *:^c'y-, of the troops; and that such simple and sober habits only should be encouraged, as would tend to form the character of men destined for military service, enable them to maintain Mith steadiness the bear- ing of soldiers, to brave the inclemencies of the seasons, the changes TUTORS. of climate, and the fatigues of war ; and, above all, to inspire the men under their command with courage, confidence, and attachment. This was at the age of sixteen. The same opinions on the subject of military education accompanied him through life ; and formed the basis upon which he founded the several educational institutions for which France was indebted to him after he became Emperor. He continued, while at Paris, to distinguish himself in the same classes as at Brienne, and, by at least one of his tutors, was as much misunderstood. M. Bauer, his German-master, considered his abilities to be of a very inferior order ; and when told that he was the first mathematician in the college, replied that " none but a fool could learn mathematics." L'Eguille, the professor of History, drew juster conclusions, from his reflective disposition and the s(5lidity of his judgment; and, in a report on the state of the students, appended to the name of Napoleon the following note : — "A Corsican by birth and character ; he will do much, if circumstances favour him. " M. Domairon, professor of Belles-lettres, astonished at the singularity of Napoleon's amplifications, is said to have compared them to " flaming granites poured from a volcano." With both L'Eguille and Domairon, Napoleon afterwards preserved the intimacy which here had its commencement. AVhen First Consul, he frequently invited the former to breakfast at Malmaison, and was accustomed to revert to the discussions which they had formerly held, on the merits of various historical characters ; and, among others, of the Constable de Bourbon, whose great and only crime Napoleon once characteristically declared to have been, " his coming with foreigners to wage war against his native country." Domairon, in 1802, became tutor to Jerome Bonaparte. It would be worth enquiry, whether M. Bauer lived long enough to enjoy the confirmation of his singular judgment. The decision of tone and manner, and the vigour of intellect, indeed, A\hich about this time began to be generally remarked, procured him the notice and friendship of the celebrated Abbe Raynal, to whose literary and scientific parties he was frequently invited, and with whom he discussed questions of history, politics, and legislation. To the same period also is referable the prediction of his great-uncle Lucien, who, having assembled all his relations around his death-bed, addressed COMMISSION. himself to Joseph : " You," said he, " are the oldest, but Napoleon is the head of the family. You must always look up to him." This, as Napoleon afterwards observed, was a true disinheritance ; it was a repetition of the scene of Esau and Jacob. Charles Bonaparte, who died on the 24th of February, 1 785, always entertained and expressed a similar opinion of the pre-eminence of his second son. In August, 1785, after less than a year's residence at Paris, Napoleon passed his examination under the great La Place ; and obtained his first commission, as second lieutenant, in the artillery regiment La Fere, then quaitered at Valence, in Dauphiuy. ■). ~ CHAPTER 11. napoleon's first love — LITERARY EFFORTS — REVOLUTION — RECALL AND TREACHERY OF PAOLI — TOULON. 1/^5 — 1793. /C^fif ROViNCiAL society in France at the time Napoleon com- menced his military career, was of a much more primi- tive character than after men's minds had been dis- turbed, and the reverence for ancient usages dissipated, by the events of the Revo- lution. The chateau of the landed proprietor, with its turrets, court-yard, and half-castellated massivencss and strength, constituted the marvel, as its inmates were the patrons and oracles, of the neighbourhood. News, such as was permitted to be publicly disseminated, travelled but slowly, and was necessarily limited to the educated classes, — a very small proportion of the aggregate population. An occasional letter, or the conversation of a visitor, formed the staple of information to be obtained beyond the precincts of the capital, on any but the most ordinary passing occurrences. The notions of the country people concerning political movements, or the aifairs of government, were therefore of a vague and contradictory kind. Books, society, and field sports, were the only means of escape from a life of stagnation ; and, to whichever of SOCIETY. these ofFcred the newest species of excitement for the time being, recourse was eagerly had. At the period of which we are speaking, however, rumoiu- had begun to be busy with matters of state, and mihtary men derived additional consideration from the circumstance. To the old-fashioned mansions and the pleasant converse of the sentry of Valence, and especially to his intercourse with the Colombier family. Napoleon often alluded in after years. Madame du Colombier was a lady of considerable acquirements, and was not long in dis- covering the high qualities of the young artillery officer, whom she took pleasure in introducing to the best circles in Valence and its neighbourhood. To these introductions, and the grade in society which they gave him, the future Emperor did not hesitate to ascribe .-JCTi^i-'i* _«■. "' 13 FIRST LOVE. considerable influence in shaping his destiny ; and to the experience which he then acquired of the moral influence exercised by the provincial landowners over the rural population, M. de Bourrienne attributes his constant desire, when he had attained power, to conciliate the afiections of that class towards his government. One result of the intimacy then formed was a mutual attachment between Napoleon and Mademoiselle du Colombier, which seems to have partaken of all the romance and disinterestedness, if not of the fervour of first love. They walked and conversed in the garden and grounds belonging to the chateau; and got up one Midsummer morning at early dawn, expressly to share the felicity of eating cherries together. The young lady afterwards married M. de Bressieux, to whom, at her solicitation. Napoleon, when passing through Lyons on his way to he crowned King of Italy in 1805, gave a situation; and, for herself, procured the appointment of lady of honour to one of his sisters. In the mess-room at Valence, and afterwards at Lyons, whither his battalion was removed on the breaking out of some disturbances, the comrades of Napoleon were young men who all became eminent under the empii'e. Among these he was distinguished for his extensive information, strong reasoning faculties, and a fund of ready and sparkling wit and eloquence. These qualifications, added to the classical beauty of his countenance, the brilliance of his dark, deep-set eyes, the elegance of his slim, well-knit figure, and his agreeable manners, made him a general favourite, particularly with the ladies, many of whom appear to have predicted that his career would be an extraordinary one. Though constantly engaged in the gaieties of society. Napoleon found leisure at this time to compete for a literary prize at the Academy of Lyons, on the question, " What are the principles and institutions best calculated to advance mankind to the highest attainable happiness?" proposed by his old friend, the Abbe Raynal. This anonymous essay was successful; but is said to have embodied opinions and sentiments which he afterwards disavowed : of this, however, there is now no means of judging : as after he became Emperor, Talleyrand, to whom the incident was communicated in the course of conversation, procured the manuscript from the archives of the academy, and on presenting it to Napoleon, had the mortification, after the latter had glanced over a few pages. REVOLUTION. to see it thrust into the fire, with the simple observation, " One cannot observe everything." Among his other literary compositions at this period, was a " History of Corsica," which was submitted to, and approved by, the Abbe Raynal, who advised its publication. Napoleon afterwards expressed his satisfaction that this had not been done, as, according to the letter which he wrote concerning it in 1789 to Paoli, who was then in England, it must have abounded in denunciations against France for the subjugation of his country, and in enthusiastic sentiments of republicanism, which formed no part of the creed of his maturity. The work was subsequently lost or destroyed. The Revolution had now commenced, and the whole nation was divided into partisans of those who had produced, and those who sought to stem the outbreak. Napoleon, who had never forgiven the invasion and conquest of Corsica by the French Royalists, and who had been from infancy an ardent lover of liberty, naturally took part with the Patriots ; and by publicly assisting in the National Festivals which celebrated the triumph of the democratic over the court party, disclosed that he had no wish to mask his opinions. Republican sentiments were indeed becoming everywhere predominant ; and after the acceptation of the new oath — " To the Nation, the Law, and the King" — the army may be considered as almost as thoroughly revo- lutionized as the Parisian Constituent Assembly itself. Our young soldier remained in country- quarters till the beginning of 1792, when the commission of Captain fell to him by seniority, and he repaired to Paris. Here he lived for some time in absolute want of the resources necessary for his subsistence, soliciting employment from the War-office, and projecting a variety of impracticable schemes to raise money. Here also we find him an eye-witness to the tumult of the 20th of June, when the mob, composed of five or six thousand of the lowest and vilest of the suburban population, armed with every description of weapon, and vociferating the most disgustmg impreca- tions, broke into the Tuileries, and brought forth the King, on whom one of them, in the insolence of vulgar triumph, placed the prostituted cap of liberty. . Bonaparte, who had scarcely restrained his choler during the whole proceeding, on seeing this last humiliation, exclaimed aloud, with emphatic scorn, " What imbecility, to allow the scoundrels REVOLUTION. ."J'M:1' Ef "'' """' 'I Bonaparte, wlio had heard all that passed, deliberated for awhile what coiu-se he should jnusue. His rcfiections have been recorded by himself. Even success, he reasoned, would be attended with a degree of odium ; while failure would, in a few hom*s„ add his name to the list of revolutionary tp-ants, and devote it to the eternal execration of futui-c gcnerntions. On the other hand, the defeat of the Con- vention would destroy the possibility of a beneficial result from so 39 NAPOLEON COMMANDER OF PAllIS. much toil and bloodshed as the E,evolutioii had aheady cost. The national enemy, so often vanqnished, -vA-ould agahi become trium- phant, would load France ■with insult and ignominy, would indulge the tyranny of revenge, and rule her by force. These considerations, assisted by the enthusiasm of youth, and his confidence in his own powers, decided him. He went to the Committee, and after stating that he had witnessed the proceedings in the Euc Viviennc, and that the failure there Avas chiefly attributable to the interference of the Commissioners, expressed his readiness to accept the proffered com- mand, provided he was .left free to act upon his own responsibility. To have dispensed with the presence of the Representatives, however, would have been, at that time, a breach of the law : the matter was therefore compromised by the Committee, wliich named Barras as General -in -chief, but vested the actual command in Napoleon. It was now past midnight, and everything had to be arranged \^-ithout the loss of a moment; for a decisive attack on the Tuileries was expected to take place in the mornmg. Napoleon repahed to the place of Menou's confinement, and learned from him the nmnber and disposition of the army, and that the artillery, consisting of forty pieces of cannon, guarded by only fifteen men, was then at Sablons, a distance of five miles from Paris. A major of the 21st Chasseui's (Murat) was instantly despatched with three hundred cavahy to bring these guns to the Tuileries. A delay of five minutes wovdd have ruined all. On reachmg Sablons, at two o'clock, Murat fell in with the- head of a column of the National Guard, which had been prcAiously sent by Danican on the same errand, but had been outmai'ched. This corps, notwithstanding its great superiority of numbers, thought it wisest to retreat without hazarding a conflict. At six in the morning, the forty guns entered the garden of the Tuileries. From sLx till nine. Napoleon was occupied in placing his artillery so as to command the bridges and streets leading to the palace, and in posting his little army in the most eflfective manner. The National Guard, who had formed at all the avenues, now siuroundcd the palace and gardens ; and so confident were they in then- numbers and prowess, that their drums beat defiance in the very teeth of the regular troops at the Place du Carousel and Place Louis Quinze. Napoleon 39 THIRTEENTH VEM DEMI AIRE, was under considerable apprehension for the result ; not on account of the niunber of his troops, but for their fidehty. He thought that with good management they might be won to take part with the populace ; and the probability of tliis was heightened by an ill-timed measure of the Convention, which, in order to increase its forces, had armed fifteen hundred men, called the Patriots of 1789; who, being known as the partisans and instruments of Robespierre and the Terrorists, had incurred the hatred of both the pubhc and the miUtary. In the events of the day, however, these Patiiots signalised themselves for their bravery, and contributed essentially to the success which crowned the arms of the Convention. The Committee of Public Safety, with Cambaceres at its head, met and deliberated. Some of the members proposed to rehnquish tlie defence, and receive the Sectionaries as the senators of Rome received the victorious Gauls ; some Avere deshous of retreating to St. Cloud, to await the arrival of fi-esli troops, and others, still more pusillani- mous, wished to send deputations to the Sections to offer terms. The consternation of the Assembly rose its to height, when Napoleon sent into the hall of the Convention seven himched muskets, with belts and cartridge-boxes, for the piu'pose of arming the members themselves, as a corps-de-reserve ! Various movements of the insurgents took place diu'ing the day, and one or two posts were obtained by them ; but, so cautious were both sides of being the first to spill the blood of their countrpnen, no firing was heard till about foiu' in the afternoon ; when a column of the National Guards, marching over the Pont Royal, discharged their muskets, and a few balls fell upon the steps of the Tuileries. The batteries were then ordered to fire. The bridges and streets occupied by the Sectionaries were instantly swept by the guns, and in two or thi'ce minutes the citizens were routed. One or two attempts were made to rally them ; but they were dispersed by a few shells, before they could re-form. By six in the evening, the safety of the Con- vention was secured, and fighting was at an end. A cannon was occasionally heard at intervals dm'ing the night, but it was merely to prevent the formation of barricades, which some of the inhabitants attempted to raise with casks. The killed and wounded amounted to about two hundred on the side of the troops, and the same number on 40 QUELLING OF THK SECTIONS. C C^ that of the Sectionai-ies. The latter must, however, have sustained a much severer loss, had not Napoleon, after the first discharges, ordered the troops to fire ^vithout ball. The following day was employed in disarming the Sections ; and by nightfall order and tranquilhty were restored throughout Paris. The officers who had been on duty during the 13th were, on the 19th Vendemiau-e (10th October), presented in a body to the Con- vention, and Napoleon was appointed by acclamation General-in-chief of the Ai'my of the Interior. INIcnou was sununoned before a council of war, but was saved from punishment by the firmness of Bonaparte ; who declared that, before proceeding against that officer, justice rcqidred the condemnation of the three Commissioners, who had pre- F A M I X E. vented the success of his operations. Several indi^'iduals were sentenced to death for thcu" share in the insurrection ; a young man, however, named La Fond, was the only person executed. He was a returned emigrant, of the old Garde-du-corps of Louis XVI., and led the Section Lepclletier during the engagement, in which he displayed more skill and courage than any of his compatriots ; having thrice formed his broken colunm upon the Pont Royal, under a heavy fire of grape-shot, ere it was finally routed. Bonaparte, it is said, endeavoured to save him, but in vain : his imprudent answers defeated every attempt to interest the judges in his behalf. From the state of affau's in the Capital at the brealdng out of the revoh, it will be readily conceived that Napoleon's duties as Com- mander-in-chief were of the most arduous and responsible kind. He knew that to restore permanent order it would be necesssary to re-estabhsh public confidence, and to remedy, at least, the most flagi-ant of the many grievances imder which the people laboured. For this purpose, the Government required to be rid of the terror constantly exercised over it by the secret societies, both of Jacobins and Royalists ; the discontent of the army was to be allayed, by placing the financial operations of the Republic upon a creditable and stable basis ; and the people, who began to experience, in a general famine, the miseries entailed upon them by national disorganization, were to be appeased in spite of the horrors of present starvation. It requii-ed no ordinary activity, address, and courage, to confront so many dangers and difficulties. — Napoleon was enabled to surmoimt them. Several times, diuing the few months that he held the command of Paris, the supply of provisions entirely failed, and gave rise to popular commotions. On one of these occasions, a crowd had collected round a baker's shop. Napoleon, who was on the alert to prevent riotous proceedings, was surrounded by the mob — clamouring loudly for bread. He attempted to address them; but they only redoubled their outcries. A woman of a remarkably portly figure, who was rendering herself especially conspicuous by her fervid oratory and gesticulations, stepped up to the General and exclaimed: — "It is these fine epauletted fellows who occasion our distress. So long as they can feed and gi-ow fat, they care nothing if poor people die of hunger." Napoleon, who, to use his own words, was a mere slip of RIOTS. i'"^i', ^ parchment at the time, turned towards the amazon with great good humour, and said : " My good woman, look at me : Avhich is the fattest of us — you or I?" A burst of Laughter dissipated the fury of the crowd, and the officers continued their round Avithout molestation. At this period Napoleon first became acquainted with ISIadame Beauharnais. After the Sections had been disarmed, and the National Guard re-organized, a youth, about twelve years of age, presented hunself one day at head-quarters, to request the restoration of his father's SAvord. He stated that his name was Eugene Beaidiarnais ; that he Aras the son of a General of the Republic, aaIio had perished on the scaffold during the Reign of Terror, for no other offence than that of noble birth. Struck with the nature of the request, and with the grace and beauty of the lad Avho preferred it, the General-in-chicf ordered the SAVord to be given to him. Eugene burst into tears on MADAME BEArilARXAIS. ^_-— -.rrr-^.^ir^V beholding it; and Napoleon, affected by his sensibihty, behaved so kindly to him, that Madame Beauhamais thought it incumbent on her to wait upon the General next day to thank him for his attention. At this intcr\dew, her beauty and exceeding gracefulness of adcbess made a strong impression upon him, and led to an attachment, -which speedily produced a proposal for her hand. This lady, whose name was Marie - Joseph - Rose Tascher do la Pagcrie, was the daughter of a planter in the island of Martinico, where she was born on the 23rd of June, 17G7; or, accordmg to M. de Bourricnne, four years earlier. When very young she had been married to the Viscount Beauhamais, also a West Indian ; who subsequently adopted the principles of the Revolution, and falhng at length under the displeasure of the Democrats, was guillotined on the 23rd of July, 1704. Madame had at the same time been arrested, but was released on the fall of Robespierre, a few days afterwards. MARRIAGE. AMiilc in prison, she had formed an intimacy with Madame Fontenai, afterwards married to INI. Talhcn, one of the most eminent of the Conventional leaders. This lady introduced Madamr Beauharnais to the friends of her husband, and among the rest to Barras ; who having been estabhshed by the recent events as First Director, and being himself an ex-noble, began to hold a Icind of Coui't at the Luxem- bourg, of which the two ladies we have named were, for some tune, the chief ornaments. Bonaparte and Madame Beauharnais, best kno-ROi as Josephine, were married on the 9th of March, 1 796. A strange prediction had been made concerning the fortunes of the lady, while she was yet a girl. A negro woman, who had the reputation of being a sorceress, told her that " she should one day become greater than a queen, and yet outlive her dignity." A lady of high rank, who had lived for some time in the same convent with Josephine in Paris, related this cii'cimistance to Sir Walter Scott, about the time of the Italian expedition, when Napoleon was just beginning to attract general notice. \ fr K CHAPTER V. FIRST CAMPAIGN OF ITALY. MONTENOTTE — MILLESIMO — DEGO — PASSAGE OF THE PO FIOMBO LODI MILAN PAVIA THE MINCIO — MANTUA LONATO CASTIGLIONE ROVEKEDO BASSANO ST. GEORGE ARCOLA RIVOLI — LA FAVORITA — SURRENDER OF MANTUA — TOLENTINO — TAGLI- AMENTO — LEOBEN — VENICE — PICIIEGRU — THE DIRECTORY — MONTE BELLO — JOSEPHINE — TREATY OF CAMPO FORMIO. 1/96—1797. CHERER, wlio M-as at this time Com- mander-iii- chief of the Army of Italy, liad recently lu-gcd for money to pay his troops, and for horses to replace those of his cavalry -which had perished for Avant of food ; and declared that, if any delay took place in furnishing the requi- site supplies, he should be compelled to evacuate the Genoese territory, and repass the Var. The Directory found it easier to remove the General than to comply \\'ith his request. Accusations were, therefore, got up against him, that he had not profited as he ought by the advantages he had obtained ; and 4S ARMY OF ITALY. that, by his military incapacity, he had compromised the honour of the Republic. His application was accordingly answered with a notice, that he had been superseded by General Bonaparte. Napoleon was little more than six-and-twxnty when this splendid appointment devolved upon him. His reputation for boldness and skill was abeady established, and there was no taint upon his name, to diminish the confidence of the Government or the soldiery. All that could be urged against his fitness for the post was his youth ; and this being objected to him by one of the Directors, he replied : " In less than a year, I shall be either old or dead." From this moment a great change became apparent in his language and manners. It was the second occasion on which his age had been mentioned as an obstacle to his advancement; and it was necessary to remove any impression that unsettled opmions or levity of conduct might be justly imputed to him. Hence he became cold, reserved, and dignified, " no longer thee-ing and thou-ing liis friends," says de Bourrienne, " as in tunes past ; " not, however, as is she'v\Ti by Las Cases, that there was anything repulsive or arrogant in the style of addi-ess he assumed; but it was e%'ident that he deemed it necessary to insist on all the formalities which belonged to his position, in order that too great familiarity might not weaken his proper authority. He quitted Paris on the 21st of March, twelve days after his marriage; paid a short visit to his mother and family at jMarseilles ; and, in a few days, reached the head-quarters at Nice. The army- then consisted of four effective di\asions, under the command of Generals Massena, Augereau, La Harpe, and Serrm-ier, each mustering about seven thousand men. The cavahy, amounting to about tlu-ee thousand more, was in the most miserable plight imaginable. The arsenals of Antibes and Nice were well fui*nished ; but all the draught horses ha\'ing perished for want, and nothing remaining but about two hundred mules, the means of transport for artillery were insufficient. The supply of bread was scanty and uncertain, distributions of meat had long ceased, and the finances of the Republic Avcre at so low an ebb that, with all the exertions of the Du-ectory, only two thousand louis could be raised in specie to enable the young General to under- take the conquest of Italy. As an instance of the poverty of the public trcasiu-y, an order, signed by Berthier, and dated on the day of 47 ADDRESS TO THE TROOPS. the victory of Millesimo, has been preserved, in which a gratuity of four louis is ordered to be distributed to each of the generals. The tlairty thousand French troops were opposed to upwards of eighty thousand of the enemy: consisting of about sixty thousand Austrians, commanded by the veteran Beauheu, who had earned gi'eat reputation in the campaigns of the North ; and twenty thousand Sai-dinians, imder general Colli: besides eight or ten thousand Nea- pohtans, who occupied the fortress of Valenza, and several important posts in that neighboiu'hood. The inferiority of the French, in pomt of numbers, artillery, cavahy, and discipline, could only be counter- poised by the advantageous positions the nature of the ground enabled them to take up, by the rapidity of their movements, and the skill of their manoeuvres. The character of the men, however, was excellent : they had all served in the campaigns of Italy, or in those of the Pp-enees. Bonaparte, wishing to dazzle and astonish the enemy by some brilliant exploit at the very opening of the campaign, prepared to put the army into motion without delay. On reviewing the troops, he thus addi-essed them : " Soldiers ! you are naked and hmigry ; the Republic owes you much ; but she has not the means of paying her PLAN OF THE CAMPAIGN. debts. The constancy and corn-age you have slie\m in the niidst of these rocks are admiiablc ; but they win you no glory. I am come to lead you into the most fertile plains in the world, where rich provinces and gi-eat cities will be at your disposal. There you will find wealth, — honour, — glory. Soldiers of Italy ! M-ill you now be wanting in fidehty and valour?" This was Napoleon's fii'st address to his army. " The sinking hearts of the men," observes Mr. Lockhart, " beat high with hope and confidence when they heard the voice of the young and fearless leader : and Augereau, Massena, Serrurier, Joubert, Lanncs, — distinguished officers, who might themselves have aspired to the chief command, — felt, from the moment they began to understand his character and system, that the true road to glory would be to follow the star of Napoleon." The exidtation of the General-m-chief may be imagined when he saw his own enthusiasm so readily imbibed by the officers and men under his command. For the first time the honour of his achieve- ments was to be Iris o-oti. At Toulon, at the Col-di-Tende, even on the 13th Vend6miaire, the chief nominal authority had been in other hands ; but whatever glory was to be won in the campaign of Italy would be undivided. His pre\"ious knowledge of the country gave him great advantages in forming his plans ; which were soon matured, and ready to be put in operation. The object he proposed to himself was, at once to assume the offensive, and to carry the war into Italy ; not, however, after the manner of former invaders, who had uniformly sought an entrance to the country by some of the Alpine passes, — which the state of the roads and his want of the means of transport rendered unprac- ticable : — but, by turning round the extremity of the great chain, at the narrow strip of comparatively level ground on the shore of the Mediterranean, where the Alps end and the Apennines begin, he hoped to avoid altogether the necessity of crossing the mountains. He was further encouraged to adopt tliis course, by the probability it afforded of enabling him to intersect and separate the Austrian and Sardinian forces : as, from the point by which he intended to debouch, it would be as practicable to march upon Milan, the capital of Lombardy, which the Austrians were interested to defend, as on Turin, which belonged to the king of Sardinia. OrENIXG OF THE CAMPAIGN, It should be mciitionecl here, that the French expedition had a fom-fohl object: namely, first, to compel the king of Sardinia, who had aheady lost Nice and his dukedom of Savoy, but still maintained a powcrftd army on the frontiers of Piedmont, to abandon the alliance of Austria; secondly, it Avas hoped that, by reducing the Emperor to a single-handed defence of his Italian possessions, the increasing- exertions wliich Avould be demanded m that quarter, would tend to diminish the power of his armies upon the Rhine ; thirdly, it was sought to arouse the Italian subjects of the Emphe to shake off the yoke of Austi'ia, adopt the repubhcan principles of the Revolution, and, by estabhshing then freedom, bring them into strict alliance ^dth France ; and, fom'thly, it was desirable to humble the power of the Pope, the chief encourager of the royaUst priests, who refused to take , the constitutional oath, and had long kept La Vendue and the South of France in a state of constant insui-rection. The Pope, moreover, had offered a dhect insult to France, in suffering the assassins of Basseville, the envoy of the Convention, who had been murdered in a tumult, partly incited by liis holiness himself, in 1793, to escape impunished and unsought : an injmy which certainly demanded atonement. The Col-di-Cadibona, situated a few leagues above Genoa, was the point selected by Napoleon for the descent into Italy. Here, therefore, in the beginning of April, he began to concentrate liis army; an operation which, had it not been that the snow then covered all the debouches of the Alps, would have been extremely hazardous. It is, indeed, one of the most dehcate operations in the art of war to effect a successful transition from the defensive to the offensive ; and every precaution was taken to prevent disaster. Serruiier with his diAision was posted at Garezzio, to observe the camp of General CoUi at Ceva; Massena and Augereau were placed m reserve at Savona, Finale, and Laono ; and La Harpe, >vith the vanguard, occupied Voltri — from whence Bonaparte sent to the senate of Genoa, wliich liad hitherto pretended to maintain a strict neutrality, to demand the keys of tlie fortress of Gavi, and the passage of the Boccheta. This bold and menacing attitude produced the greatest consternation among the alUes ; and Beaulieu, alarmed, hastened from Milan, to endeavour to check the advance of the foe. He removed his head- quarters to Novi, and divided his army into three corps. The right. MONTENOTTE. under General Colli, was ordered to defend Stura and Tanaro; the centre, under D'Argenteau, marched on the villages and heights of Montenotte, to intersect the French army; and the left Avas led by Bcaidieu in person, who reserved to himself the protection of Genoa. The subsequent movements Avill shew with what consummate skill the disposition of his forces had been made by Napoleon, and how correct Avere his calculations of baffling the science of his adversary. His objects were, to di"aw the Austrian General into such a division of his army as would render it impracticable to maintain a commu- nication between his several divisions, except behind the mountains; and to post his OA\ni tro'ops so that all the divisions could join in a few hoiu"s, and fall en masse on either column of the enemy. General D'Ai-genteau encamped, on the 9th of April, at Lower Montenotte. On the 10th, he advanced to Monte-Legino, with the piu-pose of debouching by Madonna. Colonel Rampon, who, -with about fifteen hundi'ed men, had orders to keep the tlu'ce redoubts of Monte-Legino, having received inteUigence of D'Argenteau's march, pushed forward a strong reconnoitring party to meet him; which, however, was speedily driven back. D'Argenteau attempted to carry the redoubts by instantaneous assault; but being repulsed, with the most determined valour, in thi-ee successive attacks, he relinquished the project. On the same day. La Harpe was engaged with the vanguard of Beauheu, before Voltri, disputing the passes there, and keeping the enemy in check : but in the evening, he also fell back, to take up a position in the rear of Rampon, and to be ready for the meditated attack on D'Argenteau on the morrow. During the night of the 10th, Napoleon himself advanced, with the divisions of Augereau and Massena, by the Col-di-Cadibona, the latter of which debouched behind Montenotte, with intent to attack the centre of the Austidan line in the morning. At daybreak, therefore, D'Aigcn- teau, instead of having to contend, as on the prcAaous day, "with Rampon and his mere handfid of brave men, found that' he was entii'ely siuTOunded; and had to sustain a simultaneous attack in front, in rear, and on his flank. His peril was now manifest; but he contested the field heroically, though fiom the fii'St with small chance of success. His loss that day amounted to upwards of a thousand killed, two thousand prisoners, and all his cannon and MONTENOTTE. coloiu-s, which were left upon the field. Himself, with the remnant of his armyj escaped, in utter confusion, into the neighboming mountains. Neither Bcaulieu nor CoUi knew anything of these movements, nor, indeed, that there had been a battle, until the 12th; when the former, arri^dng at Voltri, found no enemy to contend against, and learned that Napoleon had not only accomplished his object, and passed with his whole army into Piedmont ; but, in his pui'suit of D'Ai'genteau's defeated column, had obtained possession of Cairo, a fortress m Lombardy. d of dishonest, coAvardly, heartless men, to respect the PASSAGE OF THE PO. laws of humanity aud honour which they trample on. I will not suffer robbers to sully youi- laurels ! . . . Pillagers shall be shot without mercy ! . . . " People of Italy ! the French army advances to break your chains. The French people are the friends of all nations : m them you may confide. Your property, yoiu* rehgion, your customs, shall be re- spected. We will only make war as generous foes : our sole quarrel is with the tjTants who enslave you." In the begimiing of May, Napoleon fixed his head-quarters at Tortona; and, at the same time, Beauheu concentrated liis army at Valeggio, behind the Po, to prevent the French, if possible, from crossing that river, and making then way to the capital of Lombardy- From the stipulation Avith the King of Sardinia, respecting the occupa- tion of Valenza, and the cii-cmnstance that Massena, who had taken post at Alessanchia, had pushed forward strong reconnoitring parties in the dnection indicated, the Austrian General had been led to beheve that it was the intention of Bonaparte to attemjit the passage of the Po at Valenza : a fact the more readily credited by BeauUeu, as he himself had crossed there ; and, like most men of routine, he had not calculated that another might prefer a different mode of doing the same thing to that wliich had appeared most advisable to himself. The notion of crossing at Valenza was, however, only a ruse de guerre on the part of Napoleon ; who, when he had succeeded in attracting the undivided attention of his antagonist to that point, suddenly assembled the choicest of his troops, with the cavahy and twenty-four pieces of cannon, and on the 6th of May, executed a march of almost incredible celerity upon Placenza, nearly fifty miles lower doA^ni the river. Here he unexpectedly appeared on the mornmg of the 7th, to the utter consternation of the two or thi-ee squadi'ons of Austrians stationed there merely to reconnoitre. The other divisions of the army quitted their posts, and reached the appointed spot a few hoiu-s after their leader. The advanced guard, imder Andi-eossi, crossed in the common ferry- boat. The first to throw himself ashore was Colonel Lannes, who, immediately forming his grenadiers, charged and dispersed the Austrian hussars that attempted to dispute the landing. The passage being thus opened, the different divisions were piit across in succession ; and by the following morning the whole army was in the Milanese territory. FIOMBO. on the left bank of tlie To. It is universally admitted that the passage of a great river is one of the most critical of mihtary operations : the passage of the Po was effected without the loss of a single man, and may, therefore, be justly considered as one of the greatest exploits in the records of modern warfare. Bcaulieu, finding that he had been out-generalled, hastily advanced towards Placenza, hoping to come up AA-ith his enemy, and force him to an engagement, Math the river close in his rear, and no means of retreat left, in case of disaster. He found hunself anticipated, however. Bonaparte, who had seen the danger of defeat, and even of a material check in his situation at Placenza, was aheady pushing forward to find more favourable ground for manoeuvring. The hostile armies met at the A-illage of Fiombo, in the afternoon of the 8th of IMay, when it was discovered that the Austrian advanced guard, imder General Liptay, had fortified and manned the steeples and houses, and that cannon was planted so as to command all the roads. Napoleon directed prepara- tions to be immediately made for an attack ; and, in less than an hour, the A-illage was carried, and the Austrians routed, Avith the loss of their cannon, three standards, and two thousand prisoners. Those who escaped crossed the Adda, and took refuge in Pizzighitone, a large town, wliich, two or three days previously, had been considered too far from the seat of war to require putting into a state of defence. In the night after this battle, Bcaulieu, who knew not that Fiombo had been "WTested from liim, advanced to Casal, a few miles from the scene of action, where one of his cavahy regiments fell in with the bivouacs of La Harpe's division ; and, being received with a brisk fire of musketry, precipitately retu'cd. The French General, with a few officers of his staff, hastened to ascertain the strength of the corps M-hicli had appeared; and rctiu-ning an hoiu" after midnight by a different road, was fired upon and killed by his own sentinels, who mistook him and liis attendants for another party of the enemy. La Harpe has been honom-ably mentioned by Napoleon, as a " grenadier both in stature and courage." The Austrian General now retired behind the Adda, to collect once more liis scattered forces, and oppose the fuither progress of the invader; and judging — rightly this time — that the attempt to cross the river would bo made at Lodi, the strongest dispositions for defence were LODI. there arranged. Napoleon, notliing daunted, however, pressed forward; and on the 10th of May, encountermg the enemy's rear-guard, drove them back into the toAvn of Lodi, which he entered with them jiell-mell, before they had time to close the gates. The fugitives did not pause to rally till they had crossed the bridge, and reached the camp of theii* General-in-chief on the other side of the town. Bonaparte knew that reinforcements under Colli — wdio, though he had commanded the Piedmontese, was an Austrian officer, and had now resumed his command in the latter army — were hurrying to the aid of Beaulieu ; and, hoping by a rapid movement to prevent their junction, he resolved to pass the bridge the same day, under the fire of the enemy. The attempt, to any other than Napoleon, would have appeared hair-brained and desperate. The bridge was of wood, and was swept by thirty pieces of cannon, the thunders of which menaced death to all who should approach. After a few hours' rest, during which all the disposable artillery of the army was got in position to answer the fire of the enemy's guns. General Beamnont was detached with some cavah-y, to cross the Adda at a ford half a league above the to"\vn, in order to open a fire on the enemy's right. About five in the afternoon the cannonade was opened; and Bonaparte, perceiving some hesitation among the men to whom the directions were given, stepped forward himself, amid the thickest of the fire, and pointed two guns in such a manner as to render approach for the purpose of undermining the bridge impossible. His grenadiers had been drawn up in close column behind the rampart of the town, as near as possible to the spot where their services were requii-ed; and, the moment he perceived that Beaumont had effected his landing, and was enabled to oj)erate on the other side. Napoleon ordered the charge to sound, when the grenadiers, suddenly wheeling to the left, rushed impetuously upon the bridge, ^v\\\\ loud shouts of Vive la RepvhUque ! The shower of grape-shot, however, to Mliicli they were exposed, added to incessant vollies of musketry from the windows of the adjacent houses, staggered them for a moment: but Lannes, Napoleon, Berthier, and D'Allemagne, hurrying to the head of the column, dashed forward; and the panic-stricken Austrians fied in the utmost confusion, leaving their unsupported artillerymen to fall by the bayonets of the exulting enemy. Beaulieu lost, at " the terrible passage of the bridge of Lodi," as Napoleon termed it in his LODI. 'i-im despatch to the Directory, upwards of twenty guns, several stand of colours, two thousand five hundred prisoners, and a large number of killed and Avounded. On the side of the French there fell only two hiuKhed men — so well had the prehminaries been concerted, so prompt was their execution, and so sudden the effect of the daring courage of the whole achievement. The opinion which some of the Austrians entertained of Napoleon at this time, may be gathered from the remark of an old German Colonel, who was among the prisoners after the victory of Lodi. " Things go on very badly," said the veteran ; " no one seems to understand what he is about. The French General is a young blockhead, who knows nothing of the regular rules of war. Sometimes he is on our right, at others on our left, now in front, and presently in our rear. This mode of warfare is contrary to all system, and utterly insufferable." It was in compliment to the personal bravery exliibited by Napoleon at Lodi, that the soldiers, whose toils he had not disdained to share, 62 SUBMISSION OF PARMA. conferred on liiin the honorary title of TJie Little Corporal; which was long remembered, and served in after years as an electrical link of affection, between him and the bold hearts which had responded to his in the dawn of his career. In all respects, indeed, this battle was an important one ; and has been marked by himself as an epoch in his history. " Neither the successes of Vendemiaire nor of Montenotte," he afterwards said, "induced me to regard myself as belonging to a superior class : but after Lodi, it flashed upon me that I might possibly become a decisive actor in the political arena. It was there that the first spark of my ambition was kindled." The advantages obtained by the French in the pursuit exceeded those of the battle itself. The cavalry pursued the flying army as far as Cremona, of which tovni they took possession ; Pizzighitone, cut off from all hope of succoui*, surrendered; and Beaulieu took refuge under the walls of Mantua. The Duke of Parma, anxious to conciliate Napoleon, now sued for his protection ; which was granted, on condition that he should pay two millions of li\Tes, and furnish sixteen hundred horses and a large quantity of provisions for the French army. He was also required to concede twenty of the best works of art in his dominions as contri- butions towards the French National Museum. This was the first instance in modern warfare of any demand for such a tribute ; and its prudence and policy may certainly be questioned. The Italians, above all other people, are distinguished for their love of art ; and the abstraction of their treasured master-pieces excited strong prejudices against the spoliators, and probably "tiu'ned back many a half-made convert from the principles of the French Revolution." So strongly was the injury felt, indeed, that the Parmese Commissioners oflTered to redeem the St. Jerome of Corregio, which was among those selected for exportation, at the price of two millions of francs (upwards of eighty thousand pounds sterling). Charges of unjustifiable plunder and extortion have been multiplied against Napoleon for this and similar exactions : but such accusations result fi-om a one-sided view of the question. If a right to the seizure of any species of property is con- ferred by conquest, there can be little doubt that works of art, being subject to barter and sale, like other commodities, can claim no just exemption. That the spirit which actuated Napoleon was an exalted. MILAN. and not an avaricious one, is apparent from his answer to the army- agents who ^u•gecl him to accept the money. " The Duke's two millions," said he, " will be soon spent ; but his Corregio will remain for ages to adorn Paris, and inspire the arts of France." Immediately afterwards, the French General prepared to enter Milan, which, in the rapid succession of recent movements, had been left far in the rear of the army, and entii'cly unprotected. The Arch- duke Ferdinand, who governed Lombardy in the name of the Emperor, had, with his Duchess, already abandoned the city ; and the inhabitants, who had long been ill-governed, and were not therefore well affected towards the Austrians, assumed the tri-colour, and sent an earnest invitation to Naj)oleon to advance, and confer upon them the liberty and privileges of republicanism. On the 15th of May, the Commander-in-chief accordingly entered INlilau, xuidcr a triumphal arch, and amid shouts of welcome from an immense concourse of people and the National Guard of the city, clothed in uniform of the three colours — green, white, and red. He fixed his residence in the Archbishop's palace ; and the same evening was splendidly entertained JEALOUSY OF THE DIKECTOKY. by the municipality, while, with much pomp and' poiDular exultation, the Tree of Liberty was planted in the principal square. At this period, Scrrm-ier occupied Lodi and Cremona ; La Harpe's division, which, since that officer's death had been entrusted to General Berthier, was in possession of Como, Cassano, Lucca, and Pizzighitone ; and Augereau had retrograded to garrison Pavia. Napoleon remained at Milan, where he levied hea^y contributions for the support of his army, to the amomit, it is said, of twenty millions of livres (eight hundred thousand pounds) ; which enabled him to discharge the arrears of pay due to his troops, to supply theii- wants, and establish regularity in the different branches of the ser\ice. He took posses- sion, also, of several of the finest pictures in the Ambrosian gallery. At the same time, the Duke of Modena sent envoys to solicit peace, and offered ten milhons of francs, with many horses, a large quantity of provisions, and twenty works of art, as the terms on Avhich he was AvilHng to purchase it. Meanwhile, the Directory, jealous of the popularity of Napoleon, and suspecting probably that his growing influence might speedily over- shadow if not blight their o^vn, resolved to divide the army of Italy between its present General, who was ordered to advance southward upon Rome and Naples, ■with twenty thousand men ; and Kellerman, who, mth the remainder of the troops, was to press the siege of Mantua, and terminate the contest with Beaulieu. Napoleon, foreseeing that such a division would annihilate the powxr of the French and bring disaster upon the army, immediately transmitted to the Directory his resignation, accompanied by the following letter to Carnot : — IIEVOLT OF TAVIA. '•' Whether I prosecute the war here or elsewhere, is to me a matter of iiidifFerence. To serve my country, to merit with posterity a page in history, is my sole ambition. The contemplated division between Ivellerman and me, would ruin all : and I cannot wilhngly serve \sith one who conceives that he is the best general in Em-ope." His promp- titude was the means of retaining the undivided command in his own liands, and of preserving the army from almost certain destruction. Kellerman was gratified in the meantime with the post of Governor- general of the domains ceded to the KepubUc by the final treaty between France and Sardinia. This matter was scarcely settled, ere Napoleon obtained intelligence that the citizens of Pavia, \\dth the malcontents of the surrounding districts, were in arms in his rear. The tocsin was ruaging in every village : and news was in cuculation that the army of the Prince of C'onde, joined by a fresh le^'y^ of Austrians, had descended from the ■J'^^-ol, and were marching to the attack. The insui-rection already numbered thirty thousand men, and was rapidly extending. At Pa-saa, the citadel, with three hundred French prisoners, was taken ; , and the garrison which had been left at INIilan by Beauheu, and still held out, made demonstrations that they were wilHng to co-operate with the insurgents. The Archbishop of Milan was despatched to the revolted city to appease the outbreak ; but his remonstrances -svere ineffectual ; and, after vainly endeavouring to overawe the disaffected, by the sack and conflagration of Benasco, a village to which the van- guard of the insurgents had advanced, Napoleon hastened in person to Pavia, with fifteen hundred men and six field-pieces. The gates of the' city were blown open, and the revolted, consisting chiefly of undisciplined peasants, becoming alarmed, fled into the neighbouring f kls, Avhcre, being pursued by the cavalry, many of them were over- taken and put to the sword. The French garrison, now hberated, was ordered into the presence of the Gcncral-in-chief, '' Cowards!" he exclaimed, addressing them ; " I entrusted you with a post essential to the safety of the army, and you have abandoned it to a mob of wTctched peasants, without a shew of resistance." The C'aptain was tried by a council of war and shot. The chiefs of the ; i>uiTcction were also handed over to a mihtary tril)unal and shared 'ic same fate; and hostages were taken from the principal families of PASSAGE OF THE MINCIO. Lombarcly, and sent to Paris, to guarantee the future conduct of their countr\ancn. The quclHng of tliis insurrection had the effect of restoring quiet around the army, and of striking a salutary terror into the whole of Italy. The occasion of the revolt was a hea^y tribute, just demanded, of a million sterling for the support of the army; the collection of which had been attended with more than necessary oppression. Indeed it was the necessities, and not the principles, of the Republic which ahenated the affections of the Italians ; who were not prepared to value the hberty promised them in the French proclamations at the immense sums demanded as its price. Towards the end of May, Napoleon again moved forward in pursuit of Beaulieu; whom he contrived once more to mislead, as at Placenz:i. respecting the passage of the river. On the 28th, he entered Brescia, and manoeuvi-ed to induce a belief that he intended to cross the Mincio at Peschiera; whither, accordingly, the Austrian reserve was di-a-\vn [o oppose his passage. In the morning of the 30th, however, he advanccvl by a rapid march to Borghetto; attacked the Austrian and Neapolitiui forces posted there; and, after a smart engagement, took the town. The enemy, retreating, set fire to the bridge, one arch of which was destroyed; but Colonel Gardane, at the head of the grenadiers, threw himself into the river; and the Austrians, remembering the terrible column of Lodi, instantly quitted their ground. The bridge was repaired with planks, and the army, without fm-ther resistance, crossed the Mincio, and carried the M^ar into the Venetian states. At Valeggio, an incident occurred which was near repajing the Austrians for all their reverses. The French army, occupied in the pursuit, had passed tlu-ough the village and were far in advance; ari'iolates is a monster. Pillage em*iches only a few, while it dishonours an army, destroys its resources, and makes enemies of those whom it is the interest of all to attach as friends. " The first city we shall approach was built by Alexander. Every step we take will awaken subhme recollections, worthy of exciting the emulation of Frenchmen." Napoleon did not wait for the landing of the whole army; but as soon as three or four thousand men had reached the shore, they were formed into battle order upon the beach, and dii-ected to march upon Alexandria, which city they reached shortly after day-break on the 2nd. The attack commenced immediately; and the feeble garrison, being totally unprepared for hostilities from a nation with which they had been hitherto at peace, were unable to make an effectual resist- ance. They shut the gates, however, and showered stones and volleys of musket-shot upon theh assailants : but these were of httle avail against an enemy to whom war in its most di'eadful aspect had grown famdiar. The walls were old and ruinous, and in many places presented breaches incapable of defence. Through these an entrance was soon effected by some Guides, who, pouring a steady fire for a few seconds upon the Moslem soldiers that manned the walls, created among them the utmost consternation. After a few hours the place capitulated, and the troops of Napoleon were speedily quartered in the capital of Cleopatra and the Ptolemies. The first object of the French General was to concihate the Scheiks, the civil authorities of Eg^i^t, and the settled inhabitants, a peaceable and harmless race, by flattering the animosity they were known to cherish against the Mamelukes, the military rulers of the country, who exercised the most unhmited despotism over every other class of the natives. Proclamations in French and Arabic were issued from head-quarters, setting forth that the French, A^ho had destroyed the Papal power and that of the ISIaltcse Knights of the Cross, were the friends of God and all true ISIussulmans ; and that the sole object of then- expedition was to put an end to the unjust oppression and tyranny of the Mamelukes. " We," said one of these addi-esses. MARCH TO DUMANHOrR. " who have in all ages been the allies of the Grand Seignor, and the enemies of his enemies, come not to make war against true believers ; but against the blasphemers who have revolted from the rightful authority of the Sublime Porte. Thrice happy shall they be who assist us — blest in their fortune and inheritance : but woe to all who arm in defence of the jNIamelukes, and fight against us. For them there is neither recompense nor hope. It is decreed, that they shall perish ! " Five days were passed at Alexandria in refi-eshing the army after its harassing voyage ; obtaining information respecting the state of the country, and its government and resources; and in arranging the details of the intended campaign. Desaix, meanwhile, with a division of nearly five thousand men, was despatched to Beda to open com- munications with the native Arabs, whose assistance it was hoped to obtain; and to operate as an advanced guard on the route to Cairo. On the 7th of July, leaving Kleber in command of the garrison. Napoleon set out across the plains of Bohahu-eh for Dumanhour. The com-se lay along the Nile, on w^hich a small flotilla, under the orders of Commodore Peree, was launched, to ascend the stream and protect the right flank of the army. The uncultivated wilderness which had now to be traversed was entirely destitute of shelter ; and the Ai-abs, who hovered around, harassed the troops incessantly, cutting ofi" every one mIio ventured to straggle a few yards from his corps. They also poisoned the springs, emptied the cisterns, and destroyed all signs of vegetation by the way. The intense heat of the sun, the rapidity of the march, the blinding and blistering sands, the swarms of pestiferous insects, and the absence of water, felt more acutely in consequence of the frequent ai")pearance of the illusive mirage, discoiu-aged the soldiers, and produced loud murmur's. Accus- tomed to the voluptuous climate and plentiful fertility of Italy, the troops were utterly unfit for a campaign in the arid deserts of Africa. With any other commander than Napoleon their rage woidd, in all probabihty, have led to excesses that must have rendered them an easy prey to the Mamelukes. " Is this the country," exclaimed the men, " in which the General promised us farms of seven acres each ? lie might have allowed us to name our own quantities : we should not have abused his Liberality." Nor was tliis discontent confined to 157 DUMANHOUR, those in tlie ranks. Officers of the highest eminence, even Murat and Lannes, unable to restrain their disgust, threw their laced hats upon the sand, and trampled upon them in burning agony and anger. On the fii'st night of this tormenting march a mischance occurred, which nearly proved fatal to the General-in-chief and his staff. Advancing in the dark, with a weak escort, and half asleep from fatigue, they were suddenly assailed with a heavy fire of mus- ketry. It proved to be from the division of Desaix, the outposts of which, having challenged the party and received no answer, had mistaken it for a body of the enemy. Fortunately, the extent of injury sustained was a shght wound in the hand by one of the Guides. At Dumanhour, Napoleon fixed his head-quarters in the house of the Scheik ; which, being newly painted, presented externally an appearance of comfort, which the interior by no means confirmed. Every apartment indicated squahdness and misery : scarcely a piece of furniture was whole. The seats were coarse, worn-out mats ; the drinking vessels were broken ; and nothing but the most indispensable articles, and those of the worst description, was to be found. The proprietor meanwhile was known to be rich. Napoleon treated him vrith. kindness and consideration, and enquired, tlirough an interpreter, why he thus mortified himself, assuring him that an unreserved answer should subject him to no inconvenience. " Some years since," said the old man, " I repaii'ed and furnished my dwelling. Inform- ation of this was carried to Cairo, and having been thus proved to be wealthy, a large sum of money was demanded from me, and the bastinado inflicted till I consented to pay it. Look at my feet, which bear witness what I endured. From that time I have reduced myself to the barest necessaries, and no longer seek to repair anything." He was still lame, and found it difficult to walk. This was a specimen of the tyi'anny of the INIamelukcs, who kept spies thi-oughout the country to denounce all who were suspected to possess money. Poverty itself in this misgoverned land afforded no exemption from rapacity and oppression. The Fellahs and Bedouins, who corresponded to the peasantry of Europe, were reduced to the condition of slaves, and compelled to surrender their wives and childi-en, and even their o-\vn persons, to the absolute will of the despots who ruled them. On the 10th, the army reached Rahmaniah, where it was joined by the division of Dugua, which had come by forced marches from Rosetta. Most of the Savans, and others of the civil service, were now embarked on the flotilla. The difficulties of the march from this place were greatly increased by the number of Mamelukes who began CHEBREISSE. to shew themselves, mth more boldness, on each side of the Nile. INIounted on the fleetest Arabian horses, and every one armed with pistol, sabre, carbine, and blunderbuss, of the best English manufac- tiu'e, these plumed and gold-spangled warriors were truly formidable as skirmishers. Their charge was almost as swift as the wind, and their excellent horsemanship enabled them to gallop to the attack, discharge their carbines while in fall career with unerring aim, to halt, wheel, and retreat, with a precision and celerity of which even the gallant soldiers of the Army of Italy had no previous conception. The nature of the ground greatly favoured the manoeuvi'es of these flying hordes. The least motion or breath of wind raised a cloud of dust through which nothing could be accurately discerned; and the constant glare of the sun dazzled the French soldiers almost to bhndness. To leave the Hue in pui'suit, brought instant and certain destruction. A troop of horsemen would dash upon the adventurers, cut them down with their keen sabres, and be again afar oflf in the desert, almost before a musket could be levelled to avenge the fallen. On the 13th, these incursions received an important check. Murad Bey, the most intrepid of the Mamelidve chiefs, assembled a large army, drew together seven or eight gun-boats, and constructed several batteries on the banks of the river to oppose the progress of the French at the village of Chebreisse. Napoleon marshalled his army in five di\dsions, forming as many square battalions, with artillery placed in the intervals between each. Peree, with the flotilla, was ordered to attack the gun-boats. The action was obstinate ; but, com- pared with the number on each side engaged, attended with little bloodshed. The Mamelukes at fii'st displayed a courage and deter- mination which nothing could surpass ; but the steady fire and impenetrable hues of their opponents disconcerted them. In vain they sought a point of entrance for their spirited cavalry, in which their superior swordsmanship might be rendered availing. Towards evening, therefore, after much skirmishing, during which the French wings had been several times outflanked, the Turkish soldiers, unable to make any impression upon the dense bodies opposed to them, drew off", and speedily disappeared. The flotilla meanwhile had been engaged for above three hours vnth. the gun-boats and batteries. Peree was wounded ; and two of his small craft having been boarded, 160 SHABTIR. *7'; ■Fa ^ wa;* "J 1*^ their crews ^yere massacred by the savage foe, who held up theu' victims' bleeding heads to mock and intimidate the crews of the other vessels. At length, however, the Turkish commander's boat having been blown up, and a detachment of French troops appeai'ing on the bank of the river to storm the batteries, the Turks precipitately- retired. In this engagement, Monge, Berthollet, and Boui-ricnne, who were on board the flotilla, greatly distinguished themselves for courage and presence of mind. On the night succeeding the battle, the army bivouacked at Shabur under some fine sycamore-trees, the refreshing verdure of which was exceedingly grateful. Here they found abundance of bntfec/is, a species of water-melon highly palatable and nutritious. This fruit was afterwards met Avith in great plenty along the banks of the river as far as Cairo; and the soldiers expressed their sense of its value by calling it, like the ancient Egyptians, the Holy Battech. The remainder of the march was made without interruption from DISCONTENT. the di-eadful Mamelukes, who had retreated to Caii'o to collect their scattered forces, and prepare for a vigorous defence of the capital. But the intense heat, and the torturing stings of mpiads of flies, were not abated, nor were the soldiers able to procure a sufficient supply of fresh water — that of the Nile being muddy, brackish, and full of insects. Nevertheless, it was not so much from actual privation, as from incessant ferment of mind, that the troops murmured. Immense cpiantities of wheat were found in the neighbourhood of every village, which, in the absence of mills, the men were accustomed to bruise between stones, and afterwards bake or boil. Lentils were also obtained in great plenty, with pigeons, and not unfrequently meat : all of which the inhabitants would sell for the buttons from the French uniform. But the army had been accustomed to the luxuiies of Italy, and on the voyage to Egypt had indulged in di'eams of immediate and unbounded wealth. When the men, therefore, saw the sterility around them they were in despair. It was in vain to assiu'e them that the district they approached was the most fertile in the world; that it exceeded in fruitfulness and beauty the delicious plains of Lombardy. The evils of the present were magnified by contrast with the past, and the future was darkened by apprehension. Some asserted that Cairo itself was not a great city, as reported, but a mere assemblage of miserable huts, hke Dumanhour and the villages they had passed. " For what purpose are we brought here?" asked the discontented. " The Directory has transported us," said some. " It Mas the Savans," cried others, who looked with no congenial eye upon the activity displayed by the scientific men whenever any remains of antiquity were discovered : " It was the Savans who sug- gested the expedition, to enable them to make their researches in security." Upon this learned body, indeed, bitter jests Avcre show- ered remorselessly. They rode upon asses, which the men thence denominated denii-savans ; and when on any alarm the squares were ordered to open to admit the civil corps, the jeering of the military was without measure. " Koom for the asses," was shouted along the lines : " stand back, and make way for the savans and demi-savans.''^ Of General Caffiu'elli, who had lost one leg upon the banks of the Rhine, and whose gaiety and good-humour never forsook him, it used to be said, as he hobbled past, " He laughs at our troubles, because 1«2 O M E D I IS A R. he is sure, whatever happens, to have one foot in France." To such a height was the melancholy mania of the troops carried, indeed, that several men shot themselves through the head, and others leaped into the Nile, with all thcii- accoutrements, to perish amid the waters. Many of the officers complained even more loudly than the soldiers. More than one conspiracy was formed to seize the flags, and return to Alexandria. One day, the Commander-in-chief presented Imnself suddenly in the midst of a group of general officers, who had been speaking contemptuously of himself; when, addressing the tallest, he exclaimed : " So, Sir ! you have used mutinous language. If I were to fulfil my duty, I should cause you to be shot within a couple of hoiu-s, despite your five -foot- ten." But neither discontent nor clamour could divert Napoleon from his purpose. He even affected to experience no inconvenience from what excited such horror and disgust in others; and the strength of his constitution enabled him to maintain the superiority he assumed. He usually walked at the head of the troops, with his coat buttoned as when he was at Paris : and while the men, half undressed, were suffused with perspiration, not a bead of moisture was to be seen upon his brow. He fared as the soldiers fared, and bivouacked in the midst of the army, often in the most incommodious situations; where he was the last to fold his cloak around him at night, and the first to start from the ground in the morning. As the army approached Cairo, however, the hopes and spirits of the soldiers began to improve. Provisions of better quality were obtained, and vegetation became more general. At AVardan, on the 18th, the troops rested for the night in a magnificent forest of palm- trees; and the next day the massive Pyramids were first discerned breaking the line of the horizon on the right bank of the Nile. Napoleon was now informed that the Mamelukes, combined with the militia of the city and with a considerable number of Janissaries, Spahis, and Arabs, were waiting before Gizeh to arrest the advance of the French. The army halted for a day at Omedinar; and at dawn on the 21st came within sight of the fii'st body of the enemy which had been seen since the battle of Chebreissc. This corps, which was the Mameluke vanguard, consisting of about a thousand horse, merely shewed itself 163 THE PYRAMIDS. and retreated ; and it was not till near noon that the lines of Murad Bey were distinguished, extending from the Kile towards the Pyra- mids, so as to cover the approach to Cairo. The French formed in squares, with intervals of artillery between each, as in their last action ; their left resting on the river, and their right on a "village. Murad Bey had constructed a large entrenched camp upon the bank of the Nile, lined with forty pieces of artillery, and defended by about t^yenty thousand infantry and mixed troops : the right of the Mamelukes, of Avhom there were about ten thousand in the field, with as many armed attendants on foot, was supported by this enti'enched camp, and their left, crossing the road to Gizeh, extended into the plain, — the space between them and the Pyramids being occupied by two or three thousand Arabs. These dispositions were skilful and formidable ; and, from the impetuous bravery pre- viously displayed by the soldiers of Miu-ad, the engagement was expected to be a sharp and decisive one. Napoleon reconnoitred the positions of the enemy, and by the aid of a good telescope discovered that the Tm'kish artillery was without field carriages, being merely large iron pieces taken from the vessels, and served by the crews that had been engaged at Chebreisse. It appeared evident, therefore, that neither the guns nor the infantry were intended to quit the camp, and that by prolonging the French right, the army might operate in that direction altogether out of the range of the cannon. Murad Bey, perceiving that the French columns were in motion, instantly guessed their object, and with almost intuitive discernment foresaw that the fate of his army depended upon frustrating the execution of the manoeuvre. He advanced, therefore, at the head of between five and six thousand of his gorgeous and gallant cavalry to overthrow, or drive back, the advancing division; and had he been well supported, the corps of Desaix, which had just emerged from a grove of palm-trees, and had not had time to form, would most likely have been destroyed. When the main body of the Mamelukes came up, however, the square was perfect, and the charge of the horsemen was met with a steady fire of musketry. These chivalrous warriors of the desert, hurrying along and around the square with Avild yells and battle-cries, now tried every means to efiect an entrance among .the ranks of their opponents. Notwithstanding the ceaseless shower 161 THE PYRAMIDS. of grajie-shot, shells, and ball, they rushed upon the bayonets of the infantry, and, failing to disturb the lines, wheeled round and reined their horses backAvard upon the ranks, that they might fall into and disorder them; and becoming fiantic when they saw that all their efforts were in vain, they hurled at the French soldiers their poniards, pistols, and carbines ; while those who fell crawled along the ground to cut at the legs of their foes -svdth their scimitars. Still the French phalanxes were immoveable. At last Napoleon, who was in the square of Dugua, pointing to the eternal monuments which overlooked the scene of action, called out to his brave followers, who, however x^. THE PYRAMIDS. discontented at other times, exhibited, on all occasions -when their services were required in action, the indomitable courage and ad- mirable organization of the Army of Italy : " Soldiers ! from the summits of these Pyramids, forty centuries look doA\'n upon you ; " and gave the word to advance upon the main body of the Mamelukes. The number of the latter was already thinned by the bayonet and the continued roll of the French musketry, and they were unable to sustain the attack of fresh antagonists. At the approach of Bonaparte they were panic-stricken and fled. In the midst of a dreadfid fire of musketry and grape-shot, of columns of dust and smoke, and the most fearfid cries, part of the Turkish cavalry regained their entrenched camp, — flying thither on an impulse natiu'al to soldiers, to retreat towards the place whence they set out. Murad Bey himself and a few of the most expert hastened towards Gizeh ; but by so doing, the Chief was entirely separated from his army. Meanwhile, as the French continued to advance, the confusion in the camp of the enemy became terrific. The cavahy threw itself upon the infantry, which, seeing the Mamelukes beaten, rushed into the boats and other vessels at hand to cross the Nile. Some, per- ceiving that their retreat had been in the wrong direction, endeavoured to regain the Gizeh road; and Murad Bey more than once turned back, and made some desperate charges to open a road for them ; but it was in vain. They were routed by the French soldiers ; many being killed in the entrenchments, and many more, seekmg to gain the opposite bank of the Nile, were droAvned in the attempt. The floating bodies of the Arabs, said to have amounted to five thousand, carried the news of the victory in a few days to Eosetta, Damietta, and all the places along the banks of the river. The loss of the enemy in the field was estimated at ten thousand men. Of all the cavalry engaged, not more than two thousand five hundred, who accompanied the movements of Murad Bey, escaped. The Turkish artillery, pontoons, and baggage, with a thousand prisoners, eight or nine hundred camels, and as many horses, fell into the hands of the French. Had the flotilla been able to keej) up with the army, the whole wealth of the INIamelukes, which was embarked in about sixty vessels on the river, would have been added to the spoils of the day : but, on witnessing the disastrous result of the battle, those I6r> GIZEH. entrusted with the care of the shipping set it on fire. By the light of this conflagration, the sokliers were enabled during the night to observe the forms and count the number of the towers and minarets of Cairo and its great cemetery, or "City of the Dead;" while the more distant Pyramids reflected wiih indesci'ibable solemnity the a^vful glare. The Ai-abs did not attempt to rally till they had reached the Desert beyond the Pyramids, far from the fatal field. For several days afterwards many of the French soldiers were engaged in fishing for the bodies of the ]Mamclukes ^^'ho had been droA\^led : then- vahiable arms and accoutrements, and the quantity of gold which they were accustomed to carry with them — fi-equently amounting to foiu- or five hundred Louis - d'ors — rendered this service exceedingly agreeable. Napoleon quartered himself for the night in the country-house of Murad Bey, at Gizeh, which, if destitute of European conveniences, afforded abundant evidence that the luxury of the East was not merely imaginary. The apartments were filled Avith cushions and divans, covered "vvith the finest damask and Lyons' silks, and fringed with gold. Rich carpets, porcelains, vases of perfume, and other articles of the most tasteful and elegant kind were found, to excite the cuiiosity and tempt the cupidity of the soldiers. The gardens were full of magnificent fruit and other trees, and beautiful flowers, interspersed with arboui's of vines loaded with the finest grapes in the world. The ■vintage, as might have been expected, was soon over. In the con- servatories were great quantities of delicious preserves, confectionary, and sweetmeats. The army now began to be reconciled to Egj-pt, and to believe that Cairo was not like Dumanhour ; but that, in proportion to the poverty and destitution of the jieople, the toAviis and habitations of theii* oppressors, who di'ained them of every comfort, were stored with all the luxuries and delicacies afforded by the clime. The next morning at daybreak, a division, under General Vial, took the island of Rodah ; and the army prepared to enter Cairo : wliither, however, Napoleon first despatched a Dragoman "s^itli a letter to the Pacha, and the proclamations which had been pubHshed at Alexandria, declaring that it was not against the Turks but against the Mamelukes that the French people made war. The Pacha had 16/ ENTRY INTO CAIRO. already left the city ; and in the course of the day Ibrahim Bey and his troops also departed, and a deputation was sent to the Conqvieror to implore his clemency, and offer an immediate and unconditional sur- render. The name of Bonaparte had spread terror through the whole counti'y. From the deadly eifects of his musketry he was called the " Sultan Kebir," or Father of Fire : and a superstitious fear arose among the people, that he was destined to be the scourge of their race, and that it was hopeless to attempt resistance to his invincible might. In the afternoon of the 24th, Napoleon made his public entry into Cairo, and fixed his head-quarters at the house of Elphi Bey, in the great square of El-Bckir. On the following day he wrote to his brother Joseph, who was then a member of the Council of Five Hundred : — " You will have seen in the public papers the bulletins of the Conquest of Egypt, a country the possession of which has been LETTER TO JOSEPH BONAPARTE. sufficiently disputed to add another laurel to the glory of the army. The land is the richest on earth in corn, rice, vegetables, and cattle ; but the people are sunk in the grossest barbarism. There is Httle money ; not even enough to pay the troops. I expect to be in France in two months. Engage for me a house either in Biu'gundy or near Paris. I think of passing the winter there." From this letter, and some memoranda made at the time, it is evident that Napoleon considered the conquest of Egypt so well assured, that its completion might be safely left to the skill and prudence of an inferior commander ; and that his object in rctm-ning to France, in addition to that of being at hand to watch the turn of events at the seat of Government, was to be enabled to send out reinforcements of men-, provisions, and miHtary stores, to colonize and settle the country he had jubt taken, as a dependency of the Republic. 169 CHAPTER VIII. IBRAHIM BEY — BATTLE OF THE NILE — ADMINISTRATION OF NAPOLEON IN EGYPT — MARCH TO SYRIA — EL-ARISH — GAZA — JAFFA — ACRE — RETURN TO EGYPT — ABOUKIR — NAPOLEON EMBARKS FOR FRANCE. 1798 — 1/99. HE General -in -chief lost no time in endeavouring to consolidate the power which the fall of the Egyptian capital had placed in his hands. The strictest discipline was enforced in the army; which was rendered the more necessary, indeed, from the disposition of the soldiers to disregard the restrictions im- posed by the customs and prejudices of the native inhabitants. The mosques, the harems, the civil and religious customs and rites of the people, were scrupulously respected ; and so greatly superior in point of personal security was the administration of Napoleon to that of the Mameluke Beys, that, notwithstanding the difference of creed between the Arabs and the French, and the recent hostile position of the two races, the best understanding was, in two or tlu'ce days, established I/O CONCILIATION. among them ; and the latter, being freely admitted by the former, to their houses, might be seen taking coffee or smoking with them, assisting in their labom-s, or playing with their childi-en. Provisional go-vernmcnts Avere organized, and a general ordinance of four articles promulgated, in order to secure uniformitj^ of administration in all the cities and provinces occupied by the troops. The object of Napoleon was not to revolutionize, but to reform the government of the countiy; and for this, the brief code which he established was ad- mirably adapted. By the fii-st article, a divan of seven persons M-as required to superintend the general police of each district; by the second, the military defence of each province was entrusted to an Aga and sixty officers of the Janissaries, acting under the direction of the French Commandant ,- by the third, an intendant was nominated, A\ith requisite subordinates, to collect the revenue, in the same ratio and amount as it was collected under the Mamelukes; and the fom'th, required that all correspondence between the different officers of departments should pass through the hands of a French Commissary. To insphe additional confidence in the good intentions of the invaders, Napoleon sent Eugene Beauharnais, his son-in-law and aide-de-camp, to assure the wife of Miu'ad Bey that she had no occasion to fear being deprived of the private property, or possessions, which she or her husband had pre\aously enjoyed: and so highly was this compliment esteemed, that the young and handsome envoy was admitted to an audience in the harem, entertained with coffi:e, sherbet, and other refreshments, served up in the richest plate and most sumptuous stj-le ; and, at his departure, presented with a ring, worth a thousand louis, from the finger of the lady — a Circassian of fifty years old ; but still remarkably graceful in form and address, and possessing a voice of much sweetness. While these efforts were being made at Caii-o to secui-e the conquest of the country by conciliating the people, Desaix was engaged in the pursuit of Murad Bey and the Mamelukes, who had escaped from the Battle of the Pyi-amids into Upper Egj^pt. The Mussulmans scarcely attempted to make a stand; and the swiftness and hardihood of their horses enabled them to outstrip thcfr piu'suers, and to preserve the remnant of their forces unbroken. At the end of July, however, it began to be rumoured at head-quarters, that Ibrahim Bey, the next of 171 SALAHIEH. the Mameluke chiefs in skill and coui-age to the brave INIurad, had collected a multitude of Arabs from the borders of the Desert, and was making head in Syria. Upon this intelligence, Napoleon at once despatched Le Clerc and Regnier to Elkankah ; and the news of the rising being speedily confirmed, he followed in person, a day or two afterwards, with the di-\-isions of Lannes and Dugua, to disperse the stormy elements before they should be gathered into a formidable body. This expedition was little better than a hasty march. Ibrahim did not ventm-e to await the approach of the French; but hurried, by forced marches, towards the Desert, somewhat impeded, however, in his motions by the presence of the women and slaves of his household, by the weight and bulk of his treasure, and the large booty he had seized by the way in a marauding attack upon the caravan of Mecca, which his troops had stopped and plundered at Koureyn. The soldiers of Napoleon, being less encumbered, overtook the Bey a short distance beyond Salahieh, the last inhabited place in Egypt where good water is to be found. The cavalry, not above two or tln-ee himdred in number, were a considerable distance in advance of the in- fantry; the night was gathering ; the horses and men were excessively fatigued ; and, consequently, the successful issue of an attack by no means certain. While Napoleon hesitated, a party of nearly two hundred Arabs, who had just deserted Ibrahim, offered, for a share of the booty, to join in charging theh late comrades. Their services were accepted; and a conflict, remarkable for the valour and deter- mination displayed by the soldiers on each side, ensued. Almost every Frenchman present was engaged in single combat. Colonel La Salle dropped his sabre in the nridst of the engagement, and had barely time to recover it and remount, when he was attacked by one of the most intrepid of the Mamelukes. INIurat, Duroc, Leturcq, Colbert, Arrighi, and all the officers of the staff, were in the thickest of the fight, and encountered the most imminent danger. Colonel D'Estree was mortally wounded; and Sulkowsky, aide-de-camp to Napoleon, received several sabre cuts, and two or three bullets, in the action. The victory indeed was exceedingly doubtful; when Ibrahim Bey, being wounded, gave the signal for flight, and left the French in possession of the field, of two pieces of cannon, and about 172 THE FLEET. fifty camels, but in uo condition to pursue the fugitives. It was immediately after this battle, that Napoleon, returning to Salahieh, was met by an aide-de-camp, sent by Kleber from Alexandria, vdth news of the loss of the fleet in Aboukir roads : a piece of intelligence which occasioned his immediate return to Cairo. The details of the battle of the Nile belong to Naval History, and more especially to that of Lord Nelson — a hero scarcely inferior in fame to Napoleon himself. It will be sufficient here, therefore, to state that, through some misunderstanding, arising probably from the difficulty of communication between the scj^arate di^-isions of the French force. Admiral Brueys had been induced to remain inactive upon the coast of Egypt, unable to enter the harbour of Alexandria, and unAvilling to abandon the army, till it became certain that the means of retreat would not be needed. There is no doubt that, judging by the event after its occurrence, it was the duty of the Admiral, as soon as he had disembarked the artillery and army-stores, and ascertained that the fleet could not be got into the harbour, to have put to sea, and either returned to Toulon or made for Corfu — one of the Ionian islands, which France had recently obtained on the partition of Venice. "Whatever were the cuxumstances which occasioned the delay; — whether, as has been contended, it was express orders from Napoleon, under whose command the whole expedition had been placed by the Directory, or agamst liis directions as asserted by others, or more probably still, a want of definite instructions of any land, and of proper provisions to enable the ships to sail; — the fleet was still in the bay of Aboukii-, when, on the 1st of August, the British squadron appeared off" the coast. Brueys had taken what precautions liis bad position admitted, by mooring his ships in semicircvilar line of battle, so close to the shoals and sui-f, that it was thought impossible for vessels of war to get between them and the land. Nelson, however, on reconnoitring, became instantly con\dnced, that where the French ships could ride in safety, there must necessarily be room for others to anchor between them and the shore. He accordingly made signals for immediate attack. Brueys meanwhile, it being akeady late in the afternoon, did not contemplate being molested till next morning, and neglected to get undcr-weigh, or to clear his vessels as they should have been for 173 BATTLE OF THE NILE. action. As the English, approached, with an evident determination to force the French line, the consternation of the latter, heightened by the boldness of the manoeuvre and by its being unexpected, was extreme. They greeted the British, however, with a heavy raking fire as they bore do^vn : but keeping its bows to the enemy, and wasting no idle shot. Nelson's van, consisting of six seventy-fours, continued its course, and, each successively rounding the French line, dropped anchor beside its chosen opponent, and instantly opened a tre- mendous fire. The English Admiral himself, -with the remainder of his fleet, ranged along the same ships on the outer side, and thus placed those engaged between two fires ; while several of the French vessels were deprived for a time of all power to take part in the conflict. The battle raged with the utmost fury till sunset, and was continued during the night by the flashing light of the dreadful and continuous broadsides. Before eleven o'clock several French ships had struck, and the victors had begun to assail those that had not previously been engaged, when the flag-ship of Brueys took fire, and, after blazing awhile like a volcano, blew up about midnight with s^^ch a tremendous explosion, that for more than a quarter of an hour the firing on each side was silenced through a sense of overpowering awe. Being resumed, however, the cannonade continued with more or less fury till noon the next day, when two linc-of-battle ships, and two frigates, the only French vessels that still had their colours flying, cut their cables and put to sea. The rest were destroyed or captured. Brueys and many French officers of distinction were killed in this engagement — the extent and importance of which may be judged from the expression by which Nelson, who was little prone to mag- niloquence, sought to convey an idea of his victory, when, in his despatches, he called it "a conquest." This defeat cut the sinews of the expedition, and caused it to halt, and eventually to fall to the ground. Unable to receive reinforce- ments from France, or even to communicate with that country, the Army was now isolated, and compelled to rely solely upon its own resources for success. Napoleon was at first completely borne doAvn by the tidings. The basis of his calculations was destroyed, and the mighty hopes of Oriental dominion, which he had hitherto cherished, were dissipated like a dream. Speedily recovering his INSTITUTE OF CAIRO, outward composure, however, he strove to content himself and others with the reflection, that " the Fates had decreed to France a pre- ponderance on land, and to England the empire of the ocean." But though Fate and Fortune were words frequently in his mouth, no reliance on their agency or influence was ever discoverable in his actions. He used, indeed, every means in his power to shape his own destiny, and to render himself independent of those contin- gencies which men of less energy and forethought are apt, in exculpation of their supineness, to attribute to the special workings of Providence. As soon as he had ascertained the extent of his loss, and discharged the duties of his station and of humanity to the brave men who had fallen at Aboukir, he set earnestly to work to prevent the disastrous consequences which at first were generally apprehended from the fate of the battle. The civil and military organization of Egypt was promptly proceeded with — upon principles calculated to advance the civilization, and conduce to the permanent prosperity of the country. " If we cannot remain here," he said, " we will, like the ancients, at least leave the people a heritage of greatness." One of his first acts was to establish the Institute, on the model of that at Paris, for the collection and general diffusion of intelligence. It was divided into four- classes: mathematics, physical science, pohtical economy, and literatm-e and fine arts. :Monge was elected Xoresidcnt, and Napoleon vice-president. Tliis learned body, in addition to the Savans, numbered among its members many ofiicers of the army ; of whom Caffarelli and Sulkowsky were particularly dis- tinguished. Its sittings were held in the great hall of the palace of one of the Mameluke Beys ; some of the apartments of wliich were fitted up as laboratories and a museum, and the rest were converted into habitations for the members. The great garden of the harem was devoted to botanical pm-poses ; and in a spacious room at head- quarters, Berthollet exhibited public experiments in chemistry, two or three times a-week. Thi-ough the zeal and activity of the French soldiers, all ranks of whom now took an interest in the matter, and were desirous of contributing their utmost to its fui-therance, the museum was speedily filled with every kind of curiosity, which the animal, vegetable, or mineral kingdoms of the country could supply. The estabhshment of the Institute excited the ciu-iosity of the 175 inhabitants to an almost unprecedented extent. Having learned that the frequent meetings of the simple and unostentatious men that accompanied the army, and to Avhom so much respectful deference was paid by every one, were not for rehgious celebrations, and having on one or two occasions witnessed the almost magical transformations produced by the experiments of BerthoUet, a belief arose that the members of the Association were alchemists, and that theii- object was to discover the art of making gold. The Egyptians themselves were lamentably deficient in all kinds of knowledge. To be able to read and write, and to comprehend the simplest details of arithmetic, conferred on the individual so gifted no ujienviable reputation for acquii'cmcnts. The only branches of history in which the most learned pretended to be skilled, were those which relate to Mahomet, and the CaHphs his successors, in the progress REFORMS. and establishment of the doctrines of Islamism. Geography and the other mathematical sciences were mysteries into which it was sought to initiate few ; and the smattering which constituted proficiency in the college of Jcmil-Azar, the only learned academy in the country, merely served to render the general ignorance more palpable. The astronomical knowledge of the native professors barely sufficed for the compilation of a defective almanac. The history, antiquities, arts, and sciences of ancient Egj^Dt were utterly unkno-v\Ti. The Pyramids ■were generally beheved to be productions of nature ; and even the few who were better informed on the subject, wdicn they observed the interest taken in them by the French, were disposed to regard them as monuments erected by some ancient Eurojiean people, from which the present conquerors of the land were descended. The tools and implements of ti'ade and manufacture were of the rudest and most primitive kind ; and yet the native artisans, on being shewn the Eui'opean inventions, and the French modes of working, exhibited a talent for imitation and a readiness of conception, which at once proved that the fault was in the government and institutions of the country, and not attributable to any want of natural genius or capacity in the people. The chief defect may, indeed, be traced to that dogma of Mahometanism, — the same which influenced the Cahph Omar, when he commanded the destruction of the greatest ornament and most valuable possession of that, and perhaps of any then existing, nation, the magnificent library of AlexancUia, — which says, that " all knowledge, beyond that taught in the Koran, is useless or profane." Napoleon was deskous of remedpng the evils to wliich this ignorance and a long course of oppression had given rise. Various members of the Institute were appointed to preside over different departments of the civil administration, and to ascertain and turn to account the abundant resources of the country. The geograpliical limits and peculiarities of the nation were first investigated; roads, bridges, and fortresses were constructed; levels taken, and a plan drawn for a grand canal to open the naA-igation from the Nile to the Red Sea. Several manufactories w^ere established at Caii-o, of a description entirely new to the inhabitants; among others, "vvind and water-mills for making flour and gunpowder. Improved 177 2 A IIEFORMS. methods of ■svea\ing aud embroidering the superb carpets of Mecca, and the cloth and shawls of Arabia, were introduced. Founderies were instituted ; printing-presses brought into operation ; and hterary and pohtical journals, both in French and Arabic, were published. The lakes of Meuzaleh, Bourlos, and Natron were carefully sur- veyed. The natural productions of the country and its capabilities, with reference to soil and climate, were brought under review. Hospitals were founded, wells sunk, public baths and fountains opened. A causeway was constructed, by which communications could be mamtained between Cairo and Boulac, during the inun- dations of the Nile. The streets of the cities were purified from the accumidated filth of years, and scavengers appointed to preserve this cleanliness. Sluices were cut for watering the land; and wind- mills erected to raise water for the same purpose, where other means of u-rigation could not be employed. A theatre was built ; and even a kind of Tivoh cstabhshed in the public gardens of Cairo, with musical performances, promenades, illuminations, and fii'e-works. Nothinsf that could contribute to elevate the character of the people, inqjart to them new ideas, or humanize and instruct them, was deemed too high or too arduovis to be grappled with by the consummate genius, clear understanding, and unwearied industry of Napoleon ; nothing that seemed calculated to conduce to the desired end, was thought too low to be admitted into his list of means for the regeneration of the country. In order that the religious and national prejudices of the people might not be alarmed by the very extensive reforms in progress, the fact that Egypt had become a French province was carefully concealed from view. The Pacha appointed by the Porte was still permitted to exercise the same nominal authority which had been left in his hands by the Mameluke Beys. The Imauns, or priests ; the Ulemats, or lawyers ; the Scheiks, or civil and ecclesiastical judges; the Cadis, or magistrates; and the Janissaries, or pri\'ileged soldiers, were all treated with respect and attention. Every class of the inhabitants was protected. Justice, tempered with the mercy and impartiality which belong to ci\dlization, was administered accord- ing to ]\Iahomctan laws. The executive government was conducted, as formerly, by the Grand Divan, the constitution of which was no 178 MAHOMETANISM. further interfered with than by the appointment of Monge and Ber- thoUet, to preside over and regulate its proceedings according to the dictates of reason and humanity. The taxes were not increased, as had been feared; but, in consequence of the equitable mode in which they were imposed and levied, were considerably lightened. Obedience to the laws was insisted upon from all persons, without distinction of rank or sect. The astonishment of the people at such a novel system of adminis- tration may be inferred from an incident recorded by Las Cases. Some Arabs, in a marauding excursion on the frontier, had killed a Fellah, or peasant. Napoleon was incensed, and gave instant orders for the pursuit and punishment of the murderers. " Sultan Kebu-," said the Scheik El-jNlondi, who was present, " you play a dangerous game in quarrelling with these people, Avho can do you ten times more harm than you can do them. And what is it all about? ^^^1s the miserable peasant they have killed your kinsman, that you should seek to avenge him?" " He was more," replied Napoleon: " those whom I govern are my children. Power is given me that I may secure their safety and happiness." All the Scheiks of the divan bowed their heads at these words, and El-]Mondi replied, " Good ! thou hast spoken like the Prophet himself!" Still further to conciliate the natives, the Gcneral-in-chicf paid o-reat deference to the ceremonies and observances enjoined by their laws. On the 18th of August, he was present at the solemnity of opening the canal of Cairo ; which, on the rising of the Nile, receives a portion of its waters ; and two days afterwards, on the invitation of the Sheik El-Peki-i, he attended the celebration of the feast of Mahomet's nativity, when his respect for the Prophet was exhibited by his conforming to the customs of the true believers. The cere- mony consisted in the recital of a poetical history of the events of the life of Mahomet. The Scheiks of the city, sitting in a circle on carpets, with their legs crossed, chanted the verses, swinging their bodies backwards and forwards. An excellent dinner was afterwards served on twenty tables, with five or six persons at each. At this dinner nothing was disagreeable to the French guests, except the Mussulman manner of eating with the fingers. In the evening, the whole city of Cairo was illuminated with beautiful lamps of coloured i;9 COMPLAISANCE OF THE SCHEIKS. [ ! 'il0' glass ; and the streets were paraded by parties, of from twenty to a hundred persons each, reciting the prayers and history of the Prophet, with gestures that continued to increase in vioknice till they became convulsive, when some of the most zealous fainted. It was on this occasion that El-Bekri presented to Napoleon two young Mameluke slaves, Ibrahim and Roustan, who, till they were compulsorily sepa- rated from him on the reverses of the " Hundred Days," in 1815, remained faithfully attached to the General, following him through every vicissitude of fortune ; indeed Ibrahim, upon learning that he would not be permitted to accompany his master to St. Helena, stabbed himself fi-om grief and despair. These and other circumstances, among which was his care for the safety of the caiavans of pilgrims and merchants which traverse the Deserts from Cairo to the holy cities, or the great marts of eastern commerce, produced so good an effect that, in a synod of Scheiks and Imamis of the Grand Mosque, it was publicly declared to be lawful for IHI IXFTDELITY. ISIussulraans to obey and pay tribute to the Sultan Kebii- : a decision without precedent in the annals of Mahometanism, and dii'cctly opposed to the doctrines of the Koran, which expressly forbid sub- mission to infidels. It is not quite certain, however, that Napoleon was regarded as entirely an infidel by the Moslem divines. By his conformity with their customs, he had induced many to believe that he was on the eve of becoming a convert to their faith. In his letters and proclamations he boldly asserted a divine mission. " Make the people understand," he said, in a published addi*ess to the heads of the clergy, " that before the world was formed it was ordained that, after having destroyed the enemies of Islamism, and shattered the cross, I should come from the distant parts of the West to accomplish the task for which I am destined. In more than twenty passages of the Koran my coming is foretold. I could demand an account from every person for the secret thoughts of his soul ; since to me every- thing is kno^^■n : but the day will come Avhen all shall know from whom I have my commission, and that no human efibrt can prevail against me." This he afterwards admitted Avas quackery, and nobody can for an instant doubt that it was so : it can hardly, from want of enthusiastic energy, be considered worthy of the eulogium passed upon it by himself, when he called it " quackery of the highest order," and spoke of it as calculated to gratify and delude those M'hose favour it was his interest to cultivate. That Xajioleon, at this time, was but an indifferent Christian is avowed by himself. In his account of Egypt, dictated to General Gourgaud, in allusion to the doctrine of rewards and punishments in a futui'e state, he did not scruple to designate the religion of Jesus as a threat, and that of Mahomet as a promise ; nor to characterize the latter as the successor of Judaism and Christianity, and a blending of both. Conversion to Islamism he regarded as nothing more than a change from a hat and small-clothes to a turban and trousei's ; and considered that the subjugation of Asia would amply compensate for the inconvenience. " Henry the Fourth of France," he remarked, " held Paris to be well worth a mass." With respect to his soldiers, an utter indifference to religion pervaded all ranks : Christianity, Judaism, Mahometanism, and Paganism occupied the same place in their esteem ; and they would, ■v\dthout hesitation, have embraced any creed that ofifcrcd a temporal advantage INFIDELITY. to theii' favourite General or themselves. " We must take care," wrote Bonaparte to Kleber, " lest the Turks conceive the same pre- judices against us as against the Christiafis;" and in a letter to Menou are the expressions, " I thank you for the honours you have paid to ovu- Prophet." " In India," says De Boiu'rienne, " Napoleon would have been for Ali, in Thibet for the Dalai Lama, and in China for Confucius." He had been, in short, infected with the infidelity of the revolutionary philosophers ; and regarded all religions as the mere institutions of men, and deemed it necessary to respect them only as powerful means of government. His INIoslem demonstrations were matters of jest among the French, who understood them ; but the Scheiks of Caii'o, with whom he held / * ^\ Ib2 CONVERSION OF MEXOU. frequent discussions on the subject, were, or pretended to be, in some degree imposed upon, and endeavoured to smooth the difficulties in the way of his conversion, by decLaring that abstinence from wine and cu-cumcision were not absolutely essential to the belief of the Koran. They even offered up public prayers for him, and for the success of his arms, in their mosques. There was, however, an insuperable obstacle to his assumption of "the turban and trousers:" Kapolcon on embracing Islamism must, to use his OAvn words, " have turned his back upon Eui-ope, upon the regeneration of the age, and the coui'se of Fate in France!" General Menou, who had no great undeveloped designs to deter him from piu'suing the bent of his inchnation, became an actual and earnest convert to the faith of the Trophet, and married a Mahometan lady of Rosetta, whom he treated after the French modes of gallantry; giving her his hand to enter the diniiag-room, the best place at table, and the choicest morceanx at dinner, or if she cb-opped her handkerchief ho ran to pick it up. The lady boastmg of these attentions in the bath, where it is the custom of Oriental women to assemble for the purpose of hearing and relating the news and contriving intrigues, almost caused a revolution in the harem. The other women, who enjoyed less consideration and fewer privi- leges, sent a petition to the Sultan Kebir, requesting him to compel then- husbands to treat them in like manner ! Notwithstanding the constant activity and occupation of the Com- mander-in-chief, after the battle of the Nile time appears to have hung heavy on his hands. He rode much, dictated orders, planned new campaigns for Europe as well as for Asia, read, wrote ; but the want of news fi-om Paris created a wearisome void in his mind which nothing could adequately fill. His thoughts, his hopes, his ambition, all centred in France ; and his impatience at the interruption of his correspondence, occasioned by the ^-igilance of the English cruisers, was constantly finding vent. De Boiu-rienne has represented him as dissipating a portion of his erinui in a liaison Avith Madame Foures, the Avife of a lieutenant of infantry, of whom the Duchess d'Abrantes has in her Memoirs related several interesting particulars. The part of the story most worth remembering, however, is, that the husband of the lady having, by a delicate arrangement, been despatched on a mission to the Directory, was taken prisoner by the English, who FETE OF THE REPUBLIC. having ascertained the cause of M. Foures' selection, from the letters of which he was the bearer, instead of detaining him prisoner as usual, mahciously hberated him and sent him back into Egypt. The 1st Vendemiaire (22nd September) was observed by the French soldiers at all their stations, but with more especial mag- nificence at Cairo, as the anniversary fete of the foundation of the RepubUc. In the morning a grand review took place, at which many Turkish officers of distinction were present, and were strongly impressed wdth the number, discipline, and excellent appoint- ments of the soldiers. As the latter filed past the General-in- chief, he thus adch'essed them: — "Soldiers! We now celebrate the first day of the seventh year of the Republic. Five years ago, the independence of the French people was tlireatened : but the capture of Toulon was the presage of ruin to our enemies. A year afterwards, you defeated the Austrians at Dego. In the following year, you were fightmg upon the summits of the Alps. Two years ago, you were ' contendmg beneath the walls of Mantua, and achieved the celebrated victory of St. George. Last year, you were at the sources of the Dravc and the Isonzo, on your return from Germany. Who woidd then have ventured to predict, that to-day you should be on the banks of the Nile, in the centre of the ancient continent ? " From the Briton, renowned in arts and commerce, to the ferocious Arab of the Desert, you fix the attention of mankind. Your destiny is noble, because you are worthy of your achievements and of the reputation you have acquired. You will die with honour like the brave, whose names I have caused to be inscribed on yonder Pyi'a- mids ; or you will return to your country, covered with laurels, and exciting the admiration of all nations. During the five months which have elapsed since we quitted Europe, we have been the objects of unceasing solicitude to our countrymen. Ou this day, forty milHons of our fellow-citizens are celebrating the era of repre- sentative governments : forty millions of citizens turn thcii* thoughts to us, and exclaim : ' To their toils, to their blood, we are indebted for a general peace, for repose, commercial prosj)erity, and the blessings of civil Hberty.'" In the evening, Napoleon gave a banquet to upwards of a hundred and fifty French and Mahometan oncers. " The Republican flag and 184 INSURRECTIONARY MO^•EMENTS. Mussulman banner floated on this occasion side by side ; the crescent by the cap of Uberty ; the Koran forming a pendant to Tlie Rights of Manr The friendship of the Arabs, meanwhile, was of the hoUowcst cha- racter, and assumed merely to lull their conquerors into a state of negligent security. As the French relaxed in the precautions which they had adopted on flrst taking possession of Cairo, the natives became bolder, and more designing. Orders had been given to watch the muezzin, or criers of the mosques, that their daily calls to the people might not be converted into means for the difiiision of senti- ments dangerous to the army of the Eepublic. For awhile tliis had been strictly attended to ; but it being observed that nothing save the hours and the customary prayers and hjinns were pronoiuiced from the minarets, the vigilance of the soldiery was baffled. By degrees other exhortations than those of religion were uttered, and these eliciting no official notice, were followed by seditious harangues, in which firmans of the Grand Seignior were cited, disavowing all amity with the French, and calling upon the inhabitants to ai'm and join the Mamelukes in expelling the invaders. A general rising was thus organized, not only in Cairo, but throughout Egypt. Meanwhile, IVIurad and Ibrahim Bey were not idle. They incited their troops, by the recollection of former defeat and the hope of speedy ven- geance; the Bedouins, by the harvest of which they had been deprived in their customary plunder of the caravans of the Desert, and the fi-ontier towTis and villages ; the Janissaries, by their alle- giance to the Porte and their love for the power and privileges which they were no longer permitted to exercise ; and, indeed, the pecuhar prejudices and feelings of all classes were appealed to, to induce them to make common cause and union against the foreign and treacherous oppressor. At the same time numerous fanatics, of whom some pretended to be di\'inely inspired, traversed the country, preaching a crusade against the infidels, and denouncing the ban of the Prophet upon all who refused to assist in extirpating the unbc- lie\dng dogs that sought to extend their dominion over the faithful. The whole nation, with the exception of the Copts, a Christian remnant of the race which survived the conquests of the first Caliphs, was thus prepared to rise at a concerted signal, and make an effort INStTRRECTIONARY MOVEMENTS. to redeem the country from what every true believer must have considered a state of degrading servitude. The last announcement from the minarets was made on the night of the 21st of October; and before morning, the capital teemed with insui'rection. General Dupuis, the commandant of the citadel, who had dined with, and been complimented by, several of the inhabitants on the preceding day, was among the first victims of 186 SULKOWSKY. popular fury. Napoleon was aroused -with intelligence of the outbreak at five in the morning; when throwing himself on horse- back, he galloped at the head of about thii'ty Guides to every post, and by his presence, and the vigorous measures of defence wliich he directed to be instantly adopted, succeeded in restoring confidence among the alarmed soldiery. He had scarcely returned to head- quarters, however, when he learned that a strong party of Bedouins were attempting to force the gates. Sulkowsky, who was present, and who had not yet recovered from the numerous wounds he had received at Salahich, was directed to repaii* with fifteen Guides to the point most threatened. He obeyed ; and in a few minutes, one of the Guides rushed into the apartment, covered with blood, to annoimce the death of his brave and talented young leader, and that the fourteen companions who had just departed with him, had been cut to pieces by the Arabs. Napoleon loved Sulkowsky for liis many stcrKng quahties, and was accustomed to call liim his noble and coui'ageous Pole, and to speak of him as one who would have been most precious to the man who might undertake to restore to freedom the brave people to which he belonged — the ill-fated Poles, whose rights had been, and continue to be, so grievously outraged by the infamous triple partition of theii* country, and who have sufiered so greatly from the yoke which has long borne them down. Few occurrences could have inspired the General-in-chief with such excessive rage as the intelligence of tliis massacre. He gave imme- diate orders to piu'sue the insurgents ^ith the utmost rigour ; " to kill and spare not." The malcontents, after fighting desperately in the streets and squares, were repulsed at all points, and compelled to seek refiige in the principal mosque; whence, on finding the building surrounded with artillery, they sent an offer of capitulation, which, ho-svever, was rejected with scorn. " The hour of clemency," said Napoleon, "is past. The Arabs commenced; it is for me to make an end." The doors of the mosque being blowni open, the carnage that ensued was frightful. The Sultan Kebii- had never till then appeared so terrible in the eyes of the Eg}-ptians. For two whole days the cit}^ was under a constant fire from the batteries of IVtoquahiun. On the third day, order was restored. Many prisoners were taken, including twelve of the Scheiks of Carlo, members of 1-^7 FRENCH SEVERITY. the Grand Divan. These, although they expected death, and •were surprised that it was not at once inflicted, were merely secured as hostages : but many others were executed as examples ; being tied up in sacks, and throAvn at night into the Nile. Among those who thus suffered, De Bourrienne says, were several women ; but it may be cha- ritably hoped, since no reason appears for such inhumanity, especially with respect to Mahometan females, who exercise no political influ- ence cither in domestic cu'cles or upon society, and since the imputed severity is wholly opposed to the practice and maxims, and repugnant to the nature, of Napoleon, and is besides unsupported by concurrent testimony, that the assertion is grounded on some mistake. The disquietude of the times, however, rendered terrible displays necessary, in order to overawe and repress the fiery hate of the infuriated Moslems, and to extingidsh their growing spirit of revolt. Shortly after the insurrection just mentioned, a tribe of Bedouins surprised and murdered several Frenchmen at a \'illage on the borders of the Desert. Napoleon despatched his aides-de-camp, Crosier and Beauharnais, with a company of Guides, to bui-n the village, pui'sue, and cut ofi* the heads of the assassins, and bring these trophies with the survivors of the horde to Cairo. On the morrow, the detachment retm'ned. The women, who were brought in as captives, had ex- perienced sufierings of the most shocking description, and several childi-en had perished, by the way. The melancholy train reached the square of El-Beku- about four o'clock in the afternoon, followed by many asses laden mth sacks. These were opened in public, and the bloody heads of the slaughtered Arabs rolled out before the populace, which had assembled in crowds to learn the result of the expedition. The expedient was revolting and terrible ; but it was eflectual in securing for some months the safety of the small parties which the exigencies of the army required to be sent out, from time to time, in diflcrent directions. "The country," says Mr. Lockhart, "appears to have remained more quiet, and probably enjoyed more prosperity, than it had ever done during any period of the same length, since the Saracen government was overthro-\vn by the Ottomans." From the recent insuiTCctions, one important piece of information was gamed ; namely, that the Porte had not been deceived by the specious pretexts put forth for the occupation of Egypt; but was PREPARATIOXS FOR NEW CAMPAIGX. determinccl to oppose the French with the "vvhole poTver of the empii-e. Large sums of money had been sent to the Mamehike chiefs, to enable them to recruit their forces and renew the war. A secret coiTesj)ondence was maintained with the Scheiks and other civil authorities ; and, in order to afford greater security for the renewal of an attempt at a general rising, a diversion was promised, in the speedy disembarkation in Syria of a large ai-my. At the same time the assistance of the English, the victors of the Nile, was vaunted, as a guarantee for the tiiumphant issue of the approaching struggle. Napoleon regarded the gathering storm with gloomy apprehension. Cut off from all communication with France : " left by the Directory," as he exclaimed in bitterness, "to perish;" siuTounded by discon- tented generals, and men universally languishing for home ; his anxiety must have been intense. With a courage and determination, however, which nothing could control, he quietly prepared to anticipate the crisis. The strength of all the defensive posts in the possession of the French w^as augmented. The sailors who had sought refuge on shore, or been landed by Nelson after the Battle of the Nile, amounting to more than three thousand, were incorporated with the troops. Many recruits were raised fi'om among the Copts, the dis- contented Fellahs, and the slaves, who were also embodied in the various corps of the army. One brigade, the 2 1st, consisted almost w^holly of native soldiers. Other resources were rendered available. The manufactories w^hich had been established began to yield profit- able retui-ns; and the treasiuy was replenished by the collection, where it was practicable, of the annual tribute imposed on the country in advance. Occasionally, the delinquencies of the wealthy inhabitants were tui'ned to account. One incident, although unpro- ductive in itself, is highly characteristic of the poHcy piu'sued, and of the temper of the Egyptians. El-Koraim, a dignified Scheik of Alexandria, being detected in acting as a spy for the Mamelukes, was condemned to pay a fine of three hundi-ed thousand francs (twelve thousand five hundred pounds), or lose his head. " If I am to die now," replied the devout Moslem, when desii-ed to make his election, " nothing can save me ; and by paying the penalty I shall have tlu-o-vvn away my piastres. If I am not to die, wherefore should I give them?" He was executed; and his head being carried thi-ough the MONKS OF MOUNT SINAI. city, accompanied by a crier, announcing liis crime, the example not only intimidated other offenders, whose fatalism was less resolute, but faciUtated the collection of the tribiite. From these sources, a season- able supply of three or foiu* millions of francs Avas obtained. INIeanwhile, the country was diligently explored, and every species of information collected that might enable Napoleon to protect his present acquisitions, or extend his dominion. On Christmas-eve, he set out on a journey to Suez in person, in order to examine the traces of the ancient canal which formerly connected the navigation of the Red Sea with that of the Mediterranean. On this ex]3edition, in addition to the officers of his staff, he was accompanied by Monge and Berthollet. The road through the desolate wilderness which they had to traverse — the same through which the Israelites journeyed when dismissed by Pharaoh from bondage — is indicated only by thickly scattered human bones ; the remains of those w^ho, during a series of ages, have perished in crossing the waste, with the caravans, from S3n-ia and Arabia. After visiting the fort of Suez, where vestiges of the old canal communicating with the Nile were discovered, in such a state of preservation as not to requhe very considerable repairs, and ordering the erection of some fortifications to oppose any troops that might attempt to land from India, Bonaparte and his companions, on the morning of the 28th December, passed the Red Sea, dry-footed, on their way to the celebrated fountains of Moses. The sea at this point is not three miles broad, and at low-water is always fordable. The caravans of Tor and Mount Sinai always cross there; and it is by some supposed to be the spot at which the Hebrews, under the guidance of their lawgiver, effected the miraculous passage recorded in Holy writ. The party passed some hours at the sacred springs, seated on the margin of the most considerable, from which they took the water for their coffee. Here Napoleon received a deputation from the Maronite monks of Mount Sinai ; who, on learning of his approach, sent to implore his protection, and to request his con- firmation of their ancient privileges. He on this occasion inscribed his name to the same charters which bore the signatures of Mahomet, Ah, Saladin, and Ibrahim. Before retui'ning they \dsited a canal, constructed as a reservoir by the Venetians when in possession of the commerce of the East, which PASSAGE OF THE RED SEA. with otlier researches consumed the time, so that iiight had fallen when they reached the shore. The flowing tide had aheady risen to a considerable height, and the guide having mistaken his way in the darkness, the passage was attempted at a more than usually dangerous place. The persons in advance at length shouted that theu- horses were swimming ! Napoleon, by one of those simple expedients which only occur- to an impcrtiu-bable mind, saved the whole party. He bade them form a cu-cle roimd him, and each to ride out in a separate dii-ection, but to halt when he found his horse swimming. By adopting this advice, and all following him whose horse continued longest on his legs, they were enabled to reach Suez in safety at two in the morning; though so rapidly had the tide advanced, that before they made the land the water was at the chests of the horses. " We thus," said Napoleon, " escaped perishing, precisely in the same manner, and at the same place, as Pharaoh perished. Had we been lost, the coincidence would have fui-nished all the preachers of Christendom with a splendid text against me." TIPPOO SAIB. On his return to Cairo, Bonaparte seemed occupied for a time with a project of invading British India by way of Persia; and negociations were even entered into with the Shah for supplies and a passage through his dominions. Frequently would the General-in-chief lay for hours, stretched upon the ground, tracing, on the splendid maps he had brought from Paris, the route of an army to the Euphrates. The triumphs of liis favourite hero, Alexander, now formed his chief subject of conversation. His own want of means to accomplish the vast designs he had formed, was a source of bitter and unceasing regret. Upon the success of the Syi'ian expedition, for which everything was now being prepared, the fate of the whole Eastern world was probably hinged. To be prepared for the possibility of reaching India, he despatched, on the 25th of January, 1799, an envoy with the fol- lo^vdng letter to Tippoo Saib, then at war with the British: — "You will have been already informed of my arrival on the shores of the Red Sea, with an army as invincible as it is innmnerable, and animated with a fervent desii-e to free you from the ii-on yoke of England. I hasten to acquaint you with my desire to receive, by way of Muscat or Moka, intelligence from yom'self respecting the DJEZZAR PACHA. political situation in which you stand. I am even desirous that you should send to Suez, or Grand Cairo, some person of ability who enjoys your confidence, with whom I may confer." No answer was retm-ned to this letter, Mhich probably indeed never reached its destination, as, by the succeeding May, the emijire of ]Mysore had become a province of British India. Before the end of January, information had been received that two Turkish armies, with a large supply of artillery, stores, and skins to carry water, had been collected, one at Rhodes, which was intended to land at Aboukir, and the other in Syria, to advance from the Desert. Achmet-Pacha, surnamed Djezzar, or the Butcher, had akeady taken possession of the fortresses of Gaza and El-Arish, the latter of which, being -considered as the key of Egypt, he was occupied in repairing. Napoleon saw that, if he remained stationary, he should speedily have to sustain an attack from both armies at once, assisted by an insurrectionary rising in the interior, and probably by a body of Europeans. To avoid being thus hemmed in, with no retreat open to him but the sea, w^here he had no fleet, and the Desert, which was seventy-five leagues across, and impassable for Europeans in the hot season, he resolved to march upon Syria while it was yet ranter, possess himself by a coup-de-main of the magazines of the enemy, level the fortifications of Jaffa and Acre, ravage the country, and by ruining its resources, render the passage of an army across the Desert impracticable : having done which, it was his intention to turn upon the army of Rhodes, which might then be disposed of at leisiu'c. On the 9th of February, he celebrated, with great pomp, the com- mencement of the Fast of Ramadan, in the ceremonial of which he performed the duties appertaining to the Pacha. The submission of Lower Egypt being secured by the presence of strong garrisons and able commandants in all the cities and fortresses, and that of Upper Egypt, by the vigilance and activity of Desaix — who, in pursuit of the unconquerable Murad Bey, after having explored the mag- nificent ruins of Thebes, had advanced to the Catai-acts of the Nile, a hundred and sixty leagues beyond Cairo; — the army, on the 11th, commenced its march towards Asia. The General-in-chief, dimng his residence in Egypt, had learned the inestimable value of the drome- dary ; — the physical capacity of which renders it peculiarly the animal MARCH TO SYRIA. of tlie Desert. It is enabled to journey upwards of twenty leagues a day, for several successive days, without diink, and with scarcely any food, over burning sands, and under the most torrid sun. Several regiments of the French were, therefore, mounted on dromedaries. Napoleon travelled on one himself, and even succeeded in yoking some to field-pieces, a service for which they had previously been considered wholly unfit. In this march, as in that from Alexandi'ia to Cairo, the troops endured the greatest privations from want of water and intense heat ; and the distress was increased by the folly of the soldiers, who, to avoid enduring a temporary inconvenience, risked the infliction of an irremediable one, by piercing the water-skins with their bayonets, to obtain clandestine supplies. Generally, however, they exhibited a better spirit than in the first Egyptian campaign, and frequently diminished by pleasantry the bitterness they had to endure. Napoleon alone looked upon the great Desert with feelings which were free from any mixture of dread or aversion. The immense expanse accorded well with his own boundless ambition, with the lonely and scarcely appreciable grandeur of his soul. He said, that it gave him emotions of delight to contemplate the scene. BERTH I ER. K LEBER. which he called " an ocean on terra-firma. It is remarkable," he added, " that Na'poleon, signifies, in Greek, the * Lion of the Desert.' " General Berthicr, who was the victim of a romantic passion, and sighed for the endearments of home, had, pre-viously to the departm-e of the army from Cairo, solicited and obtained permission to return to France. He took a formal leave, and depai-tcd for Alexandria, where a vessel had been commissioned to bear him from the shores of Egypt. His love for the General, however, prevailed over his affection for his mistress. When it was thought that he had embarked, he presented himself one day at head-quarters, with tears in his eyes, craving forgiveness for his folly, and declaring his resolution not to dishonour himself, or to separate his destiny from that of his chief. The tender- ness, which had for a 'time unmanned him, was mingled -with a species of fanaticism. Within his tent he had a small sanctuary, fitted up and ftu-nished with the luxuiious elegance of a tasteful boudoir, which was devoted to the portrait of his inamorata, before which he was frequently found upon his knees, and to wliich he had been known to offer burnt incense. This temple was regularly erected when his tent was pitched, even in the Desert. Proceeding towards El-Arish, Kleber, the commander of the van- guard, mistook his way, and became involved in the sandy mazes of the 'wdlderness. Napoleon who, "Vidth a slender escort, was endeavom*- ing to overtake him, discovered at night-fall that, instead of bemg in the vicinity of a division of his own army, he was ajiproaching a Mahometan encampment. He was speedily pursued, but escaped, because it being night the enemy suspected that an ambuscade was intended. This adventure occasioned great uneasiness respecting the probable fate of Kleber, and the greater portion of the night was passed in anxious efforts to obtain tidings of him. Some Arabs at length informed the General of the route the detachment had taken ; and after a rapid joiu'ney of several hoiu's he found it, overwhelmed with despair, and ready to perish with hunger, thirst, and fatigue. Some of the soldiers had become mutinous, and in their frenzy had broken their muskets. The sight of Napoleon revived their hopes, and the intelligence, that a supply of provisions and water was not far in the rear inspu-ed them with new life and energy : " But," he said, " if relief had been delayed, that would not have excused your want 195 PELUSIITM. of courage or breach of discipline. Soldiers ! learn to die with courage." Nowithstanding the expedients to which recourse had been had, in order to secure a constant supply of water diu"ing this expedition, the waste committed by the soldiers, the length of the way, and the excessive heat, rendered the resources insufficient, and every one was ready to sink with excess of suifering. A muddy pool, or spring of bitter, brackish water, was a subject of contention with persons of all ranks : the meanest soldier disputing the right of a general to prece- dence in quenching his thirst or laving his parched brow. It was personal attachment only which could secure greater complaisance, even for the General-in-chief He himself has related, as " no trifling concession," that, while halting amid the ruins of Pelusium, almost suffocated with heat, some one resigned to him part of an ancient door to shade his head for a few minutes, while a large stone could be so poised as to afford a better shelter. It was in lifting the :T:Hur nr/£i/AM^ stone alluded to, that a superb antique cameo of Augustus was dis- covered, the head on which bore a strong resemblance to that of Napoleon, and which was consequently presented to him, and afterwards became the property of Josephine. EL-ARISH. GAZA. At Messoudiah, or the Fortunate, upon the confines of the Desert, at the foot of a number of hillocks, which retained a portion of the abundant rains of -winter, a good supply of water was obtained, on piercing the sand to the depth of five or six inches. " It was amusing," says De Bourrienne, " to see almost every soldier, in- cluding the Commander-in-chief, sprawling upon the earth, digging miniature wells with their hands, and exercising a variety of stratagems, to secure the most abundant spring." Occasional patches of vegetation, with trees and foimtains, increasing in frequency and verdiu-e as the army approached Syria, now cheered the spirits of the troops. The march was also more pleasant, as it was for some time upon the shore of the Mediterranean, from the cool waters of which they were refreshed, from time to time, with a grateful breeze, and in which they were enabled at morning and evening to bathe. On the 16th of February, the army arrived before El-Arish, into which the vanguard of Djezzar had retreated on the approach of the French. In the meantime, the cavalry of the Pacha, with a body of infantry, had got to the rear of the troops, and occupied a position about a league oiF. In a midnight attack, their camp was siu'rounded by a detachment under General Regnier, and a quantity of arms and baggage, and many prisoners, including several of Ibrahim Bey's Mamelukes, were taken. A heavy cannonade was now du'ected against the fort; and on the 18th the garrison capitulated. Five hundi-ed Albanian, five hundred Maugrabin, and two hundred Adonian and Caramanian prisoners, with great store of biscuits and rice, were the fruits of tliis capture. The Maugrabins entered into the French service, and were formed into an auxiliary corps. On the 22nd, the march was resumed ; and on the 24th, the troops bivouacked in Asia, near the pillars which mark the separation of that division of the world fr'om Africa. The following day they advanced upon Gaza; and, at ten in the morning, came in sight of tlu*ee or four thousand of Djezzar's cavahy, drawn up to check the march of the Europeans. The horsemen of Murat, supported by the infantry under Kleber and Lannes, charged the enemy near the height wliich overlooks Hebron, at the spot whence Sampson is supposed to have carried away the gates of Gaza. The Mussulmans scarcely awaited the charge. Gaza 197 RAMEH. was entered on the same day, and supplied a seasonable stock of powder, militai-y stores, shells, biscuit, and six pieces of cannon. The periodical rains now commenced, being ushered in by dreadful thunder-storms, the first that had been experienced since the army quitted Europe. On the 29th, Napoleon occupied Eameh, the ancient Arimathea, which the enemy had precipitately evacuated, leaving behind a himdi'cd thousand rations of biscuit, a still greater quantity of barley, and fifteen hundred water-skins. The head-quarters here were in a small convent, inhabited by two monks, who shewed the spring at which the Saviour's thirst was quenched, in the flight of his family from Judca to Egypt. Rameh is but six leagues from Jeru- salem. Speaking of the mysterious influence exercised over the imagination by the historical associations of these sacred regions, the General-in-chief was asked if he had no desire to visit the holy city. " No!" he replied, " Jerusalem lies not in my line of operations. I court no dealings with mountaineers in their own rugged defiles. On the other side of the mountain I should be assailed by a numerous cavalry ; and I am not ambitious of the fate of Crassus." 196 JAFFA. On the 4th of March, Jaffa — the Joppa of Scripture — was invested, and defended by batteries of about forty cannon, placed on all points of the walls, from which a brisk and well-sustained fire was poured upon the besiegers. On the Gth, the French having fixed their batteries and mortars, the garrison, consisting of soldiers in various costumes and of all colours, jNlaugrabins, Albanians, Kurds, Natolians, Caramanians, Damascenes, and blacks from Tekrour, made an unsuc- cessful sortie. At day-break on the 7th, the Governor of the place was summoned to surrender; but instead of sending a reply, he caused the head of the messenger to be struck off. At seven, the firing commenced ; by four in the afternoon, the Adjutant-general's assistant, Neterwood, accompanied by ten carabiniers, and followed by three companies of grenadiers, mounted the breach, and drove the enemy fi'om the walls ; and at five, the assailants were masters of the town, which, for twenty-fom- hours, was devoted to pillage and the licence of war. The carnage was horrible, and indiscriminate ; soldiers, inhabitants, women, children, and old men, were massacred without mercy. Napoleon himself had " never seen anything so hideous," ALBANIAN PRISONERS. Unable to endure the scenes of barbarity, which were everywhere presented, he sent his aides-de-camp, Beanharnais and Crosier, to endeavour to appease the fury of the soldiery. These young men learned that a numerous body of the garrison had retreated into a strongly fortified building, or caravanserai, surrounding a court-yard. Hither the officers accordingly proceeded, displapng the scarfs wliich marked 4heii- rank. The refugees, who were chiefly Albanians, or Arnaouts, called out from the windows and battlements, that on being assm-ed their hves would be spared they were willing to surrender ; but, that if this were refused they would instantly fire into the couit, and defend themselves to the last extremity. The young Frenchmen, notwithstanding the rule of war, that the garrison of every place taken by assault shall be put to the sword, considered themselves empowered to accede • to the request for mercy, and granted the lives of the suppHcants. The number of prisoners thus taken was, according to Napoleon's own statement, to^elve hundred; but, according to other authorities, three or four thousand. They were marched out of Jaifa to the French camp in two columns. Napoleon was walking before his tent Avhen they arrived, and seeing the multitude, exclaimed, with great consternation : " What would they have me do with these ? I have not provisions to feed them, nor ships to transport them to either France or Egypt. Why am I thus served?" The aides-de-camp, on then- arrival, received the strongest reprimand ; and when they sought to justify their conduct, on the plea that they were alone, amid numerous enemies, and that theii* mission had been to restrain the slaughter; "Yes," replied Bonaparte, sternly, "such was my in- tention with regard to women, children, the aged, and the peaceable inhabitants ; but not to armed soldiers. You should have braved death rather than brought these men to me. What would you have me do with them ? " The prisoners, each with his hands bound behind him, were directed to sit down before the tents. Desponding gloom was in every countenance. The rations doled out to them, being deducted from the akeady scanty stores of the army, were necessarily small. A council, concerning the way in Avhich they should be disposed of, was forthwith held in the General's tent, which, after long delibe- ration, broke up without forming any resolution. The reports of 200 DELIBERATIONS. the generals of division on tlie follo-v^ing day, were filled M-itli complaints on the insufficiency of provisions and the discontent of the soldiers at seeing their rations distributed among enemies, withdi-awn from what was considered the just vengeance of the army. The report of General Bon expressed fears that the troops would revolt. In the evening, the council again assembled, when all the generals of division were summoned. The discussion was long and ^xious ; and again it was decided to await the chances of another day, in hopes that some circumstance might arise to afford means of saving the lives of the unfortunate captives. In the meantime, every telescope was anxiously tui'ned towards the ocean, Tvishing — it would be unreasonable to say expecting — that some fi-iendly sail might appear, to which these miserable creatures could be confided. To send them overland to Cairo was impracticable ; neither pro\dsions nor an escort for the journey could be spared. To liberate them would have been to reinforce the army of the Pacha, as had been the case with the prisoners taken at El-Ai-ish, and released upon their parole not to serve again for a year. They would have gone at once to St. Jean d'Acre, where Djezzar then was, or have retii-ed to the mountains of Xaplous, whence they might have harassed the rear and flanks of the French ; and thus the sacrifice of fi-iends' Uves would have been the consequence of sparing those of enemies. It is a Mahometan maxim, that faith is not to be kept with an enemy ; and that it is a religious and acceptable act, rather than one of perfidy and ingratitude, to occasion, under any circumstances, the death of a " Christian dog." This must always operate to prevent any confidence being placed in the integrity of the followers of the Ai-abian prophet. The thu-d day arrived, and no means of safety for the prisoners, compatible with the seciuity of the army, had been discovered. The murmurs ■s\'ithin the camp augmented, the provisions grew less, and danger on each side became more imminent. On the 10th of March an order was issued, that the imhappy Albanians should be shot! The same day they were marched to the sea-shore in the centre of a lai-ge square battalion commanded by General Bon. The Moslems foresaw theii* fate ; but scorned to use either complaint or entreaty to avert it. They moved towards the scene of slaughter, silent and composed. Some of their officers exhorted them, Hke faithful servants 201 2D MASSACRE. of the Prophet, to submit without a murmur to the dispensation of the All-powerful, who had written the destiny of every man upon his forehead. On reaching the sand-hills a little to the south-east of Jaffa, they were divided into small bodies, and fired upon with musketry, "While the execution, which occupied a considerable time, was going on, several of the wretched men escaped, by plunging into the sea, and swimming to some reefs out of the reach of gun-shot. The French soldiers, whose sufferings seem to have rendered them callous to the miseries of others, and to have created in them an unnatural and savage thirst for blood, laid then- muskets on the beach, and made signs of amity and conciliation to their victims, in order to induce them to return. Willing to indulge a last hope, the poor wretches abandoned the rocks and made for the shore ; but they had no sooner arrived within range of the muskets, than they became marks for the bullets of the foe, and perished amid the waters. Such was the Massacre of Jaffa : a proceeding as terrible and remorseless as any in the annals of modern warfare. Napoleon has been his o"vvn apologist on the subject; but, being the party most imphcated in its horrors, we may be permitted to look with some suspicion upon the assertions he has put forth in his defence. De Bom-rienne, his discarded secretary, who in after years became a minister and flatterer of Louis XVIII., and who has recorded the frailties of his former fi'iend and master with the caustic bitterness of disappointed spleen, is a witness against whom little objection can be taken when he seeks to exculpate the man he hates. He has supplied the details of this tragic story, and closes his account as follows : — " All that could be imagined of fearful in that day of blood, would fall short of the reality. I have related the truth — the whole truth. I assisted at all the conferences and deliberations ; though, of course, without possessing any deliberative voice ; but I must' in candour declare, that had I possessed a right of voting, my voice would have been for death. The result of the dehberations and the circumstances of the army would have constrained me to this. War unfortunately offers instances, by no means rare, in which an immutable law, of all times and common to all nations, has decreed that private interests shall succumb to the paramount good 202 THE PLAGUE. of the public, and that humanity itself shall be forgotten. It is for posterity to judge whether such was the terrible position of Bona- parte. I have a firm conviction that it was ; and this is strengthened by the fact, that the opinion of the members of the council was unanimous upon the subject, and that the order was issued upon then- decision. I owe it also to truth to state that Napoleon yielded only at the last extremity, and was perhaps one of those who witnessed the massacre with the deepest sorrow." That the dreadful deed originated in no innate love of cruelty is admitted by Sir Walter Scott, who also acknowledges, wliile he pronounces the act to be a deep stain on the General's character, that nothing in his history shews the existence of a lust of blood, while there are many things to prove that his disposition was naturally humane. It may be remarked that none of those who have censured Napoleon, have attempted to point out a course by which the fatal catastrophe referred to might have been safely averted. The prizes taken at Jaffa, consisted of thuty European field-pieces, twenty other cannon, above four hundred thousand rations of biscuit, two thousand quintals of rice, and some stores of soap. At El-Arish, Gaza, and Jaffa, the loss of the French amounted to not more than fifty men killed, and two hundi'ed wounded. It should not be omitted, that all the Egyptians who had been taken at each of the captured towns were Hberated and sent home. It was immediately after the taking of Jaffa, that the plague first began to manifest itself in the army; the seeds of the infection having, it is supposed, been brought fi'om Damietta by the division of Kleber. Napoleon, with a moral courage infinitely superior to the mere physical command of nerve which enables a man to risk a blow in battle, daily visited the hospitals in person, to see that the sick were properly attended, and to inspire them with such confidence as might serve to diminish the power of the disease, as well as to fortify others against fear of its contagious influence. The effect answered his expectations. Many of the patients recovered; and the surgeons, some of whom had deserted the hospital, were shamed into a per- formance of their duty. Previously to quitting Jaffa, Napoleon despatched an officer, with a letter to the Pacha of Syria, offering to treat for peace. " Why," ST. JEAN D ACRE. he said in this, "should I deprive an old man, whom I do not know, of a few years of hfe ? AVhat signify a few leagues more added to the countries I have conquered? Since God has given victory into my hands, I will, like him, be merciful and forgiving, not only to the common people, but towards the great. You, who were the foe of the INlamelukes, have no reason to be my enemy. Your pachalic is sepai-ated from Egypt by the provinces of Gaza and Eamleh, and by immense deserts. Become my friend; be the enemy of the ISIamclukes and the English, and I will do you as much good as I have done and can do you harm." Djezzar, instead of replying to the overture, caused the head of the messenger to be taken off, and his body sewn up in a sack and cast into the sea. This, indeed, was a favouiite mode of execution with Achmet ; and it was his lavish jbididgence in its practice that had obtained for him the name of Butcher. While bathing, the French soldiers frequently discovered mutilated bodies, which the waves had cast upon the shore. On the 14th, the army, vowing vengeance for the injuries of the Pacha, commenced its march from Jaffa; and on the 18th, arrived before St. Jean d'Acre — a fortress originally made memorable by the prowess of Richai'd Cocur de Lion, and other heroic chiefs, in the Crusades; and which has been consecrated to fame in our time, by its being the barrier which turned back Naj)oleon from the pursuit of dominion in the East, to found an empire in the West, as absolute and extensive, and as transient too, as those which first fired his ambition. Commodore Sir Sidney Smith, — who, about the time of Napoleon's embarkation for Egypt, had, by the assistance of an old schoolfellow of Bonaparte, M. Phelippoaux, a French Royalist officer, made his escape from the prison of the Temple at Paris, — was cruising with two English ships of the line before Acre, having his liberator, a man of great talent, on board. To these distinguished allies,' the Pacha confided the direction of his ample means of defence. Napoleon opened his trenches on the 20th of INIarch ; but it soon appeai'ed that he had miscalculated the effect of the terror of his name, and the facility with which other fortresses had been captured. His battering train, including field-pieces, consisted of but four twelve- pounders, eiglit howitzers, thirty foiu'-pounders, and one thirty-two SIR SIDNEY SMITH. pound carronade ; the last having been seized by Major Lambert from the long-boat of one of Sir Sidney Smith's ships. The artillery, pro\ided at first with only tvro hiindi-ed rounds of shot, soon became useless, fi-om the expenditiu-e of this stock. " Sir Sidney Smith, however," says Napoleon, "kindly undertook to supply the defici- ency." A few horsemen and waggons, fi-om time to time, made their appearance on the beach, upon which the gun-boats of the com- modore approached, and fired ; when the soldiers, to whom five sous per ball were paid for all they could bring to the camp, immediately ran to pick them up. So accustomed did the men become, during the siege, to this manoeuvi-e, that they would run to the sands in the midst of the cannonade. At other times, the consti-uction of a battery was pretended to be commenced. By these de^dces, a considerable quantity of twelve and thirty-two pounders was obtained. A long uniform course of success, however, had rendered the French too confident; and all the dispositions for the attack of Acre were disproportioned to the expected result. The town was defended by a strong, though rudely constructed gothic wall, a remnant of the wars of Palestine, flanked with towers, and encompassed by a broad and deep ditch, with outer works of considerable importance. By the capture of a French flotilla, Avhich had been sent round from Alexandria and Damietta to the foot of ]\Ioimt Carmel, with heavy cannon, platforms, ammunition, and other requisites for conducting the siege, the resources of Napoleon were kept in so feeble a state, as to justify some of his officers in calling his perseverance on the occasion, "obstinacy;" wliile the Enghsh and Turks were incalculable gainers by the prize. A breach, supposed to be practicable, was made on the 2Sth of March, when the staflf-ofiicer, INIailly, '\\ith some grenadiers and sappers, supported by adjutant-general Laugicr, and two battahons, hastened to the attack. On reaching the counterscarp, however, it was found that the wall was still too high. Mailly, however, placed his scaling ladder, and attempted to mount ; upon which some of the defenders, remembering the fate of Jaflfa, were seized with terror, and fled to the British ships in the port for shelter. Djczzar liimself is said to have been among the first to get on board. The fugitives Avere rallied by the Enghsh, and rejoined those who still manned the walls. 205 DEATH OF CAFFARELLI. when Mailly and Laugicr being both killed, the French, left without a leader, retreated, with considerable loss. Soon afterwards; the counterscarp was blown up by a new mine sunk for that pui-pose, but the Encrhsh and Turks, who stood Avithin the walls, killed all who attempted to enter by the breach thus effected. On the 9th of April, General Caffarelli, while traversing the works in a stooping posture to avoid the enemy's shot, but with his hand resting on his hip, to balance the defective gait caused by his wooden leg, was struck on his elbow, which extended above the trench, with a ball from an Albanian marksman, many such being placed on the walls, to cut off stragglers. This sturdy and talented veteran survived the wound but eighteen days. Naj^oleon, who was strongly attached to him, went to see him twice a-day ; and so great was his influence over the patient, that, though he was frequently delii-ious at other times, no sooner was the General-in-chief announced, than he became collected, and was able to converse coherently. A few hours before ^1 «; aT*t*w^**Af/ -'• BATTLE OP MOUNT TABOK. his death, he dcsii-cd to have the preface to Voltake's " Essai sui- les Moeurs " read to him ; which being done, he fell asleep, and thus tranquilly pelded his last sigh. He died universally regretted, as a brave and kind officer, and a man of extensive acquirements. Dm-ing the continuance of this contest, a ISIussulman army was being gathered by Ibrahim Bey, among the mountains of Samaria, ^dth the intention of descending to Acre, and acting in concert with Djezzar Pacha in a decisive assault upon the besiegers. Napoleon at once despatched Junot, ^ith a division, to disperse the horde ; and following in person, a day or two afterwards, he encountered this new enemy at Nazai-eth, where the splendid cavalry of the Mameluke chief was, as on all former occasions, literally cut to pieces. Kleber, with another detachment, had advanced to :Mount Tabor, and was surrounded and nearly overwhelmed by his opponents, whose numbers were about ten times his amount. He was rescued, however, by Napoleon, who, at noon on the 15th, discovered his division estabhshed among some ruins, and disposed so as to form two sides of a triangle, with the enemy in the centre. The corps brought up by the General- in-cliief, and which was got into position between the Moslems and theii- magazines, rendered the triangle complete, so that the fire, which was immediately afterwards commenced, was brought to bear upon the enemy at all points. The Mamelukes fought desperately ; but thek valour was vmavailing against the steady continuous fire and immovable squares of the French. The field was strewn with the dead bodies of turbaned men and noble horses ; and few escaped from the field to relate the fate of the expedition. Thus perished another Turkish army, amiounced by the proclamations of its chiefs, and the reports of the inhabitants, as " outnumbering the stars of heaven and the sands of the sea." The troops by whom it had been destroyed, did not exceed six thousand men. On returning to Acre, Bonaparte received despatches from Desaix, who was still in Upper Egypt, chasing the indefatigable and uncon- querable Murad Bey. Among other information then obtained, was that of the loss of a large and beautiful oriental river vessel, built for the na^-igation of the Nile, and named Ultalie. Morandi, the com- mandant, after a protracted resistance, being boarded by the Arabs, fired his powder magazine, and was blown with his vessel into the air. 207 LOSS OF L IT A. LIE. The few who escaped, consistmg of part of the band of the 61st demi- brigade and some wounded soldiers, were put to death, with the most horrible tortures, inflicted to the sound of their own instruments, which two or thi'ee of the unfortunate musicians were reserved to play; tdl, all then- conu'ades having been despatched, they becarifie the latest victims. This sad account struck forcibly upon the General's mind, and excited within him some of those forebodings to which he was occasionally subject. " Italy," he exclaimed in a prophetic tone, " is lost to France ! I know it is so : my presenti- ments never deceive me !" About the same time, also, news arrived of an insurrection in Lower I*^o>Tt> occasioned by a religious fanatic of the Desert of Derne, who pretended to be the angel El-Modi, a deliverer whom the Prophet has promised in the Koran to send to the elect in critical emergencies. He persuaded the people of his tribe and others that he lived without food. The only sustenance he was known to take, was that derived from dipping his fingers daily at the hour of prayer, in a bowl of milk, and passing them over his lips. By his enthusiasm and energy. EL- MODI. he soon collected a large number of followers, well armed and supplied with camels. "With these he marched to Dumanhoiu", where he surprised and put to death about sixty men of the French nautical legion, whose muskets, and a foiu'-pounder cannon, materially augmented his means of operation. From the pulpit of the mosque of Dumanhour, he announced his divine mission, declaring himself ball-proof and unconquerable, and that his followers had notliing to fear from the muskets, bayonets, or cannon of theu* enemies. In Bohahireh he succeeded in enlisting three or four thousand converts, most of whom he armed ^^ath pikes and shovels. He exercised those fui-nished ^^■ith the latter implement to throw dust against the French, asserting that this blessed dust would frustrate all the efforts of the troops of the Sultan Kebir. After two or three skirmishes, in which El-]Modi successfully repelled the attacks of his assailants, it was thought necessary to despatch General Lanusse against this strange antagonist, lest the whole province should be infected with the mania which he had difiused among most of those of his own nation, with whom he had come in immediate contact. The rebel and his invincible troops were speedily defeated. The greater number were dispersed, and fled to their native villages. About fifteen hundi-ed, including the mipostor himself, were shot, and Bohahireh was restored to tran- quillity. Meanwhile, the Emu* Hadji, prince of the Caravan of Mecca, had been tampered with by emissaries of Djezzar; and having, about the time of the battle of Mount Tabor, been informed that the Sultan Kebir was killed before Acre, and his army made prisoners, openly declared war against the French. Lanusse, however, soon succeeded in surrounding his troops, when he put all who were taken ■«dth arms in their hands to death, dispersed the remainder, and set fii-e to the village where the revolt had originated. The Emir, with four of his accomplices, succeeded in escaping tlu'ough the Desert to Jerusalem. During these commotions, the siege of Acre was vigorously pro- secuted. Admiral Peree had succeeded in landing two mortars, six eighteen-pounders, and a considerable reinforcement of men ; so that there now appeared a brighter hope of success than had yet been entertained by the French. Napoleon's anxiet}^ to captui-e the place, and the importance which he attached to it, seemed to increase wath 209 2 E SIEGE OF ACKE. the obstacles which he had to encounter. " The fate of the East," he said, as he stood one day with Murat on the mount which still bears the name of Coeur de Lion, " depends on yonder petty town. Behold the Key of Constantinople or of India." And about the same time he is described to have thus unbosomed himself to De Bourrienne : " If we succeed in taking this paltry town, I shall obtain the treasures of the Pacha, and arms for tkree hundred thousand men. I will then raise and arm the whole population of Syria, already so exasperated by the cruelty of Djezzar, for whose fall all classes daily supphcate Heaven. I shall advance uj^on Damascus and Aleppo ; recruit my army by enlisting all the discontented, and by announcing the abo- htion of slavery and of the tjTamiical government of the Pachas. My armed masses will penetrate to Constantinople, and the Mussulman dommion will be overturned. I shall found in the East a new and mighty eniiJU'e, which "saoII fix my position with posterity ; and, perhaps, when this is accomplished, I may return to Paris, by Adrianople and Vienna, after having anniliilated the house of Austria on my way." On the 25th of April, a mine was sprung beneath a large tower, which, rising like a keep over the other fortifications, had been for some time the main object of attack. Two or three hundred Turks, and a few pieces of cannon, were buried beneath the ruins of the portion of this building that fell; but the French were unable to effect a lodgement beyond the second story. The position was, therefore, soon evacuated, in order that it might be destroyed altogether. About the same time, a considerable breach had been made in the curtain, which promised easy access to the city. The besieged were in a situation of great peril; and they were stricken with such dread and apprehension, that no inducement could make them remain upon the walls. At this critical period, there appeared in the offing a Turkish fleet, bringing large reinforcements to the Pacha. Plii'lippcaux now formed lines of counter attack, in assailing and defending which the most furious contests took place daily. Sorties were made, with various success ; sometimes the besieged, and at others the besiegers, carrying all things before them. Dismay and death were scattered everpvhere around. The bodies of the dead choked up the fosse, and by their putridity spread disease among the 210 SIR s. smith's challenge. siu-vivors. On the night of the 7th of May, a desperate assault was made, headed by General Lannes, who fought his way through the breach, and gained the streets in the body of the town. Ihe mere handful that he led, however, was opposed by overwhelming numbers ; and, Rambaud being slain and Lamies severely wounded, the French were compelled to retire with chreadful loss-few, indeed, escapmg the scimitars of the enemy, who, being incited by the promise of a re^^'ard for every infidel head that should be brought to the remorseless Djezzar, gave no quarter. This attempt cost Napoleon upwards of fifteen hundred men. An affectmg -proof of the entii-e devotion of his troops was, at this time, afforded to the General-in-chief. While givmg some cbi-ections, in the trenches, a sheU fell at his feet. Two grenadiers observmg his danger rushed to the spot, placed theh commander between them and raising theh hands above his head completely shielded every par of his body. The shell exploded, and covered them with sand; but no one was injui-ed. One of these brave fellows, Dumesml, afterwards became a general, and commanded the fortress of Vincennes when the AUies entered Paris, in 1814. And yet to such men did Sn- Sidney Smith address proclamations, seeking to excite discontent among them, and offering to all who would accept it a -fe passage to France. Napoleon, as he well might, declared that the Enghsh Commodore had gone mad, which so exasperated that gallant officer, that he chaUenged his opponent to single combat; a summons cal- culated only to afford mii'th to the person so addressed. A courteous answer was retiu-ned, however, declining the Knight's invitation, until he could promise a meeting with Marlborough; but ofiering in the mean time, to send a stout grenadier to mdidge his personal love of fighting. •, i i i . i The siege had now lasted sixty days. The French had lost nearly three thousand men, either killed in action or dead of the p ague which still raged in the camp. The hospitals were full of sick and wounded. The city was daily receiving reinforcements by sea, and akeady numbered more than twenty thousand defenders ^vithm its walls. Napoleon's ranks were thinned, and he was without hope of succour. On the 20th of May, yielding to stern necessit>', he raised the siege, and at night commenced a retreat towards Jaffa. He had 211 RETREAT TO EGYPT. now, for the first time since he had commanded an army, been encountered by British courage, skill, and perseverance. A fearful jo^lrney, among scorching sand-hills, lay before the army. The plague patients and the wounded were carried in litters, and on mules and camels. The tliirst, the heat, and the necessity of stem endurance, created among all ranks an intense selfishness and unfeeling indifference to the sufierings of others. Soldiers who had lost their limbs, the sick, all who were supposed to be infected, were abandoned in the fields, and by the way side : even those at the point of death would exclaim, as they were thrown upon the earth, " We have not the pestilence ; we are only wounded : " and, to convince the passers by, they would tear open old wounds, or inflict new ones. " Their account is made up," would their comrades, on these occa- sions, exclaim ; " their march is over : they have taken up their quarters." IMeanwhile, the march was lighted by torches, kindled for the purpose of setting on fire the towns, villages, hamlets, and rich corn-fields, which lay in the route. The whole country was soon in flames, and the bright and burning sun was obscm-ed by the smoke of continual conflagration. It was thus that Napoleon sought to render pursuit impracticable. " An army," he said, " cannot exist in the midst of ruins." It seemed as if the soldiers sought a solace for their o\\ti sufferings in the infliction of equal misery on others. All, except the dying, seemed to be transformed into plunderers and incendiaries. The loss among the sick and wounded was fi-ightful. Bonaparte coidd scarcely endure the sight of the affliction which surrounded him. He gave orders that all should march on foot, and that every horse, mule, and camel should be appropriated to the transport of the sick and wounded. Vigogne, his equerry, was imprudent enough to ask what horse he woidd reserve for his own use. He replied, with indignant bitterness : " Every soul shall go on foot, scoundi-el! I the first — Begone!" Many of the animals so rcHnquished, however, were speedily restored to theu* OAvners. The army reached Jaffa on the 24th of May, and halted there five days. On the 27th, the fortifications were blown up; and, about an hour after that event, a consultation took place, which has been the subject of strong accusation against the French General. It had been reported, that some of the plague patients in the hospital 212 THE SICK AT JAFFA. were so dangerously ill that they could not be removed, TN-ithout accelerating their death; and that removal could have no other effect than to spread the pestHence among all ^vho approached them. Napoleon, who was unwiUing to leave them behind, to undergo the tortures which the Tm-ks were certain to inflict, suggested to the medical men present, that an opiate should be administered, as an act of humanity towards the sufferers. Larrey approved, but Desgenettes ^m^ was averse to this proposal. " It is," said the latter, " the busmess of the physician to cure, and not to kill." A word of disapprobation was sufficient to prevent the execution of the design. To have incurred a breath of reproach at such a time and upon such an occasion would have been folly. When Jaffa was abandoned, therefore, a rearguard, of four or five hundred cavaky, was left to protect the sick fi'om advanced parties of the enemy, with dh-ections to quit the place and follow the route of the army immediately on the death of the last sur- vivor. Napoleon stated the nmnber thus left to have been seven ; and 213 THE TWO MURATS. Sii- Sidney Smith, who entered the town a few hours after it had been evacuated by the French, found seven men alive in the hospital. That the poisoning did not, therefore, take place is almost certain ; but that the proposal was made, we have the distinct admission of Las Cases. Napoleon afterwards sought to justify himself. " If my own son," he said, " were in a similar situation with those men, I would give the same advice ; and if so situated myself, I would insist upon it, if I had sense and strength enough left to demand it. If I had been capable, however, of secretly poisoning my soldiers, as doing a necessary action secretly would have given it the appearance of a crime, my troops would not have fought for me with an enthusiasm and aifection without a parallel. I should never have done it a second time : they would have shot me in passing. Even the wounded, had one pos- sessed sufficient strength to pull a trigger, would have despatched me." The army reached Cairo on the 14th of June, after a painful march of twenty-live days. Excepting the revolts of Emir Hadji, and the fanatic El-Modi, Lower Egypt had remained tranquil, and seemed daily more reconciled to the government of the French. Upper Egypt had been entirely conquered by Desaix, — the "Just Sultan," as the natives called him — and Mui-ad had sought refuge in the Desert. In the beginning of July, rumours of new movements amo;ig the Mameluke Beys began to be cui'rent. Elphi and Osman assem- bled a body of troops on the right bank of the Nile, and Mui'ad proceeded to Lake Natron on the left. Against the former La Grarige was despatched; who, on the night of the 9th, suiTomided their camp, took their families and baggage and a thousand camels, killed Osman Bey and about a hmidi-ed Mamelukes, and dispersed the residue. General Murat was sent against Murad Bey, who had descended the Nile and reached Gizeh on his way to Aboukir, where he expected the landing of a large Turkish army. The encounter of " the two Murats," as the French called the opposing chiefs on this occasion, was of short duration. The Mameluke, after losing about fifty of his followers, fled before Le Beau Sabreur towards the Desert whence he had come. On the evening of the 15th, Napoleon received a despatch from ISlai-raont, the commandant of Alexandria, informing him that a 2:4 ABOUKIR. Turkisli army, under INIustapha Pacha, numbering sixteen or eighteen thousand men, had disembarked on the 11th at Aboukir, under the protection of an English fleet. He immediately retu-ed to his tent, where he remained till three the next morning, dictating orders for the instant advance of the troops, and for the conduct of those, who, during his absence, were to be left in command of the capital. At foui" he was on horseback, and the army in full march. Pro- ceeding with almost incredible speed, the advanced guard reached Alexandria on the 24th ; and, as there was a probabdity that English troops would be landed, the General-in-chief at once formed his plan of attack, and resolved to put it in execution on the morrow. The Turks were already in possession of Aboukir, where they had entrenched themselves, and awaited the arrival of Murad Bey and his Mamelukes ; but being without cavahy, they were unable to watch the motions of their opponents, and some hopes were at first enter- tained by the French that the enemy's camp might be sui-priscd. This design, however, was fi'ustrated by an accident. A company of sappers, advancing upon the Turkish lines in the night, were attacked by the outposts, and ten of their number made prisoners, from whom Mustapha learned that Bonaparte was in position near him, and intended to give him battle in the morning. In the mean- time, Murad, with his cavahy, had arrived, and reached the camp of his allies. Early in the morning of the 25th, General Lanncs prepared to attack the enemy's left, and Destaing the right; while Murat, with his dragoons and a light battery, remained in reserve. The French skmnishers first engaged were driven back ; and the Pacha, delighted with this spectacle, called out to Mm-ad Bey, who was near him : " So ! these are the terrible French whom you dare not encoimter. See; the moment I make my appearance they fly before me!" "Pacha," replied Mm-ad, "render thanks to the Prophet that it has pleased them to retii-e. If they return, you will disappear before them, like dust before the wind." Murat now advanced, and speedily penetrating through the enemy's centre, cut oft' the communication between their- first and second Unes. The confidence of the Tui-ks was instantly destroyed, and they rushed tumultuously towards the rear; their right being driven towards the sea, and their left towards Lake Maadich. The columns of Lannes ABOUKIR. and Destaing, which had advanced to the heights recently quitted by the Moslems, descended at charging pace upon the main body. About ten thousand of the enemy, pm-sued by the cavaby and infantry, unable to escape, threw themselves into the sea, and, being fired upon with grape-shot from the artillery, were nearly all drowned. Not above tliii'ty men, it is said, were able to reach the ships in the bay. The sea seemed covered with floating turbans. Lannes was now ordered to draw up his troops in columns; and, under protection of the artillery, to proceed along the lake, turn the entrenchments, and throw himself into the village of Aboukir. Mui-at was directed to follow with his cavalry, prepared to execute the same manocuvi-e as in the attack on the first line. Colonel Cretin, who knew every step of the ground, directed the march ; and Destaing was directed to make false movements, to occupy the attention of the enemy's right. The entrenchments were soon forced, and Lannes made a lodgement in the village ; but Mustapha Pacha, who was in the redoubt bchmd it, made a hasty sortie with four or five thousand men, and thus separated the French right from their left. This ABOUKIR. movement would have been fatal to Lannes ; but that Napoleon, who was in the centre, instantly perceived the danger, and advanced to the attaclc, wliile the cavalry, by making a detour, got in the rear of the redoubt, and cut off the retreat of the Turks. The engagement now became a massacre. The enemy, unable to regain the fort, fled, and were cut down or bayoneted in all dii-ections. Many rushed mto the sea. Mustapha, with his staff and two or thi-ee thousand men, endeavoured to establish themselves in the village, but were sur- 2>r 2 F NEWS FROM FRANCE. rounded ; and, after a brave resistance, made prisoners. The rest of the Mahometan army perished in the waves or on the field. The Pacha, being brought into the presence of Napoleon, was compli- mented on his valour. " It has been your fate to lose tliis day," said the French General ; " but I will take care to inform the Sultan of the courage with which you have contested it." The haughty Chief coolly rephed : " Thou mayest spare thyself the trouble ; my master knows me better than thou." Bonaparte ascribed the chief honour of this victory to the intrepidity of Murat and his cavalry. Mui-at was wounded; and Duvivier, Cretin, and Giiibert, with about three hundred French soldiers, were killed in the action. Sir Sidney Smith, who had chosen the Turkish position, and directed their arrangements, narrowly escaped being made prisoner. Murad Bey again found safety in the Desert. Immediately after this battle. Napoleon sent an envoy on board the English Commodore's vessel, respecting the removal of the wounded prisoners, when some courtesies, and a few trifling presents, were exchanged. Among other things, a file of Enghsh newspapers to the 10th, and a Frankfort Gazette of the 28th of June, 1799, were sent on shore, and perused with the eagerness which it may well be con- ceived would animate one who had been without certain news fiom home for ten months. From these journals Napoleon obtained intel- ligence of the reverses of the EepubHcan armies in Europe ; and that France was a prey to faction and intestme discords, similar to those fi'om which he had rescued her in Fructidor, 1797. " My pre- sentiment has not deceived me," he exclaimed, as he laid do■v^^l the papers, " Italy is lost. All the fruits of our victories have disappeared. France is endangered, through these fine talkers, these babblers. Now is the time to save her. I must begone." He sent for Berthier, handed him the journals, and said, " Things go ill in France : I must see what is passing there. You, Bourrienne, and Gantheaume, shall go with me." Orders were immediately issued for preparing two frigates. La Muiron and La Carrere, and two small brigs. La Re- vanche and La Fortune, with provisions for four or five hundred men, for two months. The strictest secrcsy was enjoined on all, so that neither his own army nor the Enghsh cruisers upon the coast should have reason to suspect his design. 218 PREVAR ATIONS FOR RETURN. In order more effectually to conceal his intentions, the General-in- cliief gave countenance to a report tliat he intended to make an expedition into Upper EgyjJt ; and in the mean time he went on an excui-sion over the Delta, for the purpose, it was alleged, of obtaimng information respecting the condition of the country and the people. Monge, Berthollet, and Denon, were noAV comijiandcd to repau: to Alexandi-ia, with the collection of manuscripts, di-awings, measiu-e- mcuts, and objects of antiquarian and scientific curiosity, made by the EMBARKATION, members of the Institute. Marmont, ]Murat, Lamies, AncU'eossi, and Bessieres, were also dii'ected to meet, and await fiu'tlier orders, at the same port. Having received information from Gantheaume that the vessels were ready to sail. Napoleon, on the 22nd of August, being on an unfrequented part of the coast, near Alexandria, declared to the Guides and officers of his escort, that they were about to depart for France. The news was hailed with acclamations. Boats were in readiness to receive the party, and they were at once conveyed to the ships in the offing. General Menou was the last person with whom Bonaparte conversed on shore. To him were entrusted the necessary instructions and despatches respecting the future command and proceedings of the army, and a proclamation to the troops ; which was couched in the following terms : " Intelligence from Europe has decided my departure for France. I leave the command of the army to General Kleber. I cannot now make fuller explanations. 220 DEPARTURE. It gives me pain to leave soldiers to whom I am most attached : but our separation will be brief; and the General who succeeds me enjoys the full confidence of the government and mine." !Monge and the others, who had attended the rendezvous, without knowing the object of their summons, were standing upon the beach, gazing upon the unusual sight of French vessels ready to put to sea, when Menou arrived, and informed them that Napoleon awaited them on board La Muiron. The embarkation was completed by starlight ; and the vessels would have sailed immediately, but that an English corvette was seen approaching to reconnoitre. At daylight next morning, the 23rd, all sUil was crowded, in order to escape the enemy's cruisers, and to get out of sight of the fleet still anchored off Aboukir. The discontent of the troops, on learning from the proclamation, which was immediately published, that their General had deserted them, was extreme ; but, by degrees, this feeling subsided, when the abihties and corn-age of their new General - in - chief came under review; and Kleber himself, although vexed at having a dangerous and difficult post thrust upon him, while he was as anxious as any to quit Egj^t, was at last induced to assume the command. CHAPTER IX. VOYAGE — ARRIVAL AT FREJUS — GENERAL REJOICINGS — STATE OF FRANCE- EIGHTEENTH BRUMAIRE. 1/99. ooKiNG anxiously, from time to time, at the receding, but still visible top -masts of the British and Turkish vessels. Napoleon directed Gantheaume to steer as close as possible to the coast of Africa, till the little squadron should be opposite to Sardinia. " Should the English meanwhile present themselves," he said, " I A\all run ashore upon the sands, march with the handful of brave fellows, and the few pieces of artillery we have with us, to Oran or Tunis, and there find means to re-cmbark." For twenty days the wind was constantly adverse, and the vessels, after making a little way, were incessantly driven back, towards the Syrian or Alexanchian shore. It was even proposed to re-enter the port whence they sailed ; but Bonaparte determined to proceed at all hazards. " We shall arrive safely in France," he exclaimed ; " Fortune will not abandon us." During this period of suspense, the General occupied himself in conversing CORSICA. with the Savons, reading the Bible, the Koran, and Homer, and playing at vingt-et-im with the officers of his staff. In the first tliree weeks the ships only made a hundi-ed leagues; but at the end of that time a favoui'able breeze arose, and they were shortly enabled to pass Sardinia; when, on the 1st of October, a violent west wind drove them on the coast of Corsica, and compelled them to seek refuge in the harbour of Ajaccio. Landing in his native town, the now celebrated General was soon overwhelmed with relations. The whole island was in motion ; and it seemed as if half the population had discovered traces of kindred -with him. He took several walks in the environs of Ajaccio, and felt pleased to point out to his suite the small domains of his ancestors, and the scenes of early pleasures. The numberless visits and sohcitations, however, to which he was subjected, and the news which here first reached him of the recent death of Joubert, and the loss of the battle of Novi, made him exceedingly impatient of delay. On the 7th of October, he resumed his voyage ; but at sunset on the 8th, an EngHsh squadi-on was descried off the French coast. Gantheaume, who saw from the enemy's signals that he was observed, proposed to tack about and return to Corsica. " To do so," replied Napoleon, " would be to take the road to England. I am seeking that to France. Set all sail ; let every one be at his post ; and steer to the north-west. — Onwards ! " 223 LANDING AT FREJUS. The French vessels, being of Venetian build, were probably thought to be Italian store-ships, and OAved their safety to the mistake. The night, however, was one of terror to all, except Napoleon, who was occupied in giving orders and making preparations for Avhatever dangers the morning might reveal. He determined, if necessary, to commit himself to the long-boat, named those whom he desired to accompany him, and selected the papers he wished to have saved. Fortunately, the first beams of the sun displayed the hostile fleet bearing to the north-east ; and, about eight o'clock the same morning, the French vessels entered the bay of Frejus. At first there was some hesitation whether or not to advance, as La Mairon and her companions were unable to reply to the signals • from the batteries, which had been changed since their departure from France ; and they were consequently fired upon ; but Napoleon, who would brook no unnecessary delay, ordered the Admiral to enter the port. This confidence, added to a hope that the squadron was from the East, soon brought numerous boats from the shore to make enquiries ; and no sooner was it known that General Bonaparte was in one of the frigates, than, despite the laws of quarantine, which forbad all communication with the land, the sea was covered with boats con- taining persons of all classes, civil and military, hastening on board to congratulate the Conqueror of Italy, and welcome him as the deliverer and guardian angel of the Republic. In vain were visitors reminded of the danger they incui'red, and requested to keep off': every deck was speedily crowded with men and women, exclaiming with exulting shouts, " We prefer the plague to the Austrians." The presence of Napoleon was regarded by all as a certain pledge of returning Victory; and the news of the destruction of the Tui-ks at Aboukii-, which was speedily promulgated, greatly increased the universal enthusiasm. He was almost forced on shore by the autho- rities of the toAVTi, who refused to listen to anything concerning the quarantine, regulations. Even the wounded soldiers quitted the hos^iital, and went to meet him upon the beach. The intelligence spread with inconceivable rapidity; and throughout the country, his return was hailed as that of a victorious prince, on whose talents de- pended the welfare of a great but broken-spuited peoi)le, who had no hope nor confidence in any but him. The bells were everywhere 221 PUBLIC REJOICINGS. rung, illuminations and public rejoicings were made ; and the mes- senger who carried news of the disembarkation to Paris, was received as if he bore tidings of a great national triumph. It was, indeed, a period of delirium. Every one perceived the advent of redemption, after a long and stormy night of almost hopeless gloom. At six o'clock on the evening of his landing he set out, accompanied by Berthier, for Paris, and alighted, without being known, at his house in the Rue de la Victoire on the 16th of October; having, by taking the route of the Boiu'bonnais, missed Josephine and his brother Joseph, who had posted through Burgundy to meet him. Two hours after his arrival he went to the Luxembourg, and being recognised by the soldiers on guard, his visit was announced to the trembling Direc- tory by the shouts of gladness with which he was welcomed. The interview that followed was one of constraint and dissimulation on both sides. The Directors asked no questions, but affected to partake the popular joy at his return : while Napoleon, by their silence as to the cause of liis return from the East without his army, felt reheved from some just apprehensions. The state of affairs in France had been materially changed dm-ing Bonaparte's absence. Immediately before his departure to Egj^^t, Switzerland had been assailed by the troops of the RepubHc, on the pretext that Berne was made a rendezvous for the agents of the Boui*- bons and the spies of foreign powers. The fortresses, magazines, and treasui-cs of the Cantons had been unscrupulously seized, the govern- 2 G RETROSPECT. ment of the country forcibly changed, and a commonwealth pro- clauncd, under the designation of the " Helvetian Eepublic." Shortly aftcrwai-ds, Tmin and all the continental dominions of the King of Sardinia had been occupied, and the Sovereign himself, with his family, driven to his Island territories. The Papal Court instigated, perhaps, by Austria, had remodelled its army, and placed Provera, of whom mention has been made in Napoleon's Italian campaign, at its head. The authorities had also excited a tumult in Pome against the partisans of Repubhcanism, in which Joseph Bonaparte, the French ambassador, was grossly insulted, and a young officer, of great promise — General Duphot — killed by his side. The temporal reign of the Pontiff was consequently declared to be terminated, and his states received the name of the " Poman Pepublic." Austria, gathering hope ffom the departure of Napoleon, had suddenly ordered the French plenipotentiaries to quit Pastadt, where negociations for peace had been proceeding; and a few hours afterwards, the dismissed envoys, despite the guaranteed inviolability of their character, and in contravention of the law of nations and of public faith and honour, were murdered on their homeward journey, by ruffians wearing the Austrian uniform. The King of Naples, encouraged by the news brought to his capital by Nelson of the destruction of the French fleet at the Nile, and the probable ruin of Bonaparte, concluded that the time was favourable, and at once declared war against the enemy which he had so greatly hated and feared. The result, however, proved that his haste to forestal the measures of the newly-formed coalition of Sovereigns was ill-ad%dsed. His troops advancing upon Rome, were encountered by the French, and after the fii-st round of shot fled in dismay, abandoning their cannon, baggage, and all, even their small arms, that could impede their retreat. " The Neapolitan officers," said Nelson, who was then a distinguished favourite with the King and Queen of the Two Sicilies, " did not lose much honour ; for God knows they had little to lose : but what they had they lost." The victors pressed forward upon Naples, which, after a brave resist- ance, sustained for two days by the half-naked, imperfecty armed, and unofficered Lazzaroni, against the regular forces and well supplied artillery of the French, surrendered, and the Royal Family abandoned their capital, and passed over into Sicily. France thus 228 STATE OF FRANCE. obtained a new ally, under the classical name of " The Parthenopean RcpubUc." During these transactions, the confederated INIonarchs, aided by the great and warlike empu-e of Russia, had collected immense armies, arranged their plans, and prepared resouixes for a fierce war against their all-grasping, and hitherto successful, foe. The combined forces of Austria and Russia entered Italy, under the command of Suwarrow, a General in whom great military skill was blended with a degree of eccentricity and enthusiasm wliich rendered him for a time the wonder of Europe. In a rapid scries of battles, ending with that of No\'i, all the States wliich had been conquered by Bonaparte, and those since acquii-ed, were overrun and wrested from the French ; and preparations were in progress for carrying the war mto the terri- tories of the Republic. The Aixhduke Charles, released from the terror of Napoleon's superior genius, proved more than equal to Jourdan, whom he compelled to recross the Rhine; while a third body of Austro-Russians advanced to the frontiers of Switzerland, ready to take possession of that coimtry, and thence find a passage into the heart of France. At the same time, partial insurrections had taken place in Belgium. Holland was generally disaffected, and only waited an opportunity to free itself from the Conqueror's yoke. The United States of America had exposed the avai'icious baseness of the French Government, by publisliing the history of a pending treaty, wherein bribes were demanded as a preliminary to all negociation, and the cliief of wliich provisions Avent to put money into the pockets of the Dfrectors. To increase the difficulties of the Republic, the Chouans, or RoyaHst bands of Bretagne, had again arisen, and were organising themselves to light the flames of civil warfare throughout the country. Every province, in short, was a prey to anarchy, and to the peculations of the constituted authorities. The nation was menaced -with foreign invasion, and groaning under a load of tjTannical laws ; the government denounced by the whole people, as destitute of power, justice, and morality; the highways were infested with robbers ; disorganization was everywhere perceptible, and social dissolution, or the restoration of the Bourbons, seemed inevitable. A change was ardently desired by all classes; and all were looking for a man possessing the public confidence, and capable 227 THE DIRECTORY. of restoring tranquillity and order by concentrating the supreme power, and giving scope for the developement of those institutions, hitherto free in name only, which France had pui'chased at such enormous sacrifices, when Napoleon, " the hero," as he was at once called, " of hberal principles," landed at Frejus. The enthusiastic reception he had experienced, the condition of France, the position of parties, and the tendency of passing events, conspii'cd to impress liim wath the necessity of speedily attempting to carry out the revolution, which he had meditated on his return from Italy; but for which the time was not then arrived. To deliver his chosen country from the domination of the factions by which she was torn and distracted; to surround her with a glory which none but the great nations of antiquity had known; and to establish her as the marvel of modern times, with himself at her head, was the great and worthy object of his ambition. The Directory now consisted of Barras, the only old member; Roger Duces, a man of narrow mind but easy disposition; INloidins, a general of di\asion, who had never served in war, but who was a worthy and pati"iotic man; Gohier, an eminent la^-yer, of great integrity' and candour ; and Sieyes, a metaphysician, formerly a priest, and since author of several constitutions, and of a celebrated pamphlet, entitled " "What is the Thii-d Estate ? " Sieyes was a cool, shrewd calculator, of great moral courage and considerable political resources ; but his knowledge of business and of men was defective, and served only to lead him astray in matters of speculation and system. Sieyes and Duces were at the head of the moderate party, who sought to effect a gentle and salutary change in the Constitution of the year Thi'ee. INIoulins and Gohier desired to maintain the existing form of Government, imparting to it a stronger infusion of democratic principles : while Barras, who saAv that the Republic was on the eve of dissolution, sought to acquire personal influence, in order that he might bargain for himself with the Bourbons, to Avhom he had already made overtures for a Restoration. The appearance of Napoleon, at this important crisis, somewhat disconcerted the plans of all parties. All, however, hastened to pay court to him, as the destmed arbiter of the Nation's fate ; and tendered their support to effect the kind of change which they 228 CAUTION OF NAPOLEON. severally desired. He was not long in choosing his course ; but it was necessary, before he declared his intentions, to fathom the men who Avere to be selected as subordinate actors in the approaching drama. In the whole of these dehcate proceedings, he acted with the greatest circumspection. He seemed, as during his residence in Paris, previously to the Egyptian expedition, to shun the popularity which everywhere greeted his appearance. In pubHc, he was invari- ably dressed in the costume of the Institute. At his own house, his guests were men of science and Kterature, a few of the Generals who had served under him in Italy, those who accompanied him from ^oTPtj 3,nd two or thi-ee private friends, men of no political party. At the theatre, which he seldom attended, he always shrouded himself from observation in a private box. He accepted, however, a pubhc entertainment from the Dhectory, at which he proposed as a toast, " The Union of all Parties," — words proved in the sequel to be of considerable import, though then but little understood. From this splendid banquet, where seven hundi-ed persons, among whom was Moreau, were present to honour the Conqueror of Egypt, Bona- parte withdi-ew at so early an hour in the evening as to give offence to some of his entertainers. With his mihtary fr-iends and admirers, he used the same reserve as with others. He held no levees, attended no reviews. The Officers of the garrison and the Adjutants of the National Guard of Paris desired to be presented to him ; but he put them off from day to day : the eighth and ninth regiments of di-agoons, which had formed part of the Army of Italy, and the twenty-fii-st light horse, which had contributed essentially to the success of the 13th Vendemiaire against the Sections, besought him to review them; he acceded, but neglected to name a day. The citizens of Paris complained loudly of the General for keeping so close. Hoping to see him, they went to the theatres and reviews; but Napoleon was not there. People were astonished at his reserve, for which they were wholly unable to account. " It is now," they said, " more than a fortnight since his arrival, and as yet he has done nothing. Does he mean to neglect the public interest, and leave the Kepubhc to be torn piecemeal by contending factions, as he did on his return from Italy/" It has been remarked, however, that "when recognised by the BARRAS. SIEYES. populace, lie received their salutations wdth great courtesy and affa- bility; and that if he met an old soldier of the Army of Italy, he rarely failed to recollect the man, and take him by the hand." In all this there was the subtile pohcy of one who deemed it necessary, and well knew how, to interest the public, and rivet their attention beyond the passing moment. But the decisive hour approached — " the pear was nearly ripe." On the 8th of Brumaire (30th of October), Napoleon dined with Barras, and a few other persons. The Director endeavoured to sound the General as to his views, and proposed that a President of the Republic shoidd be named. This conversation, which shewed that, if he would be before-hand with others, there was no time to lose, decided Bonaparte ; who immediately afterwards called on Sieyes, and stated that, he was determined to act with him. It was then settled, that the movement should be made between the 15th and 20th of Brumaire. On the following morning, Barras, having heard in the meantime that Napoleon had spoken of his suggestion, called on the General, expressed a fear that he had been imperfectly understood on the preceding evening, declared his conviction that Napoleon alone could save the Republic, and entreated him, if he had any project in agitation, to rely entirely on his cordial concurrence. Bonaparte, however, who kncAv the unprincipled character and profligacy of Barras, replied that he had nothing in view, that he was fatigued, indisposed; that, in fact, he was not yet seasoned to the change from the dry climate of Arabia to the moist atmosphere of Paris; and that at present he should seek to recruit liis health and spirits in retu'emcnt. From that time, Napoleon laboured incessantly to secure the success of his project. Few were admitted to his confidence ; none but those necessary to carry out his designs. The rest he knew would follow their chiefs, and, like machines, act from the impulse imparted to them. Talleyrand, Rccdcrer, Real, Regnault St. Jean d'Angely, men of known talent and influence ; his brothers Lucien, president of the Council of Five Hundred, and Joseph, who was held in great esteem for his m-banity and readiness to do good offices for the adherents of the ancient regime, and who, had he not been a Bonaparte, Avould probably have incurred the suspicion of being an aristocrat; with MOREAU. — M ACDONALD, Sieyes and Ducos, were the General's chief advisers. None, perhaps, knew fully what was intended ; but all were prepared for and coun- selled an enthe change of the existing government. The partisans upon whose devotion Bonaparte rched for executing what measures he might conceive necessary, were the officers and soldiers of the Armies of Italy and 'Egypt. Moreau, of whom he had at first entertained some fear, hearmg a vague rumour that a change Avas about to be effected through the agency of Napoleon, called on him and tendered his services. General Macdonald, who had recently acquhed a considerable reputation by his masterly retreat tlu-ough Italy, did the same. Fouche, then :Minister of PoHce, having pene- trated the secret, though not consulted, rendered essential assistance by negociating with the heads of departments. Joseph Bonaparte endeavom-ed to bring over Bernadotte, his brother-in-law; but the latter had formed an opinion of his OAvn importance, that was incom- patible with the secondary part offered him. He was jealous of the reputation of Napoleon, and anxious, as he could not emulate his fame, to lower that fame to the level of his own. The future King of Sweden, therefore, asserted a stern and inflexible love for repubhcanism, and spoke of defending the State from "enemies without and enemies within:" and having been partially trusted as to what was going forward, " he hawked about," says Dc Bourricnne, " the offer of his services to all those in the government, who were, hke himself, opposed to the apprehended change." The government, however, was perplexed with the imminence of its manifest peril, and knew not with which party the greatest danger lay. On the 15th of Brumaire, Napoleon and Sieyes had an interA-iew, at which it was resolved to strike the decisive blow on the 18th. It was then agreed, that the Council of Ancients, availing itself of the 102nd article of the Constitution, should decree the removal of the Legislative body to St. Cloud, and should appoint Napoleon Com- mander-in-chief of its OT\Ti Guard, of the troops of the mlHtary division of Paris, and of the National Guard. This decree was to be passed at seven in the morning ; at eight, Napoleon was to go to the Tuileries, where the troops would be assembled, and there assume the command of the capital. On the 17th, Cambaceres and Lebrun, to whom overtures had been 231 EIGHTEENTH BRUMAIRE. previously made, signified theii* adherence to Napoleon. The same evening, the Officers of the garrison and Adjutants of the National Guard, who had desii-ed introductions to the General, were separately- invited to be at his residence in the Rue de la Victoire by six o'clock the next morning : the three regiments of cavalry were informed that he would review them at the same hour in the Champs Elysecs. Moreau, Macdonald, Le Febvre (Commandant of the Guard of the Legislative body), the Generals of Italy and Egypt, the Officers of Napoleon's Staff, and all who were kno-vvn to be attached to him were requested to be in attendance at the same time, on horseback. So well were these invitations managed, that each officer believed himself to be the sole guest, and that he was summoned to receive orders, pre\'ious to Bonaparte's departure on a feigned joui'ney — a surmise supported by the fact, that Dubois Crance, Minister at War, was knoA\Ti to consult Napoleon, and to adopt his advice on all militaiy matters. Everything occurred as had been arranged. At seven in the morning of the 18th, the Council of Ancients assembled in the Tuileries, under the presidency of Le Mercicr. A report was cu-cu- lated, that a formidable conspu'acy of the Jacobins to overthrow the Dii-ectory and restore the Reign of Terror had just been detected. Cornudet, Lebrun, and Fargues, who had been successfidly tampered with by Lucien, depicted in glowing speeches the horrors to be feared for the Republic. Regnier proposed the removal of the sittings of the Legislative body to St. Cloud, and that Bonaparte should be invested with the command of the troops. " The nation," said this orator, " is threatened by anarchists and foreigners. Prompt measures must be used for the public safety. We are certain of the support of General Bonaparte. Under the shelter of his protecting arm, the Councils may discuss the changes which the public interests requii'e." After a violent opposition, the decree was passed. McanAvhile, the (h-agoons to be reviewed had repaired to the Champs Elysecs, and the military officers, in full uniform, with six or eight civilians, who had been in\ited, assembled at Napoleon's house in such numbers, that the house, the court in front, and even the entrance -yard, were too small to contain them. Bernadotte had been brought by Joseph Bonaparte ; but, unlike the others, he was not in 232 BERNADOTTE. uniform, nor on horseback. Napoleon observed, and asked the reason of this. " I am thus every morning when not on duty," said Berna- dotte. "You shall be on duty in a moment," replied Napoleon. " I have heard nothing to that effect," rejoined the former : " and if so, my instructions should have been sent me sooner." Bonaparte jr!i!!llllli;iil(llliii|fT!!l|l|i'L '!] i di*ew him aside and informed him of all that was intended. " Yom* Du-ectory," said he, "is detested; your Constitution grown stale. It has become necessary to make a clean house, and to give another dii'ection to the government. Go, then, put on your uniform. I cannot now wait longer ; but you will find me at the Tuilerics, in the midst of our comrades. Bcrnadotte," he added significantly, "you need not rely upon Moreau and Beurnonville, nor upon any of the Generals of your party. When you know men better, you will find that they promise much and perform little. Trust them not." — "I will take no part," replied Bernadotte angrily, " in what I cannot but consider a rebellion." Napoleon had no time to waste in discussing the matter; he therefore merely added a request that Bcrnadotte would do notliing agamst him. " As a citizen," replied the latter, " I shall remain quiet : but should the Directory give me orders, I will act against all perturbators." At half-past eight, a state-messenger brought to Napoleon's house 233 MILITARY PRECAUTIONS. the decree of the Council of Ancients. The General read this to the officers assembled; and, intimating that the salvation of France depended upon them, deshed all who were wiUing to support him to follow him. A majority of the visitors immediately drew their swords, and vowed fidelity to Napoleon and the Repubhc. All, with the exception of Bernadotte and one or two others, were soon on horseback, and on theu' way to the Tuileries, followed by fifteen hundred horsemen, who had been drawn up at an early hour on the Boulevard near the Rue Mont Blanc, to escort Bonaparte to the Champs Elys^es. The adjutants of the National Guard were desii-ed to return to their quarters, beat the g^n&ale, make knowTi the decree they had just heard, and announce that no orders were to be obeyed, but such as should emanate from Napoleon. On reaching . the hall of the Council of Ancients, the General and his staff were conducted to the bar. " You," said Napoleon, " are the wisdom of the nation. It belongs to you at this crisis to concert measures of salvation for the country. I come, surrounded by the generals of the Republic, to promise you our support. I appoint General Le Febvi'e my lieutenant. I will faithfully fulfil the task with which you have entrusted me. Let us not look into the past for precedents. The close of the eighteenth century has no parallel in history: nothing in the eighteenth century resembled this moment." The troops which he had promised to review were mustered in front of the Tuileries. On leavuig the Council he was received with deafening acclamations, by the vast assemblage which had been collected, partly from curiosity to learn what was passing, and partly to see the celebrated General, whose name was ringing tlu-oughout Europe and the East. After the review, the decree of the Ancients was read to the soldiers, and Napoleon briefly addressed them on the duties which they were called upon to perform. He then apportioned the command of the troops. To Lannes was given the command of those entrusted with the protection of the Legislative body ; to Murat, of those intended to be sent to St. Cloud ; and to Moreau, of the guard of the Luxembourg, with directions to permit no interference on the part of the Directors. The soldiers, placed under the orders of the latter, being devoted adherents of Napoleon, at first refused to obey a general whose patriotism, on account of his wi PROCLA.MATION. concealing the correspondence of Pichcgru, had become suspected. It was necessary for Bonaparte himself to assure them, that Moreau would act with honour and fidelity, before they would mai'ch with him. In the meantime, a proclamation, which had been prepared before- hand, was read in all the streets of Paris, being everywhere announced by beat of drum. " Citizens!" ran this document, " the Council of Ancients, the depository of the national wisdom, has just pronounced hNDhCAi. ets''" !-''•'"" a decree imposing upon General Bonaparte the duty of taking measures for the safety of the national representation. In con- formity with the act of the Constitution, the Legislative body is removed, in order that it may deliberate in seciurity, and dev-ise means to rescue the Republic from the disorganization to which the imbecility and treachery of every department of government is tending. At this important crisis, union and confidence are requu-ed. RaUy round the standard of the RepubUc ; there is no other method of fixing the government upon the basis of civil liberty, victory, peace, and happiness." INDECISION OF BARRAS. An aide-de-camp was now despatched to the Liixenibonrg, to com- municate the decree to the Directory. Gohier and Mouhns were in the pubhc hall of audience ; Barras, who had sent his secretary to remonstrate with Napoleon on the detention of himself and his colleagues, refused to appear, till he should receive an answer; Sieyes and Duces were at the Tuileries, whither they had accom- panied the mihtary officers in the morning. It being necessary that three Dhectors should be present at all deUberations, the inde- cision of Barras prevented any step being taken to save the existing Constitution. Mouhns, indeed, proposed to send a battalion to surroimd the house of Napoleon, and arrest him as a conspirator; and Bernadotte, who arrived while this proposal was in discussion, requested to be nominated as Bonaparte's colleague in command of the capital ; offering to lead troops upon which he could rely, to prevent the execution of any design against the liberties of the RepubHc ; and, if necessary, to enforce a sentence of outlawry against Napoleon. It was soon ascertained, however, that the soldiers would obey no orders but those of the man they were desired to oppose : even the guards of the Luxembourg laughed at the orders of their recent masters. Boutot, Barras's envoy, received at the Tuileries a scornful reply to the message which he brought. "What!" said Napoleon, assuming the tone of a Dictator to whom aU other authorities had become accountable for then* conduct, and with an eloquence that astonished aU who heard him : " What have you done with that fair France, which I left you so prosperous ? Instead of peace, I find war ; instead of victory, defeat. The wealth of Italy has been exchanged for taxation and misery. Where are the hundred thousand Frenchmen whom I knew — all of them my companions in glory? They are dead; while we, who have preserved the State by our efforts and our courage, are accounted enemies of the Repubhc. The age has produced no better patriots than the brave men who have shed their blood in defence of the nation." On receiving this answer, with a report of Napoleon's proceedings, Barras was overwhelmed with dismay. He dreaded impeachment for his flagrant peculations ; and to avert it, and conciliate the \dctor, he at once sent in his resignation, stating, " That he had undertaken the burdens of office solely from zeal for the good of the Republic, and to serve the cause of hbcrty; and that now. RESIGNATION OF THE DIRECTORS. seeing the destinies of the nation in the hands of her young and invincible General, he gladly resigned liis authority." Moulins and Gohier followed his example: Sieyes and Duces had pre%'iously resio-ned. The Du-ectory was thus dissolved, and Napoleon invested with the sole executive power of the Eepubhc. The ConstiUition had been abandoned to its fate, from a too profound respect to its forma- lities, which requii-ed the presence of three Directors to give validity to an act of government. In a somewhat similar way, a king of Castile who had fallen into the fii-e was suffered to perish, because there was no one present of the rank permitted by etiquette to touch the royal person." Cambaceres, Fouche, and the other ministers, hastened to the Tuileries, to congratulate, and offer their ser\aces to the new authority. Joui-dan and Augereau did the same, but were requested to remain quiet, and not risk any act that might obhtcrate the memory of their former services. Napoleon doubted their attachment to his person: Augereau, who saw that he did so, requested his confidence. "AVhat, General!" he said, "can you not rely on your little Augereau ?" The Council of Five Hundi-ed, of which Lucien was president, was unable to meet before ten o'clock, when, to the sm-prise and indignation of most of the members, they received a message fi-om the Council of Ancients, with a decree for the removal of the Legislature to St. Cloud, and forbidding any dehberation until such removal should be effected. It was useless to contest the point. The law was exphcit, and the decree consistent with the privilege of the Council; while the commotion which reigned throughout Paris, shewed the absolute necessity of submission. The meeting was, therefore, adjom-ned till the next morning, with an express determination fi-om the majority, however, to maintain the existing Constitution. The remainder of the day was passed by Napoleon at the TuHer^es. The troops were kept under arms. The populace thi'onged the streets, talking over the occui-rences of the day, or anxiously endeavouring to di^-ine the probable result of the morrow. Fouche, whom the general ferment rendered apprehensive of danger, gave directions for closing the barriers, and preventing the departure of couriers and coaches. Napoleon, on being informed of these orders, immediately counter- manded them. " Wherefore these precautions ?" he asked. " We act 237 KEMOVAL TO ST. CLOUD. on the opinions of the people, and by their strength alone. Let no citizen be interrupted, and let every pubKcity be given to our proceedings." The majority of the Council of Five Hundi-ed, the minority of the Ancients, and the Jacobin leaders, passed the night of the 18th in earnest consultation; as did also the partisans of Napoleon. At the meeting of the latter, Sieyes proposed that forty of the chiefs of the op- position should be arrested ; but to this Napoleon would not consent. " In the morning," said he, " I swore to protect the national repre- sentation ; I ■will not now \dolate my oath." It was, however, agreed that the government should be vested in three provisional Consuls, Bonaparte, Sieyes, and Duces, and that the two Councils should be adjom-ned for three months. General Mui-at then proceeded to St. Cloud; Pansard was appointed to the command of the Legislative Guard ; and Serrurier was stationed with a reserve force at Point-du- Jour. COUNCIL OF FIVE HUNDRED. In the morning of the 19th, the Deputies met at St. Qoud— the Council of Five Hundi-ed in the Orangery, and the Ancients in the Gallery of Mars. Napoleon, Sieyes, Duces, and the officers who attended them, took possession of the apartments afterwards known as the Saloon of Princes, and the Emperor's Cabinet. As soon as the sittings opened, which they did to music sounding the Marseillais, Emile Gaudin ascended the tribune of the Council of Five Huncbcd, and, after describing in an animated speech the dangers of the country, proposed the thanks of the Assembly to the Council of Ancients, for the measures of public safety which it had taken; and that a committee of seven persons should be immediately appointed to make a report upon the state of the Repubhc. A violent tumult succeeded this motion. Loud cries of disapprobation echoed from all parts of the hall. Several members rushed together to the tribune, anxious to speak ; and, in the confusion, Gaudin was hurled to the floor. Lucien, the President of the Council, and liis friends, were greatly alamied, not only for the success of their measure, but for their personal safety. As soon as a hearing could be obtained, Delbred proposed, that the members should renew the oath of fidelity to the Constitution of the year Three. Upon this, the Chamber at once proceeded to the Appel Nominal : a mode of voting in which each declared his opinion as his name was called by the Secretary. During the Appel, which occupied more than two hours, numbers of persons arrived from the capital, among whom were Joui'dan and Augereau. The latter, seeing the ferment which pervaded the Council, drew near to Napoleon, and said, " AVeU ! your situation here is an unpleasant one."—" Remember Areola!" replied Bona- parte ; " matters were much more desperate there. In half an hour, everything will take a different tui-n." The moment appeared, indeed, to be critical. The unanimity of the Assembly was such that no Deputy, not even Lucien, durst refuse the proposed oath. IMany added inflammatory speeches, intended for the ears of the soldiers, speaking of Caesar, and Cromwell, and a military Dictator. Those who had been the most decided for a change began to waver, and the timid became zealous for the Constitution. Napoleon saw that if he delayed, he would be inevitably lost. He hastily crossed the Saloon of Mars, and entermg the Council of Ancients, followed by two or 239 COUNCIL OF ANCIENTS. three of liis officers, placed himself at the bar, opposite to the President. " Representatives of the People," said he, " you are here in no ordinary circumstances. You stand on a volcano ! The Republic no longer possesses a government. Factions are busy, and the horn- of decision is come. I was living in privacy with my family, when you called me to arms. I instantly collected around me my brave comrades, and we have flown to your succour. Our zeal is rewarded with calumny: they talk of Csesar, of Cromwell, of military despotism. Had I desired to usurp the supreme authority, I might have done so ui)on the call of my fellow-citizens and soldiers, after oiu- triumphs in Italy; but I swear to you. Representatives of the People, that the country has no more zealous defender than myself. It is to you that we must look for safety. The Coimcil of Five Hundred- is divided and influenced by agitators and turbulent men, who would bring back the revolutionary tribunals, and who are even now sending out emissaries to instigate Paris to revolt. But fear not these criminal projects ; sm-rounded by my brethren in arms I shall find means to protect you from violence. And you, brave grenadiers, whose caps I observe at the doors of this haU, whom I have so often led to victory against banded kings — I, who am now accused of being hostile to liberty — say, did I ever break my word, when in the camp, in the midst of privations, I promised you victory and plenty, and when I led you from conquest to conquest? Say, was it for my own aggrandisement ? " Napoleon, though animated, was still perfectly collected. He spoke, however, with unwonted energy; and the grenadiers, waving their caps and brandishing their arms in the air, with one accord testified their assent to all he had urged. "I desire nothing for myself," he resumed, " but that you would save the Republic ; and not hazard the loss of those advantages for which we have made such great sacrifices — Liberty and Equality" " And the Constitution," exclaimed Linglet, a democratic member. " Swear with us. General, obedience to the Constitution of the year Three, which alone can save the Republic." This proposition took the Council by surprise, and disconcerted Napoleon himself; he presently recovered himself, however, and repUcd : " The Constitution of the year Thi-ee ? you have it no longer. PROPOSAL OF OUTLAWRY. You violated it on the 18th of Fructidor, when the government infringed the rights of the Legislative body; you violated it on the 30th of Praii-ial, in the year Seven, when the Legislative body struck at the independence of the government ; you violated it on the 22nd of Floreal, when, by a sacrilegious decree, the government and the Legislative body invaded the sovereignty of the people, by annulling their elections. The Constitution is a mockery, invoked by all parties, and disregarded by all in turn. It can no longer afford safety to any, for it has lost the respect of all. The Constitution being violated, there must be a new compact, new guarantees." Many members rose on the conclusion of this address, to indicate their approbation. Cornudet and Regnier spoke in support of the General's assertions ; but there were others who hesitated not to denoimce Napoleon as the only conspirator against public liberty. Some in\'ited him to enter into details as to the conspiracies to which he had alluded; others shouted for the appointment of a general committee to deliberate on the state of the country. Bonaparte briefly informed the Council of the offers which had been made by Barras and others, to put him at the head of a party, and invest him with the sovereign power of the State ; and that all parties agreed in despising the Constitution of the year Three. At this moment he was informed that the Appel Nominal was terminated in the Council of Five Hundred, and that the members were endeavouring to force the President to put the outlawry of his brother to the vote. After muttering a few indistinct words, Napo- leon turned sharply roimd, and exclaiming, " Let all who love me follow me," quitted the hall. He was received by the soldiers in the court-yard with reiterated cries of "Vive Bonaparte!" But he was now perceptibly agitated. The storm in the Council of Five Hundi-ed was at its height, and the General's partisans there, although numerous, were overawed and wavering. Yet, however uncertain the result of the day, there was no retreat. The last stake must perforce be ventured, and a few hours more would decide whether Napoleon should sleep next day in the palace of the Luxemboui-g, or finish his career in the Place de la Revolution. The Council was discussing the legality of Barras's resignation, the notification of which had just been read from the chair, when the 2 I NAPOLEON IN DANGER. plumed hats of generals and aides-de-camp, the caps of grenadiers, di-awn sabres, and bristling bayonets, became visible at the entrance of the chamber. Napoleon, leaving the soldiers at the door, advanced alone, and uncovered, about half way up the room, when two or three hundred members rose simultaneously, amid vociferations of " Death to the T}Tant ! " " Down with the Dictator ! " " Outlaw the new Cromwell! — the Traitor!" Bonaparte attempted to speak; but his words died away amid the universal uproar. Several members advanced to seize him ; and one, catching his arm, exclaimed, "Madman! you profane the sanctuary of the laws! — "VVithdi-aw ! " At this instant, some of the grenadiers, fearing for the safety of their chief, rushed forward, overthi'owing all that opposed their passage, surtounded Napoleon, and forced him out of the chamber. In the struggle, a soldier named Thome received a dagger-thi-ust ; aimed, it is said, at the breast of Napoleon, by Arena, a deputy from Corsica. Napoleon's nerves, strong as they generally were, seemed com- pletely shaken by the unexpected treatment he had experienced. He staggered as he descended the steps of the hall to the coiu't-yard ; and M2 LUCIEN. was scarcely able to speak. In broken words, he said to those near him : " I was about to point out to them the means of saving the Repubhc, and restoring the national glory. They have answered me with daggers. What more could the AUied Kings— could England — have done ?" In the Council, the rage and commotion of the Members increased on the withdrawal of Napoleon. Lucien endeavoiu-ed to cahn them, but he was interrupted by loud cries for a sentence of outlawry against his brother. " He has tarnished liis glory!" " He is an enemy to the Republic!" with similar and more violent exclamations, were all that c6uld be distinguished in the assembly, and disapprobation seemed to be universal. The President quitted the chair, and suc- ceeded in reaching the ti-ibune. " You wish me," he said, " to put to the vote a sentence of outlawy against my Brother, the sa\iour of his country, whose very name makes kings tremble?" But all appeals were vain. Finding, after several ineffectual attempts, that he could not obtain a hearing, he thi-ew off his hat, robe, and scarf of office, and descended the tribune to quit the hall, whence he was borne in safety by a body of gi-enadiers, sent in for that purpose by Napoleon. Matters were now come to extremity on each side. The Council was without a President, and the members were all too greatly agitated to be capable of acting with the cahnness and decision which the crisis demanded. Lucien, on gainmg the coui-t, instantly mounted on horse- back, amid the cheers of the soldiers, and exclaimed, in liis deep, powerful voice : " General, and you. Soldiers of France! the President of the Council of Five Hundi-ed proclaims to you that factious men, with di-aTVTi daggers, have interrupted the deliberations of the Assem- bly : he calls upon you to employ force against the disturbers.— The Council of Five Hundi-ed is dissolved !" Napoleon, who had become reassured, now in his turn harangued the troops : " Soldiers ! " he cried, " I have often led you to victory: can I rely on you?" He was answered with shouts of "Vive Bonaparte!" There was some hesitation, however, among the grenadiers, when they perceived that they were required to act against the National Representatives. Lucien observing this, unsheathed his sword, and called out, " I swear to pierce the bosom of my o^vni Brother, if ever he entertain a thought injiu-ious to the liberties of Frenchmen." Renewed shouts rent the 243 EXPULSION OF THE COUNCIL. air ; and, at a signal from Napoleon, Murat, at the head of a detach- ment in close column, wath fixed bayonets, entered the hall. Cries of fear now became mingled with vociferations and screams of " Vive la Republique !" Some of the Deputies at once quitted the hall; but others remained fii-m, and continued to vent their indignation against this military intrusion. Their clamour was at length drowned by the drums, beating the charge. As the bayonets advanced, occupying the whole width of the chamber, the most resolute members became alarmed, and, tearing off their gowns, scarfs, and hats, made their escape through the windows. It was proposed to Napoleon at this moment, that the fugitives should be fii'cd upon as they fled thi-ough the gardens; but to this dastardly request, he replied by enjoming the soldiers to commit no excesses. " It is my wish," he said, " that not one chop of blood may be shed." About a hundred of the members, known to be favourable to Bonaparte, and who had sought refuge in the courts and galleries 244 PROVISIONAL CONSULS. of the palace, were now collected by Lucien ; and they proceeded in a body to the Council of Ancients, which had witnessed the expulsion of the Five Hundi-ed with great uneasiness. The explanations given by Lucien, although full of exaggeration, and containing statements which all who heard him must have kno^v^l to be untrue, were received as satisfactory; and, eventually, it was decided to appoint two committees of twenty-five members each, to represent the Councils provisionally, report upon the state of the Kepublic, and prepare a civil code. The Councils were to be adjourned to the 1st of the following Ventose (19th of February), and Sieyes, Duces, and Napo- leon invested, as Consuls, with the executive power of the Republic. The business closed with a vote of thanks to the troops for the happy issue of the day. Thus the Constitution of the year Three, which had been estabhshed by the arms of Napoleon, on the day of the Sections in 1795, now, (10th November, 1799,) through the same arms, ceased to exist. At two o'clock in the morning of the 20th of Brumaire, the Pro- visional Consuls repaii-ed to the Orangery, where amid scattered fragments of the official robes of the Five Hundred, a spiritless remnant of the two Councils, reduced, Bourrienne says, to about thirty members, proceeded, by a mockery of legal forms, to invest the new government with its authority. Lucien, who presided, deUvered the following address: — "Citizen Consvds! The greatest people on earth entrusts its fate to you. . . The welfare of thiity milKons of men, internal quiet, the wants of the national armies, peace, — such are to be your cares. Doubtless, courage and devotion to your duties are requisite for the due performance of such important functions : but the confidence of om- people and warriors is with you; and the Legislative body is assured that your hearts are wholly with the Country. Previously to adjourning we have taken the oath, which you wiU repeat in the midst of us — the sacred oath of fidelity to the Sovereignty of the People, to the French Republic, one and indivisible, to Liberty, Equality, and the representative system." This nocturnal scene is said to have been of the most gloomy cha- racter. The hall was full of overtui-ned benches. The President's desk was near the middle, with its back against the bare wall ; a Httle in advance of which was a table and two chairs for the secretaries. A PROCLAMATION. few candles were dispersed about the vast arched chamber, but there being no chandeHer or lamp, the light was ghastly and dungeon-like ; while on three benches, which had been adjusted for the occasion, reclined a few Deputies, pale, cold, and haggard ; and several lackeys waited in the background to accompany their masters to Paris. By thi'ee the oaths were administered, and Napoleon, who had taken no refreshment during the day, and who, indeed, seemed insensible to physical wants in seasons of energetic action, was in his carriage, and on his way to repose for the last time in his humble residence, in the Rue de la Victoire. At dawn the walls of Paris were placarded with the following proclamation, which during the preceding night had been read in the streets by torchlight : — " Citizens ! • On my return to Paris I found discord pervading every department of government, and this single truth alone unanimously agreed on — ' that the Constitution was half destroyed, and no longer capable of maintaining our liberties.' Every party by turns applied to me, disclosed to me its designs, and solicited my support. I refused to become the head of any faction. The Council of Ancients called on me : I answered the appeal. A plan for a general reform had been devised by men, in whom the nation is accustomed to behold the defenders of Liberty, Equality, and Property. This plan demanded calm, free, and impartial examination, unfettered by influence or fear. The Council of Ancients, therefore, determined upon the removal of the Legislative body to St. Cloud ; and entrusted me Avith the disposal of the force necessary for the maintenance of its independence. I deemed it due to our fellow-citizens, to the soldiers who are laying down their lives in our ranks, and the glory purchased by their blood, to accept the command. The Councils met at St. Cloud; the troops of the Kci^ublic guaranteed safety without : but assassins spread terror within. Several Deputies of the Council of Five Hundred, armed with daggers and pistols, threatened death to their companions. The plans which were to have been brought forward were withheld, the majority of the assembly was disorganized, the most intrepid orators were disconcerted, and the futility of any sober proposition became but too evident. " Indignant and grieved, I hastened to the Council of Ancients, and entreated it to allow mc to carry its designs for the pubHc good into 346 PROCLAMATION. execution. I urged the misfortunes of the Country which had sug- gested them. The Council seconded my vie-ws, by new testimony of imabated confidence. I then offered myself to the Chamber of Five Hundi-ed — alone, unarmed, my head uncovered, as I had been received by the Ancients, with so much approbation. Instantly the daggers which had menaced the deputies, were raised against their defender. Twenty assassins rushed upon me, aiming at my breast. The grenadiers of the Legislative guard whom I had left at the door of the chamber, hastily interposed between these mui-derers and myself. One of these brave fellows (Thome) received a thi-ust from a poniard which pierced thi'ough his clothes. . . They then crowded round the President, threatening him, with arms in their hands. I gave du-ections for rescuing hun from their fury, and ten grenadiers of the Legislative body charged into the chamber, and cleared it. The factious parties, intimidated, dispersed and fled. The majority, relieved from their violence, returned fr-eely and peaceably into the chamber, listened to the proposals made to them, and on due deliber- ation, framed the wholesome resolutions which are about to become the new and provisional law of the RepubKc. Frenchmen ! you will doubtless recognise in my conduct the zeal of a soldier of Liberty, of a citizen devoted to the Republic. The principles on which preser- vation, protection, and liberality depend, are restored to their due preponderance by the dispersion of those factious men who tyrannise over the Councils, and who, though they have been prevented fi-om becoming the most odious, are nevertheless the most -RTctchcd of men." This proclamation was unworthy of Napoleon. The inefficiency and venahty of the government he had overthrown, the state of political parties, and the disorganization of the whole country, sufficiently justified his conduct, or it was incapable of justification. The misrepresentation and falsehood to which he had recourse, respecting the violence of the Council of Five Hundred, were calcu- lated only to injure him in public estimation, to justify the faithlessness of time-serving friends, and to afibrd a strong vantage-ground to his enemies, when the fever and panic of the moment should have passed away. Long afterwards he set the matter in its true light, when he said to Las Cases: — "Metaphysicians have disputed, and will long 247 JUSTIFICATION OF NAPOLEON. dispute, whether in these proceedings the laws were not criminally violated : but such reasonings are mere abstractions, fit only for books and tribunes, and of no weight in cases of imperious necessity. A sailor might as well be blamed for waste and destruction when he cuts away his masts to avoid shipwreck. The fact is that, had it not been for me, the country must have been lost, and I saved it. The authors and instruments of that memorable change, instead of denials or justifications, have a right to answer then- accusers proudly, like the Roman hero, — 'We protest that We have saved our country: come ■with us, and return thanks to the gods.'" 24B CHAPTER X. PROVISIONAL CONSULATE -REFORMS -CONSTITUTION OF THE YEAR EIGHT -NEW CONSULATE-PACIFICATION OF LA VENDEE-LETTER TO THE KING OF ENGLAND-EMBASSY TO PRUSSIA— THE EMPEROR PAUL-THE LUXEM- BOURG. 1799- OiiD as were the complaints of the defeated Jacobins against what they called the usur- pation of Napoleon, the great body of the French people did not fail to regard the change of government as a national bless- ing. All parties were disgusted with the incapacity of the Directors, and with the insccm-ity of life and property with which the so-called Kcign of Liberty had been marked thi'oughout. All were anxious for the re -establishment of tranquillity; and this, it had been fully proved, could only be obtamed imdcr a government possessing sufficient vigour to .make its influence felt and respected. General Bonaparte had the confidence of the nation in a greater degree than any man of the time. He had rendered important ser^dces to the country; was a man of no faction; had never compromised himself by any mean or unworthy act to secure personal wealth or aggrandisement ; had not publicly exhibited that amhition which reaUy actuated him; and had been pccuharly modest and concihating in his deportment, freely sharmg the glory of PROVISIONAL CONSULS. his actions with those who had assisted to achieve them; and dis- jihiying upon all occasions an earnest alacrity to do justice to the talents, and to advance the fortunes, of such as distinguished them- selves in the discharge of theii- duty. On him, therefore, rested the hopes of France after the revolution which had just been effected. His colleagues in the consulate, as having formed part of the displaced and despised Dh'cctory, were men of comparatively little weight. Sieyes had expected that Napoleon's attention would be exclusively devoted to mihtary affairs, and that on other business his own opinion would have governed that of the General, as well as of Roger Ducos, who had hitherto voted with liim in all things. He confidently anticipated, therefore, that the post of Chief Consul would be willingly PROVISIONAL CONSULS. conceded to him ; and that his pohtical speculations would have been adopted, without question, in framing the Constitution M^liich the Consuls, in conjunction with the Committees of the two Legislative Councils, had been charged to prepare. He was soon undeceived in his expectations. Napoleon, on entering the council-room at the Luxembourg, on the morning of the Uth of November, seated himself at once in the only armed-chaii- at the table. The Abbe immediately introduced the question of the presidency; and was answered by Duces, who said that Bonaparte was already in the chair, which belonged to him of right, and that it was therefore useless to waste time in voting upon the question, adding, that the General alone was able to save France, and that he would cordially support and co-operate with him. Sieyes was exceedingly mortified. but was compelled to submit. In the discussion that followed, the aged politician was perfectly astonished to find, that instead of one whose knowledge was confined to the details of war and the dhection of armies, he had in Napoleon a coadjutor, with settled opinions on matters of national pohcy, finance, jurisprudence, diplomacy, and every branch of civil administration ; that he was able to support his views with, arguments at once clear and concise ; and that it would be difficult to divert him from any purpose which he conceived necessary 251 AVARICE OF SIEYES. to be carried into execution; — in short, that Napoleon was capable of governing independently, and was Httle disjiosed to brook the inter- ference of others in matters which might involve the future destinies of the country. Sieyes appears to have arrived at the conclusion, from the tone of this first meeting, that no interest in the Republic coidd henceforward compete with that of Napoleon, and that the Revolution was ended. On returning home in the evening, he said to those with whom he had acted in concerting measures for the 18tli of Brumaire — Tallep'and, Boulay, Rcederer, and others, — " Gentle- men, we have a Master : Bonaparte can and will do everything himself. But," he added, after a pause, " in the deplorable situation of France, it is better to submit than to protract dissensions which must end in .utter ruin." The opposition of the old man might probably have been more formidable, but that Napoleon had ah'eady found means to propitiate him. Sieyes loved money above all things. " He had," says De Bourrienne, " ' give me money ' written in his face. For this idol he would sacrifice every other consideration; even his favourite notion of a perfect Constitution might be kept in abeyance for a round sum." The first sitting of the Consuls sufficed to develope the extent of his avarice, and of the venality and fraudulent embezzlements of the Directorial government. As soon as they had settled the presidency, Sieyes drew the attention of Napoleon to a sort of cabinet in the apartment, and with great mystery informed him that it contained ei^ht hundred thousand francs (upwards of thirty-three thousand pounds). " The Directory," said the Abbe, " contemplating the possibility of its retiring members being penniless on returning to their families, created in this chest a resource against such a calamity. Every Dhector, on the expiration of his term of office, was entitled to draw therefrom a good sum. The Directory being abolished, it remains for us to dispose of the remainder." — " If it comes to my knowledge," replied Napoleon, laughing, "the sum shall go to the public treasuiy; but,' as I know nothing of it yet, you and Ducos, being old Directors, can divide it between you. Make haste, however, or to-morrow may be too late." There was no time lost. Sieyes undertook the division, which he performed in much the same way as the lion divided the spoil in the fable. He made four- lots. 253 NEW MINISTRY. one of wliich he took as eldest Director, another because he was to have continued in office longer than his colleague; and a third because he had suggested the happy change wliich had placed the amount in their hands. Ducos very reasonably mui-mured at receiving only a fourth of the plunder, and appealed to Napoleon for his decision on the subject; but the General refused to interfere, and told them that if the matter came to his ears officially, he should not hesitate to make them refand the whole. It seems scarcely credible, that while this was passing, the whole disposable sum in the public treasmy was twelve hundred francs (fifty pounds); and Bonaparte, on the second day of the consulate, was obhged to apply for a loan before he could despatch a courier to the Commander of the Army of Italy. The new government commenced its operations by the formation of an efficient ministry. Ahnost every office was fomid to be in the possession of men utterly ignorant of their duties, and desu'ous only of reahzing money by situations to which they had been appointed for gold. Dubois de Craned, the Minister at War, was unable to furnish a single report on the state of the army. Many corps had been formed in the provinces, of which the existence was unknown to the Minister. He was asked for an account of the pay. " We don't pay the army," was the reply. " Fui-nish, then, the returns of the Victualhng-office."-"It is out of our department."-" WeU, the clothing?"— "We do not clothe the troops." The pay, it appeared, was obtained by anticipating the treasury; and clothing and subsistence by means of requisitions, or forced loans, charged upon the property of the people on the credit of future assessments, the A\^ar-officc exercising no kind of control, as to amount or distribution. Berthier, who as chief of Napoleon's staff, had been long accustomed to regularity and economy, superseded De Crance, and immcchately took measures for obtaining all the necessary information towards re-estabhshing order. GaucUn, a man of inflexible probity, was appointed Minister of Finance. He found the treasury empty, the government without credit, the revenues anticipated, and the rate of interest fixed at sLx per cent. His first step was to put an end to the compulsory loans, which operated injui-iously upon every species of property, "impoverishing the wealthy, preventing the poor from growing richer, and chying up all sources of public income." Gaudin 253 REFORMS. ■would not sleep a single night after the portfolio had been entrusted to him till he had drawn up and submitted to the Consuls an act to repeal and remedy this mischievous law. Cambaceres retained the Administration of Justice, Fouche the Police, and Eeinhard the ]\[inistry of Foreign Affairs. La Place, the great geometrician, was appointed Minister of the Interior ; but he soon proved inadequate to the post, and was superseded. " It seemed as if his philosophic mind, formed to comprehend the system of the universe, and to interpret the laws of nature, coidd not stoop to the labours of detail, nor apply its powers to the cares of human legislation." He sought for meta- physical subtleties in everything; looked at every question as a problem ; and carried the doctrine of the infinite divisibility of matter into the business of the State. A more suitable office was assigned to Monge — the' definitive organization of the Polytechnic School, then in its infancy, but since rendered one of the most celebrated, if not the most useful, institutions in the world. The law of Hostages, which had been passed in the preceding July, and which was both cruel and unreasonable, was repealed. The object of this enactment was, to make the relatives of emigrants answerable in person and property for all the mischief ai'ising from the insurrections still existing in La Vendee and other departments. INIany thousands of women, old men, and helpless children had been thus persecuted. The number of sufferers is stated to have exceeded a huncked and fifty thousand. Couriers were sent in every direction to open the prisons — an act of justice and humanity which was hailed by aU classes as a pledge of returning moderation and security. The former intolerant laws against the priesthood, by which those who had taken the oaths and those who refused to submit were alike subjected to proscription, were amended. It was laid down as a principle by Napoleon, and this in opposition to the pre- judices of his colleagues, that conscience was not amenable to the laws, which could rightfully exact civU obedience and fidelity only. The fii-st step was to prder that all priests, who were imprisoned or transported, should be set at liberty on taking the oath of allegiance to the existing government. Upwards of twenty thousand clerg}Tnen, who had been languishing in exile or in prison, were thus, within a vciy short time, restored to their families and flocks. The decades, 2M RECALL OF EMIGRANTS. and the philosophic ritual of theophilanthropy were abolished, and the churches again devoted to Christian worship. The remains of Pope Pius VI., who had died at Valence, whither he had retii-ed after the Roman revolution, and whose body had been left without sepulture in the sacristy of the cathedral, were honoured with a public funeral, celebrated with all the solemnities due to his high and holy office. Several noble emigrants, who had been shipwrecked some years before on the coast of France, and who, by order of the Directory, had been di'agged from prison to prison without being brought to trial, received theii* liberty. The men of the second emigration, and •those who had fled after the 18th of Fructidor, having acknow- ledged the sovereignty of the people, although enemies to jacobinism, were erased from the proscription list. This measure restored to France, and to the enjoyment of their property which had not been sold. La Fayette, Latour-Maubourg, Bureau de Pusy, Cai-not, and /snr, 255 NEW LAWS. others. Sicyes was greatly alarmed at some of these acts. " The emigrants," said he, "will return in crowds. The Royalists will again raise then- heads, and the Republicans will be massacred." So deeply was he affected by the terror of secret plots and assassination, that he once awoke Napoleon at three o'clock in the morning, to inform him of some vague conspnacy which had just been discovered by the police. " Have they corrupted our guard?" asked Napoleon. "No," replied Sieyes. ^' Then go to bed, and let them alone;" said the Chief Consul : " in war, as well as in love, we must come to close quarters to make an end of it. It will be time enough to be alarmed when our six hundred men are attacked." The fears of the Abbe were unfounded. The generosity exhibited by his colleague was a better safeguard for the government than could have been found in any mere precautionary measures. France, however, was by no means free from internal enemies. The inhabitants of La Vendee and Languedoc, as well as of Belgium, were still in open insurrection, and continued to proclaim their resolution to restore the throne of the Bourbons. Napoleon opened ncgociations with the leaders of these bands, and at the same time directed against them a considerable military force. Meanwhile, he adopted several measures of policy to tranquillize men's minds, unite all parties in obedience to the laws, and settle the government upon a firm and satisfactory basis. In the first place, the oath of hatred to royalty was suppressed, as being useless and factious, and contrary to the majesty of the Republic, which requii-ed no such guarantee fi'om its citizens. To this measure there was probably another incentive : a new monarchical oath of fidelity was, there is reason to believe, ah'eady in contemplation. The anniversary of the death of Louis XVI., " an excellent person, but," according to Napoleon, " too good and easy, and wanting knowledge to deal with the world," was abolished; though it may be added, by a mere ruse — the decree upon which it was founded being one for suppressing all public fetes, save only those of the 22nd of September and the 14th of July; the first, the era of the foundation of the Republic, and the latter, that of the estabhshment of Liberty. The next step was to form a general Committee of the Consuls and Legislative Committees, for the purpose of framing a new Constitution, that should remedy the evils of the old, and prevent 25« SIEYES' CONSTITUTION. the meeting of the two Councils on the day fixed at the time of their adjournment. The meetings for this purpose occurred in the month of December, in the apartment of Napoleon. Sieyes was requested to produce the Constitution he had by him, and which had been greatly extoUed by his friends and admii-ers. After some hesitation, occasioned, perhaps, by a conviction that many of its fair proportions would be frittered away, he produced a plan, by which all power was acknowledged to spring from the people, who were not, however to exercise any power dii-ectly, but to delegate it by a comphcated process to a few of their number, to be exercised at last without any regard to the fitness of those entrusted with it. There were to be three hsts of notables: the first to consist of a tenth of the citizens of each commune, elected by the mhabitants; the second, of a tenth of the citizens named in the communal lists of each department; and the thii-d, of a tenth of those comprised in the departmental hsts; the latter, reduced to six thousand persons, to form the national notability, from among whom the pubhc functionaries of the State were to be chosen. The defect of the system was, as all the officers of the repubhc were to be chosen from these Hsts, in the order of their pro- oression, the government would have been prevented from emplo:ying Lany individuals fit for office, merely because they were not included in the nomination; and every five years there was to be a new election. The Representatives were to consist of two bodies : the Lecrislative, or conservative Senate, which should determine by baUot, without being permitted to discuss; and a Tribunate, which should report and argue upon the laws propounded to it by a Council of State, named by the government, but possessing no power to vote. The supreme power was to be vested in a Grand Elector, to be chosen for life by the conservative Senate, to possess a revenue of six millions of francs per annum, and a guard of three thousand men, and to reside in the palace of VersaiUes. To tliis mock sovereign were foreign ambassadors to be accredited, and from him were aU French ministers to receive their credentials. All acts of government, laws, and judicial proceedings were to be in liis name. He was to represent the national glory, power, and dignit^y-; but his influence upon pid^lic affairs was Umited to the appointment of two Consuls, one for peace, and the other for war, cntii-ely independent of each GRAND ELECTOR. other, and subject to removal by the Grand Elector alone; who, however, in his turn, was to be "merged in the conservative Senate" if at any time he shoidd be guilty of an arbitrary exercise of power. Napoleon had tacitly acceded to the preceding portions of the scheme. He probably cared nothing about the structure of the representation, so long as the substantial executive power was left unrestrained in his own hands ; by means of which he well knew that he should be able to neutralize all other influences. The pro- posal for the Grand Elector, however, proved Sieyes' ruin. The First Consul ridiculed to the author's face the metaphysical absur- dity of the plan propounded. " Can you conceive," he asked, "that any man of the least talent or honour would humble himself to accept an office, the duties of which are merely to fatten like a pig on so many milHons a year? If your Grand Elector choose to abuse his prerogative, -you give him absolute power. He may say, for example, when he appoints the Consuls for war and peace, ' If you nominate a single minister, or sign a single act, without my previous approbation, I will remove you.' And then, what would be the situation of these two prime ministers — the one surrounded by judges, financiers, and civilians, the other by military men and dij)lomatists ; the latter, wanting men and money for liis armies, and the former, refusing all supplies ! Such a government would be heterogeneous and irrational — the shadow of a State, without the consistency of one." He added two or three words which decided the question — " /would never consent to be your Grand Elector." Sicyes was unable to answer these objections, and remained embar- rassed and silent, while his Grand Elector and two Consuls were set aside. The government determined upon was — that of a First Consul, in whom the sovereign power was to be vested, with the sole privilege of nominating to all offices, and two subordinate Consuls, who were to be his indispensable councillors, but to have deliberative voices only. Napoleon was appointed First Consul for ten years; the office of Second Consul, to continue also for ten years, was offered to Sieyes; but, fi-om disappointment and chagrin at finding his system rejected, and a secondary part assigned to himself, he declined the situation, and expressed a wish to retii-e from pubhc Hfe; Canibaceres was, therefore, nominated in his stead ; and Lebrun, a man of sterling abilities and Sie CONSULATE. tried integrity, was chosen Third Consul, to continue in office for five years only. The Abbe, in compensation for his many previous services, had the valuable estate of Crosne voted to liim, together with the dignity of a senator; and he thenceforth disappeared from poh- tical life, being, as it was said, effectually merged in his o^\'n theories. "The Constitvition of the year Eight" was pubHshed on the 13th, and came mto operation on the 24th of December, at which period. Napoleon afterwards said, his reign had really commenced. The proclamation by which it was announced concludes as follows: — " The Constitution is founded on the true principles of representative government ; on the sacred rights of property, equality, and liberty. The powers it has created are strong and diu-ablc, as they should be to secure the rights of citizens, and the interests of the State. Citizens! the Kevolution, being fixed on the principles in which it originated, is 7101U ended!'' That the French people generally were disposed to look with a favom-able eye upon the new government is apparent from the fact, that while fovir millions of citizens inscribed then- acceptance of the Constitution between the date of its pubhcation and establisliment, only a few names, and those of kno^^ai Jacobins, were registered as non-contents. The troubles in Toulouse, in the South of France, and in Belgium, had gradually subsided, as the principles and intentions of the govern- ment were developed: but the Vendeans and Chouans continued to maintain a depredatory warfare in eighteen departments of the Republic. Many of their chiefs, however, worn out with the fruitless struggle, alarmed by the force sent against them, and the vigour which began to display itself in every branch of the pubhc administi-ation, and dazzled by the reputation of Napoleon, who began to supersede the Bourbons in the affections of the warlike peasantry of the disturbed districts, now sued for peace. Chatillon, Suzannet, D'Auti- champ, and the Abb^ Bernier, submitted at Montlucon on the 17th January, 1800. Bernier and Chatillon attached themselves to the Fii-st Consul, and the former eventually became Bishop of Orleans. La Prevelay and Bourmont shortly afterwards laid down their arms, and came to Paris. Georges Cadoudal, a peasant of Morbihan, the most courageous and able of the insurgent leaders, chose to continue the war in Britany, and the Count de Frotte in Normandy, by which, VENDEANS. imclcr tlic pretext of political partisanship, tliey were enabled to maintain themselves and their followers, by pillage, in a state of the grossest licence. They laid the rich under contribution, as purcha- sers of the national domains ; robbed the public conveyances, under pretence that they carried the revenues of the State ; and plundered the provincial banks, because they were sometimes employed in the ti'ansactions of the government. For every species of extortion they had a ready and ingenious plea. At the same time, they kept up a correspondence wdth the vilest inhabitants of the capital, gamblers, swdndlers, spies, and felons, through whose agency they disposed of their booty, raised recruits, and obtained intelligence that enabled them to waylay travellers, and render their ambuscades of greater effect. Frotte was shortly afterwards betrayed by Guidal, the com- mandant at Alencon, who had been admitted to his confidence ; and, being brought to trial, was condemned and shot. So little desirous, however, was Napoleon of executing men for political offences, that he even granted a suspension of the sentence of Frotte: though it 260 NEW MINISTRY. unfortunately readied its destination too late. Georges was attaclccd, and hemmed in at Grand-Champ, where he capitulated, gave up his arms and artillery, and promised obedience to the laws as a good and peaceable subject. He solicited and obtained a private inter>dcw with Napoleon, who sought, but in vain, to win the Breton to his interest;— Georges departed, avowing the same sentiments of attach- ment to'legitimate royalty which he had always professed. Could he have been won, there is Httle doubt he would have acquired distinction. Bonaparte was much grieved at his obstinacy, but admitted, that " the very exaggeration of his notions had its origin in noble ideas, which could nor^il to give him great influence with his countrymen." The civil war was now at an end, and its termination aflbrdcd scope to the government for other operations. The formation of the new government gave the First Consul an opportunity of making many desh-able changes in the pro^dsional ministry. In this it was his chief object to secui-e the services of men of talent and experience, without any reference to their former acts or opinions. Practical men, of whatever party, were employed without scruple. Capacity and wilhngness to take office T^'ere all the recommendations requii-ed : for mediocrity Napoleon had a profound contempt; but the class of persons most especially disliked by him were the mere oracles of coteries; people Avho were con- tinually talking. " I want," said he, " more head and less tongue." In Cambac^res and Lebrun, he had for associates the representatives of the two great parties wliich divided France : the former, of noble bii-th, was an aristocrat by inclination, and attached to old institutions, old prejudices, personal honoui's, and distinctions; while Lebnm, sprung from the hardy Norman peasantry, was the stern advocate of popular rights and democratic equality. On the elevation of the Second Consul, M. D'Abrial, a peer of France, was appointed Minister of Justice. " I know you not, Citizen D'Abrial," said Napoleon, on handing him his official portfoho; " but I am informed that you are the most upright man in the magistracy. It is on that account I have named you INIinister of Justice." Reinhard, as Foreign Minister, was superseded by Talleyrand. Some objections were made to his vacillating politics. - He is the ablest ISIimster for Foreign Affairs in our choice," said Bonaparte; " and it shaU be my NEW MINISTRY. care to make liim exert his abilities." There was another advantage which had its weight in the choice of this person : he was a noble of the old regime, and foreign ambassadors would be likely to ncgociate with one of their own rank, who was already known for refinement of manners, elegance of address, and great talents, with less repugnance than with a mere revolutionist. Carnot was objected to, as an inflexible Republican. " Be it so," was the reply; " he is one of the last Frenchmen that woidd wish to see France dismembered. His talents in the war department are unrivalled; and we ought to avail oui'selves of them, Avhile he is willing to place them at our command." Fouche had rendered himself infamous, as well in public as in private life, by his notorious peculations, falsehood, and pro- fligacy. " Fouche," said Napoleon, " and Fouche alone, is able to conduct the ministry of the police ; he alone has a perfect knowledge of all the factions and intrigues which have been spreading misery through France. We cannot create men ; but must take such as we find ; and it is easier to modify by circumstances the feehngs and conduct of an able servant than to supply his place. "We are creating a new era. Of the past we must remember only the good, and forget the evil!" The same principles governed the nomination of all the persons required to be placed in authority by the Constitution of the year Eight. The object of this amalgamation of parties, and suppression of political distinctions, is not difficult to be understood. All things were visibly tending to the consolidation of a new and superior power, which had nothing in common with, and therefore no sympathy for, any of the opinions or systems it had supplanted. A day or two after receiving his appointment, Talleyrand, during an interview with Napoleon, made use of these remarkable expressions : — " Citizen General ! you have confided to me the administration of foreign affairs. I will justify your confidence ; but I deem it my duty at once to declare that I will consult with you alone. That our country may be well governed, that there may be unity of action, it is indis- pensable that the First Consul retain the direction of all that pertains to politics — namely, the Home, Foreign, and Police departments, together with those of War and the Marine. I would, therefore, with your permission, advise that the Second Consul, who is an able 262 HONORARY SABRES. lawyer, should have the clu-ection of Legal afFah-s ; and that the third should govern the Finances. This will occupy and amuse them; while you. General, having at your disposal the vital powers of government, will be enabled to attain the noble object of your aims — the regeneration of France.' ^Mien the Minister had departed. Napoleon confessed to his secretary, that his views had been detected : " Tallepand," he added, " gives good counsel : he is a man of excel- lent sense. AVhat he ad\'ises it is my intention to do. They walk ■s\-ith speed who walk alone. Lebrun is an excellent person ; but he has no political knowledge — he v^Titcs books. Cambaceres has too many traditions of the Eevolution. My government must be quite new." Another preparatory step towards the contemplated new order of thmgs was the distribution of honorary sabres among the soldiery — the germ from which sprung the Legion of Honour. A serjeant of grenadiers, named Aune, having been thus distinguished, obtained -^^im^m^^S^^^^^^^^ 2fiZ LETTER TO GEORGE III. permission to write his thanks to the First Consul. Napoleon replied as follows : — " I have received your letter, my brave comrade. You have no need to tell me of your actions. Since the death of the gallant Benezette, you are the bravest grenadier in the army. You have had one of the fii'st hundred sabres which I have distributed. Every soldier agrees that you were the person who best deserved it. — I wish to see you again. The Minister of War sends you an order to come to Paris." This letter circulating, as it could not fail to do, among the troops, served the double piu'jjose of keeping alive their enthusiastic admiration for the great General, and rendering them devoted adherents to the interest of the First Consul. The foreign relations of the Republic had been scarcely attended to during the progress of the recent changes. Now, however, that internal quiet was restored, and a government which had at least the elements of stability in its composition, established, it was necessary, both for the permanent tranquilHty of the State and the carrying out of Napoleon's personal designs, that an honourable peace should be obtained, or victory brought back to the national arms. France was at war with nearly all Europe : Russia, Austria, England, and the Princes of the Italian States ; for all of which England furnished the chief supplies. In order to ascertain if peace were practicable, the First Consul, discarding the forms usual upon attempting to open negociations with a hostile power, despatched, on the 26th December, the follo'v\ang autograph letter to George the Third : — "FRENCH REPUBLIC— SOVEREIGNTY OF THE PEOPLE— LIBERTY— EQUALITY. " Bonaparte, First Consul of the Republic, to his Majesty the King of Great Britain and Ireland. " Called by the wishes of the French nation to occupy the first Magistracy of the RepubHc, I have thought proj)er, in commencing the discharge of its duties, to communicate the event dii'cctly to your Majesty. " Must the war whichj for eight years, has ravaged the four quarters of the world be eternal ? Is there no room for accommodation ? How can the two most enlightened nations in Europe, stronger and more powerful than is necessary for theii* safety and independence, sacrifice commercial advantages, internal prosperity, and domestic 264 LETTER TO GEORGE 1 1 T. happiness, to vain ideas of grandeur? Wherefore is it that they do not feel peace to be the first of wants as well as of glories ? These sentiments cannot be new to your jMajesty, who rule over a free people with no other view than to render them happy. Your Majesty will see in this overture only my sincere desu-e to contribute effectually, for the second time, to a general pacification, by a prompt step, taken in confidence, and free from those forms which, however necessary to disguise the appi;phcnsions of feeble States, serve only to discover in the powerful a mutual wish to deceive. " France and England may, by the abuse of their strength, long defer the period of utter exhaustion ; but I -vvill venture to say, that the fate of all civihzed nations is concerned in the termination of a war, the flames of which are raging throughout the whole world. " I have the honour to be, &c. " Bonaparte." The British Ministry of the day, as have their advocates since, characterized this proceeding as a display of bad taste, a breach of etiquette, an indecorous schooling of majesty, and a matter involving by implication a total want of sincerity, or a desii'e to obtain im- reasonable or inadmissible conditions. It has been well observed by Mr. Hazlitt, however, that " where the personal character and motives of the government were continually cavilled at, and made, as in this very instance, an insuperable bar to peace, it was suixly alloAvable for the chief magistrate to come forwai'd in his own person, and take a frank and decisive step, as fr'ee as possible from official embarrass- ment and mystery. It was, at any rate, a less flagrant licence than the assassination of ambassadors, which was the legitimate termination of the ncgociation of Rastadt — the last diplomatic transaction in which Napoleon had been engaged." It was believed in England that the time was favourable for continuing the war. Italy had been lost to France, and Austrian armies, numbering a hundi'ed and forty thousand men, were menacing Savoy, and mustering on the Rliine. The English were elated -svith their successes at the Nile, and before Acre. The \ictories of SuAvarrow were recent, and considered to be decisive. The poverty of France, and the anxiety of her people for repose, were wclL known ; and it was hoped, fi-om the manner in which Napoleon had acquired his present power, that the Royalist and 2 M LOUD GRENVILLE. Republican factions might be brought to unite in opposition to his government, and either strip him of his influence, or so embarrass his operations as to render him an easy prey to his foreign enemies. The answer transmitted by Lord Granville to Talleyrand was couched, therefore, in terms which were sure to prove offensive, and to put an end, for a time, to all further overtures of conciliation. It contained, among others, the following passages: — "His Majesty, seeing no reason to depart from those* forms which have long been established in Europe for transacting business with foreign States, has commanded me to return, in his name, the official answer which I send you herewith enclosed. . . " The King neither is ijor has been engaged in any contest for a vain and false glory. He has had no other vicAv than that of maintaining against all aggression the rights and happiness of his subjects. For these he haS contended against an unprovoked attack, and for the same objects he is still obliged to contend; nor can he hope that this necessity could be removed by entering, at the present moment, into negociations with those whom a fresh revolution has so recently placed in the exercise of power in France ; since no real advantage can arise from such negociation, to the great and desirable object of general peace, until it shall appear that those causes have ceased to operate which originally produced the war, and by which it has since been protracted, and in more than one instance renewed, . . . For the extension of [aggressive war] and the extermination of all established governments, the resources of France have, fi-om year to year, and in the midst of the most unparalleled distress, been lavished and exhausted. To this indiscriminate spirit of destruction, the Netherlands, the United Provinces, the Swiss Canton — his INIa- jesty's ancient friends and allies — have successively been sacrificed. Germany has been ravaged: Italy, though now rescued from its invaders, has been made the scene of unbounded rapine and anarchy. His IVIajcsty has himself been compelled to maintain an arduous and burdensome contest for the independence and existence of his kingdoms. . . Greatly will his Majesty rejoice whenever it shall appear, that the dangers to which his own dominions, and those of his allies, have been so long exposed have really ceased. Whenever he shall be satisfied that the necessity of resistance is at an end ; that, after the 2M FAILURE OF NEGOCIATION. experience of so many years of crimes and miseries, better principles have ultimately prevailed in France ; and that all the gigantic projects of ambition, and all the restless schemes of destruction wliich have endangered the existence of civil society, have been finally relinquished. . . . The best and most natural pledge of the reahty and permanence of such change, would be the restoration of that line of princes which, for so many centuries, maintamed the French nation in prosperity at home and respect abroad ; such an event would at once have removed, and will at any time remove, all obstacles in the way of negociation or peace ! . . In this situation it can, for the present, only remain for his Majesty to pui'sue, in conjunction with other Powers, exertions of just and defensive war." England had thus the satisfaction of repelling the advances of the First Consul, by a series of ironical and insidting common-places, which were neither true as assertions, nor applicable to the person against whom they were directed ; and of wasting many millions of money, and an ocean of British blood, in continuing the war. It is probable, however, that Napoleon both wished and anticipated such a result. By making the overture, he had exhibited to the French people that he entertained a desire to secure for the nation the blessings of tranquillity; and its rejection on the grounds assigned, was sufficient to make the renewal of hostilities popular. For himself there is little doubt that he conceived another campaign would conduce to the success of his ulterior views, by proving to France, as weU as to her enemies, that his j)resence and du-ecting hand were necessary to make the Repubhc respected abroad as a great and independent nation, and happy at home in the enjoyment of a fixed government, sufficiently powerftd to protect its adherents, and wise enough to establish and administer tlu'oughout the coimtry a code of just and equal laws. By way of commentary on the answer of Lord Gremdllc, the Moniteur published a pretended letter from the last heu- of the exiled house of Stuart, demanding from George the Thu'd the throne of Great Britain, which, since the principle of divine right and legitimacy seemed to be in the ascendant, there could be no reason for withholding. An embassy, sent about the same period, to the Court of Prussia, was favourably received. Duroc had been selected for this mission. 267 DIPLOMACY. on account of his graceful manners, good education, and many accom- plishments; and because, as he had been with Napoleon in the campaigns of Italy and Egypt, he would be able to entertain Frederic AV'illiam, a prince who had a high regard for military heroes, with a narrative of the brilliant exploits of the First Consul. The event confirmed the tact of Bonaparte. The first interview of the aide-de- camp with the Prussian monarch lasted two hours, and was almost wholly engrossed with warlike details ; and on the morrow the envoy was invited to dine with the King. The Prussian Court was the first to recognise the Consular authority. The Emperor Paid of Russia next became an ally of the First Consid. Ha\ing been disgusted with Austria for the way in which his army had been left under Suwarrow, he withdi-ew it altogether from the scene of' war; and the English government having refused to include, in a cartel of exchange between itself and France, seven or eight thousand Russian prisoners, who had acted mider the command of the Duke of York in Holland, the British Ambassador was ordered to quit St. Petersburgh, and English ships were seized in all the ports of Russia. Napoleon, conceiving, from the character of the Autocrat, that some advantage might be taken of the disposition he had manifested in these transactions, ordered the prisoners, about wliom the last dispute had arisen, to be armed and clothed ancAv in the uniform of their several corps, and sent back, without ransom, exchange, or condition. Paul had long admired the genius of Napoleon ; he was now captivated with his generosity ; and forthwith wrote to him expressing his sentiments. " Citizen Consul," he said, " I do not Avrite to you to discuss 'the Rights of Man;' these are the abstractions of your revolution. I confine myself to a fact, that when a great nation has placed at its head an estimable man, of distin- guished merit, it has a government ; and I adcUess myself to you, because we can understand each other, and I can treat with you. I wish to unite with you to put an end to the injustice of England, who violates every article of the law of nations, and has no guide but her egotism and interest." The friendship of Paul was, no doubt, valuable in a poHtical view ; but it seems to have been prized the more highly by Napoleon, inasmuch as it Avas that of a Sovereign, and drew him a step nearer to becoming a sovereign himself. 268 PRIVATE LIFE, Shortly afterwards, the diplomatic corps at Paris, consisting of representatives of Russia, Prussia, Denmark, Sweden, Baden, llesse- Casscl, the Cisalpine, Batavian, Helvetian, and Ligurian llepublics, were presented to the First Consul, with all the forms and cere- monies observed in regal courts ; Councillors of State, and the Minister of the Interior, and Foreign Minister, acting as Chamber- lains. Nothing but a titled hereditary Aristocracy was wanting to recall the days of kingly magnificence. It may be observed, however, that Napoleon himself, although fully conscious of his exaltation, preserved the same simple tastes and habits, the same well- regulated attention to the details of business, the same friendships, as while he was merely a General of the Republic. He was accustomed to rise at seven, dress with scrupulous neatness, during which the journals, and such petitions and public documents as required his decision or signature, were usually read to him ; then, passing to his cabinet, he read his letters, and vrrote or dictated answers tiU ten, when he breakfasted, usually with some of his aides-de-camp, and one or two literary or scientific friends, besides Josephine and her daughter, Hortense. This frugal meal being despatched, he attended the Council, rode, walked, or paid visits of ceremony or business to some of the public offices. At five, he returned to a hasty dinner ; after which he retired to the apartments of Josephine, where he received the -vdsits of ministers, and of the most distinguished persons in the capital. His amiable wife did the honours, on all occasions, with so much grace and fascination, that even the old nobility were attracted to licr little Court, and the word Madame began again, after its long proscription, to come gradually into use. Opera balls and the old amusements of the Aristocracy were first sufiered, then authorized ; velvet was once more allowed to be worn, and various colours, which had been forbidden as appertaining to royalty, grew into favour, and became fashionable. The official costume also underwent an alteration. The Greek and Roman dresses disappeared ; and were replaced by those of the age and country. Napoleon himself gene- rally appeared in uniform — that of the Guides — which became him much better than the Consul's civil robes. The first time he gave an audience in the latter, it A^as remarked to him that he Avore a military black stock, which was out of keeping with the rest of his di'css. 269 THE CLERGY. " No matter;" he ansAvered, " a remnant of the soldier Avill do us no harm." Perhaps, however, the most remarkable of all the cha- racteristics of the new era was, that many of the returned priests, who received pensions from the State, in lieu of the revenues of their benefices, which had been appropriated to other uses, now voluntarily offered prayers in their chuixhes for the safety and well- ordering of the Consular government. '(.v-^^^z:^. 270 CHAPTEU XI. REMOVAL TO THE TUILERIES — NEW CAMPAIGN OF ITALY ARMY OP RESERVE — PASSAGE OF THE GREAT ST. BERNARD MONTEBELLO — MARENGO — RETURN TO PARIS — NATIONAL FETE. 1800. IKEUTY AND Equality — -vN'orcls to which different meanings are appUcablc in the mouths of different uttcrers — had been the ostensible plea for over- throwing the Directory. The Consulate had not been long established, w^ien p^V the import which Napoleon attached to them was exemplified, not as formerly from the tribune, or by the hai-angues of philosophical politicians, but by the decrees and silent proceedings of the Government. Among the fu-st restrictive acts, the press was put under surveillance, and the number of political joiu-nals limited, " during the war," to thirteen. " Great man as Bonaparte was," says De Bourrienne, " he feared the influence of little books." He knew that a part of the press was in the pay of the enemies of the Republic, and, reverencing posthumous 271 SECRET POLICE. fame as he did, he dicadcd lest calumny or mispresentation should sully his glory ; moreover, he "was of opinion, that the misfortunes of Louis XVI. were in a great measure attributable to the licence of the journalists. He never believed, till after his return from Elba, that freedom of expression is its oAvn corrective ; and that, where it exists, the energy which might be mischievously employed in its absence, is almost sure to vent itself in harmless words : the unin- formed and fettered being those who most frequently have recoui'se to slander or physical force as a means of attack. During the revolutionary struggles, the police had always been used as a political instrument of espionage, to which its proper functions for the preservation of public peace and order were made entirely subservient. The crafty and unscrupidous Fouche had converted its agency into a still more terrible species of inquisition. He organized a host of domestic informers ; who, not satisfied with detecting real conspiracies, became the inventors of treasons which had never existed or been thought of, and by giving to a hasty expression of discontent the character of sedition, frequently involved men in prosecutions for the sake of the reward to be obtained on their con- viction. No person was safe ; none durst utter his thoughts ; or, where these had been inadvertently expressed, false accusations were not unfrequently resorted to against the hearer as a means of security for the culprit. Napoleon, though he knew of these atrocities, had not the moral courage to suppress the system which had originated and encouraged them. He seemed, indeed, to consider its existence a necessary evil, as operating upon men's fears, and thus conducing to their obedience. In order to mitigate its horrors, however, he established a counter-system, in a secret police, the reports of which were made dii'ectly to himself. This, it is almost imnecessary to say, was merely complicating the iniquities sought to be remedied ; and if little miscliicf resulted from it to individuals, it was because the First Consul felt too secure in the regard generally entertained for his person and character, to be alarmed without the actual presence of danger ; and not because the one set of spies revealed the falsehoods perpetrated by the others. Each in fact endeavoured to outvie the other in discoveries and inventions, the plausibility and terror of which were sufficient to have rendered any but a man of extensive 2/2 LIBERTY AND EQUALITY. knowledge of mankind, of stronge nerve, and sound reasoning powers, a Nero. Political Liberty, under such cii'cumstances, was out of the question : with Equality it fared somewhat better. The distinctive privileges of caste, which had been one of the great grievances from which the Revolution sprung, were entirely at an end. Every man was equal in the eye of the law : all appealed to the same tribunals, and received an equal measure of justice. The taxes were pro- portioned to the means of the payers; the oppressive feudal claims of landed proprietors had ceased ; and there was no situation in the State to which the humblest of its citizens might not aspire to elevate himself by genius and application. Even those who complained that Napoleon was a favourer of Aristocracy, admitted that the only Aristocracy he patronized was that of intellect and industry. It is probable, then, that while so many valuable immunities were assured to them, of which the practical benefits were capable of being participated in and appreciated by all, the French people cared httle for speculative notions of Freedom, which, though they had been so greatly extolled by demagogues, and had cost so much blood and treasure, had never been reahzed. It was Napoleon's chief aim, indeed, to create a popular feeling that what his opponents called his ambition, was advantageous to France. The multitude of masters, under whose exactions the nation had so long suffered, had no per- manent interest in the pubhc prosperity'; their sole aim having been to secui'e a resource for themselves against the period when, like theu* predecessors, they should be driven from power, mth no provision save that which they could make by malversation. The national industry had thus been oppressed, instead of encouraged; and universal poverty, misery, and discontent was the terrible meaning which began to be attached to the term Equality, for and against which all parties in the State had ventured and endured so much. Napoleon looked upon the dominion of France as the reward of his laboiurs in behalf of her citizens; and he therefore sought to make her the greatest and most glorious nation on earth : his private interests, his individual feelings, were all absorbed m this one object. The treasures of France were considered as constituting his wealth ; her celebrity was the guarantee for his fame. He would even repine at the extravagance of Josephine, when she purchased for her ovra 2/3 2 N THE TUILERIES. greenhouse or gallery, a rare plant or a beautiful statue or painting, and say that she was injuring his Jar din des Plantes, or Musee de Paris. Agricultui-e, manufactures, commerce; public improvements of all kinds ; roads, bridges ; Kterature, the arts ; all that could contribute to the prosperity or heighten the dignity of the Republic, were actively patronized by the First Consul ; who thus evinced a determination to sustain, in all things, the character which had been ascribed to him, at his retiu'n from Egypt, of " Saviour and Protector" of the State. AYhatever was done, was at the sole will and ordering of Napoleon. Cambaceres and Lebrun appeared at the Council table, rather as spectators of his proceedings than as his co-ordinates in power. The peculiar circumstances by which he was surrounded, may plead in his behalf, if, amid his many praiseworthy acts, he occasionally over- stepped the limits of just authority, in order to attain or secure, what he conceived to be, a necessary end. The increased and increasing establishment which his situation rendered necessary, and perhaps the popular opinion, that the atmos- phere of the Tuilerics was imfitted for any but a royal residence, suggested, at an early period of the Consulate, a removal of the Government to that monarchical palace. In the first days of the year 1800, busy preparations for this change began to be made. Some of the directions were characteristic of the new era. The bonnets rouges, ''smeared" over the walls of the apartments in which the Legislative Councils had held their sittings, were ordered to be obliterated, together with the tri-coloured cockade daubed upon the forehead of Loiiis XIV. " I will have no such abominations," said Napoleon. The new furniture and decorations, though simple and unostentatious, were in good taste, and free from the affectation of Repubhcan emblems, which had been for some years fashionable. In order, however, to render these omissions as unobtrusive as possible, the statues of Demosthenes, Junius Brutus, Scipio, Cicero, Marcus Brutus, Washington, Dugommicr, Dampierre, and Joubert — men whose celebrity belonged to the annals of freedom — were placed, among others of the most remarkable Statemen and Warriors of ancient and modern times, in the splendid galleries of what now received the unobjectionable name of " The Palace of the Govern- ment." ?;» DEATH OF "WASHINGTON. While these preparations were in progress, the marriage of the handsome and gallant Murat with the beautiful Caroline Bonaparte, Napoleon's youngest, most talented, and favom'ite sister, was cele- brated at the Luxembourg. The parties had become acquainted in Italy, but Napoleon was long averse to the connexion. " jSIurat," he said, " is the son of an innkeeper : in the exalted station to which fortune has raised me, liis blood cannot mingle -wdth mine." The acliievements of the Aide-de-camp in Egypt, however, where he is said to have conducted himself more like one of the chivakous knights of ancient romance than a mere Republican soldier ; he having, at the head of not more than twenty men, performed exploits which could scarcely have been expected from a regiment, effaced the recollection of his humble birth. The sole dowry which the First Consul was at tliis tune able to bestow upon the bride, was thirty thousand francs (twelve hundred and fifty pounds). On the 9th of February was held a grand mihtary fete, for the presentation, in the Temple of Mars, of sevent}^-two stands of Turkish colom-s, taken at Aboukir. The news of the death of "Washington, who expired on the 14th of the preceding December, had just reached France ; and Napoleon, to honour the memory of that celebrated Chief, pubhshed the following order of the day to the army: — " Washington is dead : that great man, who fought against tyranny and consohdated the liberty of his country. His memory will ever be dear to the French people, and to all freemen in both worlds ; but more especially to the soldiers of France, who, like him and his American troops, fight in defence of Liberty and Equality. The First Consul has, therefore, ordered that, for the space of ten days, black crape shall be hung on all the colours and standards of the Republic." The occasion was eagerly seized to render the presentation of the flags more impressive. All the INIinisters, State Councillors, and Generals then in Paris, were invited to assist at the solemnity. The temple was decorated with the trophies of the Italian campaign, and other Republican victories. Beside the Minister of War, in his splendid official robes, stood Napoleon, conspicuous for his simple attii-e; and in front of him were two aged veterans, each in his hundi-edth year. Beneath the standards of Aboukii* reposed the bust 2/5 NEW CONSULAR RESIDENCE. of the American Liberator, whose funeral oration, embracing a high eulogium of Bonaparte, was pronounced by M. de Fontanes, a recalled emigi-ant. Ten days after this display, Napoleon quitted the Luxembourg to take possession of the Tuileries, The procession was not brilhant, except in military pomp. Three thousand chosen soldiers, including the First Consul's favourite regiment of Guides, formed the escort. The civil functionaries were in carriages and hackney-coaches. The only state-carriage was that of the Consuls, wliich was drawn by six beautiful white horses ; presented to Napoleon by the Emperor of Austria, after the treaty of Campo Formio. The Parisians greeted the cortege with shouts of unaffected joy, as an omen of stability and peace. Arrived at the Tuileries, the First Consul ahghted, vaulted on horseback, and proceeded to review the troops in the presence of an immense concourse of spectators, for whose gratification the scene was prolonged beyond ordinary limits. The moment Napoleon appeared in the midst of the soldiery, the acclamation, as from a single voice, rose from the whole multitude, " Long live the Fii'st Consul!" and the balconies and windows of the adjacent houses seemed in motion with the waving of scarfs and handkerchiefs from elegantly dressed women. A number of military evolutions having been exhibited, the various corps filed before Napoleon, who had stationed himself, between INIurat and Lannes, near the gates of the Palace. Behind were the numerous officers of his Staff, consisting chiefly of young men bronzed by the suns of Italy and Egj^pt ; " every one of whom had been in more battles than he ni;mbcred years." When the Consul beheld the colours of the 30th, the 43rd, and the 8Gth demi-brigades, which were little better than bare staves, supporting some tattered fragments •278 ARMY OF EGYPT. of silk, rent by bullets and blackened with smoke, he took off his hat and bowed to them, Avith deep reverence. Again, the shouts of the assemblage resounded through the air; and, ere they had ceased. Napoleon dauntlessly ascended the steps of the Tuileries, and installed himself in the palace of the Kings of France. The ceremonies of the day concluded with grand dinners. The Fii'st Consid entertained Cambaceres, Lebrun, the Ministers, and Presidents of the Senate and Tribunate; Murat received the Chiefs of the Army; and Tucicn the Members of the Council of State. At this period, Napoleon received news from the Army of Egypt, accompanied by a letter, addressed to the Directory, from Kleber, in which that General bitterly complained of the situation in Avhich he and the army had been placed by the departure of the Com- mander-in-chief. " The troops," said this document, " are diminished one-half; and we have no longer to contend with a few hordes of intimidated Mamelukes, but against the united efforts of three great powers— the Porte, the EngUsh, and the Russians. Arms, powder, and shot are failing us, without a possibility of supply. The soldiers are naked ; a state the more distressing, inasmuch as in this country it is the most active cause of disease. General Bonaparte exhausted -m KLEBER. all the disposable resources of the country ; and, though he anticipated the revenue by twelve millions of francs, he left the pay of the troops four millions in arrear. The season is unftivourable ; the Nile has not risen to its usual height ; and Egypt, though apparently tranquil, is by no means submissive. The people, notwithstanding all our conciliatory efforts, look upon us as the enemies of their property. Murad Bey is still in Upper Egypt, with a force sufficient to give constant occupation to a portion of the army ; and, if he were to be left unnoticed, his power would soon increase, and he would attack us in Cairo, the inhabitants of which have never ceased to assist him Avith money and arms. Ibrahim is at Gaza, with two thousand Mamelukes ; and I am informed, that thirty thousand men, of the army of the Grand Vizier and of Djezzar Pacha, have already joined him there. Our heavy artillery was all lost in the disastrous campaign of Syria, and the ship guns were carried off by General Bonaparte to arm the two frigates, with which he departed for France. All that I have advanced I am ready to prove by proces verhanx. In these circum- stances, what can, or ought I to do ?" These statements, there is every reason to believe, Avere greatly exaggerated. Kleber had taken the command of the army with reluctance. He had, from the first, looked upon the expedition with no approving eye, and was inchned to magnify every difficulty that arose, in order to obtain his own recall to France. It is impossible, however, to say what would have been the effect of the communi- cation, furnishing as it did such powerful weapons against Napoleon, had it been received before the 18th of Brumaire. As it was, the importance which Bonaparte attached to it may be inferred from the fact, that the intelligence was kept a profound secret from his colleagues as well as the public ; and the following proclamation, addressed to the Army of Egypt, was calculated to mislead all parties as to the real tendency of events : — " Soldiers ! The Consuls of the Republic often turn their cares to the Army of the East. France is grateful for the influence of yoiu* conquests in the restoration of her commerce, and the civilization of the world. The regard of all Europe is fixed upon you. I too, in thought, am often with you. In whatever situation the changes of war may place you, be always the soldiers of Rivoli and Aboukii*, and then j'ou will be invincible. 27» ARMY OF RESERVE. Yield to Klcber that unbounded confidence Avhich you gave to me. He merits it all. Soldiers ! think of the day, when crowned with victory you shall re-enter our sacred territory. That will be a day of glory for the whole nation !" The accusations of Kleber, notwithstanding the compliment con- veyed to him in this addi-ess, stung the First Consul to the quick, and was long a somxe of annoyance to him. Many years after, when at St. Helena, he wi'ote an elaborate, if not a perfectly satisfactory, refutation of the whole document. Napoleon, when he first seized the reins of power, had promised peace to the Republic ; and, in addressing the King of England, and in his other negociations, had taken measures to redeem his word. The answer of Lord Grenville, however, and the preparations of Austria, shewed that not only the peace but the independence of the nation rested upon future victories. Marshal Melas, a veteran Imperialist, was already in Piedmont at the head of a hundred and forty thousand men, waiting the approach of spring to resume operations, in concert with the British fleet, which blockaded Genoa, by reducing that city, crossing the Var, and carrj-ing the war into the heart of France. Early in January, Napoleon had issued orders for the formation of an army of reserve to assemble at Dijon, and to consist of all the veteran soldiers of France, who were capable of service, together with thirty thousand conscripts; the command of which was conferred upon Berthier. Moreau, meanwhile, was appointed chief of the Armies of the Rhine. Massena was placed at the head of the Army of Italy; and Brune was invested with the command of the Army of Holland. The distress and disorganization which had become general among the troops during the absence of Napoleon, in consequence of the mismanagement of the Directory, and the successive defeats sustained by the Repubhcan arms, dis- appeared immediately it was known that the Fu'st Consul was to direct their future operations. The general order which produced such an electrical efiect, ran in these words: — "Soldiers! In pro- mising peace to the French people, I have been merely your organ. I know your valoiu*. You ai-e the same men who conquered Holland, the Rhine, Italy, and gave peace beneath the walls of astonished Vienna. Soldiers ! the defence of your o^\ai frontiers must 279 ARMY OF RESERVE. no longer bound your desires. The states of our enemies remain to be subdued. There is not one among you who, having made a campaign, is ignorant that the most essential quality of a soldier is to endure privations with constancy. Many years of mal-administration cannot be repau*ed in a day. As First Magistrate of the Repubhc, it will be grateful to me to declare to the whole nation what troops deserve, by their discipline and valour, to be proclaimed the best supporters of their country. Soldiers ! when the proper times arrives, I will be in the midst of you, and awe-struck Europe shall confess, that you are of the race of the brave ! " The muster at Dijon was merely a feint to deceive the enemy as to the plan of the intended campaign; and in this it was eminently successful. A numerous and efficient staff was sent thither ; and it was announced in the Moniteur and elsewhere, that the First Consul would review the troops in person. To Dijon, accordingly, were all the spies and agents of Austria and England attracted, who, when they saw that this vaunted force did not exceed five or six thousand men, consisting of raw recruits and maimed and aged men, badly clothed, indifferently armed, and undisciplined, transmitted such accounts to their respective employers, that caricatures, represent- ing a few boys and invahds in the process of di'illing, inscribed " Bonaparte's Ai-my of Reserve," together with pasquinades, scandalous anecdotes of the First Consul, and arguments proving that no real army of reserve could be collected, were published throughout Europe. Napoleon, if not the author, was certainly the promoter of these pleasantries, so well calculated to divert attention fi-om his designs; while his energies were devoted to the organization of the real Army of Reserve, and the arrangement of the details of one of the most daring campaigns ever attempted. His design was explained in a conversation with De Bourricnnc, who one day entered his cabinet, while he lay stretched upon the floor fixing pins — the heads of which were covered with black and red sealing-wax to denote the Austrian and French troops — in Chauchard's large map of Italy. " I intend to beat Melas thus," he said : " that General is now at Ales- sandria, where he -will remain till Genoa has surrendered. Passing the Alps, at the Great St. Bernard, I shall fall upon his rear, before he even suspects that I am in Italy ; and, having taken his magazines. 280 ARMY OF RESERVE. stores, and hospitals, and cut off his communication with Austria, I will give him battle in the plains of the Scrivia, and decide the fate of the ■war at a blow." It is worthy of remark, that his last red pin was placed at the \-illage of St. Juliano. The secrecy observed with regard to the Army of Operation, was not penetrated by the enemy. This army was composed chiefly of troops wliich the pacification of La Vendee, and other RoyaUst districts, allowed to be di'awn from those departments, and of the regiments which had composed the Directorial and Consular Guards, whose presence in Paris were no longer necessary. The several di^-isions were marched to the appointed rendezvous, by separate routes, each corps being in ignorance of the destination of the others. The artillery and stores were sent, at several times, from various fortresses and arsenals. Pro-visions were forwarded fr-om Lyons to Toulon and Geneva, to be embarked thence, when required, for Genoa and Villeneuvc ; and twenty-four thousand fi-ancs (a thousand pounds) were transmitted to the monks of St. Bernard, to piu'chase additional refreshments for crossing the Alps. Napoleon remained in the capital till everything was in readiness for the advance of the army, when Berthier wrote to him from Geneva : — " I msh to see you here. There ai-e orders to be given, by which three armies may act in concert, and you alone can give them in the lines. Mcasui-es decided on in Paris are too late." On the evening of the 5th of INIay, the Consuls and Ministers were summoned to a Council at the Tuileries, at which Napoleon communicated his intention to join the army. " A grand stroke is contemplated," he said ; " but the campaign will be short. Italy has echoes to repeat my name." This intelligence occasioned some surprise ; for it had been expressly pro-vidcd by the new Constitution, that neither of the Consids should be permitted to command an army in person. Bonaparte came at once to the point ; and explained, that the Chief Magistrate of the Pvepublic was not forbidden to be present with the ti-oops in battle — an omission, wliich had enabled him to arrange with Berthier, that while the latter was nominally Comniandcr-in-chief, the First Consul shoidd have the entire disposal of the Army. " To-morrow morning," said Napoleon, " I set out for Dijon, to review the Army of Reserve. Cause this to be published in the journals ; and add, that 2 O ADVANCE OF THE ARMY. I may probably go as far as Geneva; but give positive assurance of my return within fifteen days. If anything happen during my absence, I will return, like the thunderbolt ! I commend to you the great interests of France. — I hope to be soon spoken of in London and Vienna." At two o'clock, in the morning of the 6th, he quitted Paris, taking the route thi'ough Burgundy ; and talking, by the way, of the great warriors of antiquity, with all the ardent enthusiasm of boyhood. The magnificent hopes which he cherished, made the dangers he was about to encounter seem insignificant. " The conscripts in my army," he exclaimed, when reminded that they were numerous, and but recently levied, " are Frenchmen ! Four years ago, with a feeble army, I chased before me the Austrian and Sardinian hordes, and swept Italy. The sun that now shines over us, is the same that shone on Lodi and Areola. Crowned with victory, with what pleasure shall I return to my beautiful France!" On the 7th, he reached Dijon, where he rcAaewed the pretended Army of Reserve, and thus afi^brded additional mii'th to the spies who were watching its movements. After halting two hours. Napoleon hastened forward to Geneva, where, by travelling all night, he arrived on the 8th, and was met by General Marescot, who, having been previously despatched to survey the passes of the Great St. Bernard, now presented his report, detailing a number of difficulties of the most appalling description — he having been able to ascend only to the Convent of the Chartreux. " Is the route practicable ? " asked Napoleon, impatiently. " It is barely possible to pass," replied the Engineer. " Enough !" said the First Consul; " let us proceed." On the 13th of May, the vanguard of the real Army of Reserve, consisting of six veteran regiments, well clothed and completely equipped, commanded by General Lannes, was reviewed by Bona- parte, at Lausanne, and immediately afterwards moved forward, followed by the rest of the army, under the command of Mm-at, Victor, Marmont, and others of approved skill and courage — Napoleon and Berthicr bringing up the rear; which, having with it the ai-tillery, was the object of highest importance. On the 1 5th, they reached the village of St. Pierre, at the foot of the high Alps, where aU traces of a road disappeared. The army, with its cavah-y, baggage, ammu- 282 PASSAGE OF THE ALPS. nition-waggons, and artilleiy, were now to be urged up and along narrow ledges of rock and eternal snow, and tlu-ough defiles, where even the solitary goatherd picks his way with caution; and where none save him, the chamois -hunter, and the desperate contrabandista are accustomed to venture. On one side, death awaited a single false step ; on the other, the overhanging snows might be dislodged by the percussion of a musket, and whole squadi-ons overwhehned by the terrific avalanche ; while, in the immediate track of the army, lay fathomless chasms, concealed beneath deceitful sheets of frost or snow- drift. In these wild heights the cry of the distui-bed eagle was faint, and man breathed with difficulty the tliin " Air of the iced mountain top, Where the birds dare not build, nor insect's wing Flit o'er the herbless granite." The passage of the artillery was the most arduous task ; in antici- pation of which two half-companies of artificers had been stationed at St. Pierre with field-forges, and other implements, necessary to expedite the march. The guns were dismounted, the carriages and wheels, together with the ammunition, which was packed in wooden cases, were transported on the backs of mules, or slung on poles, and carried by men : and the pieces themselves, fastened by their trunnions into hollowed trunks of trees, were drawn over the snow by the soldiers, a hundi-ed of whom were not unfrequently required to move a single gun. In this way, every man cheerfully taldng his turn in the more arduous labour of the ascent, while a comrade carried his musket, cartridge-box, knapsack, and pro^dsions, the army advanced slowly lip the mountain. The military bands played during the march; and, at the most difficult points, the charge was beaten to inspii"e the soldiers with renewed \'igoui". The animated enthusiasm of the troops, however, needed no spur in addition to the presence and encom-agement of Napoleon ; though the fatigue undergone was such as probably none but French soldiers could have endured, nor they for any commander but Bonaparte. " The men in front durst not halt to breathe, lest the stoppage should have thro^-n the column behind into confusion on the brink of deadly precipices ; and those in the rear had to flounder, knee deep, through snow and ice trampled 283 into sludge by tlie feet and hoofs of the preceding divisions." Yet such was the gallantry and perseverance of the troops, that one entire division, rather than leave their artillery behind them, preferred to bivouac on the summit of the mountain, in the sleety atmosphere, amid a desolate wilderness of snow. The passage of Mont St. Bernard occupied four days. Napoleon crossed among the last, sometimes walking, and at others riding a mule, which had been reconuncndcd to liim as the most sure-footed in the country. His guide was a tall, robust Swiss peasant, with whom he conversed freely, and in whose simple story he took so 284 CHATILLON. mucli interest that, on dismissing him at the Chartreux, he presented him with some money, and a note addressed to the superior of the convent of St. IMaurice, where they had slept from the 16th till then, directing that he might be presented with some land and a cottage, which dm-ing the journey he had expressed a wish to be able to pui'chase. The young man was astonished to find that this ill-written scrap of paper was capable of procuring for him the accomplishment of his utmost desire. Many years afterwards he spoke of the First Consul as a very dark man of stern aspect, with eyes which, notwith- standing liis affabiUty, impressed the beholder with awe when he encountered them. All that the guide remembered of his conversation was that, when shaking the wet from his hat after a shower, he exclaimed, " I have spoiled my hat among your mountains : but never mind, I shall find a new one on the other side." He had not forgotten, however, the electrical efiect of Napoleon's voice upon the soldiery, when any temporary obstacle impeded their progress. A word or look was sufficient to rectify everything, and put the troops into motion again. At the wddely-known and hospitable monastery of the Chartreux, which Bonaparte reached on the 20th, he remained an hour to refresh; and each soldier, as he passed, received a large ration of bread and cheese and a cup of Avinc, provided with the money sent for that purpose, as afready stated, from Paris. Lannes, with the vanguard, which was unencumbered, had passed on the 16th, and the same day had descended to the vale of Aosta, and taken possession of the village of that name, the ample provisions and pleasant quarters of which Avere highly acceptable. The next morn- ing this division resumed its march, which proved little less difficidt to the infantry, and more so to the cavalry, than had been the ascent. The horses and mules had to be led, and the gims slid dovm. steep and slippery paths, some of them, at first view, appearing to be scarcely better than perpendicular glaciers. Many of the men per- formed parts of the joui-ney seated in sledges, similar to those used for transporting the cannon. Towards evening, on the 17th, Lannes reached Chatillon, Avhere he encountered and routed an Austrian corps of foiu- or five thousand men; " Avho," Mr. Lockhart says, " received the onset of a French diAasion, in that quarter, with 2b5 THE ALBAREDO. about as mucli surprise as if au enemy had di'opped on them from the clouds." Every obstacle seemed now to be overcome. The army was threading a beautifril valley, full of pleasant houses and verdant enclosures, and bright A^dth the genial influence of spring weather, when suddenly the progress of the vanguard was checked by a discharge from the cannon of Fort Bard : a castle placed upon a rugged conical rock rising from the torrent stream of the Doria, which flows through a defile about fifty yards in width, girt in, on either side, by precipitous and seemingly inaccessible heights. Some engineer-officers approached to reconnoitre ; but reported that the only practicable road lay through the town of St. Bard, which was strongly walled and commanded by the guns of the fortress. At night, Lannes attempted to carry the fortifications by assault; but the attacking party being driven back with some loss, a panic seized the vanguard, which was rapidly communicated through the whole army; and orders were given for stopping the descent of the artillery. Napoleon, who had already reached Aosta, immediately hastened forward, and found the troops in great confusion. Hastily suiweying the road, he perceived a goat-track up the rock of Albaredo, liitherto trodden by only the chamois and its pursuer. By this dangerous route he climbed the mountain, when, lying down in the long grass upon its summit, and resting liis telescope upon the edge of a preci- pice, he soon ascertained the possibility of taking the town for the passage of the artillery, and of accelerating the advance of the army in another direction. A single gmi was raised, with the utmost difficulty, to the plateau of the Albaredo ; and the moment this was got in position to play upon the bastion of St. Bard, so as to create a diversion in favour of the French, orders were given that the infantry and cavalry, in single file, should ascend the mountain-path explored by Napoleon, and so pass on to Ivrea, out of the reach of the enemy's cannon. As the soldiers crept one by one along the edge of the rock, each paused for a moment to gaze on the bronzed features of the Chief, who, exhausted with fatigue, had laid himself down, and was fast asleep on the summit of the mountain. At nightMl, Colonel Dufour at the head of the oSth dcmi-brigade scaled the wall of St. Bard, and fell so impetuously upon the 286 SAINT BARD. defenders, that they retreated in confusion to the castle, leaving the town in possession of the assailants. The garrison of the fortress for some hours kept up a heavy fire upon the houses ; but finding that the French were not to be dislodged, and that the mischief wrought by their cannonade fell chiefly upon the friendly inhabitants, they at length desisted. The artillery was then hastily remounted, the wheels of the carriages were bound with straw, the guns and ammunition ti'ain covered with boughs of trees, and the streets littered with loose earth and dung, so that no sound should betray the passage to the c ^7- troops within; the fortress and the cannons and waggons were then drawn, in profound silence, through the town of St. Bard. So little precaution had been taken to keep up a communication ^ith the town that, although, as Su- "Walter Scott observes, " a light shcMn in a window would have served to detect the stratagem," and the whole 287 IVREA. CHIUSELLA. proceeding took place mtliin pistol-shot of the castle, the garrison entertained not the least suspicion of what was going forward; and the next day, the Commandant despatched a messenger to INIclas, who was then engaged with Suchet, upon the southern frontier of France, to inform him of the advance of a large French army by the goat-tracts of the Albai-edo ; but assming him that no artillery was with them, and that none shovdd be suffered to pass. Had proper \'igilance been used, the resistance of Fort Bard, the importance of which had been under-rated in forming the plan of the campaign, might have rendered fruitless the passage of St. Bernard. Leaving a brigade of Conscripts, under General Chabran, to besiege this dangerous little fort. Napoleon with his main army hastened forward to Ivrea; where, on the 24th of May, the advanced guard attacked and defeated an Austrian division of five or six thousand men, and obtained possession of the town and citadel, together with extensive stores and provisions. The enemy, intending to cover Tui-in, now retired to Romano, where they received large reinforce- ments ; but, being pursued by Lannes, they were again defeated, on the 2Gtli, -wdth considerable slaughter, at the bridge of Chiusella, and di-iven in the utmost disorder towards the Piedmontese capital. The advanced guard took possession of Chivasso, seized many boats and vessels, laden with provisions and wounded men, and intercepted Melas' communications along the Po. A feint was made to construct a bridge of boats over the river, which had the efiect of withdrawing a large body of troops, from the left bank of the river, to oppose Napoleon's passage on the right. This was what the First Consul desii-ed ; as it left him free to operate, without danger of molestation, upon Milan. From the beginning of April, INIassena had been strictly blockaded in Genoa; and, notwithstanding some temporary successes, his troops were reduced to the necessity of eating horses, dogs, and other unclean animals; so that unless relieved, the surrender of the city could not long be delayed. Early in May, Melas, leaving the prosecution of the siege to General Ott, had moved forward against Suchet, who maintained, with great gallantry, the defence of the passes between France and Piedmont. On the 21st, the Imperialists made a desperate effort to force the passage of the Var ; but, failing ENTRY INTO MILAN. in this, they were, on the same day, recalled to face a more formidable antagonist than any they had lately encountered. JNIelas now, for the fii-st time, received news of the movements of Napoleon. The intelligence astounded and perplexed him. The roads in his rear, his supplies and communications, were wholly at the mercy of the unexpected invader. In this dilemma, without certain information of the strength of his opponent, and beUe'ving that he was without artillery, he resolved to march against him in person, before any diversion should be effected by means of which Genoa might be relieved. Napoleon had halted at Ivrea, to refresh his main army, after the fatigues it had undergone. In the meantime, hoM'ever, detachments were sent in various dii-ections to seciu'e the passes of the Smiplon and St. Gothard, and keep open the means of communication with France. On the 27th of May, Miu-at was despatched with his division across the Sesia, to operate upon Vercelli ; and, news having reached the First Consul, that Moncey, with fifteen thousand men, who had been ordered to advance from the Army of the Ehine, had debouched by the St. Gothard, he himself, on the 31st, while ISIelas was marching to the defence of Turin, moved rapidly towards the Ticino, a wide and rapid river, six or seven leagues westward of Milan, which, after a sharp conflict with some straggling troops left in that quarter as corps of observation, was passed on the 1st of June, in four small boats, there being no bridge, and the army being without pontoon trains. On the 2nd, Napoleon entered ]Milan, amid the general rejoicings of the inhabitants ; who, having heard that he had perished in the Red Sea, and that the First Consul was one of his Brothers, were surprised and delighted once more to see him amongst them at the head of his ^' liberating " troops. That most of the Italians wished well to the cause of theu* invader, there cannot be a doubt. The liberal institutions which he had given them during his first campaign, had been destroyed by Austria; and all who had exhibited any zeal in supporting or defending them, now languished in distant dungeons. The taxes had been rendered more ojipressive than formerly, and thought and expression put under more jealous and severe restraint. Napoleon immediately reorganized the Cisalpine Rcpubhc, and PROCLAMATION. addressed the following proclamation to his army: — "Soldiers! One of our departments was in the power of the enemy. Consternation reigned over the whole of the South of France. The greater part of the Ligiman territory was invaded. The Cisalpine Republic was anniliilatcd, and consigned to a ridiculous feudal domination. You have marched, and the French territory is aheady free ! Appre- hension is succeeded by joy in our country. " You are in the Capital of the Cisalpine ! The enemy, panic- stricken, hope only to regain the frontiers. You have taken fi-om them their stores, theii- magazines, and reserves of artillery. The first act of the campaign is ended. INIillions of men daily manifest their gratitude to you. INIarch now to meet those soldiers who have carried terror into youi* families — oppose their retreat — snatch from them the laurels with which they have decked themselves; and thus teach the world, that a malediction rests upon all madmen who dare to insult the Great Nation ! The result of your efforts will be unclouded glory and solid peace." On the second day after the occupation of IMilan, a spy, who had 290 ITALIAN SPY. formerly been serviceable to Napoleon, sent his name, and a request to be admitted to an intcr\'iew. " How is it you are not yet shot?" exclaimed the Fii'st Consul, as the man entered liis apartment. " General," said the spy, "when the war recommenced, and you were far from Europe, I entered the serAdce of Austria. I always attach myself to the fortunate, ha\4ng found my account in doing so. Now, however, I wish to make up my little fortune, leave off this dangerous life, and pass the rest of my days in tranquiUit}'. I am sent into yoiu' lines by Melas, but have it in my power to render you important service. You are sufficiently strong to impart to me some real information, which I can convey to my employer ; and in retiun I will inform you of the positions of the enemy." The First Consul accepted the offer, learned the names, number, and positions of all the Austrian forces, and that Melas himself was at Alcssandi-ia, which was not pro\'isioned, and where there were many sick and wounded, and a scarcity of medicines prevailed. A note was given to the spy, informing liim, with tolerable accui-acy, of the strength and positions of the French ; and Napoleon promised that, if his information proved correct, he should be rewarded with a thousand louis— which, it may be added, was faithfuUy paid after the battle of Marengo ; :Melas, in the meantime, ha^dng also paid him liberally for the intclhgence brought from the French camp. The Fh'st Consul regarded the ser\'ices of this man as one of the favour's of Fortune. Bonaparte remained six days at Milan, making dispositions for the prosecution of the campaign, and dii-ecting the different corps of liis ai-my upon the points he desii-cd them to occupy. Lanncs took possession of Pavia, where he found large stores and two hundred guns, among which were thii'ty field-pieces. Duhesmc took pos- session of Lodi; and wliile a portion of his troops invested Pizzighitone, another portion pressed forward to Cremona and :Mantua, neither of which had provisions or garrison. IMui-at, about the same time, seized Placenza, with the bridge of boats there over the Po, and intercepted a courier bearing despatches from the Auhc Council at Vienna to Melas. The information thus obtained shewed how utterly unprepared was the Austrian government for the bold step which had placed the North of Italy once more in the hands of Bonaparte. The very existence of the Ai-my of Reserve was still denied ; and EVACUATION OF GENOA. Melas "was directed to press forward witli -vdgour into the heart of Provence, in order to compel the recall of the Army of the Khine, which was rapidly advancing into Germany. Napoleon, anxious to relieve Genoa, now detached a division of INIoncey's corps to line the Po from Pavia to the Doria, A\'ith orders to watch the motions of the enemy, a large body of whom had just appeared before Placenza, while he shotdd move forward upon Stra- della, on the right bank of the Po, in order to prevent Melas from reaching Milan, and there compel him to a battle with his line of operation intersected. In the midst of these preparations, news arrived of the surrender of Genoa by Massena. This city had sustained the blockade till the inhabitants, pressed by famine, had become tumultuous, demanded " Bread or Death ! " and threatened to rise en masse, and open the gates to the enemy. In the sorties made by the beleaguered ^rmy, the French had never displayed more gallantry. On one occasion, a desperate attack was led by Soult : the soldiers selected for that purpose were those of two regmients, wliich, from the circumstance that one had been employed to disarm the other during the period of mihtary insubordination that marked the last days of the Directory, had sworn enmity to each other. In the excitement under which they now met, their animosity was instantly forgotten, and a spirit of generous rivalry took its place. In the contest the soldiers became intermingled : they embraced each other in the midst of the fire, and half of each corps passing into the ranks of the other, the fight was renewed Avith double ardour. But neither their coui'age, nor the enthusiasm with which they were inspired on learning that the First Consul was near them in person, could allay the hunger Avhich assailed them. Everything eatable had been devoui*ed — even to the shoes and knapsacks of the men, and the saddles, girths, and harness of the horses : and at length Massena was compelled to listen to overtures for a conference with General Ott and Lord Keith, the British Admiral who guarded the harbour. It was almost at the moment when this conference was fixed, that Ott received the command of Melas to raise the blockade, and fall back upon the Po. Flad Massena held out, therefore, but a few hours longer, his relief would have been certain. In such circum- stances, the terms of evacuation were not a matter of great importance. ?B2 MONTEBELLO. The word " capitulation " was omitted, and the troops were permitted to march ont of Genoa with arms and baggage, and to proceed, without their General, who with sixteen hundred men was sent round by sea to Antibes, to the head-quarters of General Suchet, which was then advanced as far as Voltri. By this proceeding, IMelas procured a reinforcement of eighteen thousand cfFcctive men; and Napoleon was proportionately embarrassed as to liis future operations. The vanguard under Lannes had abeady crossed the Po, when the news of the fall of Genoa was received. A large body of Austrians, being the army of General Ott, disengaged by the capitulation of Massena, had come up by forced maixhes, and on the 10th of June occupied the \-illages of Montcbello and Casteggio. Lannes, whose di^dsion consisted of not more than eight thousand men, on observing the strength of the enemy, manccu\Ted to avoid an engagement till he should receive reinforcements ; but Ott, conscious of his supe- riority, was resolved to force him to immediate conflict, and, at day- break on the 11th, attacked him in his position. The battle was obstinate and bloody, and for some hours victory appeared to incline to the Austrians, whose cavalry was good and numerous, and the field favourable for their operations. About noon, when the troops of Lannes began to be exhausted, and scarcely able to sustain the charges incessantly directed against them, the di^•ision of General Victor came to their aid, and after a severe struggle turned the tide of battle. The fields were covered with tall crops of rye and other grain, so that the hostile battalions frequently fomid themselves at the point of each other's bayonet before they were aware of the proximity of any but friends ; a circumstance which prevented the Generals from displapng much science, and rendered the slaughter greater than usual, the contest being maintained by physical exertion — man to man. " Bones crashed like hailstones against ■s^^ndows," and the plain was literally strewn with dead bodies. At length the Austidans were broken, and compeEcd to a precipitate retreat, leaving three thousand killed and six thousand prisoners upon the field. Napoleon, haA-ing heard of the enemy's attack, crossed the Po, and was hastening to the spot, when the Austiians fled. Lannes Avas covered with blood, and the soldiers were too much exhausted to be able to join in a "v-igorous pm-suit of the retreatmg foe. DESAIX. It was in the morning of the battle of ISIontebello that Desaix, who had just returned from E^ypt, reached the head-quarters of the Fii'st Consul, bringing with him news of the capitulation of El-Arisch, and the disasters of the French army. Napoleon considered Desaix second only, as a military commander, to himself. His campaign in Upper Egypt was one of the most brilliant the French army had achieved. He loved and emidated Bonaparte, without desiring to become his rival, " Whatever rank you assign me," he said, in a letter addressed from Toulon to the Fust Consul, " I shall be satisfied. I neither ^ish nor aspire to first command ; but shall serve with equal pleasiu'e as a volunteer or a general. Let me, therefore, know my destination immediately, that I may not lose an instant. A day not well employed, is a day lost." Naj)oleon at once appointed him to the command of the division of Boudct, who had been killed in a previous engagement. The high opinion which Bonaparte had of Desaix's talents, and the esteem which he entertained for his person, may be inferred from the enthusiasm with which he received him. " On my return to Paris," he said, when Desaix had retired from his tent in the evening, after a long and close conversation, " I will make him Minister at War. He shall be next in place and power to myself. I would make him a prince, if I were able. He is of the heroic mould of antiquity." The French army being now concentrated at Stradella, the First Consul was anxious to come at once to a decisive engagement, before 294 PLAIN OF MARENGO. the Austrians should be joined by the English army, abeady collected at Port Mahon. He never contemplated that the perplexity of jNIclas \70uld have kept the latter inactive at Alessandria, while so much might have been done to render his situation dangerous to the enemy. Had he moved upon the Ticino, he might have recovered ]Milan, intersected the line of the French army, and forced Xapoleon back, at disadvantage, upon the Adda: or, by falling back to Genoa, there was the prospect of being able to crush Suchet, and take up a position where the English fleet could supply him with pro^asions, ammunition, and reinforcements ; or, in case of necessity, carry him round by sea into Tuscany, and enable him to operate upon Mantua, and re-establish his communications with Germany. Calculating that one of these movements was about to be made, either of which would have ren- dered Xapoleon's position critical, the French General, on the 12th, advanced with his main army upon the Scrivia, in order to be able to act as circumstances might require ; and in the evening of that day took post at Tortona, without ha\-ing discovered any other signs of an enemy than a few cavahy scouts, which indicated rather the escape of Melas than his presence in the neighboui"hood. At day-break on the 13th, Napoleon passed the Scrivia, and marched to St. JuHano, in the midst of the great plain of Marengo, not doubting that, if Melas were at hand, he woidd take advantage of this fine field, which afibrded such scope for cavalry operations, to give battle. Still, however, there was no appearance of an Austrian force; and Bonaparte's fear that the enemy had eluded him, grew into conviction. Under the impression that the Austrians were marching towards Genoa, or manoeuvring to cross the Po, the Fu'st Consul immediately ordered Lapoj^ie to fall back upon the Ticino, to prevent the enemy from occupjdng the left bank of that river ; and despatched Desaix with the Reserve to No^-i, to observe the roads there, and interrupt the advance of troops towards the sea. At the same time, Victor, being ordered to enter the %-illage of Marengo, and ascertain if Melas had any bridge upon the Bormida, attacked there an Austrian outpost of four- or five thousand men, and speedily routed them, taking two guns and a himdred prisoners. The moment after this engagement, the di\'ision of Chabran, which had been left to operate along the Po, opposite Valcnza, in order to prevent the 2!,5 POSITION OF MEL AS. passage of tlie Austrians, arrived in the plain, and were greeted with an enthusiastic welcome by theii* elated countrymen. In the evening. the Bormida was reconnoitred; the scouts on their return reporting that there was no bridge, and that Alessandria contained merely an ordinary garrison. At night, the corps of Lannes bivouacked in the rear of JNIarengo. Napoleon was exceedingly anxious and uneasy, and rode after sunset to Torri di Garafola, to obtain intelligence of the movements of jNIelas, from the scouts which had been sent forward on the 12th in the direction of Genoa : but no information reached him, and he remained in the same uncertainty as on the preceding day. ISIelas, meanwhile, whose army had not recovered from the panic of jSIontebello, was agitated by the most gloomy forebodings. Suchet was close behind hhn, and had been successful in several encounters with his rear guard. Napoleon, with the Army of Reserve, which a few days before had been an object of derision, was opposed to him in front, and, having advanced into the plain, menaced an immediate attack. A council of war was, therefore, held on the morning of the 13th, to determine what shoidd be done; and after much discussion, in which all present agreed in casting the blame 296 POSITION OF MELAS. of their present difficult position upon the Austrian cabinet wliich had misled them as to the proceedings of Napoleon, it was resolved to give battle next morning, cut their way, if possible, tlu-ough the French ai-my, and, reaching INIantua, open a passage for suppUes and reinforcements from Vienna. The chances of victory were still greatly in favour of the Austrians, who, notwithstanding their losses before Genoa, at IMontebello, and in the various skii-mishes which had taken place since the commencement of the campaign, were far superior in numbers to the French ; their cavalry being upwards of three to one. Melas could muster on the spot, above fifty thousand eflfective men : Napoleon not more than twenty-eight or thirty thousand, including the division of Desaix. The decision of the council, when commu- nicated to the troops, ajfforded general satisfaction ; and the Austrian army was, therefore, at once concentrated in front of Alessanchia, with nothing but the Bormida and a small portion of the plain of Marengo between it and the foe. At da■^^^l, on the morning of the 14th, the Austrians defiled across the river^ by three temporary bridges, the construction of which had been strangely overlooked by the French scouts on the preceding evening. Their left column, consisting of cavahy and light inflmtry, made a detour round Castel Ceriolo to outflanlc the French right : the centre and right advanced rapidly on INIarengo, and commenced the battle by a furious cannonade on the position of General Victor. The armies were within a short distance of each other ; the guns of the thalleurs on either side nearly touched across a narrow ravine, the channel of a rivulet near the \dllage : the fire of the cannon and musketry could not fail, therefore, to spread on every side devastation and death. For two hoiu's, Victor singly withstood the assaults of the immcasm'ably superior force opposed to him; but at length his soldiers, thinned and dispirited, were compelled to give way. The report of the enemy's artillery was the first intimation the First Consul received of this unexpected engagement. A fleet messenger was instantly despatched to require the immediate return of Desaix, who was nearly half a day's journey distant on the road to Genoa; then, galloping forward, Bonaparte arrived at the scene of action about ten o'clock, Marengo was already in possession of the Aus- trians ; anxl the soldiers who had been chiven thence were flymg in 297 2 Q MARENGO. tlie utmost disorder along the plain, spreading alarm as they ran, and exclaiming in dismay, "All is lost!" Steadily advancing, the Austrians now attacked General Lannes, "who was still posted in the rear of Marengo. Napoleon ordered the battahon of cavalry guard, consisting of eight hundred of the best soldiers in the army, to station themselves about a thousand yards behind that General, inclining to the right, in a position to keep the enemy in check. General St. Cyr at the same time received orders to extend his line towards Castel Ceriolo, so as to flank the Austrian left ; while Bona2:)arte himself with the 72nd demi-brigade hastened to the suj)port of Lannes. In the midst of the conflict, the almost overpowered and disheartened soldiers perceived, advancing on the plain, their invincible leader, surrounded by his stafl" and by the furred caps of the brave grenadiers of the Guard. Shouts of joy ascended amid the roar of artillery, and the sinking hearts of the men were reanimated for the doubtful strife. Even the fugitives of Victor's division ralHed at, the sight, and were enabled to form again before St. Juliano, in the rear of Lannes' impenetrable corps. At this moment, however, the column which had been sent by Melas round Castel Ceriolo, fell upon the right flank of the French, and Lannes Avas compelled to retreat; but so slowly, and with such admii'able coolness and order, that it occupied three hours to drive him three quarters of a league, though diu'ing the whole time he was assailed by an immensely superior force, and frequently exposed to the grape-shot of eighty pieces of cannon. Foui' times during this retreat were the French advancing, and as often retrograding. Upwards of sixty pieces of cannon were taken and retaken; and more than twelve distinct charges of cavalry were sustained. Just before three o'clock, about ten thousand horse and foot charged Napoleon's right flank, in which, "as a redoubt of granite," were stationed the Consular Guards. Cavalry, infimtry, artillery, every stratagem and effort, were du'ected against this brave battalion, but in vain : as fast as the men in the front ranks fell, their places were supplied by undaunted comrades, and the phalanx remained firm and unbroken. This gallant resistance kept the enemy's left in check, w hile Monnier, with the advanced guard of Desaix' division, Avliich had just returned from Novi, pushed across the plain to the village RETREAT OF THE FRENCH. of Castel Ceriolo, ^v\ac\\ the Austrians, when they passed it in the morning, had neglected to occupy in sufficient force, and carried the position at the point of the bayonet. In the meantime, the left and centre of the French Hne, no longer able to maintain their ground against the overwhelming charges of cavalry which continued to be directed against them, were thro-vvn into disorder, and began a precipitate retreat. The enemy then advanced in line, sweeping the field before them, with a deadly shower of grape-shot from upwards of a hundred cannon. The whole plain was covered with a panic-stricken and disorganized multitude, flpng, unconscious whither, to avoid the murderous pm-suit of the Austrian cavalry. The battle seemed inevitably lost. So certain was Mclas of victory, that, leaving the pursuit to General Zach, he now returned to Alessandria, to obtain some repose, after the long and fatiguing exertions he had undergone, and which his great age — he was 299 ARRIVAL OF DESAIX. eighty-four — rendered necessary. At this critical moment, tlie corps of Desaix arrived at St. Juliano, to -which the Austrian hussars had approached, witliin pistol shot. Desaix, himself, riding up to Na- poleon, exclaimed, "This, General, appears to be a battle lost!" " Nay," said the First Consid, " it is a battle won. Push forward your column, while I rally the disordered troops, which you see, in your rear." The intrepid General, at the head of the 9th brigade, instantly rushed on to the attack, and charged the Austrian column with such impetuosity, that it was driven back in the utmost disorder. Bonapai'te seized the fortunate interval to gallop through the field, calling upon the flying soldiers to re-form, and advance. " Recollect, my sons," he exclaimed, " it is my custom to sleep on the field of battle. You have now retired far enough." The men responded to -^^==^— ^K his call with enthusiasm, amid shouts of " Vive la Republique ! Vive Bonaparte ! " The corps of Lannes and Victor were speedily in order 300 DEATH OF DESAIX. again, bui'ning with impatience to renew the contest, and obliterate the disgi-ace of their flight. The whole army was drawn up, as rapidly as possible, in new line of battle, before St. Juliano, with the cavahy concentrated in advance. Innumerable balls and shells were poiu'ed into the %-illage ; and a column, of six thousand of Zach's grenadiers, endeavoured to pene- ti-ate to the left. The First Consul perceiving this movement, instantly sent orders to Desaix to repulse them ; when he, advancing for that pm-pose, at the head of two hundred troopers, received a ball in the breast, at the moment he had given the word to charge. Young Lebrun, the son of the Third Consul, is said to have received the dying words of the hero. " Go, tell Napoleon," he said, " that I che with regret, since I have achieved nothing worthy to live in the remembrance of posterit}\" It was in the midst of the hottest fire of the day, that the First Consul heard the heav^^ tidings of his loss. Of CAPTURE OF ZACII. all the generals of the army, he was the best beloved, and the most esteemed. " Why," bitterly exclaimed Bonaparte, when his death was announced to him, " is it not permitted me to weep ! " The troops, however, were not disconcerted by the fall of their favourite chief, but rushed on, with redoubled fury, to avenge his death. The 9th demi-brigade acquitted themselves in this onset so as to merit their subsequent title of In comp arable. General Kellerman, who, with a brigade of heavy cavalry, had ably protected the retreat of the French left, now hastened to support the corps of Desaix, charging with such vigour and jirecision into the enemy's column, that, after a struggle of less than half an hour's duration, in which the opposing soldiers fought man to man, the Austrian grenadiers, wearied with the long day's conflict, and disordered by the suddenness of the assault, were routed with great slaughter, and General Zach, with his staff, were taken prisoner*. The whole army instantly followed up the '"^^ 1^ x;ii54V 302 VICTORY. movement, and carried universal consternation into the enemy's ranks. Eight or ten thousand of the Austrian cavahy, fearing that St. Cyr, who was on their right, and nearer than themselves to the bridges of the Bormida, might arrive there in time to cut off the retreat across the river, instead of forming to protect the flight of the infantry, turned their horses' heads, and scoured the plain at full gallop, over- throwing and tramphng on all that opposed or impeded their career, friend or foe. The confusion was such, that those who reached the bridges were so crowded and wedged together, as to be unable to pass. " Hundreds were drowned : the river rolled red amidst the corpses of men and horses, while whole corps were compelled to surrender." It was ten at night, before the Austrian General was able to rally the remains of his magnificent army, which in the morning had poured into the plain, so confident of a fortunate termination to the labours of the day. The trophies of this brilliant and decisive victory were fifteen standards, forty pieces of cannon, and between six and eight thousand prisoners. The Austrians left upon the field about sLx thousand killed. The loss of the French was sLx hundred killed, and fifteen hundi-ed wounded, among whom were thi-ee generals. Had Desaix been spared. Napoleon's triumph would have been complete and unalloyed; but the remembrance of his fate overclouded all. " Had I been able this evening," said the First Consul, when congratidated on his success, at the close of the day ; while, notwithstanding his previously affected stoicism, tears started to his eyes ; " had I been able to embrace Desaix upon the field of battle, the day would indeed have been glorious." Desaix is reported to have had a presentiment of coming evil, when he joined the head- quarters of Bonaparte three days before ; and, on the evening pre- ceding the battle, he said to more than one of his Aides-de-camp, " It is so long since we fought in Europe, that the balls have forgotten us. Something will certainly happen." The apprehension and despair of the Austrians, during the ensuing night, were great beyond description. Napoleon was on the banks of the Bormida, and Suchet in their rear ; while no means of retreat were left them but the road to the Alps and the frontiers of France, where, followed by a victorious army, they could scarcely hope for advantage. 303 CONVENTION. In this desperate situation, Melas at once resolved to attempt, by negociation, to save the wreck of his army. Early in the morning of the 15th, therefore, Prince Lichtenstein was sent to the French head- quarters with proposals. Napoleon declared his mllingness to grant an armistice, and to allow the Austrians to retii'e by the most dii-ect road behind Mantua, with theii' arms and baggage, on condition that the fortresses of Italy were immediately surrendered to France. The Prince remonstrated against these conditions. The First Consul put an end to all argument on the subject: "Carry my irrevocable resolves to your General, and return quickly," he said. " Know that I am not a soldier of yesterday, but am perfectly acquainted with your situation: you, are blockaded in Alessandria, with many sick and wounded, and in want of provisions and medicines. Your choicest soldiers are lost in- killed, wounded, and prisoners. My position authorizes me to demand more than I have asked; but I moderate my claims in respect for the grey hairs of your commander, whom I honom-." The surrender of Genoa was the hardest condition of all. Its severity may be the more readily conceived, when it is considered that the same post carried to Vienna the news of its capture and restitution. The terms of the Convention, which was signed the same evening by Berthier and Melas, were more favourable to the latter than they might otherwise have been, because Napoleon was anxious to obtain possession of Genoa before the British army, twenty thousand strong, which he knew to be on its way to that city, should reach the harbour; and because the French had no strong- positions in Italy, to enable them to sustain any reverse, which the landing of the English would have rendered highly probable. On the night of the 1.5th, Bonaparte, with a portion of his staff, passed over the field of the recent battle ; the dead bodies, which there had not been time to inter, still strewing the ground. The moon shone brightly over the plain ; and, in the deep silence, a dog leaped suddenly from his dead master's side, whined and howled piteously, and returned to his resting place, alternately licking his master's hands and face, and turning to gaze upon the horsemen before him, as if to implore their compassion and aid. When he afterwards related this anecdote to Las Cases, Napoleon remarked that, whether owing to his own turn of mind at the moment, the time, the place, or 304 ^- RETURN TO MILAN. the action itself, no incident on any field of battle had ever impressed him so deeply. " I involuntarily stopped," he said, " to contemplate the scene, and could not forbear ejaculating, ' This man has doubtless friends in the Austrian camp ; yet here he lies forsaken by all, except his dog ! ' I had, without emotion, ordered battles that were to decide the fate of armies, and beheld, with tearless eyes, the execution of those operations by which numbers of my countrymen were slain : why, therefore, were my feehngs then harrowed by the mouinful wailing of a dog ? At that moment I should have been easily moved by a suppliant enemy ; and coidd well understand the feelings of Achilles when he gave up the body of Hector at sight of Priam's tears." After two days spent at Marengo, in making the arrangements rendered necessary by the Convention with Melas, Napoleon returned to Milan, wliich he entered on the evening of the 17th, and found the city illuminated, and a scene of the most animated public rejoicings. The people felt that the Cisalpine Republic was indeed re-estabhshed, and the tyranny of Austria at an end. The popular enthusiasm was unbounded, when the carriage of the Victor appeared in the streets, with an escort of the National Guards of Milan. In a few days Genoa, surrendered by the Austrians, recovered its Republican Insti- tutions, and, with the exception of INIantua, the whole of the former conquests of Napoleon were again in the hands of the French ; who moreover took possession of Piedmont, which the Emperor of Austria, 305 2 R ARRIVAL IN PARIS. notwitlistanclmg the remonstrances of Russia, had not restored to the King of Sardinia, when Italy had been wrested from its original conquerors. The Italian patriots, who had been consigned to German dungeons for their political opinions, now returned home, according to a stipulation in the late Convention, amidst the congratulations of their country-men, and loud cries of" Viva il Liberator e deW Italia!'''' After appointing Provisional governments in the Cisalpine and Ligurian Repubhcs, and in Piedmont, of which last Jourdan was placed at the head, and having restored the suppressed University of Pa\'ia, and nominated Massena, who had gone to Milan imme- diately after the battle of Marengo, Commander-in-chief of the Army of Italy, the First Consul, on the 24th of June, set out on his return to Paris. He passed through Turin, and over Mount Cenis, to Lyons ; where, to gratify the inhabitants of that city, he was constrained to stay for two days, in order to lay the first stone of the Place Bellecoiir, on the site of a splendid square which had been destroyed by the Jacobins dui'ing the Peign of Terror. The immense concourse of persons who were present on the occasion, and the enthusiasm which animated all classes, rendered the ceremony ex- ceedingly imposing and sublime. Every where, as the Conqueror proceeded, the people appeared to be delirious with joy. At Dijon he was met by a procession of young females, crowned with garlands and strewing flowers in the road — a sight which must have been grateful to him, as recalling the impressive triumphs of ancient Greece and Home. Napoleon reached Paris at midnight, between the 2nd and 3rd of July, having been absent rather less than two months. As soon as his arrival was known, the inhabitants of the city and suburbs, leaving their occupations, ran in crowds to the courts, gardens, and quays around the Tuileries, to obtain a glimpse of the man to whom France was again indebted for independence from foreign domination. Thanksgivings were offered in the churches; shouts of welcome and congratulation resounded on every side; and at night every house was illuminated : ricli and poor, of whatever party or faction in the State, taking part in the general rejoicings. "It was a day," says Mr. Hazlitt, "like which few occur in history; yet, in this instance, how many such were crowded into the life of a single man!" The 306 MILITARY RE-WARDS. exuberant delight which was manifested arose not from a mere love of external display. The fete was no pageant proclaimed by govern- ment, but a spontaneous tribute of the people — imiversal and sincere — to their preserver. Nor was Napoleon insensible to the homage paid him. " The sound of these still continued acclamations," he said, "is sweet to me as the voice of Josephine. How proud, how happy I am, to be beloved by such a people 1 " The popular joy was the greater, perhaps, because the people had been prepared for other tidings than victory. The first account of the battle that reached Paris was taken by a commercial traveller, who quitted the field of Marengo between ten and twelve o'clock, on the 14tli of June, just as Napoleon had arrived on the ground, and when a portion of the army was flying in disorder before the Austrians : intelHgence wliich was magnified into reports of certain defeat. It is said, that upon this news the enemies of the Fii-st Consul set on foot an intrigue to remove him from the government, and to elevate Carnot in liis place. It is certain, from a letter of Lucien Bonaparte, who was then in Paris, that some sinister designs were in agitation ; and that had Bonaparte, like Desaix, been sti*etched upon the plain of Marengo, his friends would have been almost instantly proscribed. The knowledge of these things makes us look with less severity upon the restrictions Napoleon sometimes imposed upon the people ; and which have been frequently represented as springing fi-om a hatred of freedom. One of the Chief Consul's first acts was, to render to his companions in arms their share of the honour's wliich had been won in the campaign. Kellerman was appointed general of division. To Lannes, Murat, Victor, Watrin, and Gardanne, honorary sabres were awarded, inscribed, " Battle of Marengo, First Consul commanding in person : presented by the Government of the Repubhc." Numerous pro- motions were made, and swords and marks of distinction distributed among the officers and men of every regiment which had been distinguished at Marengo, or under the command of Moreau in the Army of the Rhine — the soldiers of the latter being prudently included in the list of those to whom rewards were due. A private soldier, named Latour d'Auvcrgne, who had rendered essential service on the field, and refused all personal advancement, was gratified with 307 FUNERAL OF DESAIX. tlie title of " First Grenadier of the Republic." This brave man was slain a montli or two afterwards in Germany, and was honoured with a pubhc eulogium by Carnot. His name is still at the head of the muster-roll of the French Grenadiers ; and when called over, some veteran in the ranks repHes, " Dead on the field of honour !" The body of Desaix, after being embalmed at Milan, was conveyed to Mont St. Bernard for interment, where a monument was afterwards erected to his memory. He was borne to the earth by soldiers who had served under him, and was honoured by their tears. He fell at the age of thii'ty-three. A spot, at the junction of two roads on the field of Marengo, is sometimes pointed out to travellers as the grave of the hero : but this is a mistake — arising from the fact that a pillar, since removed, was once erected there as a trophy of the victory. The 14th of July was one of the great festivals of the Republic. On this occasion, the Senate and State Council desii'ed publicly to celebrate tjae victory of Marengo. In the Temple of Mars, which had been fitted up for the occasion, Lucien Bonaparte pronounced a glowing eulogium on the Republican troops, and felicitated the people on the bright hopes which the exertions of the Fii'st Consul had created for them; contrasting the present position and prospects of France with the periods of the Reign of Terror and the Directory. The most distinguished generals in either army presented the colours taken by Moreau and Bonaparte ; the brave Lannes had the merited honour of bearing the trophies of Marengo, and accompanied the presentation with a brief speech, doing justice to the achievements of the soldiers. Five medals were then distributed to the same number of veterans ; and the First Consul addressed the officers as follows : — " The colours now presented to the Government, before the people of this mighty capital, attest the genius of the Generals-in-chief INIoreau, Massena, and Berthier, the mihtary talents of the generals, their lieutenants, and the bravery of the French soldiers. On returning to the camp, declare to the armies, that for the epoch of the 1st of CONSULAR GUARD. Vcndcmiairc, when we shall be requii-ed to celebrate the anniversary of the foundation of the Republic, the French people expect, either the proclamation of peace, or, if the enemy oppose invincible obstacles to such a result, more standards, the fruits of new victories." Mehul's mihtary hymn followed this courteous and politic harangue; which was interrupted, ere long, by the cheers of the populace without, announcing the arrival of the Consular Guard from the plains of ]\Iarengo. This was the most impressive scene of all the ceremonies of the day. Napoleon was speedily on horseback, in the Champ-de-Mars, to honour the brave men who were anxious to pass in his presence. The review was not an ordinary one. They were no soldiers in holiday uniform; but men, hurried fr'om the field of battle on the morning after action, worn down with the fatigues of a long march, bronzed by the summer sun of Italy, and presenting scarred faces, battered arms, and torn and soiled accoutrements. 3i0 CHAPTER XII. CORRESPONDENCE WITH THE BOURBONS — DEATH OF KLEBER — NEGOCI- ATIONS WITH AUSTRIA, ENGLAND, AND THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA — CONSPIRACIES — PARALLEL. 1800. EBRUN, the Third Consul, during the preceding month of March, had received, thi-ough the Abbe ISIontesquiou, the Paris agent for the Bom-bons, a letter from the Count de LiUe (afterwards Louis XVIII.), addressed to Napoleon, which was couched in the following terms : — " In whatever light theii- conduct may appear, super- ficially, brave men like you, General, never inspire distrust. You have accepted an eminent station, and know better than any one else that influence and power are requisite to secm-e the happiness of a great nation. Save France from her own madness, and you T^all have fulfiUed the first wish of my heart. Restore to that country her Kmg ; and future generations will bless your memory. You wiU always be too necessary to the State, to apprehend that your services will ^ be insufficiently requited by appointments for youi-self or your friends." To this letter no answer had, at first, been given. Napoleon, perhaps, was willing to sec the result of the Itahan campaign before THE BOURBONS. he decided. TKe most influential of the Royalists would thus be held in suspense as to his intentions, and the gradual revival of monarchical forms would naturally be approved by them as indications favourable to their- views. It is said that Josephine and Hortense strongly ui'ged him to hold out hopes of a restoration ; alleging that he might reserve for himself a far higher recompcnce, and take a loftier character than that of Monk, the restorer of Charles the Second. The First Consul, however, was deaf to all entreaties on the subject; and Marengo decided liis career. Louis, however, was not to be silently repulsed. On Napoleon's return to Paris, he ^vi'ote a second letter, in which he expressed himself more strongly : — " You must be aware. General," he said, "that you have long possessed my esteem. If you doubt my gratitude, name your place, and the fortunes you deshe for your friends. For me, I am a Frenchman, clement by disposition, and not lacking experience. The Victor of Lodi, Castiglione, Areola, the Conqueror of Egypt and Italy, cannot prefer a vain celebrity to glory. Why, then, lose precious time, when we have it in our power to secure the glory of France ? I say ice, because for that end I requii'e the aid of General Bonaparte, and he can accomphsh nothing without me. General! Europe observes you; glory awaits you; and I am impatient to restore happiness to my people." The Count d'Artois (subsequently Charles X.), in order to second the efforts of his brother, despatched from London the beautiful and accomplished Duchess de Guiche, whose fasci- nations it was believed might ensnare him whom courtly promises were not so well calculated to affect. This Lady, who pretended to have private business of importance as the object of her journey to Paris, procured an introduction to Josephine, and was invited to breakfast at the palace. She appears to have di^^llged her errand prematurely, and with less address and delicacy than was expected from her great talents. " Happening," she said, " a few days since, to be at the house of the Count d'Ai'tois, I heard some one ask the Prince what were his intentions with resjject to the Fii-st Consul, in the event of his restoring the Bourbons to the throne of France ? * I would immediately make him Constable of the Kingdom,' replied the Count, ^and he should have whatever else he might choose. Independently of which, we would raise on the Place du Carrousel 312 THE BOURBONS. a lofty and magnificent column, surmounted with a statue of Bona- parte crowniing the Bourbons.'" — "You might have repHcd," said Napoleon sternly, " that the corpse of the First Consul would liaA'e been made the pedestal of the column." The Duchess was not disconcerted, but used all the arts of eloquent flattery and enchanting grace and beauty to ingratiate herself with the " distinguished man and immortal hero," whom she wished to bow to her will. Her object, however, was too palpable at first sight; and she received orders to quit France. At the same time, in order that there might remain no motive for similar intrigues. Napoleon sent the following ansAver to the Count de Lille : — " I have received your letter ; and thank you for the honourable mention which you have made of me therein. I have always felt deep interest in your misfortunes and in those of your family: but you must not think of appearing in France. Your march woidd be over a hundred thousand dead bodies. I shall, however, be always anxious to do everything that may tend to alleviate the hardship of your destiny, and make you forget your misfortunes." At the intercession of the Court of Berlin, the First Consul not only consented to permit such members of the Royal Family as chose to do so, to reside in the Prussian dominions, without molestation, but to allow them an annual pension for their maintenance, out of the revenues of the Republic, on the guarantee of the King of Prussia that no attempt should be made to create disturbances in France. Josephme continued, for a time, to entreat for the exiled Bourbons, foreseeing probably that the elevation to which Napoleon aspiicd, would involve her, if not himself, in ruin; but she was eventually silenced. "My part is taken," said her austere Lord: "do you mind youi* knitting, and leave me to act." It was at this period, that news arrived of the death of Kleber, in Egypt. The despatch, by which it was communicated, reached the Tuileries at two o'clock in the morning ; and on reading it Bonaparte immediately exclaimed, "Egypt is lost!" The First Consul had no great affection for Kleber, who was a th6rough Republican, and a confirmed grumbler, although his talents and courage were un- questionable, and he was sincerely attached to the interests and glory of France. Soon after Napoleon had quitted Egypt, Kleber, 313 2 S DEATH OF KLEBER. believing his position to be desperate, had signed a Convention, known as that of El Arisch, with the plenipotentiaries of the Grand Seignior, and Sir Sidney Smith on behalf of the British; by which it was agreed that the French should evacuate Egypt, and be trans- ported in safety to France. The British Government, however, refused to ratify this Convention, alleging that Sir Sidney Smith had exceeded his authority: "but," Sir Walter Scott says, "the truth was, that the arrival of Kleber and his army in the South of France, at the very moment when the successes of Suwarrow gave strong hopes of making some impression on the frontier, might have had a most material effect upon the events of the war." Be that as it may, the treaty was broken off, and Kleber had recoui'se to arms, in wliich he was eminently successfid over the great Tiu'kish army whose approach he had so much cbeaded. The Grand Vizier .-',« %l;ii!liiii)ii!!:'"'s?rTv ' '. t r^ If ;-'--' 'iAimZIf'^I^COUCC/^' AUSTRIA. ENGLAND. YousefF Pacha was defeated, witli immense slaughter, near the rums of HeUopoUs, on the 20th of March, 1800; and shortly afterwards, an advantageous truce was concluded between the French and the daring ISIurad Bey, who still continued at the head of a formidable body of INIamelukes. It was at this period, while engaged in settling the internal government of Egypt, and raising native troops to recruit his army, that Kleber was struck with the poniard of a ISIahometan fanatic, named Soleyman Haleby, who, taking advantage of the con- cealment afforded by a ruinous cistern, whence a flight of steps led to a terrace on which the General was accustomed to walk, sprung upon and despatched him at a single blow. The assassin, when apprehended, pleaded the inspiration of Heaven for delivering his country from the enemy of his Sovereign and the Prophet. The death of Kleber occurred on the same day, and almost at the same hour, in which Desaix, his friend and comrade, fell at Marengo. After this fatal event, the command of the Ai-my of the East devolved upon Menou, who, although a good general of division, was utterly unfit for chief command. Napoleon's hopes, therefore, of preserving his oriental conquest may be said to have now expired. Disaster in one quarter, however, served merely to quicken liis energies in others. Having tranquillized France, and brought victory back to her banners, he sought to restore peace to the Kepublic, to re-establish her old commercial relations, and to rc-produce internal prosperity. To Austria, the terms were again off'crcd which had been accepted as the basis of the negociations of Rastadt: while Mr. Pitt, conceiving that Marengo had dissipated the brighter hopes of the Allies, is said to have exclaimed, after tracing the positions of the Repubhcan armies upon the map of Europe, " Fold up that map, it need not be again opened these twenty years;" and, acting on this impression, he had forwarded to the British Ambassador at Vienna instructions to intimate the readiness of England to take part in negociations for a general pacification. This produced fi-om Napoleon a demand for a naval armistice ; which, as it would have occasioned the withdrawal of the British vessels employed in blockading the French ports and the island of :Malta, and would have been otherwise exceedingly disadvantageous to England, was, after a vain attempt to procure its modification, declined. The Emperor of Austria, though INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. Standing in a very different position to England, with powerful French armies, flushed with recent success, in the heart of his dominions, was, at the same time, induced, by the influence of British diplomacy and a loan of two millions sterling, to disclaim the acts of his pleni- potentiary, and also to prepare for a renewal of the war. AVith the United States the French negociations were more suc- cessful ; and a Convention was agreed upon, highly advantageous to both the contracting powers. A national bank, which had been previously wanting in France, was established in the interim ; the Civil Code was advanced in the Council of State ; and roads, buildings, and public works of all kinds were carried forward with a rapidity which, to those who had witnessed the supineness of the various governments by which the country had been afflicted for the preceding twelve years, and, indeed, much longer, seemed like the effect of enchantment. All suggestions for improvement, general or local, and whatever their nature, were acceptable to the First Consul, and had a share of his attention. " Glory, increasing and endless glory," says De Bourrienne, " was what he wished for France and for himself!" — "All that I desire — the end of all my toils," ex- claimed Napoleon himself, " is that my name may be inseparably connected with that of France." In fact, his love for France, and for Fame, became an overmastering passion, absorbing all individual affections, and acquiring intensity by indulgence. " His imagination kindled at the one idea only, of seeing the Nation great and happy — the first among European States. It was the most flattering of all the dreams of his ambition that, in distant ages, his name would be identified with that of his beautiful France, and spoken of by her future generations with gratitude and reverence." >> Against the government of such a man, gifted with extraordinary genius, and exercising it for the benefit of the people at large, there was little prospect of being able to succeed by fair and open hostility ; recourse was, therefore, had to secret plots for assassination. The first project of this kind originated with the Jacobins, who hated Napoleon for his opposition to the wild democracy Avhich they advocated. An association was formed, consisting of Ceracclii, an Italian sculptor; Arena, a brother of the Corsican deputy who was said to have aimed the dagger at Napoleon, in the Council of Five CONSPIRACIES. Hundred, on the lOtli of Bruniaire ; Topino Lebrun, a pupil of David, the celebrated painter; Damcrville, Barrel, and others of less note. Ceracchi had sculptured a bust of Bonaparte, when he resided at INIontebello, during his first Itahan campaign; and, on pretence of retouching the work, solicited and obtained an interview ; but, at the moment for action, his heart quailed beneath the searching eye of his intended victim, and he felt it impossible to execute his pui-pose. The conspirators were betrayed to the police, by their accomplice Harrel ; and, on the evening they had fixed for the murder, they were arrested, behind the scenes at the Opera, while Napoleon sat unmolested in his box. The Fh-st Consul treated the attempt with scorn. " I was in no real danger," he said, when entreated to bring the conspii-ators to justice : " the wretches had no power to commit the crime they meditated. They would have shi'unk at a look from the piquet of my brave guard." The chcumstances of the plot were not made pubHc ; and Napoleon was content, for the present, to detain the parties implicated in safe custody. The second conspiracy was of a more formidable description, and more nearly effected its object. This was a contrivance of the Royalists ; who, having been disappointed in their hopes concerning the restoration of the Bourbon Monarchy, endeavoiu'ed to rid them- selves of the man who, having refused to become the instrument for accomplishing their object, seemed to be the most formidable obstacle to its futvu-e acliievement. This plot is well known, as that of tJie Infernal Machine. A barrel of gunpowder, strongly secured in a cart, in the midst of a quantity of grape-shot and pieces of iron, was j)laced in the Rue St. Nicaise, in such a manner that, by means of a train or slow match, it might explode at the moment the carriage of the First Consul should pass the spot, in his way from the Tuileries to the Opera. He had appointed to be present, on the evening of the 10th of October, at the first representation of Haydn's Oratorio of 'The Creation'; and this occasion was accordingly decided upon for the assassmation. When the moment for stepping into liis carriage arrived. Napoleon could scarcely be induced to leave home. He had been fatigued with the business of the day, and was then reposing on a couch in Josephine's apartment. INIadame Bonaparte, Berthier, Lannes, and Lauriston, however, strongly urged him to go. One INFERNAL MACHINE. brought liis hat, another his sword, and he was partly forced to his carriage ; where, however, he ahnost instantly fell into a slumber, and di-eamed of passing the Tagliamento, which three or four years before he had crossed by torch-hght, during a flood. Suddenly he was awakened by a violent noise, like thunder, accompanied by flame, and exclaimed, "We are blown up!" Berthier and Lannes would have instantly stopped the carriage ; but with greater presence of mind, Napoleon ordered the coachman to di'ive on ; and, a few seconds afterwards, they all ahghted in safety at the Opera, where the 318 INFERNAL MACHINE. report, wHch was heard for several miles round Paris, had occasioned the utmost consternation. Napoleon entered his box, Mnih unruffled countenance, taking, as usual, the front seat, as though nothing extraordinary had occurred ; and the performance proceeded. He was, probably, indebted for his escape to the intoxication of his coachman, who di'ove faster than usual, and thus passed the machine a second or two before the explosion, which shattered several houses on each side of the street, killing twenty and wounding fifty-three persons— among others the miscreant St. Regent, who fired the train. The coachman remained during the whole evening unconscious of what had happened, having mistaken the report for the firing of a salute. On returning to the palace, his previously-suppressed indignation found vent. " This is the work of the Jacobins !" he exclaimed. " Neither nobles, nor priests, nor Chouans are implicated here. Since we cannot chain, we must crush this faction. France must be freed from such a pest !" The stifled bitterness with which he pronounced these words, the flashing of his eye, and the spasmodic action of his countenance, indicated the wrath in his breast. Fouch^, who was unwilling that the whole weight of accusation should faU on his former partisans, endeavoured to soothe him, and to represent, that as yet there was no evidence against any one : but Bonaparte's vehemence only increased on finding an object. " Fouche," he cried, "seeks to screen his friends— a mass of men practised in bloodshed and crime! He was one of theu- leaders at Lyons and on the Loire." The atrocity of the attempt excited universal horror, and gave, if possible, additional popularity to the First Consul and his government. On the day after his escape, the Prefect of the Seine, the twelve Mayors, and almost aU the pubHc functionaries of Paris, attended to congratulate him— an example which was followed by deputations and addresses from all parts of the country. Meanwhile, however, Napoleon seemed determined to inflict sum- mary punishment on those whom he considered guilty. A decree of the Senate was solicited and obtained, for the banishment of upwards of a hundred of the leaders of the Jacobins, the greatest portion of whom were persons who had played conspicuous parts in the Rcig7i of Terror, and who were, therefore, too much hated by the populace to rUNISHME>!T OF THE CONSPIRATORS. excite any commiserarion. Tlieii- deportation, nevertheless, was only partially enforced, and several of the most obnoxious of them were suffered to live obscurely at a distance from the capital, subject to no greater restriction than the siu'veillance of the provincial police. This conspiracy had the effect of bringing down the severity of justice upon Arena, Ceracchi, and their companions, who were imme- diately afterwards arraigned, condemned, and executed : and, at the end of little more than a month, Fouche, who had been indefatigable in his efforts to discover the plotters of the infernal machine, was enabled to report that they were in custody. At a dinner given by the drivers of fiacres to Caesar, Napoleon's coachman, in honoiu* of his escape, a man who was present said he had seen the cart which did the mischief issue from a stable-yard near his stand. This clue led to a full disclosure of the facts. Carbon and St. Eegent, who had recently come from London in company with Georges Cadoudal, and other Royahsts, were apprehended in the house of two nuns, Madame Goyon and Madame de Cice, and being brought to trial, were fully con\acted, and suffered on the scaffold. " Justice seems, at tliis period," says Sir "Walter Scott, " to have been distributed with an impartiahty unusual in France since the Kevolution." Bonaparte, for a long time, affected to believe, that these conspiracies were countenanced, if not contrived by the British Government. It was during the period when the police were pursuing their enquiries after Carbon and his accompHces, that a pamphlet, entitled " Parallel between Cajsar, Cromwell, INIonk, and Bonaparte " appeared, and created a great sensation in the political circles of Paris. This celebrated tract purported to be a translation fi-om the English. It advocated the re-establishment of hereditary monarchy, and openly pointed at the Conqueror of Italy, the Alexander, the Pericles, the Martel, the Charletnugjie of France, as the man to be hailed " Founder of a new Dpiasty." The piece is full of noble sentiments and profound thoughts, and cxliibits in the writer, a masterly comprehension of the position and interests of the Republic, as well as extensive knowledge of the details and uses of history. It was generally received, however, with clamorous disapprobation ; and the friends of Napoleon counselled that he should instantly suppress it, lest it should injm-e hun in public 320 THE PARALLEL. estimation, and be the cause of more such conspiracies as those from which he had recently escaped. Fouche was sent for, and severely reprehended for allowing it to be published. The Minister listened with the most impertui'bable coolness. " Some delicacy," he rephed, " was necessary to be observed with regard to the author." — " DeU- cacy!" exclaimed the Fu'st Consul, with increased warmth, "he should have been instantly arrested. " — " But, General," interrupted the sardonic functionary, " your brother Lucien has taken the pamphlet under his protection. The printing and pubhshing were by his order ; and, in short, the whole affau- has been authorized by the INIinistry of the Interior." Napoleon was staggered for a moment ; but stifling his chagrin, he resumed : " It was your duty as Mmister of Police to have denounced Lucien, and imprisoned him in the Temple.'* Then, hastening fi'om the cabinet, he muttered, " That blockhead, Lucien, is constantly compromising me !" The sinister smile which had played upon Fouche's lips during the Fu'st Consul's presence, now became more significant. "Imprison the author!" he whispered to De Bourrienne, who was present at this scene, " that would be difficult ! Alarmed at the effect the ' Parallel ' was calculated to produce, I hastened to Lucien, and taxed him with his imprudence. Instead of answering me, he di-ew forth from a private di-awer the original manuscript of the pubHcation, full of corrections and suggestions in the hand-writing of the First Consul." Lucien was next sent for, and made to resign the office he then held in the ministry; being compensated with the appointment of Ambassador to the Court of Spain. Napoleon thus thought it necessary to yield, for a time, to the force of Pubhc Opinion; " that imdsible and mysterious power," as he himself has called it, " which, though nothing can be more vague, unsteady, and capricious, it is impossible to resist." The people, in fact, were not yet prepared to submit to the outward forms, notwithstanding that they had sanctioned the assumption of the substantial prerogatives of monarchy. It had been hoped by many, that the First Consul intended to become a Washington — a hope which his reverence for the character of that great man had assisted to foster. " But in France, exposed to faction within and invasion without, with none but a circle of kings to call to his congress, even Washington would but have prolonged the existence 321 2 T THE PARALLEL. of evil, to attempt the part which he played in America." It may- be added, in Bonaparte's own words, that his " ideas were fixed, and merely required time and events for their realization. It was necessary, however, to proceed steadily from day to day, guided by the polar star, by which it was purposed to bring the Revolution to the desu-ed haven." The effect of the ' Parallel ' itself, though, for the moment, it might have appeared to retard the execution of the project which it was intended to advance, was not altogether unsatisfactory. The violence which it excited had time to vent itself and pass away ; and men's minds had become famihar with the question which it advocated, before any practical measure was announced to realize the object in view- 322 -^ •<^-?*'''fe. CHAPTER XIII. SPECIAL TRIBUNALS — PUBLIC WORKS — RENEWAL OF HOSTILITIES — HOHEN- LINDEN — TREATY OF LUNEVILLE — DEATH OF THE EMPEROR PAUL — EVACUATION OF EGYPT — THE CONCORDAT — PEACE OF AMIENS. 1800—1801. ETTiNG escape no fair opportunity for consolidating his own power, Napoleon was not slow to take advantage of the conspira- cies which had transpired, and the popular "^ enthusiasm which they had created in his ''^ favour, as pretexts for the introduction of ^ some legal measures calculated to raise him a step nearer to unlimited authority. A Special Tribunal was instituted for the trial of all conspirators, traitors to the Republic, and armed insurgents; for which, indeed, some necessity was shewn, by the daring of the numerous bands of f< 3T SPECIAL TRIBUNALS. Chouans, on the witlidi-awal from the Royalist depai'tments of the troops which formed the Ai-my of Reserve, who had again begun to make head, and now infested the roads, intercepted public and com- mercial communications, and kept many of the provincial towns in a state of constant fear and apprehension. This Court consisted of eight judges, comprising three members of the ordinary criminal tribunal, three military officers, and two citizens, who were to act without the intervention of a jury, and from whose decision there was to be no appeal. This Institution was followed by another, formed to give the Chief Consul a discretionary power to banish from Paris, or from France, all persons who might be regarded as public enemies, though guilty of no absolute crime. This it must not be denied was an unjust and iniquitous law, entirely subversive of all liberty, public and private ; and verging to the most arbitrary despotism which was ever exercised over men. To their honour it should be recorded, that the project encountered the determined and coui-ageous oppo- sition of Benjamin Constant, Daunou, Ginguene, Chenier, and Isnard, in the Tribunate ; and of Lambrecht, Lanjuinais, Garat, and Lenoir Laroche, in the Senate, The majority by Avhich it was finally carried was only eight out of ninety members. In order to divert the attention of the people from these pro- ceedings, and to impress them with sentiments of deeper admiration for the government of the First Consul, a number of important public works were projected and commenced. The Capital was embelUshed with new streets and bridges ; a new exchange was erected ; mag- nificent cemeteries were planned; triumphal arches and beautiful columns arose in the public places; quays were constructed on the Seine; and new roads, canals, and harbours sprung forth, as at a word, in all the departments, to carry the blessings of commerce through every part of France. In one direction forests were planted; in another gratuities were awarded for improvements in manufactures, handicrafts, and agriculture. New animal and vegetable products were imported and naturalized, and the utmost skill and attention were lavished upon the old ; the benefits of which were soon felt in the improved breed of French cattle, and a national proficiency in horticulture unsurpassed in Europe. The Arts were at the same time advanced, and rendered available to the common people, in their 324 PUBLIC "WORKS. adaptation to the purposes of manufacture and commerce. Admired pictures were purchased by the government ; and promising young artists, as well as those already distinguished, were provided with apartments in the splendid palace of the Louvi'C, the galleries of which, under the auspices of Napoleon, became superior in grandeiu* and wealth to those of the Vatican itself. " It was a journey, like the path to Heaven," Mr. Hazlitt says, " to visit the place for the first time. You walked, for a quarter of a mile, through works of fine art : the very floors echoed the sounds of immortality. The effect was not broken and frittered by being divided and taken piecemeal; but the whole was collected, heaped, massed together to a gorgeous height, so that the blow stunned you, and could never be forgotten. School called unto school ; one great name answered to another, swelling the chorus of universal praise. It was the crowning and the consecration of art ; there was a dream and a glory like the coming of the Millennium ; and the works which were collected, instead of being taken from their respective countries, were given to the world, and to the mind and heart of man from whence they sprung. He who had the hope, nay the earnest wish to acliieve anything like the immortal works before him, rose in imagination, and in the scale of true desert above principalities and powers. All that it had entered into his mind to conceive — his thought in tangled forests, his vision of the night, was here perfected and accomplished, was acknowledged for the fair and good, honoured with the epithet of divine, spoke an intelligible language, and received the homage of the universe," Great and useful undertakings were urged forward on every side; even the barriers of nature were no obstacles to Napoleon's endeavour to perfect the glory of the " Great Nation." His highways levelled the ancient boundaries of France, and united her more closely to the states and provinces with which a fraternal alliance had been estab- lished, through the agency of him to whose will all things, for a time, seemed to have been subjected. Thus in Savoy, a road, smooth as a garden alley, displaced the dangerous steeps of Bramant ; the passage of Mont Cenis was rendered easy as a morning's walk; and the rugged and dangerous Simplon was forced to yield a magnificent road to the mine and the lever of French engineers. " Bonaj^arte," 325 NEGOCIATIONS. says De Bom-rienne, "might, witli greater truth, boast that there were no longer Alps, than did Louis XIV. that there were no longer PjTenecs." At the same time the strictest attention was paid to the finances ; peculators and jobbers were punished whenever they Avere detected ; accounts and estimates were submitted to, and inspected by, Napoleon in person, whose A^gilancc in discovermg errors or misappropriation in the public expenditure, kept all things witliin the bounds of economy and order. The activity he exerted, and the labour he performed at this time, seem almost incredible. Often, after being engaged the whole day in looking over papers or hearing reports on diplomatic afiairs, the army, the police, the admi- nistration of justice, or the progress of public works, despatches arrived in the evening, and he would then sit up all night to read and answer them. His secretaries were worn out with fatigue ; yet this accumulation of toil seemed to require so little effort from himself, beyond the sustaining vigom* of his mmd, that the only stimulant he was in the habit of taking, tlu'ough the long hours of his sittings, was a little lemonade. In the meantime, the negociations for peace with England and Austria, which had been set on foot after the battle of Marengo, proceeded but slowly ; and Napoleon, who perceived that the object of the AlHes was merely to gain time, and to take advantage of futui'e contingencies to renew the war at a favourable moment, resolved to be first in the field. The Commanders of the Armies of the Rhine and of Italy received orders to give notice, on the 1 st of September, of the expiration of the truce, and to resume hostilities without delay. Moreau, whose head-quarters were at Nimphenburg, near Munich, accordingly prepared to open the campaign; but Austria, still undecided and desirous of a respite, solicited a renewal of the armistice, professing ardently to wish for peace, and ofiering, as a guarantee of its sincerity, to place the three important fortresses of Ulm, Philipsburg, and Ingoldstadt, in the hands of the French. On these conditions, the suspension of hostilities was prolonged for forty- five days from the 20th of September. It was in this interval, that the British loan of two milhons reached Vienna, and decided the Emperor on trying the fate of a new campaign. Still, however, he was anxious to temporize, and, if possible, amuse the First Consul, MILITARY PREPARATIONS. till the commencement of tlic rainy season should liave rendered military operations impossible, by wliicb means he would have gained the winter for recruiting his armies, and concerting plans with his Allies. Count Lerbach was despatched to Luneville, but with insufficient powers to treat with Joseph Bonaparte, the French pleni- potentiary, on terms for a definitive peace. On the very opening of the proceedings, the object of Austria became manifest. Count Lerbach declaring that he had no authority to act without the concurrence of an English minister. Napoleon was very naturally exasperated at this duplicit}^, and ordered his Generals to resume instant hostilities on the expiration of the forty-five days. The strength and positions of the French armies, at this period, were favourable for continuing the war. The Republican soldiers in Germany amounted to a hundred and seventy-five thousand : con- sisting of the Gallo-Batavian army, commanded by General Augereau, twenty thousand strong ; the grand Army of Germany, under Moreau, numbering a hundi'cd and forty thousand ; and the Army of the Grisons, under Macdonald, fifteen thousand men. In Italy, the French forces were a hundred thousand : ninety thousand under General Brune, who had succeeded Massena as Commander-in-chief, in consequence of some disagreement between the latter and the authorities of the Cisalpine Bepubhc; and ten thousand, designated the Southern Corps of Observation, under Murat. The plan of the campaign had been previously arranged. Moreau was to pass the Inn, and march on Vienna by the valley of the Danube. Augereau was directed to act on the Rednitz as a reserve, for emergencies, and to secure the rear of the grand army. Brune was ordered, at the same time, to pass the jNIincio and the Adige, and direct his march upon the Noric Alps, while Murat was to act as a reserve to Brune, and to flank his right. Thus two hundred and fifty thousand men were prepared at once to advance upon the capital of Germany, at a season when the Emperor had flattered liimself, that no idea of a campaign in the inclement region of Upper Austria would be entertained. The number of the German troops, to oppose the invaders, was not more than equal ; while in discipline and courage they were greatly inferior. Moreau had under his command some of the best officers France had produced : Lecoiu'be, Grouchy, HOHENLINDEN. St. Suzanne, Ney, Legrand, and Hardy, "with others of probably equal talent; all eager to emulate the deeds of the \ictors of Marengo. Hostilities were resumed on the 27th of November, when the Army of the Rhine advanced in four divisions upon the Inn, along the left bank of which it bivouacked on the 30th, extendmg over a space of nearly fifteen leagues between Rosenheim and Miilildorf. The Archduke John, whose reputation with the Imperial troops almost equalled that of his brother Charles, occupied, with his army, a line extending from Miihldorf to Landshut, intending to operate by the valleys of the Issen, the Roth, and the Iser. At day-break on the 1st of December, the Ai-chduke dej^loyed sixty thousand men before the heights of Ampfingen and Achau, and, attacking the French positions before they were prepared, drove back the divisions of Grenier, Ney, Grandjcan, and Legrand, with considerable loss, and carried alarm into the wholg of the French ai'my : but, like all his predecessors, the Austrian chief was incapable of taking advantage of the fortunate moment. Instead of following up his fii'st success by passing Haag, and giving battle on the 2nd, he contented himself with petty movements, and thus afforded his opponents time to rally, and to concentrate their forces. Having, in the meantime, however, perceived the error of his delay, he put his army into motion, before day-break on the 3rd, and advanced in three columns, which were designed to meet and encamp in the evening in the plain of Amzing. A heavy fall of snow had entirely obliterated all traces of roads ; and it was with the utmost difficulty that the troops were enabled to advance in the wild forest of Hohenlinden, near the village of which name the fii'ing commenced. Grouchy's division, at about seven o'clock, was sur- prised at the appearance of an enemy; and at the first onset, several of his battalions were broken, and fled in disorder. Ney, however, hastened to the spot, and by a terrible charge carried death and dismay into the heart of the Austrian column. The battle soon became general ; and, after a protracted conflict, as obstinate and bloody as any the French troops had ever sustained, in which the severity of the weather and the state and nature of the ground seem to have utterly bewildered all parties in their operations, the fate of the day was determined by the desperate valour of General Riche- FRENCH VICTOllIES. panse, who being nearly surrounded by the enemy, and cut oiF from all communication with the other divisions of the army, penetrated with the 8th and 48th regiments of the line into the depths of the forest, manoeuvred to get into the rear of the Austrian artillery, charged and routed its escort with the bayonet, and took eighty-seven pieces of cannon, and three hundred waggons. The confusion which this movement occasioned in the rear spread rapidly to the van ; and the Ai-chduke, no longer able to maintain his ground, precipitately retreated with the wreck of his army beliind the Inn. The loss of the Austrians in this engagement is reported to have been twenty- five thousand men, in killed, wounded, and prisoners — the latter, amounting to seven thousand, included two generals; a hundred guns, and an immense number of waggons, containing baggage and ammunition. The French lost ten thousand men. Moreau, intent on improving his victory, crossed the Inn and the Salza,^nd pushed on through Salzburg, Frankenmarkt, Schwanstadt, and Lambftch, to Kremsmunster, where, on the 22nd, he established his head-quarters, while his advanced posts were on the banks of the Ips and the Erlaph, with the light cavahy in position at ISIolk on the Danube, not above two days march from Vienna. Augereau, meanwliile, on the very day of the victory of Hohenlinden, had defeated the Baron Albini and an army of twenty thousand Austrians at Burg-Eberach, passed the Rednitz, and taken possession of Nurem- berg, on the frontiers of Bohemia ; while ISIacdonald, with the Army of the Grisons, had crossed the Valteline, and advanced as far as Trent in the Tyrol. Brune, at the same time, had passed the Mincio, the Adige, and the Brenta, driving the affrighted Germans before him at every stage, and was Avithin a few miles of Venice; and Mui-at, with the Army of Observation, was at INIilan. Every way the hopes of Austria were crushed ; and the capital of the empii-e lay defenceless before whichever of the enemy's armies should first arrive at its gates. The Archduke Charles was called at the last moment to take the command of the army; but it was now too late: and, as a final resource, Austria again had recoiu'se to negociation, to allow time for completing which, a fuither suspension of hostilities for thirty days was solicited and conceded on the 25th of December, the term being afterwards protracted till the signing of the definitive 2 U NEAPOLITANS. treaty of Luneville, on the 9tli of February, 1801 ; when the Emperor, compelled to relinquish his engagements with England, accepted a separate peace, on terms dictated by his Conqueror. By this treaty the left bank of the R.hine, though comprising portions of the hereditary dominions of the King of Prussia, and of other Princes of the Germanic Confederation, was guaranteed to France as her boundary; and Tuscany, which belonged to the brother of Francis, was unconditionally ceded to the First Consul. The Union of the Batavian ReiJublic with that of France was recognised, together with the independence of the Cisalpine and Ligurian Commonwealths. It has been remarked by Sir Walter Scott, that these conditions were not much more advantageous to France than those of Campo Formio ; and that the moderation of Napoleon indicated the sincerity of his desire for peace. Naples had not been admitted as a party in this treaty. She had still an army of sixteen thousand men in the field, under Count de Damas, who having crossed the Papal States unmolested, and ventured to give battle to General Miollis at Sienna, had been defeated with considerable slaughter, and fled once more into the Roman territories for refuge. Immediately after the battle of Hohenlinden, Murat received orders to pursue the Neapolitans into the interior of their own kingdom, and, if necessary, drive the Royal Family once more to the island of Sicily; but to pay the greatest respect to the Pope, to restore to him the free government of his States, and not to approach his capital without his special request. The Pontiff was so well pleased with the conduct of the French on the occasion, that he desired Cardinal Gonsalvi to write to Murat, expressing "the lively regard which his Holiness felt for the First Consul, in whose hands were the tranquillity of religion and the happiness of Europe." The Neapolitans, thus driven from the States of the Church, rapidly fell back towards the mountains of Calabria. The Court of Naples now became certain that it had nothing to hope but from the clemency of Napoleon; the English fleet, which was its strongest reUance, being unable to defend the capital from the conquering troops of France. The Queen, a woman of strong mind, and decisive character, resolved at this crisis to appeal to the Emperor Paul, who was known to be on the best terms with NEW KINGDOM. the First Consul, for his intercession in behalf of her husband and his dominions. Notwithstanding the severity of the season, she forthwith proceeded to St. Petersburgh; and the Czar, flattered by the supplication of the daughter of Maria Theresa, for a protection which her brother, the Emperor of Austria, was unable to afford, immediately despatched Count Lewinshoff, Grand Huntsman of Russia, to Paris, to soHcit a peace, which Napoleon, to gratify Paul, at once conceded. Accordingly, after some time idly spent m negociation, on the 28th of IMarch, a treaty was signed at Florence, by which the King of the Two Sicilies agreed to close his ports against all English vessels; to cede to France the island of Elba; to restore to the Pope all the paintings, statues, and works of art, which, after the example of Napoleon, De Damas, though he had entered the city as a protector, had taken from Rome ; and to receive a corps of French soldiers into his territories, for the convenience of embarkation, to reinforce the Army of Egypt. At this period. Napoleon, in compliment to the King of Spam, who had rendered him considerable service during the war, erected Tuscany into a kingdom, under the name of Etruria, and conferred it on Louis de Bourbon, eldest son of the Duke of Parma, who had married INIaria Louisa, a sister of Ferdinand YII. The whole of the Continent was now at peace with France; England alone continued the war, and she without any appai-ent object. Her superiority by sea was everywhere felt and admitted, and she could scarcely hope, without allies, to obtain any permanent advantage by land. ISIalta, after a siege of two years, had been wrested from the Republic; and Eg>Tt was the only point on which success could be hoped for. In these circumstances, knowing that the calm around him was merely the effect of fear, and that it would last only so long as that operating cause continued, the First Consul was anxious to bring matters to a close with England, either by totally crushing that power, or reducing her to seek a termination of hostilities. For this piu-pose, he prepared to take advantage of the dissatisfaction recently created among the northern maritime States, by the encroachments of England in searching neutral vessels. Every art of diplomacy was exerted to f\m the existing jealousy of Prussia, Denmark, and Sweden, into open rage; and in a short NORTHERN COALITION. time, those powers united with Russia and France in forming a coalition to resist the British exactions. The Emperor Paul, whose feelings of hostility against Great Britain had been increased by the refusal of the Cabinet of London to restore the island of Malta to the Knights of St. John, according to stipidation, had already seized all the English subjects and goods in his dominions. Prussia now took possession of Hanover, the independence of which she had herself guaranteed ; and Denmark occupied the free city of Hamburgh. Thus the British Government had to contemplate the necessity of humiliation, or of encountering single-handed the immense military force of France and the combined fleets of Europe. At the same time, the people of England were suffering from a scarcity of pro- visions, the consequence of bad harvests, and the unsettled state of commerce. With a degree of courage and promptitude, which has few parallels in history, in the face of the most appalling dangers and difficulties, a powerful fleet was immediately fitted out and despatched, under the command of Admiral Sir Hyde Parker and Vice-Admiral Lord Nelson, to the Baltic, to anticipate the operations of the Confederacy, by attacking their fleets in their own harbours. This display of energy, and the success with which it was crowned in the signal victory of Nelson at Copenhagen, added to the death of the Emperor Paul, who, in the night of the 23rd of March, was assassinated in his palace at St. Petersburgh, by members of his own household, entirely defeated the objects of the Coalition. The new Czar was indisposed to pursue the policy of his predecessor ; and defeat had reduced Denmark to submission. The morning after receiving the news of the murder of Paul, Napoleon caused the following annoiincement, by which he evidently sought to insinuate that the government of England had some participation in the crime, to be inserted in the Mcmiteur: — "Paul I. died on the night between the 23rd and 24th of iNIarch. The English squadron passed the Sound on the 30th. History will instruct us as to the relation existing between these two events." The First C9nsul was greatly affected on the occasion. "A revolution of the palace," he exclaimed, "has overturned all my designs. Had the Czar lived, I should have concerted measures with him to give a mortal blow to the British power in India." Not- 33 2 EVACTATION OF EGYTT. •snthstanding his chagrin, however, he forthwith sent Duroc to St. Petersburgh, to congratulate the Emperor Alexander on his accession to the throne. It was shortly after the death of Paul, that Napoleon heard of the evacuation, by Menou, of the colony of Egypt. Everything had gone badly there since the death of Kleber. Menou had ahered the regulations of that General respecting the treatment of the inhabitants, and thus disgusted the most influential portion of the population, who, on the landing of an English army, under Sir- Ralph Abercromby, in March, 1801, rose in open hostility to the French. The contest was not a prolonged one. Menou, finding himself overmatched, both in skill and numbers, with his troops scattered in various forts and cities, where they were surrounded by open enemies, and exposed to the machinations of concealed ones, entered into a convention for surrendering the province, on condition that the army should be transported to France, with its arms and baggage. On receiving this intelligence, Bonaparte is reported to have said, " There remains, then, no alternative but a descent on Britain : " an idea which occasioned some preparations to be made at Boulogne and elsewhere, in the collection of a flotilla ; but, as there was no serious intention of putting the project into execution, the only result it produced, was that of rousing afresh the ardour and animosity of the English people, and rendering the war more popular than before. In the mean- time, as Mr. Pitt had relinquished oflice, and been succeeded by Mr. Addington, afterwards Lord Sidmouth, who was kno-«Ti to be more favourably disposed towards accommodation than his prede- cessor ; and as no determinate advantage could accrue to any party from protracting the war, negociations were again set on foot for a peace — on this occasion at the solicitation of Endand, The administration of the internal aflfairs of the Commonwealth proceeded with the same vigour as had been constantly displayed, since the establishment of the Consulate. Immediately after the ratification of the Treaty of Luneville, Napoleon formed the terri- tories which had been ceded to France by Austria, into four new departments : those of Roer, the Sarre, the Rhine and Moselle, and Mont Tonnerre ; and, for the advancement of the commercial interests of the nation, published a law authorizing the establishment of bowses, STEAM BOATS, or marts of trade, in the chief cities and towns of the Republic ; at the same time, ordaining that, from the 1 7th to the 22nd of September in each year, there shovdd be pubHc exhibitions of the productions of French industry and ingenuity. Amid the numberless speculations and improvements which were, at this time, suggested to him, he missed one, which might have changed his own fate and that of Europe. The celebrated Fulton presented a memorial on the subject of steam-boats. Napoleon, who was always suspicious of mere specu- lators, treated the project as chimerical, and its author as a visionary. It was in vain that a letter was spoken of, which had been written by Benjamin Franklin, in 1788, wherein that scientific philosopher had spoken of " a boat, propelled by a steam-engine, which had power to ascend against the stream." The First Consul could not be brought to examine the proposal ; and eventually Fulton went to America, where, five or six years afterwards, he was enabled to carry his long contemplated plans into execution, and to commence one of the mightiest revolutions which have ever operated upon the destinies of mankind. From the same period dates the re-establishment of a national religion in France. Napoleon considered such a measure necessary, to secure the tranquillity of the State and the settlement of the Government. He had afready recalled the banished priests, re- erected the ancient altars for Christian worship, and given back to the Pope his temporal sovereignty : it excited no surprise, therefore, when it was known that Joseph Bonaparte was commissioned to treat with Cardinal Gonsalvi, the plenipotentiary of Pius VII., on the terms of a special Concordat, to restore the Pepublic to the bosom of the Church. The want of conformity in matters of fiaith had long been felt as an evil by good and really patriotic men, among whom the only serious question was, what kind of religion it Avould be best to establish. Many desired to throw oflf the Papal yoke and establish a Galilean church, similar to that of England, of which the First Consul should be the head. Napoleon rejected this. " I am aware," he said, " that a part of France would become Protestant, especially if I seemed to countenance such a disposition ; but the majority would remain Catholic, and struggle, with the fervour of sectarian zeal, against the schism of their fellow-citizens. Religious contests, dis- 334 RELIGION. sensions in families would ensue ; instead of which, by re-estabhshing the religion which has always reigned in the land, and which still keeps its hold upon the heart, while the minority are left free to exercise their own worship, I shall act in harmony with the nation, and satisfy every body." Some argued, that no State religion was necessary; that it was enough to tolerate public worship and the priests, without creating or providing for a clergy ; and that the spirit of the age opposed a relapse to the old order of things. " Nay, you deceive yourselves," rephed the First Consid ; " religion is inherent in men's minds, and while this is so a clergy will always exist. We have had instances of Republics, Democracies, of all that we see, but never of any State ^vithout a religion, a form of worship, or a priesthood. It is better, therefore, to regulate the worship, and gain over the priests, than to leave things as they are. The popularity of the government is enhanced by its respect for rehgion. It was this respect which gained me the aifections of the ItaHans, and the confi- dence of the ulemas of Egypt." Indeed, so thorouglily was he imbued with a sense of the importance of this step, that, at a debate on the subject in the Council of State, he said, " If the Pope had not existed, I would have created one for the occasion; as the Roman Consuls, in cuxumstances of emergency, elected a dictator." There is no doubt, however, that the Concordat was a matter of policy rather than rehgion. Napoleon himself has told us, that " it was necessaiy to the Repubhc and the Government; to terminate sectarian divisions, put an end to disorders, cause the faithful to pray for the State, dissipate the scruples of those who had puixhased the domains of the Church, and break the last thi'ead which still connected the ancient dynasty with the country, by displacing the bishops, who remained faithful to royalty, and pointing them out as rebels, preferring the thmgs of this world and their temporal interests to the afiau's of Heaven and the cause of God." Notwithstanding this apparent indifference, however. Napoleon does not appear to have been so wholly devoid of rehgious sentiments as he has been generally repre- sented. His thoughts were vague and unsettled, and his mind tinged with superstition. " ]\Iy reason," he said, " keeps me in unbchef concerning many things ; but the impressions of childhood, and the feelings of early youth, throw me back into uncertainty. I am RELIGION. assuredly far fi-om being an Atheist; but I cannot profess to believe all that I am taught, in spite of my reason, without being false and a hypocrite. To explain where I come from, what I am, and whither I go, is above my comprehension. I am like the watch that exists, without the consciousness of existence. However, the sentiment of religion is so consolatory, that it must be considered a gift of Heaven. My increduhty does not proceed from perverseness or hcentiousness of mind ; but how is it possible that conviction can find its way to my heart, when I hear the absurd language, and witness the hiiquitous acts, of those whose busmess it is to preach to us? — who incessantly tell us that theh reign is not of this world, and yet lay hands upon everythuig they can get ? The Pope, the head of religion, thinks only of this world, and his secular power as a prince. I consider religion, nevertheless^ as the support of sound principles and good morality, both in doctrine and practice ; and such is the restlessness of man, that his mind requires that so?nething undefined and mar- vellous which religion ofiers." On another occasion, when he had dined with a few friends at Mahnaison, a rural estate, situate a few miles from Paris, wliich he had pm-chased shortly after his return from Egypt ; as he walked in the Park, at evening, the conversation turned upon rehgion — it was Sunday. The sound of the bells, from the village church of Euel, suddenly struck upon his ear, in the midst of an ai'gument on modes of worship, philosophical systems, deism, and materiahsm. He paused to catch every tone of the sounds that charmed him ; and his voice trembled with emotion, as he said, " This recalls the first years I passed at Brienne. — I was happy then !" The bells ceased, and he resumed the interrupted discourse. " Let youi- pliilosophers, your metaphysicians," he exclaimed, " explain the source of that influence. If there be not a Deity," he continued, extending his hands toAvards heaven, whicli was thickly studded with stars, " let them tell me who made all that ? Everything proclaims the eternal truth, that there is a God ! " The stumbling-block in the way of his becoming a Christian seems to have been the inunortality of the soul ; a doctrine which he strove to believe, but on which he could obtain no conviction. At St. Helena, he said, " What influence could men and events exercise over mc if, bearing my misfortunes as if inflicted by God, I expected to 336 THE CONCORDAT. be compensated by him with happiness hereafter ! " In the height of his power he has been heard to say, that the perpetuity of a name in the memory of men, constituted his only hope of immortahty. " This idea," he added, " elevates to noble deeds. It were better never to have lived than to leave no after traces of one's existence." The struggle between old recollections, a desire to be fully satisfied, and a perverse understanding, kept him in doubt till his death. When he was Emperor, every effort was used to induce him to take the sacra- ment in the church of Notre Dame ; but he constantly refused to do so. " I have not sufficient faith in the act," he said, " to be benefitted by it; yet I have too much belief to allow me to commit a wilful profanation." And, strange as it may appear, in union ^dth his peculiar ideas, he firmly believed in presentiments and the appearance of spirits. " When at a distance," he remarked, " death strikes one who is dear to us : a presentiment almost always annoimces the event ; and the individual who is removed appears to us at the moment of our loss." The Concordat was signed by Napoleon on the 15th of August, 1801, and by the Pope shortly afterwards. By this document, the Holy See relinquished to the French Government the right of nomi- nation to vacant bishoprics ; pledged itself not to molest the purchasers of alienated ecclesiastical property; and agreed to a new division of dioceses and church livings : in return for which, the autliorities of the Republic recognised the Catholic Apostolical Church as that of the nation, and agreed to secure proper salaries for the prelates and clergy, and to sanction measures for allowing piously-disposed persons to make futui-e endowments in favour of religion. The conditions of this arrangement were too moderate to meet the approval of the high church party, and especially of the exiled Bishops, who threatened to resign their Sees, in preference to joining in, what they deemed, a surrender of the ancient concessions to the Church ; but finding that due provision had been made for filhng their places, in the event of their proving refractory, they, as well as his Holiness, thought it best to submit to " the exigencies of the times," and obtain restitution of a portion of their wealth and influence, rather than continue to be deprived of the whole. It was, at least, something saved from the wreck of the Revolution. The nation at large looked upon the 2 X TE DEUM. Concordat as a healing measure, and was by no means disposed to support the pretensions of those who, from selfish motives, sought to oppose it. The ordonnance for the re-establishment of the Catholic worship was followed by a solemn procession to the church of Notre Dame, on which occasion the household of the Fii'st Consul, for the first time, appeared in livery. Mass was performed, with pontifical magnificence, by Cardinal Caprara. The Bishops took the oath of allegiance to the Republic ; and, after a discourse delivered by De Boisgehn, Arch- bishop of Tours, the same who had preached the Coronation sermon of Louis XVI., a Te Deum was chanted. The congregation was nm^^^yM iib PEACE OF AMIENS. immense — the greater portion being obliged to stand; but the com- portment of the majority harmonized little with devotional solemnity. The preceding twelve years had engendered an irreverence for divine things, which the Concordat had no power in an instant to dispel. Dui-ing the ser\T.ce, the whispers of curiosity or impatience gradually increased to the tone of conversation, occasionally interruptmg the ceremony ; and an unusual hunger seemed to have seized upon many, who every few minutes were seen turning their heads to bite a piece of chocolate. De Bourrienne affirms, that he even saw persons taking luncheon, without appearing to pay the least regard to what was going forward. Many of the Repubhcan Generals felt the greatest repugnance to the new arrangement; and it was necessary to use some adckess to procure their presence at the Cathedral. Berthier mvited several to breakfast with him, whence he took them to Napoleon's lev^e, thus rendering excuse impossible. Moreau, however, at the risk of offending, declined giving his attendance. On the return of the procession to the Tuileries, Bonaparte asked Delmas what he thought of the ceremony. "It was an admirable capucinade ,'' rephed the General ; and Augereau, being asked the same question, answered, " It is all very fine : there wants nothing but the million of men who devoted themselves to death in order to destroy what we are now re-establishing." This, it may be remarked, was in the capital. In the country, the restoration of religion was generally hailed as a blessing. The treaty with England, which had been slowly proceeding for some months, was brought to a close soon after the pubhcation of the Concordat. The English agreed to surrender all the conquests they had made duiing the war, except Trinidad and Ceylon, which they were allowed to retain in perpetuit}^; and the French were to evacuate Rome and Naples. The occupation of INIalta had formed one of the chief obstacles to an earlier settlement of differences : this island was now to be restored to the Knights of St. John, and declared a free port — its independence being secured by a garrison of the troops of a neutral power. The preliminary articles were signed on the 10th of October, 1801, and their publication elicited the most en- thusiastic and general joy throughout England as well as France. CHARLES JAMES FOX. Mr. Sheridan aptly characterized the peace, as " a result which all men were glad of, but of which no man could be proud." It is not wonderful that when one who, from the outset, had opposed the war, thus regarded its termination, the Government with which it had originated and which was now in a measure compelled to abandon it, should consider its cessation as a mere truce for convenience. The Peace of Amiens opened the Continent to British travellers. Among those who availed themselves of the opportunity to visit France, was the illustrious Charles James Fox, of whom Bonaparte himself has recorded, that " half a dozen such men would be suf- ficient to establish the character of a nation ; — a man without a model among the ancients, being himself a model, whose principles, sooner or later, will rule the world. In Fox," added Napoleon, " the heart warmed the genius, while, in his rival Pitt, the genius withered the heart." Fox at this time was engaged in writing a History of the Stuarts, and requested permis^on to inspect the archives of France. The Fhst Consul afforded him every facility for his researches ; and received him frequently at the Palace, where the conversations that ensued seem to have induced mutual sentiments of the highest respect and esteem. " Fame," said Napoleon, " had informed me of Fox's talents ; and I soon found that he possessed a noble character, a good heart, liberal, generous, and enlightened views. I considered him an 310 CHARLES JAMES FOX. ornament to mankind, and was mucli attached to him." The Fhst Consul having spoken of the Infernal Machine in Fox's presence, and wishing to cast the odium of that attempt upon the British Ministry, was rebuked with manly sincerity and warmth: "Pray take that crotchet out of youi- head," said the Statesman ; who well knew how incapable were Enghsh gentlemen. Whig or Tory, of lending any countenance to schemes of assassination. The kindly attentions of Napoleon to this distinguished man were responded to by all France. In every town and village through which he passed, the authorities and kdiabitants vied with each other in rendering to him honour and hospitahty. M. Laurent de I'Ardeche assimilates the enthusiasm of the French populace on the occasion, with that of the British public in the equally flattering reception, in 1838, of jNIai-shal Soult, " a Soldier of Napoleon, and Veteran of the Republic." 3U CHAPTER XIV. NAPOLEON, PRESIDENT OF THE CISALPINE REPUBLIC — MARRIAGE OF LOUIS BONAPARTE — EDUCATION — CIVIL CODE— RECALL OF EMIGRANTS — CONSUL FOR LIFE — CARNOT AND LA FAYETTE — EXPEDITION TO ST. DOMINGO — HELVETIC CONFEDERATION — THE PRESS. 1802 — 1803. ITTLE had been said in the recent Treaties with Austria and England, concerning the future government of those Italian States which France had erected into separate Republics, or annexed as Departments to her own territories. It had been deemed sufficient for the time, jl that their independence should be recognised, without any express stipulation being made respecting them. Napoleon, who had always been honoured as their Liberator, in the beginning of January, 1802, summoned a Convention of Italian Deputies, to meet at Lyons, for the pm-pose of reconsidering the Constitution of the Cisalpine Commonwealth, in order that it might be assimilated with that of France, instead of continuing to subsist on the directorial model. This Convocation the First Consul attended in person ; and the influence of his presence procured a ready acqui- escence in all his suggestions, and induced the members to offer him the Presidency of the Republic ; not in his capacity of First Consul 342 EDtJCATIOlSI. of France, but as a private individual — an appointment wliicli was well adapted to second his own ulterior vicAVs, and was therefore accepted with much pleasure. It was on the 7th of January, the evening prior to his departure for Lyons, that Napoleon caused a marriage to be solemnized between his brother Louis and the beautiful Hortense Beauharnais, the daughter of Josephine. This match originated in no impulse of affection, at least as regarded the lady; but is said to have been chiefly effected through the agency of her mother, who was desirous of ha\dng one friend among the brothers of Napoleon, to counteract the intrigues of the others, who she suspected to be her enemies, and leagued in advising her husband to assiraie the title, as well as the functions, of royalty. This marriage was celebrated with rehgious, as well as civil rites ; and at the same time the marriage of Caroline and Murat, sanctioned by the magistrate two years before, was solemnized by the priest. A speculation has been raised upon these proceedings, whether, as he forbore to follow the course considered necessary for others. Napoleon did not already entertain thoughts of his subsequent divorce, which the religious rite would have rendered a matter of greater difficulty to obtain. In the beginning of this year, the First Consul established a national system of Education. It has been akeady shewn, that, even in his youth, he had entertained views upon the conduct of the public schools at variance with the established practice. He had now the power to test the soundness of his own opinions by reducing them to practice. Schools and colleges were rapidly erected in the several departments of the Republic. Six thousand scholarships were at once instituted ; the holders of which were clothed in uniform, in order that one might not appear better di'essed than another, and a sense of inferiority be thus generated in the pupils, by the external appearance of their companions. " In advancing the cause of Education," he said, "we are planting for the future." It was a pardonable vaunt when, in after years, meeting with a young man who had made rapid progress in one of the Lyceums which he had founded, he exclaimed, "What a rising generation I shall leave behind me ! This is aU my work ! The merits of the French youth will hereafter avenge my memory!" 343 CIVIL CODE. EMIGRANTS. About the same time, one of Napoleon's greatest works was com- menced : the preparation of a code of laws, known at first as the Civil Code, and afterAvards as the Code Ncqioleon. This was a labour of the utmost utility ; not only for the soundness of the laws it established, but as removing the many arbitrary and contradictory enactments and decrees which had previously governed the several provinces of the kingdom, and estabhshing a uniform system of jurisprudence in their stead. It was a circumstance which attracted considerable notice, that the young General of the Armies of Italy and Egypt, should be not only able to preside at the sittings of the Council of State for drawing up these laws, but even to lead the debates upon the most abstruse subjects of legislation among such coadjutors as Talleyrand, Cambaceres, Lebrun, Tronchet, Roederer, PortalUs, and Thibaudeau. He seemed to derive intense delight from these discussions, in which he consequently took an active part, speaking without preparation, embarrassment, or pretension, in a style which, though not more elevated than his general tone of conversation, was remarkable for correctness of conception, force of reasoning, and liberality of sentiment. On the 26th of April, a decree was passed for the recall of the Emigrants. It was Napoleon's wish to have restored to the exiles all the property they had formerly possessed, which had not been dis- posed of by the State ; but in this he encountered so much opposition, both in the Council and the Senate, that he was compelled to relin- quish the idea, and consent to there call without restitution. The exceptions to this amnesty were less than five hundred persons, consisting of — Those who had been chiefs of bodies of armed Royalists ; had held rank in the armies of the Allies ; belonged to the household of the Bourbon Princes; been agents or encouragers of civil wars; and such generals, admirals, and representatives of the people, as had borne arms against the Republic. Most of the Emigi-ants returned ; and to some, on his own authority, he restored their forfeited estates ; but the conduct of these persons is represented to have been such, as to have prevented his intention from being carried out to the extent he at first meditated. By every act of his government. Napoleon was rendering a serAace to France, as well as courting the applause of the multitude, and the 3l« TERM OF THE CONSULATE. approbation of men of sense. " Though not of kingly birth," says Sh- AValter Scott, " Bonapai'te shewed a mind worthy of the rank to which he had ascended." Industry, commerce, hterature, art, had all received a new impetus from his patronage and example. Tans never, perhaps, presented so gratifying a spectacle of prosperity as m the year 1802. The admiration of foreigners, and more especially the Enghsh, was unbounded. The Revolution, instead of desolating France, as they had been taught to bcheve, appeared to have rege- nerated her. The price of the funds, " that great thermometer of pubHc opinion," since the days of the Dh-ectory, had risen from seven to fifty-two. Every district of the Repubhc was tranquil : peace prevailed externally ; and all things seemed to promise stability. Napoleon was "all, and more that all," that any King of France had ever been; but it was necessary that his authority should be rendered permanent, in order that foreign powers might have that "reasonable ground to judge of the stability of his government," which Lord Grenville had made one of the greatest obstacles to negociate with liim for a peace. This was felt, in its fuU force, by the members of the Legislative bodies ; and, accordingly, Chabot do I'Allier, in the Tribunate, proposed that some splencUd mark of national gratitude should be conferred on the First Consul, hinting that this might be best accompHshed by prolonging the period of his Consulate for ten years. This proposition speedily produced a decree, wliich, being presented to Napoleon, met with a less ready or cordial reception than had been anticipated. "You consider," said he to Tronchet, who headed the deputation from the Legislature on the occasion, " that I owe to the public a new sacrifice of ease. Should the votes of the people command from me what your suffrage authorizes, I will cheerfully make it." Bonaparte's respect for the wishes of the people, in this instance, was merely intended to cover an appeal to them against the decision of their Ecprescntatives, who had not conferred all that his ambition dcshed. By vesting in the populace the right to refuse what the Senate had granted, it was evidently left to be inferred, that they had also power to grant more than had been originally offered. The matter being referred to the Council of State, that body, after a brief deliberation, published the following question, "Shall Napoleon Bonaparte be Consul for Life?" 345 2 V CARNOT. — LA FAYETTE. At the same time they provided that registers should be opened in all the public offices of the several departments, in which the citizens wove enjoined to inscribe their votes. Tlie result, at the end of three weeks, was the unqualified assent of nearly thi'ee millions and a half of citizens, while those Avho registered their opposition amounted to less than a quarter of a million. Among the latter, however, were Carnot, La Fayette, and Latour Maubourg. Camot, when he signed his name, is said to have exclaimed that he knew he was subscribing his own sentence of banishment. This proved not to be the case, however; Napoleon was never known to take vengeance on any one Avho professed open and manly opposition to his views; and Carnot, although he chose, at the time, to retire from the head of tlie A\^ir department, had a pension of a thousand francs granted him, and was sometime afterwards appointed chief inspector of reviews. La Fayette, who seems to have been attached to the First Zid CONSUL FOR LIFE. Consul personally, and who was under some obligation to liim for his release from the dungeons of Olmutz, addressed a letter to Bona- parte m justification of the step he had taken. "General!" he said, "when a man deeply sensible of the gratitude he owes you, and too feehngly ahve to glory not to love yours, places restrictions on his sufifrage, he is the less to be suspected that none will more rejoice to see you First Magistrate for Life of a free Republic. The 18th Brumaire saved France; and I, at this moment, enjoy the blessings of home through the liberal professions to wliich you stood pledged. In the Consulate we have since seen that heahng system wliich, imder the auspices of your genius, has done such great things ; less grand, however, than will be the restoration of liberty. It is impossible that you. General, the first of that order of beings who, to appreciate themselves and take their proper rank, must embrace all ages, should wish that such a Revolution, fraught with so many victories, and so much blood, so many sorrows and prodigies, should have for the world and for yourself no other result than an arbitrary government. . . I owe it to the principles, the engagements, and the actions of my whole Hfe, to be assured, before I give my vote, that the permanent Magistracy sought to be established is founded on a basis worthy of the nation and yourself." Napoleon, on readmg this letter, merely remarked, "La Fayette is a man of one idea. He is constantly harping on America, without understanding that the French are not Americans. I offered him a seat in the Senate; but he chose to decline it. — He is a political monomaniac. I can afford, however, to do without his vote." The result of the appeal to the people having been declared, the Senate, on the 2nd of August, proclaimed Bonaparte Consul for Life, and waited upon him in the midst of a kingly levee, in which he was surrounded by a numerous assemblage of military and civil officers, together with all the members of the Diplomatic body then in I^ris, to present him with the decree establishing his authority. The reply of Napoleon to the address of the President is chiefly remarkable for containing the words "Liberty and Equality." It was as follows : — " Senators ! The life of a citizen belongs to his country. The peoi^le of France have required that mine should be devoted to their service. I obey their will. Through rhj efforts. 3»7 Josephine's apprehensions. and the concurrence of all the authorities, aided by the confidence and wishes of this great people. Liberty and Equality, and the prosperity of France, shall be established beyond the vicissitudes of chance, and the uncertainties of the future. The best of nations will be the happiest ; and the felicity of the French people will contribute to that of all Europe. Then, satisfied with having been called by the fiat of Him from whom all emanates, to bring back to earth Justice, Order, and Equality, I shall hear the stroke of my last horn- without regret, and without inquietude as to the opinions of the generations to come." In the evening, the receptions at the Tuileries were exceedingly brilliant : every one being anxious to pay his respects to the great man whom the award of the people had now exalted to a level with the sovereigns of the earth. Bonaparte enjoyed his triumph with well-affected modesty; and in his conversation expressed such liberal sentiments, that Cambaceres seemed seriously afraid lest his extensive popularity might tend to make him too democratic. That he might not be induced to become so in reality, the Senate, on the 4th of August, passed a further law, authorizing the First Consul to appoint his successor, thus conferring on him a power superior even to that of hereditary monarchs. Josephine, meanwhile, trembled with appre- hension, both for Bonaparte and herself. It was her firm opinion, that should he re-establish royalty in his o^vn person, he would have laboured solely for the Bourbons. " The restoration of the throne," she argued, "leaves the question but a mere matter of family for the future ; and if France must cease to have its chosen government, there will not be wanting persons to prefer the ancient race of kings to a family newly arisen." Perhaps, Josephine dreaded what subse- quently took place. Napoleon, at all events, had already entertained thoughts of settling his dynasty and providing a successor ; to which end he had procured the insertion of a clause in the Civil Code, authorizing the adoption of cliildren as heirs, who should be considered to stand in as near a relation to the adopter as to the natural parent. At this time, and long afterwards, he contemplated adopting a son of one of his brothers. The establishment of the Consulate for life, occasioned a corre- sponding change in the aspect of the Court ; which, accordingly, was 348 CONSULAR COURT. now put upon a more regal footing. The demeanour of the Officers of the Palace, the Ministers of the Republic, and Foreign Ambas- sadors, was regulated by the same etiquette as would have been observed towards a sovereign prince : indeed, not a few of those who had served the Burbons, under the old regime, obtained appointments in the Palace, in order that their memory might assist in bringing back the decorum of Monarchy. At first, some little awkwardness was observable among the Republicans, but this soon wore off; and the Court of Napoleon began to vie ^\dth those of the most briUiant periods of French history, in everything but the licentiousness of manners, and the light tone of conversation, which had prevailed before the Revolution. The dresses of the Court were altered : sabres and mihtary boots began generally to give place to swords and silk stockings. Haii'-powder, bags, and ruffles, resumed their sway. The ladies, however, being governed in matters of fashion by the amiable and vii'tuous Josephine, preserved the graceful and simple costume of the time, in preference to returning to the formal head- di-esses and hoop-petticoats of the reign of Louis XVI. Still farther to heighten the external splendour' of his Court, to attach to himself a large class of citizens, and to prepare the public mind for a restoration of Aristocracy on the ancient model. Napoleon, early in the month of May, had proposed to the Council of State the Institution of the Legion of Honour. The first idea of this Order had been suggested to him, by obser^ing the great attention which the brilliant decorations of the Marquis Lucchesini, the Prussian Am- bassador, procui-ed from the French soldiers, and the populace of Paris. The existing system of rewards, too, for meritorious actions, was not well regulated. Some of the honorary distinctions, which the Government was authorized to confer, were accompanied by additional pay, while others were without remuneration— a system, the details of which necessarily occasioned great confusion, and the trifling advantages of which were limited to the military. Bonaparte wished to extend his order to distinguished citizens. " If the Legion of Honour were not to be the recompense of civil as well as of military services," he said, " it would cease to be the Legion of Honoiu-. The Cross of the Order should be the reversion of every one who may be an honour to his country, stand at the head of his profession, or con- 319 LEGION or HONOUR. tribute to the national prosperity and glory. It mnst be equally the decoration of soldiers as of officers. If ever it cease to be the recom- pense of the lowest class of the military, or if ever the civil order be deprived of it, it will be the Legion of Honour no longer." This revival of the emblems of Nobility did not take place, however, without a struggle with those who appear to have foreseen that Royalty itself would soon follow. The opposition in the Council was stronger than it had been to any previous proposal from the same source. " Crosses and ribbands," said Berlicr, " are the child's playthings of Monarchy. There existed no system of honorary rewards among the Romans, who, though divided into patricians and plebeians, were classed according to their birth, and not with reference to their services." Napoleon, with more warmth than he usually exhibited in such discussions, replied : " They are always talking to us of the 350 LEGION OF HONOUR. Romans, who liad social distinctions of the most marked character — patricians, knights, citizens, and slaves, with different costumes and manners for each class. Their recompenses, moreover, embraced all sorts of honorary rewards — mural crowns, civic cro^vns, ovations, triumphs, titles, all consecrated by the rites of their religion. They call all that 'child's rattles.' — Be it so: it is with such things that men are led. The French character has not been changed by ten years of revolution. The people arc still what their ancestors, the Gauls, were, vain and Hght: but they are susceptible of one senti- ment — honour; which it is right to cherish, by allowing distinctions. Observe how the people bow before the decorations of foreigners. The latter have been surprised themselves at the effect, and take care never to appear without them. We shall find no defenders of the RepubHc by reasoning : the soldier must be bribed with glory, dis- tinction, rewards. The people require some institutions. If this is not approved, let some other be proposed. I do not pretend that it alone will save the State, but it will do its part." The question was carried in the Council by a majority of foiu- only, out of twenty-four members ; and, being shortly afterwards introduced to the Legislative bodies, was passed into a law, by a majority of seventy-four, out of three hundred and seventy. Eocdcrcr, M'ho proposed its adoption in the Senate, characterized the Institution as one which would serve to consolidate the Revolution. " It confers," said he, " on military as well as civil services, the reward of patriotism, which they have so well merited. It blends them in the same glory, even as the Nation blends them in its gratitude. By a common dis- tinction, it unites men already united by honourable recollections ; it opens a fi-iendly intercourse between those who are akeady disposed to esteem one another. It places under the shelter of their responsi- bility and their oaths, the laws in favour of Equality, Liberty, and Property. It effaces aristocratic distinctions, which placed hereditary glory before that which was acquurcd, and the descendants of great men before the great men themselves. It is a moral distinction which adds force and activity to that lever of honour wliich so powerfully impels the French nation. . . . Finally, it is the creation of a new species of coin, of a very different value to that which issues fi-om the public mint ; a coin which is dra^^^l from the mine of the nation, and TOUSSAINT L OUVERTURE. must be regarded as the sole equivalent for actions superior to all other recompense." The Order was formally instituted on the 15th of May, 1802, when a great number of Crosses, each of which entitled the OAvner to a pension from the State, and to a certain degree of individual prece- dence, were pubhcly distributed among the veterans of the Army, and the most distinguished citizens of all professions. One was sent to INIoreau, who, . having never regarded Napoleon with much affection, especially after the expression of his sentiments concerning the concealment of Pichegru's treason, was disposed to sneer at the Institution. " Does not the First Consul know," he exclaimed, when the decoration Avas presented to him, " that I have belonged to the ranks of honour for these twelve years?" And a few days after- wards, dining in company with some officers, he proposed that they should vote a saucepan of honour to their cook, for his merit in dressing the dishes at table. To say the least, these exhibitions of jealous ill-humour betokened httle dignity of mind in the hero of Hohcnlinden. It was during the summer of 1S02, that Toussaint I'Ouverture, the celebrated negro chief of St. Domingo, Avas captured and brought to France. This person, originally a slave, had, soon after the breaking out of the French Ke volution, joined those of his own race 352 TOrSSAINT L'orVERTVRE. in endeavouring to obtain for themselves a participation in the "Txi-hts of Man" and Social Equality, of which so much ^vas daily said "in the Colonies, as well as the ^Mother Country. The white planters, when they asserted the principles of the new age, seem to have been entirely unmindful of the effect their precepts and example might have upon the blacks; to whom they certainly never thought of granting the liberty claimed for themselves. They even resisted the^'efforts of the free natives of colour to procure the pri^dleges of citizenship, from which they had been hitherto excluded; and, eventually, a fierce war ensued between the white and mulatto popu- lation: in the midst of which occurred a general rising of the slaves, who loudly claimed independence for themselves, and gave a new complexion to the whole outbreak. After a variety of fortune, Toussaint, who had acquired the surname of L'Ouverture, from his darin- coui-age, which made an openwg every way m the ranks of his enemies, became a partisan of the French Eepublic, the Govern- ment of which had recognised the freedom of the negroes; and he was then appointed Commander-in-chief of the black forces m the island. Toussaint, however, was ambitious ; and having heard of the deeds of Napoleon, desired to emulate that -First of the ^\ hites," and become Dictator of an independent Eepubhc-an assumption of power which Napoleon was not prepared to admit. It was a long time, however, before an open rupture took place. The negro chief, " the Fhst of the Blacks, the Bonaparte of St. Donungo," had fre- quently ^^1•itten to Napoleon, iu terms of submissive admiration; but having neglected an injunction to inscribe on the colonial banners the address of the First Consvd,-" Brave Blacks, remember that the French alone acknowledge your liberty, and the equahty of your- rio-hts;" and ha^-ing not only assumed authority over the colony for life, but invested himself with power to name his successor, he received no answer; till, at last, di-eading that measures would be taken against himself, he called upon the population to prepare for a resistance to France, in case of invasion. Napoleon, exasperated at this conduct, immediately despatched an expedition agamst the island, under the command of his brother-in-law, Lc Clerc which, landing in the beginning of 1802, speeddy reduced the blacks to submission. Toussaint, however, was permitted to retire to an estate. — ~ «z 353 TOUSSAINT L OUVERTURE. which he had obtained during the war; but it was soon found, that so long as he was suffered to remain on the island, no authority but his would be uniformly or permanently obeyed. The negro chief was, therefore, entrapped into a breach of the conditions on which his pardon had been granted, surrounded and made prisoner, and immediately shipped for France. The treachery and rigour exercised against Toussaint failed of its object. Instead of dispiriting the negroes, it added hatred, and a desire for vengeance, to their previously existing thirst for free- dom. French domination has never been re-established in the island, Toussaint foresaw this. On his voyage to France, he said to the commander of the vessel in which he was a prisoner, " In over- throwing me, you have cast down only the trunk of the tree of negro liberty in St. Domingo. It will rise again from its roots, because they are many, and have struck deep." Soon after the arrest of Toussaint, Le Clerc was carried off by yellow fever ; and Rocham- beau, who succeeded to the command of the French, after being POSITION OF NAPOLEON. reduced to the utmost extremity of himger, was compelled to abandon the colony, and surrender himself to a British squadron. The independence of Hayti was formally acknowledged on the 1st of January, 1804. Toussaint, on arriving at Paris, was fii'st committed to the prison of the Temple, whence he was subsequently transferred to the castle of Joux, near Besancon, in Normandy, where close confinement, change of chmate, and the destruction of all his hopes, soon produced an attack of apoplexy, tinder which he died, on the 27th of April, 1803. The treatment of Toussaint and the negroes is one of the subjects on which Napoleon, at St. Helena, thought it necessary to plead his o^^rn cause with posterity. The fate of Toussaint bears a marked resemblance to that of Bonaparte, in all but the extent of theii- respective powers. It is singular, that while attempting to justify the deportation of the negro chieftain, it should never have occurred to him that he was furnishing an apology for those who had pro- nounced sentence of exile ripon hmiself. Napoleon, although he ardently desii-ed the continuance of peace, in order to estabhsh his own authority and the prosperity of France, seems from the first to have regarded the Treaty of Amiens as an involuntary act on the part of the English Ministry, in deference to public opinion, and therefore not likely to be of long duiation. " The European Kings," he said, '^regard their dominions as an inheritance; and this notion is strengthened by old habits. The Consulate of France is hke nothing that suiTOunds it. I feel, therefore, that before we can hope for more sohdity and good faith in pacific treaties, the form of the surrounding governments must approximate nearer to oui's, or our political institutions must be more in harmony with theh's. Between old ^Monarchies and a new Kepublic, there wiU always be a spirit of enmity. Indeed, hated as we are by our neighboui-s, obliged to keep down various descriptions of malcontents in our own nation, we have need of briUiant achievements, and consequently of war. It is the misfortune of our situation, that such a government as that of France requii-es to dazzle and astonish, in order to maintain itself. It must be the first of aU, or be overpowered." It was tliis conviction— that his power depended whoUy upon his military genius and his sword— that prompted the First Consul to seize every opportunity of extending 355 HELVETIAN REPUBLIC. his personal influence, and that of the Republic, upon the Continent, as a means of weakening his enemies and strengthening himself. The Sovereign Powers had shewn their utter disregard for the rights and inclinations of the people, first, in the partition of Poland, and more recently in settHng the indemnities rendered necessary by the sm-render to France, in the treaty of Luneville, of a large extent of territory on the left bank of the Rhine. At this period, Sh AY alter Scott says, "towns, districts, and provinces were dealt like cards at a gaming table ; and Em-ope once more saw with scandal the govern- ment of freemen transferred from hand to hand, without regard to their wishes, aptitudes, and habits, any more than those of cattle : thus breaking every tie of aifection between the governor and the governed, and loosening all attachments which bind subjects to their rulers, excepting those springing from force on one side and necessity on the other." It was natural that Napoleon should consider the foreign conquests of France .as much at his disposal, as were the powerless German cities at the disposal of the Princes of the Empire. Accordingly, by a formal decree of the Government, he forthwith divided Piedmont into six departments, the Po, the Dohe, the Sessia, the Stura, the Tanaro, and Marengo, and annexed the whole territory to France. Next, taking advantage of the dissensions and civil war which had arisen among the Swiss Cantons concerning the form of their government, after being released by the treaty of Luneville from the thraldom imposed upon them by the Directory, during Napoleon's absence in Egypt, he, at the request of some of the leading men of the Cantons, which adhered to the interests of France, assumed the title of Grand Mediator of the Helvetian Republic, in which capacity he dictated to them a new federative constitution, not greatly different, it may be added, from the old, and fully as liberal. There was notliing to complain of in the result of this act : it was merely the assumption of power that made it despotic ; and the recognition of that power established the First Consul as virtual sovereign of Switzerland. England was the only nation that ventured to remonstrate against this arbitrary interference of the French ; but the reply of the First Consul was far from conciliatory. He demanded a performance of the stipulation, by which England stood pledged to restore Malta to THE PRESS. the Knights of St. John — a condition which he well knew the British Government never intended to fulfil except upon compulsion. Unabashed by this retort, however, Mr. Addington sent an envoy to the Diet of Schweitz, to enquire by what means eficctive assistance could be afforded to the Cantons, to enable them to retain then* independence : but even this message was too coldly received to justify hostihties in behalf of a people who seemed so content under usurpation. The Swiss, with a few exceptions, looked upon the INIediation as a happy one, which put an end to intestine discords, left them in posession of their ancient laws and customs, and merely exacted in return that theii" territory should no longer afford shelter to traitors against France, or allow a passage to the armies of her enemies for piu-poses of invasion. In the meantime, as if to fan the fires which were kindling around liim, Napoleon caused to be pub- lished certain treaties which he had concluded with Turkey, Spain, and Portugal; by which those powers had conceded to France all the commercial privileges that had been granted to the most favoured nations, while Spain had agreed that Parma, on the death of the reigning Prince, should be added to the Republic, and Portugal had surrendered all claim to her province of Guiana. The press both in England and France was not sIoav to catch the tone of the several governments upon these proceedings. In England, the ministerial papers were daily filled with the most unqualified abuse and ribaldry of the First Consul and his govern- ment. Every kind of public and private vice was attributed to him; and Josephine, her daughter Hortense, and the sisters of Bonaparte, were charged with the grossest licentiousness. Napoleon in derision was called the Little Corsican, and his hiunble bii'th was sneered at as a set-off against his achievements. " The French," added the newspapers, " have chosen a ruler from an island whence the Romans would not even take a slave." In order that these systematic calumnies might not fail of their desired effect through being mis- understood, a weekly miscellany, in the French language, called UAinbigu, was established, under the direction of one Peltier, a furious Royalist, who made no scruple to blacken the character of his country- men, when he found that by such a course he was certain of acquiring popularity and fortune. Napoleon suffered these annoyances to 357 PROSECUTIONS FOB, LIBEL. injure liis temper. He had not learned, like the English themselves, to estimate newspaper malignity at its proper worth, by despising it. Accordingly M. Otto, the French Minister in London, was instructed to present an official note of complaint on the subject to the British Government. The reply was necessarily an unsatisfactory one. The Premier could only state, that criminal writing was punishable by the English laws hke other delinquencies; the liberty of the press, one of the most valuable privileges of the British Constitution, being utterly incapable of mfringement, and one with which no Minister would have the hardihood to attempt to tamper. " But though a foreigner," said Mr. Addington, " the Fu'st Consul is entitled to seek redress in the Courts of Law : in that case, however, he must be prepared to see reprinted, as portions of the process, all the libels which have given oifence. The articles complained of have already sunk into oblivion. The wisest course seems to be, to treat such scm-riHty with .contempt." Peltier, nevertheless, was prosecuted by the Attorney - General, — whether at the instance of Napoleon, after the judicious counsel he had received to abstain from such a proceeding, or, as hinted by Sir Walter Scott, for the mere purpose of affording greater pubUcity to that which was sought to be suppressed, does not appear. The defence was conducted by Sir James Mackintosh, whose speech on the occasion, which is said to have been one of the most brilliant ever made at the bar or in the forum, was so framed as to give additional poignancy to all the insults previously aimed at the First Consul, to impugn all his motives, and arraign the entire pohcy of his government. Although, therefore, Peltier wns found guilty, the trial was considered a triumph on the part of the press ; and, war being renewed before the ensuing term, the culprit was never brought up for judgment. The acrimony of the journahsts after this step, was vented with more freedom and bitterness than ever. " Every gale that blows from England," said Napoleon, " is loaded Avith enmity and hatred against me." It was scarcely to be expected that the British Ministry should wholly escape slander under such a system of hostihtics; though from the fact, that the French press was subject to surveillance, and could only fling reproach by authority, those attacks were probably most galling that came from the south of St. George's Channel. 358 THE MO>^ITEUR. — THE TIMES. The First Consul, however, had a more serious ground of com- plaint. Georges Cadoudal, and others, who had been concerned in the various attempts upon Napoleon's life, were openly patronized in England, by noblemen who uniformly supported the Government. The island of Jersey was a rendezvous for organized rebels, who thence issued their manifestoes to disturb the AYest of France, and incite the inhabitants to insurrection. The Princes of the House of Bourbon, who had political intrigues to conduct, found no locahty so convenient, no place in which their proceedings would be so effec- tively screened and furthered, as London. M. Otto once more made a representation on the subject to the English Ministry, and desii-ed that the conspirators might be ordered to quit the British territories ; and, lest the freedom of the Constitution should be again pleaded, as an obstacle, the alien act was referred to as affording ample power for the dismissal of foreigners of dangerous character or conduct. The reply to this was cool and studied. " His Majesty," it was said, "neither encourages traitors in any scheme against the French Government, nor does he believe that any such exist ; and while the unfortunate Princes and exiles alluded to, live in conformity to the laws of Great Britain and without affording to nations with whom she is at peace any vahd or sufficient cause of complaint, his Majesty will feel it inconsistent with his dignity, his honour, and the common laws of hospitahty, to deprive them of that protection which indi- viduals resident within the British dominions can only forfeit by misconduct." No one could mistake the purport of such an answer. The First Consul might digest its haughty tone as he best could. The over- flowings of his chagrin found vent in the Moniteur ; in which it was broadly asserted, that the English Ministry, through the journals in their pay, sought to arouse the Continental powers against France, and to renew the civil wars in La Vendee. " The Times,^' said one of the official paragraphs of the Consular organ, " is filled Avith invectives against France. All that can be imagined of low, base, and mean, that scurrilous paper attributes to the French Government. What is its object ? AVho pays for it all ? ... The isle of Jersey is filled with felons, condemned to death for crimes committed since the peace^ — for %iolation, nuirdcr, arson ! The Treaty of Amiens 359 LIBELS. stipulates, that persons accused of murder and felony shall be respec- tively delivered up : yet the miscreants at Jersey are sheltered and protected ! Georges wears openly, in London, the red ribband given him in recomj)ense for his share in the plot of the Ivfernal Machine, which wTought so much mischief in Paris, and killed thirty women, children, and peaceable citizens. This special protection justifies the belief, that had he succeeded in his design he would have been honoured A\dth the Order of the Garter ! " These accusations and recriminations indicated anvthinsf but a lengthened diu-ation of peace. 3 CHAPTER XV. RUPTURE OF THE PEACE OF AMIENS — WAR WITH ENGLAND — INVASION THREATENED — CONSPIRACY OF GEORGES CADOUDAL, PICHEGRU, AND MOKEAU — SEIZURE AND EXECUTION OF THE DUKE d'ENGHIEN. 1803—1804. OXG before the determining occasion arose, it is evident that a renewal of the war had been determined on by both Enghmd and France. Instead of smoothing such difRcuhies as lay in the way of a good understanding, each nation eagerly seized every pretext to provoke hostihties, without being actually the first to break the peace. The British ^Ministry slowly, article by article, performed the stipulations to which the Government was bound. The French colonies were eventually given up ; and, after considerable intervals, the Cape of Good Hope and the other Batavian settlements, together with Alexandi-ia, were evacuated ; but Malta was stiU retained by English forces, notwithstanding the urgent remonstrances of the First Consul, the Knights of St. John, and of those powers which desired that the peace should not be inter- rupted. COMPLAINTS. The first dii-ect complaint against the First Consul was concerning the instructions given to the commercial Consuls of France in the British ports, who, in addition to collecting all necessary information for the furtherance of trade, were desired to procure plans of all the ports and harbours of Great Britain, with the soundings of each, and the winds necessary for vessels to enter and depart. It is stated, that the agents appointed for these duties were chiefly military men and engineers. The Government, informed of these directions, lost no time in intimating to the persons employed, that any one who should attempt to execute his commission, would be instantly ordered to quit the kingdom. Napoleon, who knew that England had aheady decided for war, thought it best, since the calamity could not be long averted, to precijjitate it. " If they will always have war," he exclaimed, " it is better that this should be sooner than later ; since every day tends to diminish in us the confidence inspired by our late victories. I will maintain peace, if our neighbours are disposed to keep it ; but should they oblige me to have recom*se to arms again, I shall consider it an advantage if they will do so, before we are ener- vated by ease and long inaction. At the same time, if we are forced into a war, vre must change the political aspect of the Continent, and strike a great blow, terrible and unexpected." The French Govern- ment, notwithstanding, still professed to entertain a sincere desire for the preservation of peace and amity, and to urge the fulfilment of the Treaty of Amiens, by the delivery of Malta ; which, after every diplomatic shift had been exhausted, seemed on the point of being ceded, when the pubhcation of two reports in the Moniteur created a fresh obstacle, and raised the ii'e of the British Ministry to an absolute ferment. The first of these was a paper, drawn up by General Sebas- tiani, who had recently been sent into Tm"key and Egj^it, apparently for the purpose of exciting those powers against England, and exalt- ing the power and greatness of Napoleon. The other contained an elaborate account of the forces and natural advantages of the RepubHc ; and concluded with an ii'ritating summary, " that Britain, single- handed, was unable to contend with France." The English Ministry naturally demanded an explanation of these demonstrations ; but were told, in reply, that the First Consul had an equal right to complain of the public patronage bestowed upon the 362 SPEECH OF GEORGE III. "Narrative" of Sii* Robert Wilson, then just published in England, and dedicated, by permission, to the Duke of York, containing much misrepresentation, and the most bitter invectives against Bonaparte, concerning the massacre of Jaffa, and the poisoning of the soldiers infected with the plague. Subjects for attack and recrimination were not wanting on either side. The French demanded the immediate evacuation of Malta : the English refused to comply, until the neutralit}'^ of that island should be guaranteed by some more respon- sible authority than a handful of Neapolitan soldiers. Russia and Austria were proposed, and rejected. The Citadel of the IMediter- ranean was considered worth the chances of another contest. In the midst of the discussion, namely, on the 8th of March, 1803, a speech from the throne announced to the British Parliament, that in the unsettled state of affairs, the King required additional aid to enable him to defend his dominions, in case of an encroachment on the part of France : assigning as a reason, that the First Consul was making great naval and military preparations, which it was necessary to meet by corresponding augmentations on the part of his INIajesty. " This," says Sir Walter Scott, " by placing the measures of Ministers upon simulated grounds, injured their cause. No such preparations, as were spoken of, had been complained of during the intercovirse between the Ministers of France and England;" — in truth, none such existed. Napoleon had just been reading a despatch containing this speech, when, on the 13th of jNlarch, he had to give audience to the foreign ambassadors at the Tuilcries. On entering the draA\-ing-room, he observed Lord Whitworth near the door, and, stopping short, addi-essed hizn with considerable warmth : " What does your Cabinet mean?" he asked: "AYhat is the motive for raising these rumoiu's of armaments in our harbours ? Can peace be already considered as a burden to be shaken off? Is Europe to be again deluged with blood?" Then addi'cssing Count Marcoff and the Chevalier Azara, he continued, " The English wish for war ; but if they draw the sword first, I will be the last to return it to the scabbard. They do not respect treaties, which we must henceforth cover with black crape." He then again turned to Lord Whitworth and said, — " To what end is tliis pretended alarm ? Against whom do you take these measures of precaution ? I have not a single ship of the line in any 363 DECLARATION OF WAR. port of France. But if you arm, I will arm too : if you fight, I also will fight. You may possibly destroy France, but you cannot intimi- date her ! " — " We desire neither the one nor the other," answered Lord Whitworth; "but to live with her on terms of good intelligence." — "Respect treaties then," said Napoleon. "Woe to those by whom they arc not respected ! — they will be accountable for the conse- quences to all Europe." It is said that the First Consul appeared so \'iolent diu-ing this scene, that 'the English Ambassador expected every moment to be struck; and, it is added, that in that case he was prepared to have rvin his sword thi'ough the aggressor's body. Such was the statement gravely made to the British House of Com- mons, some of the members of which affected to believe it. From this period, the communications between the French and English Gavernments were formal and constrained, and limited ex- clusively to the question concerning the evacuation of Malta. England lowered her claim of retaining the island in perpetuity, to that of holding it for ten years ; but Bonaparte would now listen to no modification of the Treaty of Amiens ; and on the night of the 1 2th of May, Lord Wliitworth quitted Paris — passports, without being solicited, being granted at the same time to the French envoys in London. Between this and the 18th, the day on wliich George HI. declared war, the First Consul made a last attempt at negociation, proposing that both Governments should accept the mediation of Russia or Prussia, and abide by their arbitration on all matters in difference : but, like all other pacific overtures, this was rejected. Previously to the announcement in the London Gazette of the renewal of hostihties, orders had been issued for seizing all the French shipping in British ports : a measm-e by which two hundi'cd vessels, containing property to the amount of three millions sterling, were obtained by the English Government. This, though not perhaps a departure from the usual custom of England on such occasions, Avas unlocked for by Napoleon, and exasperated him beyond measure. In retaliation for what he considered so base and wanton an outrage upon unoffending merchants, the moment he received information of it, he issued orders for detaining as prisoners of war all British subjects, then in France, of whatever age or condition. So utterly unexpected had been the declaration of England, that upwards of ten MILITAKY PREPARATIONS. thousand of her people, chiefly of the higher classes of societ}^, found themselves in a few days captives in a hostile country. Bonaparte has been greatly condemned for this unprecedented mode of reprisal : but it seems like the petulant outcry of those against whom their own weapons have been tui'ned, to exclaim against the arrest of travellers, without, at the same time condemning the plunder of harmless traders, by which it was occasioned. Though made a standing reproach to Bonaparte, he never expressed the least rcgi'et for having acted as he did; but argued that he should have been justified in using greater rigour, in return for the degradation inflicted upon French prisoners of war, whom the English Ministry sent on board the hulks like convicts. Some exceptions, it may be added, were occasionally made in behalf of literary and scientific men, whom Bonaparte was in the habit of considering as citizens, not of one, but of every nation. The rest were condemned to Imger out a long captivity, deprived even of the chance of being exchanged for French prisoners of war, a compromise which, though oflered by Napoleon, the English Government disdained to accede to. Though the Fii'st Consul certainly did not expect the continuance of peace, he was by no means prepared for the recommencement of hos- tilities. Many discharges, and almost unlimited leave of absence, had been granted to the infantry and cavahy, insomuch that most of the regiments, when called together at the first sound of war, were little better than skeletons. The artillery and field-equipages were broken up for recasting on a new plan. Nothing was in readiness when the moment for action arrived. The difficulties Napoleon had to contend with in meeting the emergency were immense; but his activity and resoui'ces seemed to increase under pressiu'e ; and he shewed no signs of dismay or embarrassment. His first step was to lay before the Legislative bodies, the various communications which had taken place previously to the ruptiu-e, which satisfying all persons that he had done everything on liis part to preserve the peace, elicited the ap- proval of the whole nation. The address of the Senate, in reply to his message, was accompanied with the present of a first-rate ship of war, paid for from the resources set apart for the salaries of the members. The large towns cheerfully voted sums necessary for building linc-of- battle ships, to be named after the places contributing the means to 365 OCCUrATION OF HANOVER. equip them. "Addresses poured in," says De Bourrienne, "from the four winds of heaven. Not a prefect, sub-prefect, mayor, or corporation, failed to send in a pledge of support." The troops which had been stationed on the Lower Rhine, under the command of General Mortier, were now ordered to advance upon Hanover, where a considerable force, under the Duke of Cambridge and General Walmsloden, was speedily collected to meet them ; but at the approach of their opponents they had the prudence to withdraw, without hazarding an engagement. The Duke of Cambridge, indeed, " in compassion to the Hanoverians," at once quitted the patrimonial dominions of his father, and set sail for England, leaving his colleague to settle the business of the campaign ; the history of which was very accurately conveyed by the telegraphic despatch of Mortier to the War-office, at Paris : — '* The French are masters of the Electorate of Hanover, and the enemy remain prisoners of war." The English I r 7^ f FT ^-^^^^a.=:=:?r^;X;^! Ministry exclaimed against this, as they had against the detention of the travellers; it being, they said, an unprovoked aggression upon a neutral territory : but, as the Electorate and its resources had always SURVEY OF THE COAST. been made available to the Britisli Sovereigns of the House of Bruns- wick during former wars, this outrage, as it was called, provoked very little sympathy. In answer to the remonstrance of the Emperor of Austria, as head of the Germanic Confederation, on the subject. Napo- leon repHed, that " he had no wish to make the conquest of Hanover, but merely to hold it until the King of England should see the necessity of evacuating Malta, according to the terms of the Treaty of Amiens." The Prince Royal of Denmark was the only person who exliibited any symptom of active resentment. He marched an army of thirty thousand men into Holstein; but, finding liimself unsupported, he was soon glad to change his offensive attitude, offer explanations, and recall his troops. In the meantime the French cavalry were sent into Hanover, and remounted on Anglo-German horses, and the large mihtary stores found in the Electorate were transported to France. Napoleon next prepared, with an appearance of earnestness which he had at no previous time exhibited, for a descent on the coast of England; and in order to inform himself accm-ately of the practicability of the attempt, he left Paris on the 24th of Jrme, in company with Josephine, to inspect, in person, the coasts and harbours of the channel. Passing through Compeigne, they visited the School of Arts and Manufactures, of which Father Berton, formerly principal of the Military School of Brienne, was superior ; and several judicious changes were suggested in the management of the classes. At Amiens, the First Consul attended the exhibition of the manufactiu'ed productions of the department, with which he expressed himself highly pleased. In former times it had been the usage, when a King of France passed through the ancient capital of Picardy, to make a present of some beautiful swans as a mark of homage. This was not now forgotten. The sAvans of Amiens were offered to Napoleon, and sent to display theii* silver plumage in the basin of the Tuileries. He next proceeded by Montreuil, Etaples, Boulogne, Ambleteuse, Vimereux, and Calais, to Dunkhk ; at each of which he strictly questioned the most skilful engineers and pilots, and carefully noted their repHes. From Dunkhk, he went on through the principal towns and seaports to Brussels and Antwerp; — everywhere visiting the workshops and manufactories, and expressing his regret at being so soon obliged to withdraw his attention from the sources of national prosperity to other objects ; everywhere giving ducctions 367 WOKKS AT BOULOGNE. as cli-cumstances seemed to requii-e ; commanding repairs, new works, and improvements, witli a degree of skill and intelligence, and a com- mand of details, which astonished the most experienced engineers, who had all the extra advantage which a perfect knowledge of the localities could confer. The whole extent of coast presented the aspect of a vast arsenal. The troops seemed formed on the model of the Roman legions : the tools of artisans replacing in the hands of the soldiers the implements of war. The harbour of Boulogne Avas exca- vated in an almost incredibly short space of time, so as to be capable of containing upwards of two thousand vessels ; and batteries were mounted upon every cape and headland, as if the whole line of coast had been that of a beleaguered city. During this journey, Napoleon and his consort were everywhere welcomed with the mo^ enthusiastic acclamations. The authorities of the different toAvns went out to meet and harangue them ; triumphal arches and military defaces spanned the roads ; and illuminations and bonfires testified the zeal and admiration of the populace at night. The gentry and citizens formed guards of honour, attending the General during his stay, and escorting him on his road. Well might Duroc write to a friend in Paris: — " How the people love the First Consul! When shall we pay a visit to London, with the brave fellows around us?" It is worthy of remark, that this period was chosen to forego the usual formalities, incident to signing consular decrees. These were now dated from the palaces and places from which they happened to be issued, and ran in the name of the Government, instead of the Consuls ; a change calculated to teach the people to look for the Government to Napoleon alone. The exertions of the First Consul, during the whole of the summer and autumn of 1803, and indeed so long as he continued to entertain serious thoughts of the invasion of England, were incessant. One day the journals announced his arrival at St. Cloud. Two or three days later, it was stated that he had inspected the works at Ambleteuse, Rochefort, Dieppe, or Gravelines; superintended reviews, or directed new operations ; and almost immediately after, a grand parade in the Place du Carrousel, followed by a public audience, shcAved that he was again in the capital. He usually travelled in the night, taking what repose he could in his carriage, and devoting the day to labour. 366 PREPARATIONS OF ENGLAND. His Aiclc-clc-camp, E-app, speaking of the duties required from those in attendance on Napoleon at this time, said, *' One would absolutely require to be made of iron to support it. The First Consul lives on his horse and in his carriage. He has no sooner alighted from the latter, than away he goes on horseback for ten or twelve hoiu'S together. He talks with the men, and sees and examines everything himself." The coolness of his head seemed to keep pace with the hurry of his movements, and the distinctness of his perception with the complication of affairs and interests he had to attend to. Every toM^n and village of France seemed embued with a portion of the energy and activity of then* Chief. In places where it would have been useless to build ships of the line or large vessels, gun-boats and shallops were constructed on the banks of navigable rivers or canals, and when finished floated to the sea, round the shores of which they crept towards the appointed rendezvous, under the protection of the cannon on land. The troops, meanwhile, quitted their garrisons, and formed camps upon the coast, extending from Utrecht to the mouth of the Somme. The divisions of Marmont, Ncy, Lannes, Victor, Soult, Davoust, and Junot, covered the plains from the Scheldt to the mouths of the Oise and the Aisne. Piers were constructed, bridges built, sluices opened, basins excavated, ports formed, magazines collected, cannon founded, and sails and cordage made, with a celerity which appeared like the eficct of enchantment. It is not to be wondered at that sm-rounding nations stood aghast at the ambition of Napoleon, when it was sus- tained by such a genius, such indefatigable industry, and the power, as it seemed, to accomplish whatever its possessor projected. The spirit and enterprise of England, like that of her enemy, seemed to rise as danger thickened around her. At no previous period of her history had she displayed capacity to make such a formidable naval and military array. Upwards of five hundred ships of war, of various descriptions and sizes, covered the ocean. Every French port in the Channel was blockaded by divisions of the British fleet, which waited impatiently for the moment when the flotillas, intended for the invasion, should attempt to quit their harbours. The English cruisers, indeed, not content with the mastery of the high seas, frequently stood in and cannonaded the fortresses of the enemy, or 3 ij MILITARY ENTHUSIASM. threw shells into Havre, Dieppe, Granville, and even Boulogne. Parties of seamen and marines occasionally landed, cut out vessels, destroyed signal posts, and dismantled batteries ; damping the confi- dence of the French, and inspiring the British with renewed courage and perseverance. There was not a fishing-boat but seemed to have had new Hfe put into it, and to be prepared for the conflict. On land the determination and zeal of the English people were not less than those manifested on their peculiar element. To nearly a hundred thousand troops of the line, were added upwards of eighty thousand militia, well trained and disciplined, and a volunteer force, computed at three hundred and fifty thousand men, well officered, efficiently equipped, and hearty in the common cause. Beacons were erected in conspicuous places, corresponding with each other, all around and through the island ; and the high spirit and alacrity of the citizen- soldiers were attested, on many occasions of false alarm, by the eagerness with which they rushed to the points of supposed danger. Martial and patriotic songs resounded from every hall and cottage ; and on every church-door in the kingdom was posted a sphit-stirring call upon high and low, rich and poor, to unite in defence of their country. " On a sudden," says Sir Walter Scott, " the land seemed 370 CONSPIRACY. converted into an immense camp, the whole nation into soldiers, and the good old King himself into a General-in-chief." In the midst of these active operations on either side, the Royalists, who since the failure of the Infernal Machine plot, had scarcely ventured to shew themselve as a party, set on foot a series of intrigues for the overthrow of the government of Napoleon — principally, it is said, at the instigation of England. Pichegru, having escaped from Cayenne, whither he had been exiled for his former treasons, had been for some time living in London, in close correspondence with the Bourbon Princes and their agents. The English Ministry sug- gested the practicability of raising an insurrection once more in La Vendee, and of bringing over Moreau, who was known to be inimically disposed towards the Fii'st Consul, on account of his inroads upon the Republican Constitution, and his superior elevation as a soldier and a man. The influence of the victor of Hohenlinden would, it was conceived, detach many of the soldiers from their present Chief; and at least create such general consternation, as would lead to the speedy abandonment of the projected descent upon Britain. It is not at all probable that the Government of England sanctioned, or were privy to any more sinister designs in the agents it thought fit to employ, than those of creating what may, in cases of disputed thrones, be called legitimate rebellion. The rising in the West of France was to be favoured by a descent of the Royalists, under the Duke de Berri, on the coast of Picardy. The Duke d'Enghien, grandson of the great Prince of Cond<^, fixed his residence at the castle of Ettenheim, in the territories of the Margrave of Baden, for the purpose of being ready on the frontier, to put himself at the head of the insui-gents, either in the East of France, or at Paris, as occasion should require. Pichegru, however, was more unscrupulous than his employers ; and he, Georges Cadoudal, and other Chouans, whom they associated with them in the enterprise, concerted measures to assassinate the Fu-st Consul, whom they deemed an insuperable obstacle to the restoration of the Bourbons. Between the months of August, 1803, and January, 1804, an English captain, named Wright, found opportunity to land about thirty of the conspirators, by night, at the foot of the cliff of Beville, near Dieppe, which they ascended by means of the smuggler's rope, 371 GEORGES. PICHEGRU. MOREAU. and concealing themselves during the day-time, and travelling by- night, under pretence of being smugglers, they reached Paris, which they entered singly, by different avenues, and contrived, unobserved, to reach the places of concealment which had been pre- viously procured for them. Pichegru speedily found means to communicate with Moreau, who is said to have disajDproved of the rising and its object — he being still a staunch Republican. It is certain, however, that Pichegru called upon him more than once ; and that, on at least one occasion, Georges was admitted to his presence, and suifered to narrate in detail the scheme for Napoleon's assassin- ation : it is equally certain, also, that no warning voice, as to the impending danger of the head of his government, was raised by the second General of the French Republic. Indistinct rumoui's of ap- proaching changes at length began to create alarm. IzitelHgence was received, at the same time, of meetings held among the peasantry and others in La Vendee ; and in some intercepted letters, addressed by their friends in London to returned emigrants, it was confidently predicted, that the career of the Fii'st Consul would soon be at an end. The police were now on the alert, and several suspected persons were arrested; among whom was a sm-geon of the name of Querel, who, on being promised a pardon, confessed all that he knew of the plot, and gave such a clue as led to the apprehension of the whole band. Moreau was taken on the 15th of February, 1804; and large rewards were, at the same time, ofifered for Georges and Pichegru, who were known to be in Paris, but contrived for some time to elude their pursuers. On the last day of February, however, Pichegru was betrayed, for the consideration of a hundred thousand francs, by the man in whose house he was secreted; and six gens-d'armes were sent to seize him. He was a large, powerful man ; and his character for personal courage and determination was such that, notwithstanding the disparity of force, the police waited till he was ascertained to be asleep before they would venture to encounter him : then, striking out the light burning at his bed-side, and overturning the table on which were his pistols, they sprung upon him as he lay, and, after over- powering the feeble resistance he was able to ofler, pinioned him and conveyed him before the grand judge, by whom he was immediately committed to the Temj)le. The capture of Georges, however, was 37? THE DUKE D ENGHIEN. considered of greater importance than that of any; and he was still at large. To prevent his escape, the capital was surrounded by a cordon of troops, and the barriers were closed night and day : being opened only for the market-people, and such as could give a satisfactory account to the police, to pass and repass. At length, after being driven from lurking place to lurking place, shunned by all his former associates, he was arrested in a cabriolet, while attempting to gain egress from the city. He had been riding about Paris in this and similar vehicles for two days, not daring to enter a house for a moment's rest or refreshment. On their examination, two of Georges' servants stated that a tall, gentlemanly man, of thirty-four or thirty-five years of age, with light hair and bald forehead, had latterly been in the habit, at intervals of ten or twelve days, of visiting at their master's lodgings, where he had been invariably received with the greatest respect — Georges himself attending him at the door, and he and Messrs. de Polignac and Eiviere, remaining unseated during the stranger's stay. Tliis personage it was immediately conjectured must be one of the Bourbon Princes; and as the description answered neither to the Count d'Artois nor the Duke de Berri, suspicion immediately fell upon the Duke d'Enghien, who was known to be at Ettenheim, and to be a man of courage and enterprise, and who moreover was implicated by other depositions in the purposed rising of the Royalists. The stranger was eventually pi'oved to be Pichegru ; but the consequences of the disclosure fell upon the head of D'Enghien. It was ascertamed that the latter was sometimes absent, for several days, from his residence, and that he could just go to Paris and be back at his retreat between the periods stated for the visits of the mysterious friend of Cadoudal. The thought no sooner suggested itself, than the First Consul issued orders for the instant sciziu'e of the Duke and his attendants : and, on the evening of the 15th of March, a party of French soldiers and gens-d'armes crossed the frontier, surrounded the castle in which the Prince resided, and, arresting him and his household, conveyed them forthwith to the citadel of Strasburg. Here he was separated from all his attendants, except the Baron de St. Jacques his secretary; he remained at Strasburg till the 18th, when he was called up at mid- night, and informed that he must instantly prepare for a journey. He 373 TRIAL OF THE PBINCE. readied Paris on the 20th, and, after being detained for five hours at the barrier, was driven to the neighbouring castle of Vincennes, which had been long used as a state prison. A commission had been akeady appointed to try him, consisting of seven officers of regiments of the garrison of Paris, with General Hulin, the Commandant, as President. These persons met late on the evening of the Prince's arrival, in one of the large rooms of the inhabited part of the castle. Although the trial did not commence till past ten at night, a great number of persons appear to have been present to witness it, insomuch that Savary, to whom the command of the fortress of Vincennes had been that day entrusted, could scarcely get through the crowd when he reached the Court. The trial — as all similar trials by special commission, or without the intervention of a jury, must be — M^as a bitter mockery of justice. The Duke avowed his services in the army of Conde against France, and his receipt of a large pension from England ; but denied all knowledge of Pichegru and his conspiracy. " I had applied to England," he said, " for an appointment in her armies, and been answered that she had none to give me ; but that I was to remain upon the Ehine, where I should soon have a part to act ; and for that I was waiting." He was found guilty upon the several charges preferred against him — Of having borne arms against his country; of having been and still being in the pay of England ; and of being a party to the recent conspiracy against the government and life of the First Consul. Before judgment was passed, he earnestly solicited a private interview with Napoleon. " My name, my rank, my principles, and the horror of my situation," he said, " induce me to hope that he will not deny this request." The entreaty, unhappily, was not conveyed to the First Consul till the Duke was dead. The Prince was conducted back to his chamber, where he almost instantly fell into a deep sleep ; from which, however, he was shortly afterwards aroused to hear and undergo his sentence. Orders were given that his grave should be dug in the court-yard ; but as there was no time to remove the pavement, the castle-ditch was finally fixed as the place of interment. About six in the morning he was led down a winding stair through a postern beneath the walls, where six gens-d'armes were aheady da-awn up to perform the 374 DEA.TH OP D ENGIIIEN. melancholy act. Captain d'Autancourt gave the word, the illus- trious victim fell, and the body, dressed as it was, and uncoffined, was thrown into its narrow resting-place. The death of the Duke d'Enghien caused a great sensation among the Royalists in France, and throughout Europe. It has generally been held up to execration, as an act of unprovoked assassination on the part of Napoleon. Undoubtedly it was an unjust and indefensible proceeding, if viewed, as it should be, through a moral or legal medium. Those who have regarded the question as merely involving a point of policy, have attempted to defend it on the ground of expediency. The affair, however, appears to be one on which argu- ment is thrown away. Tliough certainly not a wholly gratuitous crime, it will not admit of justification. The seizure, in a neutral territory, was contrary to law; the Duke was convicted, without sufficient evidence, and executed upon an ii-regidar sentence. The whole business, according to Napoleon's own admission, had been pre-arranged : even the order for execution had been drawn up before the arrival of the prisoner, and only remained for signature, after a 375 KAPOLEON S DEFENCE. form of hearing had been hastily gone through. It is but fair, however, that Bonaparte should be heard in reply to the accusations heaped upon him. " If I had not in my favour the laws of my country," he said, when at St. Helena, " I should still have had the right of the law of nature, of legitimate self-defence. The Duke and his party had constantly but one object in \aew, that of taking away my life. I was assailed on all sides with air-guns, infernal machines, plots, and ambuscades of every kind. Blows, threatening my ex- istence, were aimed at me day after day, from a distance of a hundred and fifty leagues, without a possibility of my obtaining redi-ess from any tribunal. At last I grew weary, and took an opportunity of striking terror in London. Who can blame me, that I used the right of nature, and returned war for war ? Those who foment civil dis- sensions, or excite political commotions, expose themselves to become victims. It would be a proof of imbecility, or madness, to imagine or pretend, that a whole family should have the strange privilege to threaten my existence, without giving me the right of retaliation. They could not reasonably pretend to be above the law, to destroy others, yet claim the benefit of it for theh own preservation. The chances must be equal. A great nation had chosen me for its Governor : almost all Europe had sanctioned the choice. My blood was not ditch-water ; and it was time to place it on a par with that of the Bourbons. . . Tlie Duke d'Enghien had been seen at Strasburg ; it was believed that he had been in Paris ; and it was known that he purposed to enter France by the east, while the Duke dc Bcrri disembarked in the west, at the moment the plot of Georges and Pichcgru should be ripe for execution. ... If I had acted right, I should have followed the example of Cromwell, v.ho, on the discovery of the first attempt made to assassinate him, the plot of which had been hatched in France, caused it to be signified to the French King, that if the like occurred again, he, by way of reprisal, would order assassins to be hired to murder him and a Stuart. Now, I ought to have publicly signified, that on the next attempt at assassination, I would cause the same to be made upon the Bourbon Princes : to accomplish which last, indeed, I had only to say, that I would not punish the perpetrators." Bonaparte added, that " had the Prince's request for an interview been stated to him in tunc, or had he known arc PUBLIC OPINIOX, more of the opinions or disposition of the Prince, he should, in all probability, have forgiven him ; and that he should have derived gi-eat political advantages from so doing : but that he did not feel that he had committed a crime, we have the most conAancing testimony, in a solemn codicil to his last Avill, which runs thus : — " I caused the Duke d'Enghien to be arrested and tried, because that step was essential to the safety, interest, and honour of the French people, when the Count d'Artois, on his otvti confession, was maintaining sixty assassins at Paris. Under similar circumstances, I Avould again act in the same way." Mr. Pitt, who had returned to the head of the British Cabinet, on the renewal of hostilities, exclaimed, on hearing of D'Enghien's execution, " Bonaparte has wi'ought himself more mischief by this act than we have been able to inflict on him since the first declaration of war." The only Continental Prince that attempted to speak out upon the subject was Alexander of Russia; but liis remonstrance was quietly silenced by Talleyi'and, with an allusion to the supposed connivance of the Emperor at the murder of his own father, the unfortunate Paul. The only distinguished Frenchman who openly expressed an opinion on the subject was Chateaubriand, who had just been appointed ambassador to the Valais, and had been honoured with his audience of leave on the very morning of the tragical event. Immediately, on learning what had taken place, he indignantly sent in his resignation, with an intimation that he could not serve under a government sullied with blood. Many persons, it may be added, were thenceforward alienated from the Fii'st Consul, who had been previously disposed to regard him with some degree of favour, for his exertions in removing the rigorous laws of the Revolutionists, and restoring order and prosperity to the country. The Jacobins, on the contrary, appear to have become more reconciled to him, when he, like them, had become the slayer of a Prince : a pledge that, at least, the odious Bourbons would not be recalled to tyrannise over and take vengeance on them. The conspiracy of Georges and his companions had for its object the re-establishment of monarchy in France; and that consummation, though not in the way desired, there is no doubt it greatly accelerated. Napoleon, by the machinations against him, was made to appear the 3/7 3 c PUBLIC OPINION. sole obstacle to the accomplisliment of the designs of the enemies of the Republic. It was natural for those who benefitted by his govern- ment to place a higher value iipon his services, in proportion to the frequency with which his opponents singled him out as the individual mark of their mahce. The death of D'Enghien made little impression upon the nation. He had fought against France : it was generally believed that he was leagued with assassins ; and it had not yet ceased to be a matter of regret, that Napoleon had abolished the holiday instituted by the Convention, to commemorate the death of Louis XVI. The want of similarity, in external forms, between the French Govern- ment and those of surrounding nations, was said to be the chief cause of the hostihties in which the various states of Europe had been so long embroiled. It now began to be publicly said, " If the throne must be restored, before we can hope for tranquillity, let us at least place on it him whom we have found most worthy to be our Sovereign and Protector." 3/8 CHAPTER XVI. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE EMPIRE — TRIAL OF GEORGES AND THE CONSPIRA- TORS PROTEST OF THE COUNT DE LILLE IMPERIAL VISIT TO THE CAMP AT BOULOGNE — BRUSSELS — THE RHINE — RETURN TO PARIS. 1804. EVERAL ambiguously ■svordcd ad- dresses, congratulating him on his escape from the daggers, wliich were asserted to have been aimed at his life by the agents of England, and urging him to x^erfcct the good work which he had commenced, - "^ were presented from various bodies m the State to the First Consul, immediately after the death of the Duke d'Enghien. One of these was from the Senate, ^^'hich broadly hinted at Avhat, by this time, must have been well-understood, by those in the habit of hearing his private sentiments, to have been the desire of Napoleon. " On \dewing those 379 THE SENATE AND TRIBUNATE. attempts," said tlic President of that body, " from wliicli Providence has saved the Hero necessary to its designs, we are struck with one primary reflection, that, in the destruction of the First Consul, the annihiLation of the independence of France has been contemi^latcd. The Enghsh and the traitors know that your fate involves that of the French people. Give us, then, institutions so combined, that they may survive you. It is not enough that you found a new era, unless you render it immortal ; for what is splendoiu- without duration. To you we are indebted for our rescue from the chaos of the past ; to you we are grateful for the blessings of the present : it must be youi's, also, to guarantee to us the future." Neither to this, nor other similar addresses, was any answer at first returned : as none had expressly stated what all seemed obscurely to intimate. Scarcely a month had elapsed, however, when Curee, a member of the Tribunate, spoke out more " explicitly what he conceived to be the wishes of the people. On the 30th of April, in an elaborate speech on the state of the Republic, that orator dehvered a glowing eulogium on the merits of the General who had delivered France from the domination of the Sections, from the tyranny of the Directory, and from the presence of foreign foes, shewing that the internal peace and prosperity of the country were solely attributable to his genius, and that the continuance of those blessings was only to be hoped for by securing his services for the future. " Let us hasten, then," he said, " to dissipate political illusions, by demanding for the nation the hereditary transmission of the supreme magistracy. By placing at the head of the Government an hereditary chief, we shall bar the return of a master. But at the same time, while we create a great power, let us give it a great name — one which shall convey an idea of the highest civil functions, recall the most glorious remembrances, and breathe no taint upon the sovereignty of the people. For the guardian of a great nation there is no title more befitting than that of Emperor. Who better merits the designation of * Victorious Consul,' which it implies ? What people, what armies, were ever more Avorthy than those of France, that such should be their leader's title?" Curee concluded, by moving, that " Napoleon Bonaparte, First Consul, be proclaimed Emperor ; that the Imperial dignity be declared hereditary NAPOLEON EMPEROR. in his family; and, that the National Institutions be definitively settled." The x^roposal was hailed with enthusiasm. The Tribunes fol- loAved each other with speeches, every one more full of adulation than its predecessor : and a crowd pressed forward to inscribe their assent on the roll in which the proceedings were registered. One voice alone was raised in opposition — it was that of the inflexible Camot. " The First Consul," he said, " has saved France by the assumption of the Dictatorship : but, like Fabius, Camillus, and Cincinnatus, of yore, when his work is accompUshed, he ought to lay aside his power, and retire to the station of a private citizen. Even gi-anting that Napoleon himself cannot be too much trusted, or too largely rewarded, for his ser\dces, is it possible to render his virtues and talents, his skill as a soldier and a politician, hereditary ? Why should the fortunes of posterity be committed to chance ? It should never be forgotten that Domitian was the son of the mse Vespasian, Caligula of Gcr- manicus, and Commodus of Marcus Aurelius. But though," added the stui-dy Republican, " I oppose the alteration of the Government on the score of principle and conscience, if the proposal shall be adopted by the nation, I shall be among the first to peld implicit obedience to its will." From the Tribunate, Curee's proposal was immediately handed to the Senate, who forthwith prepared a senatus-consultum, declaring Napoleon Emperor of the French. The sole opponents of the measm-e in that chamber were Gregoire, Lambrcchts, and Garat. The decree of the Senate was presented at St. Cloud, on the 18th of May, by Cambaceres, at the head of the Legislative bodies. In reply to the address of the Second Consul, who stated that France had found it necessary for her happiness, her glory, and prosperity, to render the government hereditary in the family of the First Consul, Napoleon replied : " Whatever can conduce to the good of the country, is essen- tial to my happiness. I, therefore, accept the title which you consider useful to the glory of the nation. To the sanction of the people, however, I submit the law of the succession ; and hope that France will never repent of the honours with which she has surrounded my family. At all events, my spuit shall not abide with my posterity, beyond the day on which they cease to deserve the love and confi- dence of the Great Nation." 3B1 MARSHALS. The Senate next waited upon Josephine, to salute her as Empress, and congratulate her on ascending the throne, which she was in every- way so well qualified to adorn. The first imperial act of Napoleon, on the day of his elevation, was to nominate his brother, Joseph, to the dignity of Grand Elector ; and Louis to that of Constable of the Empire — Cambaceres, at the same time, being appointed Arch-Chancellor, and Lebrun, Arch- Treasurer. On the follo^\dng day, a grand levee was held at the Tuileries — one of the most brilliant, as well as the most numerous, that had ever been held there. Bessieres, in the name of the now Imperial Guards, dehvered an address to the Emperor ; who replied with the same frankness and soldier-hke dignity which had always marked his conduct towards the troops. The officers of the army were presented by Louis, in his capacity of Constable. Everything had already assumed an aspect of State formahty ; at the general awkwardness of which, it is said, there were some smiles among those to whom the etiquette and ceremonies of courts was not so new as to the men whose greatness had arisen subsequently to the commencement of the Revolution. On the same day, the following Generals — men whose names are scarcely inferior to that of then- great companion in arms — were nominated Marshals of the Empire : — Berthier, Murat, Moncey, Jourdan, Massena, Augereau, Bernadotte, Soult, Brune, Lannes, Mortier, Ney, Davoust, Bessieres, Kellerman, Le Febvre, Perignon, and Serrurier. The family of Napoleon were now Princes and Princesses ; and he, not what he had once sighed to be. King of the petty territory of an eastern Pachalick, but the Sovereign of his beloved France — the most powerful, if not the most extensive, state in Europe. A soldier of fortune, who, less than nine years before, had been compelled to sell his carriage, pledge his watch, and occasionally be indebted to humble friends for a dinner — he now found himself surrounded with a degree of pomp and majesty, sui-passing that of any absolute Monarch of modern times ! There have been, and will long continue to be, many conflicting opinions on the prudence and policy of his exaltation, and whether this was not in rcaHty the principal occasion of his subsequent overthrow: thus much, however, is certain, that it was not more to gratify his own ambition, than in obedience to the 3^ TRIAL OF CONSPIRATOrvS. public voice, called forth by tbe services be bad rendered to tbe country, and tbe institutions he bad founded for perpetuating its prosperity, that be took upon him the power and rank of the illus- trious Charlemagne. That Napoleon felt and recognised the source of bis authority, was evinced by his referring to the people the question concerning the hereditary transmission of the title conferred on him; and this constituted the essential distinction between his empire, and that of the Sovereigns by divine right, who were scan- dalized less at bis assimiption of equabty with them, than at his appeal to tbe populace for a confirmation of that equality, seeing that they derived their dominion merely from conquest, or pohtical intrigue and barter. While tbe suffrages of the citizens were being collected in the provinces, the few conspirators who remained to be apprehended, after the arrest of Georges, were secured ; and the whole band, with the exception of Pichegru, who, unable to endui-e the infamy of his situation, fell by his own hand in prison, were brought to trial. Against Moreau, the full extent of evidence was not pressed. It was felt to be sufficient, perhaps, that recent events had confirmed tbe suspicions which bad formerly been attached to his name ; and that 383 EXECUTION OF GEORGES. his influence with the army, on which he had relied for support, was destroyed by the knowledge of his treachery. He was sentenced to two years' imprisonment; but, at the intercession of his wdfe, seconded by Josephine, one of whose companions Madame Moreau had been in the West Indies, this was commuted to two years' banish- ment from France. Napoleon would have saved Georges, and attached him to his own person and government. " He has nerve," said the Emperor, " and in my hands woidd be capable of great things." He was offered pardon, and the command of a regiment, if he would pledge his word to abandon the cause of the Boiu-bons, and become a faithful subject to the new dynasty. " My companions followed me into France," replied Georges ; " I will follow them to death." The conduct of the man had long been that of a brigand; but there were feelings, and sentiments within him which would have done honour to the nature of the best and bravest. Napoleon had strongly remarked upon his character, on a former occasion, when he dismissed him merely with an admonition to continue peaceable for the future : it was, therefore, with sincere regret that the alter- native of condemning him to death, or affording him a further opportunity to concert dangerous plots, obtruded itself. ''Nothing but the necessity of my position," said the Emperor, " would induce me to assent to his execution. But if I make no examples, England will poui' upon me all the lees of emigration." In the end, Cadoudal and eleven of his accomplices were led to the scaffold : the former requesting, as a favour, that he might die first, in order that his com- panions, to whom it had been reported that his life would be spared, and he be received into favour, should have an assurance in death that he would not survive them. The good Josephine had exerted herself greatly in favour of all the condemned, taking charge of petitions on theii* behalf, and procuring audiences for more than one of their female relatives, to whose en- treaties she knew that the Emperor would do violence to his feelings if he turned a deaf ear. Armand de Polignac and De Eiviere were indebted to this influence for the clemency which they experienced. It was not, however, solely to those who were enabled to make interest at Cbm-t, that Napoleon extended mercy. The sister of one of the criminals, a humble and unfriended maiden, went to St. Cloud, and 3«1 COUNT DE LILLE. watching an opportunity to throw herself at the feet of the Emperor, implored the life of her brother with such earnest affection, that her prayer could not be withstood. Of those condemned to death, the sentence of eight was commuted to exile. The rest of the con- spu-ators, among whom was Jules de Polignac, were imprisoned or banished, according to the extent of their guilt, or the degree of influence they possessed to endanger the State. The Count de Lille, who was at Warsaw when the Imperial dignity was conferred upon the Fu'st Consul, no sooner heard of that event, than he addressed a protest to the various Courts of Europe against the usurpation, as he termed it, of his right. FoucM, aaIio wished to be appointed to the head of the police, which had been suppressed after the peace of Amiens, but re-established on the detection of Georges' conspiracy, having obtained a copy of this document, which had been privately circulated among the Eoyalists, hastened with it to the Emperor. " Well," said the latter when he had read the production, " my right is the \vdll of France ; and while I have a sword I shall maiutam it. It is proper, however, that the Bourbons and theii- friends should know that I fear them not. Let this production of the Count be printed to-morrow in the PROTEST. Moniteur, that the people of the Faubourg St. Germame may read it at their ease, instead of hawking it secretly from house to house." Tlie protest was certainly an injudicious proceeding on the part of Louis, recognising, as it did, the voice of the nation in the exaltation of the new Sovereign. It was the interest of the Bourbons to endeavour to keep Bonaparte and France distinct in the ideas of their partisans. There can be no doubt that Napoleon saw tliis when he directed the publication of the paper. It ran as follows : — " In assuming the title of Emperor, and desiring to render it hereditary in his family, Bonaparte has put the seal to his usurpation. This new act of a revolution, in which all from the commencement has been null, cannot assuredly invahdate my claims ; but, accountable for my con- duct to all Sovereigns, whose rights are not less threatened than mine, and whose thrones are shaken by the same dangerous principles which the Senate of Paris has dared to pubHsh, — accountable also to France, to my family, and my honovu", — I conceive I should betray the common cause by keeping silence. As opportunity served, I have renewed my protestations against all those illegal acts which, since the opening of the States General, have brought France to the frightful crisis in which she and Europe are now plunged : I now declare in presence of all Sovereigns, that far from recognising the imperial title with which Bonaj)arte has caused himself to be invested, by a Senatorial body which has not even a legal existence, I protest against that title, and against all the subsequent acts to which it may give rise." The appearance of the protest in the official paper of the government, added to the fact that Napoleon had been recognised and con- gratulated as Emperor, on his accession to the throne, by all the Sovereigns in Europe, except those of England, Russia, and Sweden, attached to the procedure a character of absurdity. The 1 4th of July, the Fete of the Taking of the Bastille, and of the first Federation of the RepubHc, had been looked to Avith cui'iosity by many, who deemed that its celebration would involve some contradiction to the Imperial policy, and that it would, therefore, be suppressed. Napoleon, however, saw nothing anomalous in its observance, and, therefore, issued express orders for that purpose ; enjoining, however, that it should be deferred till the following day, Sunday, in order that it might not occasion an unnecessary waste of 3Sf, FETE OF JULY. time, or interfere witli the industry of the people. This was the first time that any display had been made of the pomp which was now to attend the Imperial Court. The carriage of Josephine tra- versed the gardens of the Tuileries, while Napoleon with a brilhant escort of marshals, imperial officers, and guards, proceeded on horse- back to the Hotel of Invahds, where a throne and chair of state had been prepared for the royal pair. Cardinal Bclloy, Archbishop of -5ffl Paris, at the head of the clergy, received the Emperor at the entrance of the Church, no longer the temple of Mars, and gave hnn his^ benediction. Mass was performed; and afterwards Do Lac^pede, Grand-Chancellor of the Legion of Honour, pronounced a discourse eulogising Napoleon for the laws and institutions by wliich he had consolidated the regeneration of the RepubUc, so auspiciously com- CAMP AT BOULOGNE. menced on tlie 14th of July, 1789; and concluded by summoning the officers of the order to the foot of the ahar. The Emperor then rose, and assuming his hat, after the example of the ancient Kings of France, when holding a Court of Justice, said in a firm voice, while profound silence reigned throughout the immense assembly: — " Commanders, officers, legionaries, citizens, soldiers ! You swear upon your honour to devote yourselves to the service of the Empire; to the preservation of its territory in full integrity; to the defence of the Emperor, of the laws of the Repubhc, and of the rights which these have consecrated; to combat by all means authorized by justice, reason, and the laws, every enterprise which shall tend to re-establish the feudal system; in short, you swear to aid, with all your power, in the maintenance of hberty and equality, the prime basis of our institutions. , Do you swear this ?" All the members of the Legion wdth one voice exclaimed, " I swear ! " and enthusiastic cries of " Vive I'Empereur ! " ascended from the populace within and without the sacred edifice. Some crosses Avere then distributed; and the cortege returned to the palace, cheered by an immense assemblage which seemed to embrace the entire population of the Capital. Three days after this ceremony, Napoleon quitted Paris to join the camp at Boulogne, for the purpose, as was announced, of dis- tributing decorations of the Legion among the soldiery, and preparing for his descent on the coast of England. During this journey the Emperor himself seemed to be the only person unconscious of the change which had taken place since he was merely a General of the Republic. " His regal style and title," says Mr. Hazlitt, " affected him no more than if he had merely put on a masquerade dress the evening before." The army, however, received him wdth a welcome of congratulation and applause to which no verbal description could do justice. Everything had been arranged for his reception. In the midst of a vast plain, forming a natural amphitheatre, with a slight eminence in the centre, was erected a platform, sustaining the iron chair, which was formerly the throne of King Dagobert, an ancient king of the Franks. In front and on each side were assembled, under the orders of Marshal Soult, eighty-thousand men from the camps of Bologne and Montreuil. The Imperial tent had 3S8 AUGURIES. been pitched near a ruinous building called tlie Tower of Order. In clearing the ground, traces of a Roman encampment had been dis- covered, with a battle-axe of the same period ; a cii-cumstance which was hailed as an omen that Napoleon, like Caesar, would become the conqueror of Britain; and the augury seemed to be confirmed by the finding, at the same time and at a short distance from the same spot, some coins of William the Norman. It has been sug- gested, with great probability, that the last of these discoveries was not accidental, but that the coins were a recent deposit. However this may be, the coincidence was sufficient to increase the ardour and confidence of the soldiers. The Emperor on his arrival ascended the platform, where, in the midst of such a staff of officers as all Europe besides could not have furnished, he pronounced to the troops the same oath as had been taken by the regiments and legionaries at Paris. The acclamations of the multitude were deafening and continuous. Every one present seemed to be Hterally transported with joy. Napoleon himself is said STORM. never to have appeared more sensible of, or better pleased with, the attachment universally manifested for his person. Crosses of the Legion of Honour ■v\-ere given to a great number of those who had distinguished themselves, both officers and private soldiers. Most of the veterans, who had served under him in Italy and Egypt, were known to him by sight, and many by name. Several were called up to receive thcii* decorations from his own hands, and kindly enquiries were made concerning their families and their welfare. It was by such means, by such apparent spnpathy, that he won and retained the hearts of his gallant soldiers. The ceremonies of the day had not concluded, when a storm suddenly burst over the harbour, and endangered the safety of the flotilla there collected. The Emperor hastened from the field to the port, to give such directions as might be necessary on the spot. But ^ -^w^^: no sooner did he appear than, as if by magic, the wind was lulled, the heavy clouds rolled away, and the sea became calm. " The very elements," said his flatterers, " acknowledge, and are awed by the ENGLISH SAILORS. imperial dignity of Napoleon ! " Returning to the camp, the day was closed with military games and festivities ; and in the evening fire-works were exhibited, one of which threw up so large and brilliant a column of light, as to be distinctly visible from the shores of England. While he remained at Boulogne, he employed the greater portion of his time in reviewing the troops, superintending the public works, and encouraging the men in the performance of a number of evolutions, by night as well as by day, to accustom them to embark and dis- embark with celerity. In these manoeuvres the most expert were certain to be rewarded with money or honours. Intrepidity, indeed, was sure to obtain his approbation, displayed by whomsoever and in whatever way it might be. His conduct towards two English sailors, at this period, w-as long a subject of admiration tkroughout the army. They had been prisoners at Verdun; but ha\ing escaped from the depot, and reached the neighbourhood of Boulogne, had concealed themselves in the woods, waiting for an opportimity to get on board some English vessel, which they occasionally saw approach the land, rinding that the watch upon the coast was too strict to afford any chance of their procuring a boat by stealth, they adopted the idea of making one ; and accordingly set diligently to work with their knives, the only tools they had, cutting branches from the trees, and inter- lacing these with oziers. This frail bark was five or six feet long, and between three or four wide ; and when the hull was completed, its owners contrived to obtain some saihcloth, to cover the sides and bottom. The vessel altogether was so light, that a man could carry it with ease upon his back. Nothing but the love of home and of fireedom, or the recklessness of despair, could have prompted any person to trust his life in such a basket : yet, one or all of these feeHngs were so strong with the bold seamen in question, that the risk of being drowned or shot seemed light in comparison AA-ith the hope of escape. Seizing an opportunity, when they had one day descried a cruiser in the Channel, they issued from their Im-king- place, launched their boat, and fearlessly put to sea. They had not advanced far, however, when they were perceived, and a custom-house galley desj)atched to bring them back. The chace was a brief one ; and the captured men, when brought to shore, were instantly immui-ed 391 ENGLISH SAILORS. in prison as spies. The incident qnickly spread through the camp, and was reported to the Emperor, who, struck by the almost incre- dible daring of the adventui-ers, ordered them and their vessel to be brought into his presence. Napoleon could not conceal his astonish- ment, that rational men should have entertained such a design, and endeavoured to carry it into execution with such feeble means at their command. " Is it really the fact, that you intended to cross the sea in such a thing as this?" he asked. " Ay, Sir," replied one of the prisoners ; " give us permission to do so, and you shall soon see us depart." The Emperor, whose fd'elings were enlisted in their favour, replied, " You shall have permission. You are bold and enterprising, and I admire courage wheresoever it is found. But you shall not again expose your lives needlessly. You are free. I will give immediate orders to conduct you on board an English ship : and when you have returned to your native land, tell your countrymen how highly I esteem brave men, even when they are my enemies." The hardy seamen were overwhelmed with joyful surprise at this instance of unexpected generosity. They had just before been in- formed that they were to be shot : they now found themselves at perfect liberty, and objects of interest to the greatest warrior of the age ; in addition to which, they were presented with several pieces of gold, to procure them new clothes and necessaries, until they could be safely sent away. 392 EDUCATION. Amid the active occupations of the camp. Napoleon still found time to devote many thoughts to civil affaii'S. While at Boulogne he dictated a decree for the reorganization of the Polytechnic School, which he converted into a kind of military seminary. The rapid progress of the pupils in the military schools and colleges, and the discipline maintained therein, seem to have been more agreeable to his ideas of an educational system, than the sedentary mode of study which had been recommended by the monks. From the emulation excited by classing the pupils, the constant employment of mind and body, which a routine of active duties, performed, not by disconnected individuals, and at random, but by combined numbers, and with a view to precedence in those who excelled, he expected as much advantage in the improved intelligence of the rising generation, as he had derived from pursuing a similar course with the troops under his command. This system, which, if Napoleon was not its inventor, ho was certainly the first to bring into extensive use, has since become the ground-work of almost all the general plans of instruction adopted throughout Europe, and of which the benefits are universally acknowledged. His enemies have seen nothing more in the estab- lishment of his academies than a desire to enslave the minds of youth, by bringing them up in subservience to his government. Posterity will rank his labours, in this respect, among the most valuable services which a Sovereign has ever rendered to mankind. It was in the camp also, and about the same time, that the Emperor founded the decennial prizes for the promotion of literature, science, and the arts, and for rewarding eminence in everything, whereby one man might by intellect, industry, invention, or perseverance, distinguish himself above his fellows. The fii'st distribution of these prizes was fixed for the 18th Brumau-e (9th of November), 1809; a date which seems to have been fixed in compliment to those who assisted him to put an end to the anarchy which had groAvn out of the Revolution. From Boulogne Napoleon proceeded to Brussels, and took up his abode in the Palace of Lacken, a residence pmxhased by him from the Archduke Charles, after the treaty of Luneville, and which had been magnificently fitted up for his reception. Here he was joined by the Empress Josephine; — the "meek and peaceful" woman, whom 393 3 E MADAME DE STAEL. Madame de Stael, about this time, in a letter, informed Napoleon was utterly unfit for him, and to whom he could have been united thi'ough an error in human institutions only. "For the companion of a hero hke you," said this eloquent and modest lady, who, it has been asserted by her admirers, was grievously persecuted by the Emperor ; " to adore you, nature assuredly destined a soul of fire, like mine." She compared her idol to a god, descended upon the earth; and informed him that her pen and her principles were devoted to his interest. "Bah!" said the Emperor, as he read the fulsome eisistle; "the woman is certainly mad. What means tliis vagrancy of the imagination ? It is a disorder of the fancy. I cannot endure the woman for throAving herself thus at my head. She compare herself to Josephine ! " And the obnoxious letter, after being crumpled in his 'hand with an unwonted expression of indig- nation, was thrown into the fire. The authoress of ' Corinne ' was afterwards informed of the reception of her somewhat indecent overture ; and her affection being then turned into hatred, she became involved in some political intrigues, and was pohtely informed by the sarcastic Fouche, that " the air of France was not good for her health" — a hint which induced her to retire to Copet, in Switzerland, whence she did not again ventui"e to return to her beloved Paris, till after the fall of her divinity. From Brussels the Emperor and Empress proceeded to Aix-la-Cha- pelle ; and thence along the Rhine, by Cologne, Coblentz, and Mayence. From the last place he sent one of his aides-de-camp, Caffarelli (a brother of him who had died during the Egj'ptian expedition), to Rome, to solicit the presence of the Pope at the Imperial Coronation. The Eagle of the Legion of Honour was, on this occasion, sent to Cardinal Caprara, with a letter, written by the Grand-Chancellor of the Order, informing him that he was the first foreigner who had been invested with the insignia. It was from Mayence, also, that Napoleon directed the sailing of two squadrons, designed to be the first movement towards the intended invasion of England ; one from Toulon, under Admiral Villeneuve, and the other from Rochefort, under Messiessy. On this journey, the Imperial couple received the personal congratulations of almost all the Princes of Germany upon their accession to the throne ; and the RETURN TO PARIS. Confederation of the Rliine was formed, to operate as a means of defence against any sudden invasion from the great Northern poNvers. The enthusiasm of Napoleon's own subjects was unbounded, and vented itself in the most hyperbolical addresses ; an expression fi'om one of which may serve as an example of all: "God," said the Prefect of Arras, "made one Napoleon, and rested!" About the middle of October, after three months' absence, the Emperor returned to St. Cloud, having, in the meantime, heard from Caffarelli, that Pius VII. would undertake the joui-ney to Paris to confirm to him the sceptre of Charlemagne, and consecrate him in his new office. The Emperor Francis, at the same period, addressed a letter to Napoleon, acknowledging his Imperial dignity, and rehn- quishing for himself the title of Emperor of Germany, which he had previously borne — reserving only the more modest designation derived from his hereditary states of Austria, a style from wliich liis successor has not deviated. 395 CHAPTER XVII. ARRIVAL OF THE POPE AT PARIS — VOTES OF THE PEOPLE FOR HEREDITARY SUCCESSION CORONATION OF THE EMPEROR AND EMPRESS DISTRI- BUTION OF EAGLES TO THE ARMY. 1804. EST tlie attendance at the Coro- nation, for want of due notice, sliould not be commensurate with the splendid preparations in pro- gress, summonses were issued im- mediately after the Emperor's return to the capital, for the Legislative bodies to meet on the 1st of De- cember. In the mere ceremony of his installation, there is no reason to suppose that Napoleon sought to gratify liis o^Yn vanity; but to satisfy the religious scruples of a large class who stiU regarded the sanction of the church, and the observance of ancient forms, as essential to their change of allegiance from the JSIost Christian King to a new monarch. It was this which induced him to sue to the Pope himself, the supreme and infallible head of the Cathohc world. POPE PIUS VII. whose influence was necessarily superior to that of any individual among the clergy, to officiate at the solemn festival. Outward pomp was never regarded by Bonaparte as more than a means of influencing the opinions of others. " The costume of the imperial theatre," he said, " does not constitute my value, though it is necessary for the multitude. I claim esteem for myself." That he was right, is testified by the exaggeration of ridicule with which his enemies sought to counteract the spell he had invoked. The English Ministry, it is said, exliibited more sensibility on this than on almost any other of the acts, by Avhich their great adversary had sought to establish liis power on a sound and permanent basis. Pius VII. quitted Rome in the beginning of November, and travelled leisurely towards Paris ; being everywhere received with the utmost distinction, agreeably to the instructions which had been issued by the Emperor, and to the feehngs of respect which the majority of the people entertained for his high character and sacred functions. To do him honour, " the Alpine precipices," Sir Walter Scott informs us, " had been secured by parapets, wherever they could expose the venerable Father to danger or apprehension." Napo- leon himself, accompanied by the Empress, went to Fontainbleau, the ancient palace of which name had been recently repaired, and fur- nished with befitting splendour, to meet his Holiness ; and hearing of the near approach of the Father, they advanced to Nemours. Here, on the 25th, in order to avoid the formalities of a ceremonial, wliich had been arranged for the meeting, the Emperor engaged in a hunting party, and contrived, as if by accident, to be u^^on the road when the Pope came up. At the Imperial salutation, the Papal cortege halted; and while Napoleon alighted from his horse, Pius descended from his carriage. After embracing each other, they both got into the same vehicle ; but, as though they had mutually agreed to maintain an appearance of perfect equality, each at the same moment mounted the steps at the two doors, Napoleon on the right and the Pope on the left. Of this interview, Mr. Hazlitt has said that it was " a joining of hands between the youth and the old age of the world ; in which if Pius represented the decay of ancient super- stition, Napoleon represented the high and palmy state of modern opinion ; yet not insulting over, but propping the fall of the first. 397 There were concessions on both sides, from the oklest power on earth to the newest, which, in its turn, asserted precedence for the strongest. . . To us," adds the same author, " the condescension may seem all on one side, the presumption on the other ; but history is a long and gradual ascent, where great actions and characters in time leave borrowed pomp behind, and at an immeasurable distance below them." At Fontainblcau, where the Pope rested before proceeding to Paris, Napoleon still kept the right-hand of liis Holmcss, without its appearing to have been so designed. On the 28th of November Pius entered the capital, and was received with the same attention as was usually paid to the Emperor. At the Tu.ilcrics he was lodged in the Pavilion of Flora, where liis apartments, by a delicate attention, had been arranged and furnished, precisely as in his own palace of Monte Cavallo. His presence, and the veneration paid him, formed a singular contrast to the state of France four years previously, when the clergy were proscribed, and the altars desecrated by heathen 398 PRESENTATION OF VOTES. rituals. Pius seemed greatly flattered by liis reception, and the good yviW with, which he was everywhere greeted; and those who were presented to him were in tui-n delighted with his affability and gentle- ness. A characteristic anecdote of his visit to the imperial printing office has been preserved. A volume, dedicated to his Holiness, had been prepared therein, containing translations of the Pate?' Noster in a hundred and fifty different languages. A copy of this work was struck off in the presence of the good Father. A young man, imbued with the irreverent notions then still too common in France, kept his hat on during the Pontiff's stay. Some persons, indignant at such a gross mark of disrespect, attempted to pull it off; wliich, creating considerable disturbance, attracted the Pope's attention. Having ascertained the cause of the confusion, the venerable man approached, and mildly desired the youth to uncover his head, that he might receive a paternal blessing. " The benediction of age," said the Pontiff, " never yet did harm to any one." It need not be added, that this conduct produced a great and beneficial effect, not only upon those who witnessed it, but upon the numbers among whom the story was rapidly cii'culated. On the 1st of December, the Senate attended the Emperor with the result of the votes upon the question of the hereditary succession to the throne. For the mere change of style it had not been thought necessary to consult the public, as that in no degree altered the Con- stitution of the State. Francis de Neufchateau, the president of the chamber, presented the decree whereby the Crown was declai-ed hereditary — first, in the male line of the Emperor's direct descendants, and failing of those in such of the sons or grandsons of his brothers as he might adopt, in the order to be pointed out by himself. Joseph and Louis, in case no such adoption should take place, were finally declared the lawful hcu's of the Empire. The votes by which this decree had been confirmed amounted to upwards of three millions and a half; while those who had recorded their dissent to the measure numbered but two thousand five hundred. Neufchateau concluded a highly eulogistic harangue, by asserting that this decision was " the unbiassed act of the people, than which no government could plead a more authentic or higher title." In his reply to this address. Napoleon assumed a prophetic tone, which events have not reaUzed. 399 mOCESSION. As explaining his ideas of a Sovereign's duties and responsibilities, however, the speech is worthy of being recorded. " I ascend the throne," he said, "to which the unanimous voice of the Senate, the people, and the army has called me, with a heart feelingly alive to the mighty destinies of the nation, which from the midst of camps I first saluted by the name of Great. From youth upwards, my whole thoughts have been devoted to Frenchmen, and it is due to myself now to declare that my pleasures and pains are this day nothing, save as they reflect the happiness or misery of my people. "My descendants shall long preserve this throne, the first in the universe. In camps, they will be the foremost soldiers of the army, willingly yielding their lives in defence of their country. As magis- trates, they will never forget, that contempt of the laws, and the overthrow of social order, can only result fi-om the weakness and irresolution of Princes." On the following day, the Coronation took place in the church of Notre-Dame; when, notwithstanding the unfavourable state of the weather, the assemblage was immense, and made such an imposing display as even the gay capital of France had, perhaps, never before witnessed. The Marshals and Generals of the Empire, with the great Functionaries of State, the Members of the Legislative bodies. Deputies from all the departments and the chief cities and towois, added to military deputations from the various regiments, and nearly the whole population of Paris, could not fail to present a sight not soon to be forgotten. The interior of the cathedral had been mag- nificently embellished, and fitted up with stalls and galleries, which were thronged with spectators, in full dress, and resplendent with gold and jewels. The Imperial throne was placed at the end of the nave on an elevated platform. The Papal chair stood in the choir beside the high altar. The Pope repaired first to the sacred edifice, and took his place before the Emperor arrived. In getting into their carriage, which was without panels, and looked like a frame-work of carved gold, Napoleon and Josephine, at first seated themselves with their backs to the horses, a mistake which, though instantly rectified, passed not unobserved, and was regarded by many as ominous of future evil. The procession was in every respect one of the most brilliant which has found a place in history; 400 CORONATION. whether we regard the persons who figui-ed in it, or the gorgeous robes and equipages which were then first displayed since the pro- scription of the ancient coui't and nobility. The train, as it passed through the densely croAvded streets, was greeted with deafening cries of "Vive rEmpereur!" The acclamations of the citizens pealed as from the ocean, with a continuous yet distinct articulation of the same sound: while from the windows the waving of scarfs and handker- chiefs from the handsomest women in France was incessant, and made the very houses seem alive with enthusiastic loyalty. When Napoleon entered the Cathedral the Pope rose, and went forward, to the middle of the choir, to meet him. Mass was afterwards said by his Holmess, and the holy miction administered. Pius then Ji! I'f'i iliil:i \f;0 , . . n!iuiiT,[,i.,| l2 '''iflfil;;'' %^^^fl 3 F DISTRIBUTIOIN OF EAGLES. blessed the Emperor and Empress, and consecrated their diadems ; after which he presented the Imperial crown to Napoleon, who first placed it upon his own head, then removed it to the head of Jose- phine, and again laid it upon the cushion on which it had been brought fi'om the altar. Te Deum was chaunted, and the Emperor took the constitutional oath ; the heralds then proclaimed that " the thrice glorious and august Napoleon had been crowned and installed Emperor of the French." It has been dwelt upon as an extraordinary- circumstance, that the Emperor wore a thoughtful and gloomy brow during a great portion of this long ceremonial — it must have been a strangely constituted mind in which the forms and solemnities of the occasion would not have awakened reflection. It would assuredly have been much more extraordinary to have seen Napoleon, for the first time in his life, 'assume an air of gaiety or indifierence, at a moment of such interest to the people and himself. On the morroAV, all the troops then stationed in and near Paris, together with the Deputations which had been sent to the capital from the absent regiments to witness the Coronation, were assembled in the Champ-de-Mars to receive the eagles of the Empire, in lieu of the colours of the Republic. At this ceremony, Napoleon wore his uniform of Colonel of the Guards ; and as he rode through the ranks, amid the cheers of the soldiery, it was evident that he was stiU regarded by all with the same pride and affection which had formerly induced the men to dignify him as the Little Corporal, and to rescue him at all hazards from the morass of Areola. After the review. Napoleon ascended an immense platform, erected in front of the military college at which, after quitting the school of Bricnne, his owTi studies had been completed. Here he assumed the Imperial robes ; and, at a given signal, the whole of the columns moved for- ward, and in serried files surrounded the throne. The Emperor then arose and pronounced the following address: — "Soldiers! behold your standards ! These eagles will ever prove your rallying point. They will always be wherever your Emperor may judge their pre- sence necessary for the defence of his throne and people. You swear to sacrifice your lives to defend them ; and by yom- valour to uphold them constantly in the road to victory." The acclamations which followed the loud and hearty cry, " We 402 swear ! " were universal. The people seemed to be electrified by the presence of the Emperor, and to be prepared to applaud his very looks. The Pope remained at Paris during the whole of the fetes which followed the Coronation. Ilis Holiness, who had been so excessively complaisant, seems to have expected something in return for his good offices : and accordingly a request for the restoration of Avignon, an ancient domain of the Papal See, situated in France, and of Bologna and Ferrara, in Italy, was sent to Napoleon. " In this," says De Bourrienne, " there was a want of good policy, which could scarcely have been expected from the Romish Court, whose diplomacy is usually so well adapted to the occasions which call it fortli. Had the Pope, before quitting his own capital, asked, not Avignon, which he certainly would not have obtained, l)ut the Italian legations, he would in all probability have had them restored ; but it was another 403 THE POPE. thing, after the service had been rendered." The Emperor made Pius many magnificent presents; but at first returned no answer to his demand concerning territory : subsequently, however, on the subject being pressed, Talleyrand was directed to give a positive refusal. This was the beginning of a coldness between the Imperial and Papal Courts, which afterwards ripened into dislike and ended in violence. CHAPTER XVIII. OPENING OF THE LEGISLATIVE CHAMBERS — STATUE OF THE EMPEROR — SECOND LETTER OF NAPOLEON TO GEORGE III.— REPLY OF THE BRITISH SECRETARY OF STATE. 1804 — 1805. ETiY shortly after the Coronation, namely on the 27th of December, the Emperor attended in person the meeting of the Legislative bodies. His speech on that occa- sion created a strong sensation throughout Europe. " Princes, magistrates, soldiers, citizens!" he said, " in our respective relations all have but one aim, the welfare of our country. If this throne, upon which Heaven and the will of the nation have seated me, be dear to my heart, it is because by this alone can be defended and preserved the most 405 LEGISLATIVE SESSION OPENED. sacred interests of the French people. Without a strong, as well as paternal government, France would have to dread a return of the evils which she has suffered. The weakness of the supreme power is to every people the most fearful of all calamities. As soldier, or First Consul, I have cherished but one thought; as Emperor, I have no other — the prosperity of France. I have been so happy as to render the nation illustrious by victories ; to consolidate her power by treaties ; to rescue her from civil disorder, and prepare her for the revival of morality, social organization, and religion. If death does not surprise me in the midst of my labours, I hope to leave to pos- terity a remembrance which shall for ever serve as an example, or a reproach, to my successors. It would have afforded me pleasure on this solemn occasion, had peace reigned throughout the world ; but the pohtical principles of our enemies, their recent conduct towards Spain" (alluding to the capture and partial destruction, by English ships of war, of some Spanish galleons, laden with treasure, notwithstanding the friendly relations previously existing between the two powers, and the total absence of any declaration of war), " suf- ficiently expose the difficulty of this. I have no desire to augment the territory of France, but to maintain the integrity of her possessions. I cherish no ambition of exercising, in Europe, a greater influence ; but I will not resign that which I possess. No state shall be incorporated with the Empire ; but I will not relinquish our rights, nor the ties which connect us with those states which we have created." The report of the domestic and foreign relations of the Empire, which was then read by the Minister of the Interior, was highly satisfactory ; depicting in Kvely colours the internal prosperity and peace which had succeeded to the troubles and insecurity of the revolutionary government. Improvements were everywhere in pro- gress. The agriculture of the country was more productive than at any former period ; the manufactures of a higher quality, and in greater request. Roads, bridges, exchanges, marts, and public buildings of every description, had been constructed or planned to facihtatc the communications and diffuse the advantages of commerce through every practicable district. The Colonies were represented as prosperous, and the diplomatic relations of the Empire as promising STATUE OF NAPOLEON. peace and friendship. England, it was said, was the sole obstacle to the entire pacification of Europe. The Legislative bodies carried their address of congratulation upon the state of the country to the Emperor, on the 2nd of Janiiary, 1 805. INIost of the members attended, and the president, Fontanes, made use in his speech of the ancient formula, of " your most faithful subjects;" which gave umbrage to many of his colleagues, who had still hoped that equality, always before asserted to be one of the bases of the the EepubHc, at least in appearance, would have continued to be recognised. A few days after the opening of the Legislative session, a statue of Napoleon, executed by Chaudct, was inaugurated with much cere- mony and many laudatory speeches in the Chamber of Deputies, in the presence of the Emperor and all the great officers of State. M. Vaublanc and De Fontanes seem, on tliis occasion, to have vied with each other which should bend lowliest in homage to the Great Man. The services which Napoleon had rendered to France were recapitulated, and dwelt upon with enthusiasm. Public credit, it was lu-ged, had been restored under liis auspices ; the field of industry had been enlarged by the drainage of immense morasses; mendicity was 4o; LETTP:R to GEORGE III. abolished; the aclmiiiistration of justice improved, and the expenses of legal proceedings diminished. Many great canals, and numerous roads and bridges, were mentioned as being completed, and others commenced ; three hundred and seventy schools were akeady estab- lished ; the rites of religion were restored, contending factions reconciled, the public imposts lessened, and the condition of every Frenchman ameliorated. Allowing for the exaggeration of admirers, there is no doubt that the greater portion of these eulogies was merited by their object. An author, who has never been considered a flatterer of Napoleon, has said, in reference to his exertions on behalf of France, that he had " fully identified himself with the country which had now become his patrimony, and that he was desirous of investing it with as much external splendour and internal prosperity, as his gigantic schemes were able to compass : in his administration he showed, that he desired to have no advantage 'separate from that of France ; that he conceived her interests to be connected with his own glory ; and that he expended his wealth in ornamenting the Empire, and not upon objects more immediately personal to himself." And ashamed, though half desirous, to ascribe all that had been done to motives of self- interest and mere personal aggrandisement, the same Avriter answers a charge, suggested by himself, in the following words : — " It is enough that the selfishess, which embraces the interests of a whole kingdom, is of a kind so liberal, so extended, and so refined, as to be closely allied to patriotism." On the 27th of January, the Emperor addressed a second autograph letter to the King of England, which ran thus : — " Sir, my Brother, — Called to the throne by Providence, by the suffi'ages of the Senate, the People, and the Army, my first desii'e is j)eace. France and England, abusing their prosperity, may contend for ages ; but do their respective Governments fulfil their most sacred duties, in causing so much blood to be vainly shed, without a hope of advantage or prospect of cessa- tion ? I do not conceive, that it can be deemed dishonourable in me to make the first advances. I believe it has been sufficiently proved to the world, that I dread none of the chances of war ; which indeed oflfer nothing that I can fear. Though Peace is the wish of my heart, yet "War has never been adverse to my glory. I conjure your Majesty, 40S then, not to refuse the happiness of giving peace to the world. Delay not that grateful satisfaction, that it may be a legacy for your children ; for never have arisen more favourable circumstances, nor a more pro- pitious moment, for calming every passion, and displaying the best feelings of humanity and reason. That moment once lost, what term shall be set to a struggle which all my efforts have been unable to terminate ?' In the space of ten years, yoiu* ISIajesty has gained more REPLY. in wealth and territory — [alluding to the vast conquests of England in India] — than the extent of Europe comprehends. Your people have attained the height of prosperity. What then has your Majesty to hope from war ? — To form a coalition among some of the Continental powers ? — The Continent will remain tranquil. A coalition can only increase the preponderance and continental greatness of France. To renew internal troubles ? — Times are no longer as formerly. To destroy our finances ? — Resources, founded on a prosperous agri- culture, are never to be destroyed. To deprive France of her colonies? — Her colonies are to France but secondary objects; and does not your Majesty already possess more than yom* power can protect ? The world is sufficiently extensive for our two nations; and reason might assist us to discover the means of conciliating all, were both parties animated by a spirit of reconcilement. At all events, I have discharged a sacred duty, and one dear to my heart. Your Majesty may rely on the sincerity of the sentiments now expressed, and on my desire to afford your Majesty every proof of that sin- cerity." Upon this communication, Sh Walter Scott has observed, that, " if Napoleon had been serious in desiring peace, he ought to have made his proposal something more specific than a string of general propo- sitions, which, affirmed on the one side and undisputed on the other, left the question between the belligerent powers as undecided as formerly. . . If Bonaparte, while stating, as he might have been expected to do, that the jealousies entertained by England of his power were unjust, had agreed that, for the tranquillity of Europe, the weal of both nations, and the respect in which he held the character of the Monarch whom he addressed, Malta should remain with Britain in perpetuity, or for a stipulated period, it would have given a serious turn to his overture, which was at present as vague in its tendency, as it was unusual in the form." Upon this question of Malta appears to have depended the whole issue of the proceedings of the British Cabinet. Yet, instead of fairly stating the wishes of his Government in that respect, the English Secretary for Foreign Affairs, in the answer addressed by him to Talleyrand, asserted, that " His Majesty of England, though earnestly desiring the restoration of peace to his people, could not reply to the overture made to him 410 RETLY. without consulting the Continental powers, especially the Emperor of Russia;" or, in other words, that a new storm was gathering in the North, and that the fate of France must depend on another struggle : not, however, for any principle, or pretension to principle, such as was set set up at the commencement of the Revolution ; but for the maintenance of an acquisition, the restoration of which had been guaranteed not only by the Treaty of Amiens, but by abnost all the sovereign States of Europe — with Russia at their head. 411 CHAPTER XIX. NAPOLEON KING OF ITALY — DEPARTURE FROM PARIS — TURIN — ALESSANDRIA MARENGO MILAN GENOA ANNEXED TO FRANCE CORONATION ORDER OF THE IRON CROWN — EUGENE BEAUHARNAIS VICEROY — RETURN TO PARIS. 1805. '■'m'V OMRARDY had witnessed the change of Government in France, from a De- mocratic Commonweahh to an Empire, A\ith the utmost satisfaction. The ItaHans had long sighed for the independence of their beautiful country from the op- pressive yoke of Austria, and of the numerous petty despots among whom the land was divided. Their liberation had, from the first, been hailed with enthusiasm, though it still left them partially dependent on a foreign power. The fact that the Northern States had been consohdated under one government, and organized for self-defence and protection. 4i2 CROWN OF ITALY OFFERED. gave spirit to the cfForts of the people to redeem the Italian name from the obloquy attached to it by ages of supineness and mal- administration. Already there had sprung up a spirit of patriotism and citizenship, a national love of glory and reverence for freedom, which shewed that the living generation were as capable of appre- ciating public \-ii-tue and heroism as their mighty ancestors, who held the world in fee. It was necessary, however, in order to secure the perfect regeneration of Italy, that the government of the country should not merely be liberal but permanent; and for this, it was requisite that a good understanding should be established with sur- rounding nations. Republican forms and institutions were hated thi-oughout Europe by the people as well as the rulers ; partly for fear of their contagious influence, which, indeed, had been already exten- sively felt, and partly from di-ead, derived from the terrible example afforded by the first outbreak of revolutionary feehng in France, of the ultimate designs of democratic leaders. Hereditary and regal govern- ment had been substituted in France, for the visionary equality of the philosophers. Italy, whose greatness was aUogether ancestral, (and the memory of great names and great deeds was all that, till recently, had been left of her inheritance,) rejoiced at the coronation of Napoleon, the president of her own government, as heartily as the Parisians themselves ; for it imparted a hope that the proposal of a similar change of style and title, with respect to Italy, would be listened to by him, in whose hands was her destiny, with the same favour. In the beginning of March, a Deputation from the Cisalpine Republic, with Melzi, the Vice-President, at its head, arrived in Paris to consult the Emperor on the propriety of the proposed altera- tion ; and, in case of his acquiescence with then- wishes, to tender him the crown. At a public audience given on the 17th of March, Napoleon was informed of the unanimous desire of the Senate and people of Italy, that the country should become a Kingdom, and that he would ascend the thi'one. At the same time it was stipulated that, with the single exception of Napoleon, the crowns of France and Italy should never be worn by the same person; and that the Emperor, dm-ing his life, but not while the Russians shoidd occupy Corfu and the English Malta, might transfer the sovereignty to one of his descendants, natural or adopted. This stipulation, it was CROWN ACCEPTED. wisely and patriotically m-ged, was indispensable to tlie independence of Italy, and the freedom of her people. Napoleon listened with complacency to the petition of the Eepublic which he had founded, and felt pleasure and pride in the expression of its jealous scruples, which are not difficult to be understood when it is remembered that the sentiments then uttered were but echoes of the principles taught by himself. He agreed in all things with the Itahan Senate. " The separation of the crowns of France and Italy," he said, " will be necessary hereafter, but highly dangerous at present, surrounded as we are by powerful enemies and inconstant friends. The people of Italy have always been dear to me. For the love I bear them, I consent to take the additional burden and responsibility which their confidence has led them to impose on me — at least until the interests of Italy herself permit .me to place the crown on a younger head ; when my successor, animated by my spu'it, and intent on completing the work of regeneration already so auspiciously commenced, shall be one who will be ever ready to sacrifice his personal interests, and, if necessary, his life, in behalf of the nation over which he shall be called by Providence, the constitution of the country, and my appro- bation, to reign." That Napoleon, before charging himself with these new duties, had well weighed the consequences to himself and his subjects, is evident from a conversation wliich he held, on the 23rd of March, with De Bourrienne, who, having been some time previously dismissed from his situation of private secretary for supposed malpractices, was now again taken into some degree of favour, and shortly afterwards honoured with a mission to the German States, constituting the circle of Lower Saxony. The ancient school-fellow of the Emperor was in doubt, when sent for to Malmaison, what kind of reception he might expect, fearful that the splendour of recent events would have wrought great changes in the character and habits of the man who had attained such a dizzying elevation. In this respect he was agreeably deceived. Napoleon met him with the old familiar smile, pressed his hand kindly, and enquired after his family and occupa- tions with the afiection inspired by former friendship. Never had the hero of Areola appeared more frank, more simple, and unos- tentatious. It seemed that, in proportion as his greatness became THE ITALIANS. unquestionable, he felt at liberty to throw off the reserve and affect- ation of dignity which had marked his progress to power, " In eight days," he said, "I set out to assume the iron crown of Char- lemagne. That, however, is but a stcpping-stonc to greater things, which I design for Italy, which must become a kingdom, comprising all the transalpine country, from Venice to the maritime Alps. The union of Italy with France can be but transient. For the present, it is necessary, in order to accustom the Italians to live under common laws. The people of Genoa, Piedmont, ]\lilan, Venice, Tuscany, Rome, and Naples, cordially detest each other; and none of them could be induced to admit their inferiority. Rome, however, by her situation and liistorical associations, is the natural cajiital of Italy. To make it so in reality, the poAvcr of the Pope must be restricted to spiritual affairs. It would be impolitic to attempt the accom- plishment of this just now; but, if circumstances are favourable, there may be less difficulty hereafter. As yet I have but crude ideas on the subject, which time and events wall ripen. "When you and I were two idle fellows, strolling through the streets of Paris, a prescient feeling told me that I should one day be master of France. My * conduct hence received a direction. It is wise, therefore, to provide for what may come; and this is what I am doing. Since it would be impossible at once to unite Italy into a single power, yielding obedience to uniform laws, I shall commence by making her French. All the petty, worthless States into which she is divided, will thus acquire a habit of living under the dominion of the same laws ; and when this habit is formed, and local feuds and enmities become extinct, there will again be an Italy worthy of her olden renown ; and her restoration to independence will have been my Avork. Twenty years are requisite, however, to accomplish this; and who can calculate with certainty upon the future ? I speak at this moment of things which have long been shut up in my mind — I am probably but uttering a pleasant day-dream." The day after this conversation had been fixed for the baptism of a second son of Louis Bonaparte and Hortense, the daughter of Josephine. The birth of the infant had been attested with all the formalities required by the Imperial Constitution in cases of princes of the blood, eligible to be called to the throne ; and ha-sdng been verified by an act of the Senate, the necessary documents were deposited in the archives of the Empire. Napoleon was sponsor on the occasion, and gave the child the name of Napoleon Louis. The Pope, who had not quitted Paris, officiated at the ceremony, wliich was celebrated with much pomp at the palace of St. Cloud. On the 1st of April, the Emperor and Empress quitted Paris, with a large and splendid escort, for Italy. They halted at Brienne ; and Napoleon revisited the scenes where for six years he had been a plodding but contented student, recalling, with a zest and rapidity which he himself could scarcely account for, many a long-forgotten train of ideas and sensations. " The sound of the old bell at Brienne was still sweeter than the bells at Ruel ;" the emotions it awakened, however, though delightful, were mingled Avith much melancholy, for they afforded a strong contrast between the world which early imagination and hope had pictured, and that which the stern, though imposing realities of manhood had laid bare. The Emperor had gone by this route at the request of Madame de Brienne, a lady to Avhom he had been indebted for much kindness while he Avas yet a boy at ALESSANDRIA. MARENGO. school ; and in whose behalf, at a later period, he had risked incurring considerable odium by opposing the orders of the revolutionary- Government, with respect to two young ladies, nieces of his patroness, who, by an insane decree of the Convention, had been devoted to the occupation of peasants. During the same journey, when passing through Lyons, INIadame de Bressieux, formerly Mademoiselle du Colombier, his " first love," sought and obtained an audience of Napoleon. It was a time of pleasant recollections throughout. At Turin, the Imperial pair were lodged in the beautiful palace of Stupiuis, the St. Cloud of the Kings of Sardinia, where Napoleon received the official report from the camp of Boulogne, and dictated, to the minutest details, the arrangements Avhich he desired to be made preparatory to the embarkation of the invading army. Here also he was residing when Pius VII. passed through Piedmont on his return to Rome. The Emperor took leave of the Holy Father, whom he treated with the utmost deference and respect, at Turin. The Pope had not been in\'ited to attend the approaching Coronation, perhaps because his request for the restoration of Bologna, and other Papal territories, had been rejected; or more probably, some delicacy was felt on the subject of asking him to consecrate a sceptre, beneath the sway of which his own patrimony was designed at no very distant date to be reduced. After remaining for three weeks at Turin, Napoleon and Josephine went on to Alessandria, where the former inspected the immense works, for the construction of wliich he had given dii'ections immediately after the battle of Marengo. " AA'ith Alessandi'ia," he had then said, " I shall always be master of Italy. It must, therefore, become the best fortified place in the world, and have a garrison of forty thousand men, with provisions for six months. The French troops, in case of revolt, or should the Austrians send formidable armies into Italy, will, if necessary, find a refuge there; and, W'herever I may be, sufficient time may be gained to enable me to fall upon Italy, overwhelm the Austrians, and raise the siege of Alessandria." On the 8th of May, the Emperor, with his staff, visited the plain of Marengo, for the pui'pose of reviewing the greater portion of the French soldiers then in Italy, who had been ordered to assemble there. He wore, on the occasion, the hat and uniform which he had worn on 417 3 H the day of the great victory, and which had been brought from Paris expressly for that pui-posc, " The worms, which spare neither the costume nor the bodies of great men, had been busy with these well-saved trophies of conflict." At Milan, the Emperor was received with the most enthusiastic welcome by the authorities of the E,ej)ubHc, the citizens, and the population of the surrounding districts. He had always been a favourite with the Italians, who indeed considered him their country- man, by birthright, by his knowledge of their language, literature, and history ; by the benefits he had conferred upon them in wresting the land of their fathers from German domination, and in founding among them many new and useful institutions, as well as by the CORONATION. brilliant career which he had commenced upon their- soil. And the general joy was, perhaps, enhanced by the prospect, that the country, after the many vicissitudes of hope, fear, and disappointment, to which it had long been subjected, was about to obtain restitution of its political and civil freedom, and mastery of its own fate. The Emperor here took possession of the splendid palace of Monza, where he received a deputation from the Senate of Genoa, headed by Durazzo, the last of its Doges, who brought a petition to the Em- peror, that he would be pleased to reannex Genoa to France. This Republic had once before, for a brief period, been a French province ; and it was urged, that the prosperity and happiness the people then enjoyed were the cause of the present request. The prayer was acceded to ; and the " Superb " city of Andrea Doria became a department of France, its inglorious Doge exchanging his almost regal robes for those of a Senator of France. The Coronation took place, on the 2Gth of May, in the cathedral of Milan, which, next to St. Peter's at Rome, is the most magnificent ecclesiastical edifice in Italy; and- which, after remaining unfinished for two or three centuries, had been completed by Napoleon. The diadem used on the occasion was the celebrated iron crown of the S'SSw^ EUGENE BEAUHARlSrAIS, VICEROY. ancient Kings of Lombardy, which had rested, undisturbed for ages, in the church of Monza, and which, as is generally known, is a circlet of gold and gems covering an iron ring, formed of a nail said to have been used at the crucifixion, and to have been taken from the true cross, by its discoverer the Empress Helena, mother of Constantine. The Cardinal Archbishop of Caprara officiated ; and Napoleon at this, as at his Imperial inauguration, took the crown from the hands of the priest, and placed it on his own head ; at the same time repeating the haughty motto, which had been used by its former owners, " Dio mi Vha dato; giiai a chi la tocca !" — (God hath given it to me; woe to him that touches it !) — An expression which, translated into French, became the legend of the Order of the Iron Croicn, which was instituted immediately afterwards, to commemorate the event, and which, in fwmation, de^gn, and object, was similar to the more celebrated Legion of Honour. A day or two after this ceremonial, and amid the fetes which succeeded it, the new King went in state to the Senate, to announce the appointment of Prince Eugene Beauharnais to the Viceroyalty of Italy, the remodelling of the Army, and the reorganization of the University of Turin. Before leaving Milan, Napoleon received a number of intercepted despatches of Sir Arthur Wellesley, containing a detailed account of the recent Enghsh acquisitions in India ; upon which he commented with much severity, blended with considerable humour. The Cabinet of London were at that moment holding up to execration the illimit- able ambition of the French Monarch for daring to annex Genoa to the Empii-e ; forgetful that it was, at the same time, issuing orders to extend the British dominion over an extent of country, and a popu- lation scarcely less than those of all Europe, -without even the plea of being invited Liberators, or Conquerors in a merely defensive war, of the territories appropriated. It might well be said that England had not the same measure of moderation for itself and its neighboui's. The defence, which has been sometimes set up by authors and politicians, that the different circumstances of Asia and Europe justified different lines of policy, is merely the trite argument of power and expediency, which is used by aggressors of every kind, having no relevancy to justice, and little to truth ; and if 4-:u RETURN TO PARIS. admissible on the one hand, is surely not to be rejected on the other. The representations of England, however, on the subject of Napoleon's encroachments, were favourably listened to by Austria, Russia, and Sweden ; and negociations for a new coalition, the expenses of which were to be chiefly borne by the British people, were at once set on foot, for a combined movement to humble the Corsican Adventurer, ere the throne, to which he had been exalted on the shoulders of the people, shoidd be established on too firm a basis to be shaken. Napoleon, who was well-informed of the intrigues in progress against him, was in no haste to precipitate the crisis ; but, while secretly watching the tendency of events, took no pubHc notice that could indicate his possession of any extraordinary intelligence. It was at this time that the monument to Desaix, on the top of Mont St. Bernard, which has been previously alluded to, was ordered to be erected, under the superintendence of Denon. The Emperor then visited Genoa, whose streets of marble palaces, ascending from and surrounding its noble harbom-s, induced him to exclaim, that such a possession was well worth the risk of another war. He slept while here in the Doria palace, on the same bed where Charles V. had reposed several ages before. After a short stay in this city, Napoleon and the Empress returned, by way of Fontainebleau, to Paris, which they reached on the 1 1th of July. CHAPTER XX. PREPARATIONS FOR WAR — AUSTRIAN INVASION OF BAVARIA — WAR WITH AUSTRIA — NAPOLEON JOINS THE ARMY — BRIDGE OF LECH — EXPULSION OF PRINCE FERDINAND FROM BAVARIA ULM CAPTURE OF VIENNA — AUSTERLITZ — TREATY OF PRESBURG. 1805. EViEs of extraordinary forces were \ now being made, with great rapidity, throughout the Austrian, Russian, and Swedish dominions. The German ► Emperor was incensed at the assump- tion, by Napoleon, of the Crown of Italy, and by the humihation to which he had constantly been sub- jected in his conflicts with France ; and the Russian Autocrat, besides having been taunted with screening from justice the niuixlcrers of his father, was desirous of obtaining celebrity in Europe, and of giving occupation to some of the numerous hordes which were subject to him, for the purpose of preventing the growth of liberal opinions, and consequent discontent, among them. KEW COALITION. The King of Sweden was a weak-minded and headstrong man, who, having imbibed certain crude notions of chivahous enterprise, was anxious to make a figure in the newspapers and joui-nals. There can be no doubt that England, by her Uberal offers of gold to equip the troops of her allies, and to famish the munitions of war, had been the prime mover of the confederacy. The project, however, did not suc- ceed to the extent desired. Prussia, whose co-operation was almost indispensable to ensure a favourable result, could not be induced to combine with the other powers in their meditated attack upon Napo- leon. Since her unsuccessful campaign of 1792, she had remained cautiously neutral; occasionally obtaining advantages from each of the belligerent powers for secret favoiu's, performed, promised, or expected. So earnestly was desired the miion of the Prussian forces with those of the AlKes, that the Emperor Alexander went to Berlin in person, to endeavour to engage the King in the interest of the coahtion. This condescension was not without its effect. The two Sovereiscns met in the vault which contained the ashes of the Great Frederick, and over his coffin bound themselves, by a solemn oath, to guarantee the freedom of Germany ; a vow which it is probable was never intended for any other purpose than to produce theatrical eflfect. This at least is certain, that the only means which the King of Prussia resorted to in conse- quence, were such as liis position would have requu-ed had he entered into no engagement whatever — namely, to assemble an army of obser- vation to protect his own country fi'om insult and aggression. Wirtem- berg, Bavaria, and nearly all the lesser German Principahties, were favourably disposed towards France ; and, therefore, declined aU overtures made to them by the Allies. The negociations preparatory to recommencing a continental war, had been conducted with as much secrecy as possible. To avoid exci- ting suspicion, Bai-on Vincent, an Austrian General, had gone out of his way to \'isit Napoleon while in Italy, and had paid him sovereign honours by a salute of artillery. Count Cobentzel, the Austrian Ambassador, and the Russian Plenipotentiary, remained at Paris. The movements of troops towards the frontier were apparently disconnected, and at such intervals, and by such routes, as it was hoped would enable them to pass unnoticed. Napoleon, however, was not to be deceived. Like the war-horse described by the patriarch Job, he had the faculty 423 BOULOGNE. of " smelling the battle afar off." While his enemies, therefore, be- lieved him to be reposing in fatal security, he was busy tracing roads and marking positions upon the map of Germany, and arranging the details of a campaign which was to eclipse all his former heroic achieve- ments. In the beginning of the month of August the Emperor quitted Paris, to repair once more to the camp of Boulogne ; not now with the hope of being able to effect his object of invading England, but to see the condition and discipline of the army with which he purposed to overrun Germany, and estabhsh a dominion upon the Continent, which should enable him to inflict a more deadly blow on Great Britain than could be given by any stroke of the sword. " In Germany," he said, " I will pierce England to the heart, by shutting the whole Continent to her commerce. I have also ideas that go farther; but these are not matured. There is not sufficient similarity among the several nations of Eui'ope. Society requires to be regenerated, which can only be done by the establishment of a superior power, the authority of which over other powers shall constrain them to live on terms of peace and amity. France is well situated to exercise the necessary sway for that piu'pose. I know the obstacles which stand between me and my aim, but they do not dismay me. The main struggle will be between England and France; the other States of Eui'ope are merely our instruments; and will be sometimes for the one and sometimes for the other, as interest or circumstances may dictate." It was not yet revealed to the troops, that their position on the coast would henceforth be of no farther use than to serve as an idle menace, and to restrain the operations of England, by confining her army -within her own boundaries. A num- ber of experiments at embarking and disembarking were repeated in the Emperor's presence, and eUcited from him the warmest approbation. The soldiers were enthusiastic when the conquest of England was spoken of; and it was with feelings of impatience that they, from day to day, expected orders to launch the flotilla, on which they were to be wafted to victory on the gold-covered banks of the Thames. The opening of the war was precipitated by the rash and impolitic conduct of Austria; the cabinet of which having received some sharp words from Talleyrand, in reply to the remonstrances of their Ambas- sador, concerning the annexation of Genoa to France, du'ccted an OCCUPATION OF BAVARIA. army of eighty thousand men, under the command of the Archduke Ferdinand, who had General Mack for his coadjutor, to march to the frontiers of Bavaria, and requii'e the Elector Maximilian to unite his forces with those intended to act in what was called the defence of Germany. This Prince, however, was not disposed to break terms with Napoleon, nor indeed to violate his neutrality in any way. In order to excuse himself to the Emperor Francis, he pleaded, that his son, then travelhng in France, would be made responsible for his conduct should he join the coalition. " On my knees," he wrote, " I implore permission to remain neutral." This reasonable prayer was rejected with an insolence for which it is difficult to assign a motive. He was haughtily commanded instantly to join the confederacy; or his troops, in despite of himself, would be incorporated with those of Austria, lest being permitted to remain as a separate army they might be tempted to take part ■v\ath France. JNIaximilian upon this threat abandoned his capital of Munich, and retired with his army into Franconia ; whence he again sent to Vienna an entreaty to be allowed to continue at peace. The reply to this was the occupation by Austrian soldiers of the whole of his Electorate, where the invaders conducted themselves in all respects as in an enemy's country, levying contributions upon the towns and villages, and plundering and mal- treating the inhabitants. The Bavarian Prince, after this, natiu-ally regarded the Austrians as declared foes, and earnestly desired the advance of the French, as liberators. Napoleon was at Boulogne when information of these proceedings reached liim. He hastened to Paris to communicate to the Legislative bodies the approach of war, and to make the necessary arrangements for a contest ; which, though he had been far from seeking, was pro- bably not displeasing to liim, as affording a fail* pretext to withdi*aw his army from the shores of the British Channel, and to abandon an enter- prise which he had long ascertained to be hopeless, for scenes which afforded a prospect of fresh victories and the acquisition of higher reno-v\Ti. A manifesto was forthwith published, which was evidently intended to influence the discussions of the Diet, then assembled at Ratisbon ; and which, after setting forth the provocations, and ex- posing the bad faith of Austria, thus continued : — " In such grave circumstances, and after vainly endeavoui-ing to awaken pacific senti- 425 3 I BOULOGNE. ments in the Court of Vienna, notwithstanding the reiterated assertions of that Court, of its entertaining no hostile intention against France, the Emperor of the French feels bound to declare that he will consider as a declaration of war, formally directed against himself, any further aggression on the Germanic body, and especially upon Bavaria; the Emperor being fully determined never to separate the interests of his Empire from those of the Princes, his Allies." And in order to convince those whom he addressed, that he was perfectly in earnest, he, at the same time, issued directions for the removal of the army, then at Boulogne, to the German frontier. A graphic description of the breaking up of the camp of the Invading Army has been given by an eye-witness. At daybreak, the wind was fair for England, the blockading squadron had been blown down the Channel. The trumpets sounded — "On board!" and in six hours nearly two hundred thousand men, sailors, soldiers, artillery, stores, ammunition, and arms, were embarked. Everything seemed favourable for the adventure. All was hushed : every eye and ear intent for the signal to get under weigh. Presently the trumpets pealed again; but it was — "To land!" The army disembarked in the same admirable order ; but with very different feelings. The soldiers looked vexed and disappointed, and even murmurs were heard as they retired up the beach. A brief proclamation was then read, announcing the imminence of war with Austria and Russia, and a consequent change of destination for the Grand Army. An unani- mous shout of joy welcomed this intelligence, the reverberations of which were long continued when it was announced that the Emperor himself would lead them to their new field of glory. Every one was ardent in hope and ambition, when the prospect was opened to him of signalizing himself under the eye of a chief, whose efforts had been constantly cro"v\Tied with victory, and who was the idol of his followers. The setting sun that evening gave them a farewell glance at the cliffs of England ; and by the morrow's dawn the vanguard was on its way for Austerlitz. For the first time, accelerated means of conveyance were used to transport the army to its destination. Twenty thousand carriages were put in requisition, and, in an almost incredibly short space, the troops, which had so recently covered the shores of the ocean, were bivouacking upon the banks of the Rhine. 42(i WAR. On the 9th of September, Napoleon caused the Revolutionary Calendar to be formally aboHshed, and the months and days to resume theii* ancient names and divisions. For a long time the people had generally disregarded the law of the decades. A cele- brated mathematician had shewn its absurdity at the time of its institution. " Learned calculations," he said, " are thrown away on the subject. The decades are opposed to the commonest wants of man. The dii*ty shut and rough beard of the mechanic and labourer cannot fail to defeat all legislative eflforts that may be made to interfere with them." The invention had been altogether foolish and inconvenient, and occasioned much trouble and confusion in political and commercial transactions at home as well as abroad. On the 22nd, the Emperor went in state to the Senate, to announce his intended departme for the Army. The speech which he de- livered on this occasion, produced, when published, a lively sensation thi'oughout Germany. " Senators ! " he said, " In the present circumstances of Europe, I feel the necessity of explaining to you my sentiments. I am about to quit my capital, to place myself at the head of the army, beai* prompt assistance to my Allies, and defend the dearest interest of my people. The wishes of the eternal enemies of the Continent are accomplished. Hostilities have commenced in the midst of Germany. Austria and Russia have united with England, and our generation is involved anew in the calamities of war. A few days since, I still cherished the hope that peace would not be dis- turbed ; but the Austrian army has passed the Inn ; INIunich is invaded ; the Elector of Bavaria has been di'iven fi'om his capital ; and all my hopes have vanished. " At this moment it is, that the baseness of the enemies of the Continent is unveiled. They still fear the influence of my profound love of peace ; they fear, lest Austria, at the aspect of the gulf which they have sunk in her pathway, should recoil, and once more embrace sentiments of justice and moderation : they have, therefore, pre- cipitated her into war. I lament the blood which this will cost to Eui'ope ; but the name of France will thereby obtain new lustre. " Senators ! When at youi* call, echoed by the voice of the whole French people, I placed on my head the Imperial crown, I received from you, and from every citizen, a pledge, that it should be main- OPERATIONS. tained pure and unsullied ! My people, under all circumstances, have given me proof of their confidence and attachment. They will hasten to range themselves beneath the banners of the Emperor and his army, which, before many days have elapsed, will have passed the frontiers. " Magistrates, Soldiers, Citizens ! You will all strive to preserve the country from the influence of England ; who, if she prevailed, would grant us none save an ignominious peace ; the principal conditions of which would be the conflagration of our navy, the destruction of our ports, and the annihilation of our industry. All the promises which I gave to the French people I have fulfilled ; and on their part the people have hitherto redeemed all their engage- ments. In these circumstances, so important for the national glory and mine, the people will continue to merit the name of Great, with which I first saluted them from amid the field of battle. Frenchmen ! Your Emperor will do his duty ; his soldiers will perform theirs ; you will discharge yours ! " The reply of the Senate to this addi'ess was a vote for levying eighty thousand men, and the reorganization of the National Guard. The Tribunate was not less zealous in displaying its devotion and attachment. The municipality of Paris, and other pubhc bodies, testified their approbation of the conduct of the Emperor, and their indignation against England, Austria, and Russia, by eulogistic addresses. The severity of the required Conscription seemed to be everywhere forgotten, m the hope of new victories, and the almost certain exaltation of the power and glory of France. Ha\-ing issued orders for Marmont to advance from Holland, Bernadotte from Hanover, and Massena to assume the offensive against the Archduke Charles, in the Tyrol, Napoleon, accompanied by the Empress, quitted Paris on the 24th of September, and fixed his head-quarters at Strasburg, where, on the 29th, he pubHshed the following proclamation : — " Soldiers ! The war of the triple coahtion has commenced. The Austrian army, in violation of treaties, has passed the Inn, and attacked and chased our Ally from his capital. You have flown to the defence of the frontier. We have now to pass the Rhine; and, by our presence, assure the independence of the Germanic body, carry succour to our AlUcs, and confound the pride 428 of unjust aggressors. We must not again be tempted to make peace without surety : oiu- generosity must no longer mislead us from the path of soiuid policy. Soldiers ! Your Emperor is in the midst of you. You are but the advanced guard of the Great Nation, which, if necessary, is ready, at my voice, to rise as one man, and overthrow this new league, which the hatred and gold of England have formed. But, Soldiers ! we shall have to make forced marches ; to endure fatigues and privations of all kinds : yet, whatever obstacles may be opposed to us, we will surmount them all, nor rest till we have planted our eagles on the territory of our enemies." On the 1st of October, the Emperor crossed the Rhine at Kelil, and slept that night at Ettclingen, where he received the Elector of Baden, who soon afterwards joined the Grand Army with such troops as he was able to muster. On the approach of the French to the mountains of Wurtemberg, the Duke had drawn up his little army near Louisburg to offer a formal resistance to their advance, when a French aide-de-camp appeared to request permission to pass. This was an unexpected com-tcsy, and gratified the Prince exceedingly; OPENING OF THE CAMPAIGN. insomuch that when Napoleon came up, he was received with cordial welcome and invited to the palace of Louisbui'g, where he was lodged and entertained for two nights. The Duchess of Wurtemberg (Princess Royal of England) seems to have been delighted with her guest ; and when she wrote home to London, did not fail to express her astonishment at finding the French Emperor so polite and agree- able a person, and the very reverse of what she had been taught to expect. During the stay of Napoleon at Louisburg, hostihties commenced on the road from Stutgard to Ulm, between the corps of INIarshal Ney and some light troops commanded by the Archduke Ferdinand. The plan of the Emperor now began to be developed. Marshal Mack, and his pupil Prince Ferdinand, had fallen into the old Austrian error of supposing that but one course was capable of being pursued, and thai what had been previously done, must neces- sarily, under similar circumstances, be repeated. The passes of the Black Forest had been the almost invariable route of previous French invaders. To secure the defiles of that forest had, therefore, been the first object of the Austrian generals; who, for that purpose, had taken possession of Ulm, Memmingen, and the line of the lUer and Danube, and fortified their positions with all the care and skill at their command. The eagle eye of Napoleon had detected the error in these movements the instant it was made ; and he at once formed the daring resolution of turning the flank of the enemy, cutting him off" from his own country and resources, and reducing him to the necessity of surrendering at discretion, or giving battle with scarcely a possibility of success. The first operations of the French were calculated to confirm the delusion of the Germans. Bernadotte, evacuating Hanover, and traversing Hesse, seemed about to unite with the main army; while Murat, Ney, Soult, Davoust, Vandamme, and Marmont, though each had crossed the Rhine to the north of Mack's position, manoeuvred so as to cause a belief that they intended to attack the Austrians di- rectly in front. As soon as it was found that Mack and his colleagues had fallen into the snare, and the French army was sufficiently advanced to render certain the accomplishment of the Emperor's object, Bernadotte suddenly turned to the left, ascended the Maine, 430 LECH. — WERTIXGEN. and formed a junction wath the Bavarian army at Wurtzburg— the Elector now openly declaring his adherence to the cause of Napoleon. At the same time, Soult directed his march upon Augsburg ; Murat, accompanied by Lanncs, upon Wertingen; Ncy upon Guntzburg; and Davoust, by the valley of the Necker, marched towards Nordlingen, where it was intended to concentrate the several divisions before ^ivino- battle to Mack and the Archduke, which was the necessary preliminary to an advance on Vienna. On the 7th of October, an engagement took place at the bridge of Lech, which was gallantly but vainly defended by the enemy. Colonel Wattier at the head of two hundi-ed dragoons of the corps of Mui-at chased the Austrians, whose number greatly exceeded that of A 1^^^' their opponents, from the river, and left a free passage for the French across the Danube. On the 8th, Marshal Soult, who had aheady signahzed himself in this campaign, by the occupation of Donawert, at the moment when an Austrian battahon was about to destroy the bridge there, advanced against Augsburg : while IMurat, at the head of three divisions of cavahy, in order to interrupt the Austrian com- munications with Ulm, pressed forward to Wertingen; and, being sustained by Lannes wdth the division of Oudinot, attacked and defeated with great slaughter an Austrian corps of twelve battalions of grenadiers, made four thousand prisoners, including many officers of distinction, and took from the Austrians theii" colours, and two GUNTZBIJRG. AUGSBURG. pieces of cannon. Next day, the division of Ney attacked the bridges of Guntzbiu-g, whicli were defended by the Archduke Ferdinand in person, who had advanced from Uhn to guard the passages of the Danube, and, if necessary, to secure liis own retreat into Bohemia. Ferdinand fought bravely ; but after a stand of two or thi-ee hours, abandoned the field and fled, leaving all his guns, and three thousand prisoners in the hands of the French. On the 10th, Murat, Lannes, and Soult entered Augsburg; M^hence the last named General was despatched to blockade Memmingen, a small town to the south of Ulm, and the only line of retreat which was left to the enemy, of whose position Napoleon had now got more than forty miles in the rear : having in his progress drawn around Mack a series of lines and meshes, like those which the spider spreads with such singular care and precision for its prey. The Emperor at once fixed his head-quarters at Augsburg, the locaUty of which enabled him to watch every movement of the Austrians, and to have the opera^tions of his whole army under his direction. The venerable Bishop of Treves, who entertained great esteem for Napoleon, welcomed him to this beautiful town with the utmost hospitality. His halt, however, was but the crouch of the tiger before his spring. Pressing onward, he caused the divisions MUNICH. — M E M M I N G E N. of the army, as he overtook them, to pass in review before him. At the village of Zumnershausen, when the dragoons filed past, a soldier named Marente, who had saved the life of his captain at the passage of the Lech, and otherwise distinguished himself, was presented to the Emperor. The man had been a sub-officer, and was sent back into the ranks but a few days before the event which brought him into notice. Napoleon conferred upon him the Eagle of the Legion of Honour; and made some observations in com- mendation of his coui-age and good feeUng. " I did no more than my duty," said Marente; "my captain had certainly broken me for some faults of discipline, but he was, nevertheless, always a brave soldier." On the 12th, Bcrnadotte entered Munich, having been compelled, in order to get thither, to march through the Prussian teiTitories of Anspach and Bareuth, and thus to violate the neutrality of Frederick William. Duroc was sent to Berlin to apologize for this infraction; but the King, having some compunctious regard to the oath he had made with the Emperor Alexander, chose to express himself in terms of irritation, and to threaten a visitation of his displeasure upon the French. The uniform successes of Napoleon, however, of wliich liis Majesty from day to day obtained intelligence, restrained liim from issuing a declaration of war, as there can be no doubt the least reverse would have induced him to do. In order, however, to hold the balance betAvecn the contending parties with something like equilibrium, the Prussian monarch, after the movement of Bernadotte, gave a passage to the Kussian army thi'ough Polish Prussia, to enable them to join the ranks of the Austrians. On the 14th of October, a German corps of six thousand men laid down their arms to Marshal Soult at Memmiugen ; and on the same day, Ney, supported by Lanncs, obtained a victory at Elchingen, and took possession of that town, which was considered the key to Bohemia. The Aixhduke Ferdmand had not awaited the arrival of the French main body; but, at the head of a strong column, had escaped across the Danube as soon as the danger of delay became apparent, leaving iMack, his second in command, closely invested in Ulm. The Emperor had crossed the Rhine on the 1st: it was now the 14th of the month, and the campaign could scaixely be said to be ULM. opened ; yet the French were masters of every point on which they had advanced, and had taken upwards of twenty thousand prisoners. Napoleon, however, expected henceforth to meet with more vigorous resistance ; and from the heights before Ulm announced to his army the near prospect of a general action. He pointed out to the soldiers that the position of the Austrians was similar to that of Melas at Marengo : that the enemy was cut off from his reserves and resources ; and that sj^eedy victory was almost certam to crown the efforts of the Grand Army. In order, however, to ascertain as nearly as possible the situation and expectations of Mack, General Segur was sent, on the 15th, to Ulm to demand the surrender of that fortress. The report made by the envoy to Napoleon on his retui-n is highly graj^hic : the fol- lowing is an abridgment. The night was dark j a fearful hurricane raged ; the rain fell in torrents ; it was necessary to pass to the city by cross-roads to avoid gulfs in which man and horse might have foundered. The French advanced posts, main-guards, videttes, and sentinels, had all sought shelter fi'om the storm. There were no stars in the heavens, nor" watch-fires on the ground ; even the parks of artillery were deserted. It was with the greatest difficulty that a trumpeter was at last found, half drowned with mud and water, and stiff with, cold, under a waggon, and thence brought to accompany the messenger. Arrived within the fortifications of Ulm, the Austrian 434 TILM. commander attended in person to learn the mission with which Scs^ur had been entrusted. He was a tall, pale old man, with a vivacious countenance, overcast for the moment with an anxiety which he laboured ineffectually to conceal. Napoleon's demand was that he should capitulate unless relieved within five days. Mack, relying upon the arrival of succour fi'om Vienna, and on the advance of the Russians, demanded eight. He was not aware, and seemed little disposed to believe, that the French were masters of the line of the Inn and of Munich. "Ulra," he said, "would cost ten thousand men to reduce it, if less strongly fortifi.ed, and with less abundant provisions . As it is, we can hold out long enough. We have three thousand horses vvithin the walls, upon which we will feed rather than surrender." Segur, who had no authority to grant more than six days at the utmost, now retired, after informing the General that he had directions fi-om the Emperor to transmit orders to Marshal Ney, in passing, on his return, to commence the attack at day-break. The situation of Mack was more critical than from his vaunting was likely to be suspected. His provisions were short, and his soldiers and officers without energy. He himself entertained considerable dxead of Ney, whom a slight intercouse, by means of flags, during the campaign had shewn to be uncouiteous, impatient, and fierce. From that chief nothing was to be expected but rigour. The Austrian commander wished, therefore, to avoid the possibility of falling into his hands, on an assault. On the morning of the 16th, therefore. Prince Maiuice of Lichtenstein was despatched to Napoleon's head-quarters at the abbey of Elchingen, to treat for as favourable terms as could be obtained. The Emperor, who was in a wretched bivouac, in which it was necessary to lay planks to keep his feet ou.t of the water, had just received the capitulation, signed the day before, for the sui'render of Menmiingen, when Lichtenstein was brought into liis presence. The Prince was authorized to consent to the evacuation of Ulm, on condition that the garrison should be permitted to return to Austria. The proposal drew a smile from the Emperor. " What reason can I have," he asked "to comply with your request? In a week you will be in my power without conditions. I am perfectly acquainted with yo^ur situation. You expect the advance of the Russians, who can scarcely have arrived yet in Bohemia. And then, if I allow you ULM. to depart, what guarantee have I that your troops will not be united Avith those of Russia and made to fight against me? Your generals have often deceived me thus; and I will not again be their ready dupe. At Mai-engo I suffered Melas to march wdth his forces from Alessandria; and two months afterwards Moreau had to fight the same men, notwithstanding the most solemn promises on the part of your Government to conclude peace. After such conduct as I have experienced from the Austrian Cabinet, I trust to no engagement. The war is not of my seeking — it has been a violation of faith throughout ; and although your General, Mack, might pledge himself, he has not the power to keep his w^ord, as concerns his army. Were the Ai-chduke Ferdinand still with you, and were he to bind himself, I might confide in his word, because he would be responsible for the conditions, and would not be dishonoured. But I am aware that he has quitted Ulm, and passed the Danube ; however, I know how to reach him." Lichtenstein persisted, that the terms he had offered were the only concessions upon wliich the army would capitulate. " Return to your General, then," replied the Emperor, " and inform him that I cannot grant what he requires. Here is the capitulation of Mcmmingen. Carry it to Marshal Mack, and tell hun I can grant no other terms of surrender. Your officers alone can be allowed to return to Austria : the soldiers must remain prisoners. He must be brief in his decision, for I have no time to lose ; and the longer he delays the worse he wdll render his own situation and that of his army. To-morrow I shall have here the corps which took Memmingen, and their arrival may put a different complexion on the matter." The Rrince was conducted back to Ulm ; and the same evening INIack wrote to the Emperor deploring the necessities of his situation, and placing himself at Napoleon's mercy. Next morning Berthier went to LTm ; and in the evening retiu'ned with the capitulation, by which the whole army suiTcndered. The next day, ISIack paid a visit, at Elchiugen, to Napoleon, who treated him Avith the greatest kindness and respect ; and is said to have drawn from him many of the secrets of the coalition, as respected their designs and ulterior objects. It has been suspected that Mack sold the fortress to the Emperor ; this, however, is unsupported by facts. Napoleon, before quitting SURRENUEU OF ULM. Strasburg, had observed, " The plan of Mack's campaign is settled ; the Caudine forks arc at Uhn. If the enemy comes to meet me, I Avill destroy him before he has regained the Danube : if he waits for me, I will surprise him between Augsburg and Ulm." Mack evidently was surprised, and appears to have been under the same spell which had so often paralysed the Austrian generals, when opposed to the superior genius of Napoleon ; and which rendered it as impossible for him to avert the thi-catened danger by anticipation, as to encounter it when it came. This want of resolution and forethought appears to have been the extent of JMack's culpability ; and this was shared to its full extent, and even exceeded, by the Archduke Ferdinand, who has never received any portion of the censvu'e due to the whole of the generals who suffered themselves to be so egregiously outwitted. On the 20th, the French army being drawn up on the heights near Ulm, with bands playing and colours flying, the gates of the city were opened, and the Austrian army advanced in silence, and slowdy filed off, corps by corps, to lay down its arms, at a spot which had been previously agreed upon. Twenty-seven thousand men that day became prisoners of France ; which, added to those previously cap- tured, and the killed and Avoundcd, made the Austrian loss amount to nearly fifty thousand men, besides an immense quantity of cannon, baggage, and military stores, and about three thousand five hundred horses, on which a di\-ision of dragoons, M'hich had come from Boulogne on foot, were mounted. Fifteen days before, the confidence of the Allied Powers is said to have been such, that, not content with humbling France, and resuming the territories she had added to her domain, they had proceeded to dispose of her as a conquered country — a portion of the appropriation being, the award of Lyons to the King of Sardinia, in compensation for the temporary occupation of Piedmont. The reverses experienced must, under these circum- stances, have been peculiarly mortifying. During the evacuation, which lasted nearly the whole day, Napo- leon was posted on a little hill, in front of the centre of his army. Here he received the Austrian generals, to the number of eighteen, who came to pay their respects to him ere they departed home, on parole. Among them was Mack, Prince Lichtenstein, Klenau, and Giulay, with one whose position might have been considered dehcate 43; SURRENDER OF ULM. General Fresnel, a French Bourbonist, who had been content to bear ai-ms against his country. Napoleon treated all with respect, and offered what consolation he could for their misfortunes. " Gen- tlemen," he said, " I regret that so many brave men should be •^H.,.., V >, s /// 'ti "^ " ' 1 ^/y victims to the folly of a Cabinet which entertains absurd projects, and scruples not to impugn the dignity of the Austrian nation, by selling the services of its generals. Your names are known to me, and are honoui-ably remembered wherever you have fought. Examine the conduct of those by whom you have been compromised. What could be more iniquitous than their coming to attack me without a previous declaration of war ? It is criminal thus to bring upon the nations a foreign invasion; to betray Europe by introducing into her disputes hordes of Asiatics. In sound policy, the Aulic Council, instead of attacking me, should have sought my alliance to drive back the Russians to the North. The union formed with those barbarians will appear a monstrous thing in history. It is a compact of tlie dogs and shepherds with wolves, against the sheep — a thing which could never have been conceived by a statesman." Mack, AUSTRIAN PRISONERS. with more truth than prudence, replied to this address, that liis Sovereign, the Emperor of Austria, had been forced into the war by Russia. " In that case," said Napoleon, " you no longer exist as an independent nation," It is worthy of remark, that the French Emperor was the first to entertain any apprehension concerning the encroachments of Russian power. The other Continental States seem to have dreaded the advance of civilization much more than any irruption of barbarism. A circumstance, connected with the interview above mentioned, has been noticed as setting the character of Napoleon in its true light. A general, more remarkable for his petulance than his wit, repeated aloud an expression, said to have been uttered by one of the soldiers, in ridicule of the vanquished Austrians. The Emperor, who had caught the words, was highly displeased; and sent one of his aides-de- camp to tell the officer to retire, saying to those near him, " He must have little respect for himself who insults men in misfortune." The garrison of Ulm, with the other prisoners taken during this campaign, were sent to France, where, by the directions of Napoleon, they were distributed among the agriculturists and manufacturers, that then labour might compensate for that of the conscripts required for the service of the country ; an arrangement which is said to have given perfect satisfaction, both to the prisoners and their employers, and to have had an exceedingly good efiect in softening the hardships of war. During the eight days that the French troops had passed in the neighbourhood of Ulm, it had rained almost incessantly. The soldiers marched up to theii- knees in mire ; and the Emperor himself had not been once unbooted. As the Austrians filed off before Elchingen, the sun shone out, and the weather suddenly became clear. Mack returned to Vienna, to be committed to a dungeon, in a remote part of the Austrian dominions; and Napoleon went back to the Bishop's palace, at Augsbiu'g, to sketch a new series of wai'like adventures. On the 21st of October, Napoleon published the following address to his army: — "Soldiers of the Grand Army! In fifteen days we have made a great campaign. What we proposed to ourselves we have accomplished. We have chased the Austrian troojjs from Bavaria. That army, which came forth with so much ostentation to ADDRESS TO Tllli: ARMY. insult our own frontiers, is annihilated. But wliat imports this to England, so long as her aim is accomplished? AVhile we are kept at a distance from Boulogne, her subsidies will not be diminished. Of a hundred thousand men that were brought against us sixty thousand are prisoners, who have been sent to replace o\.u' conscripts scr\ang in the campaign. Two hundred pieces of cannon, with all the magazines and stores, ninety stand of colours, and the most celebrated generals of the enemy, have fallen into oiu: hands. There have not escaped us more than fifteen thousand men. " Soldiers ! I announced to you my expectations of a great battle ; but, through the unskilful manccuvres of the enemy, we have obtained the same advantages without encountering the same risks ; and, what is scarcely conceivable in the history of nations, this great result has accrued, without enfeebling ourselves by the loss of more than fifteen hundred men in killed, wounded, and prisoners. *' Soldiers ! Tliis success is due to your confidence in your Emperor, yom* patience in supporting fatigues and privations of all kinds, and your rare intrejndity: but we must not rest here. You are impatient to commence a second campaign. That Russian army, which the gold of England has transported from the extremity of the universe, must experience from our hands the same fate. In this warfare, the honour MUNICH. — LINTZ. of the infantry is especially concerned. They, for the second tune, are required to decide the question which they first determined on the plains of Holland and amid the mountains of Switzerland, whether the French infantry is the first or the second in Europe. There are no generals against ■n^hom I can acquire glory. All my care will be to obtain \'ictory with the least possible eflEusion of blood. INIy soldiers ai*e my children ! " It is scarcely possible to appreciate properly the excitement wrought among soldiers by such an address, from a leader like Napoleon. It was inspiration. Every man became a hero in his o-RTi opinion, and was thus prepared for achievements which he would formerly have shrunk at the recital of, or utterly discredited. Tlic Emperor, having gained inteUigence of the advance of the Russians, who had already entered Lintz, where caits and waggons were being collected to send them forward to the Ehine, quitted Augsburg, and hastened to Munich, which he entered on the 24th. The Elector had not yet returned to his capital; but the Bava- rians, in raptures with their Liberator, made the day of his arrival a public holiday, and at night illimiinated the city. The French now pressed on into the heart of Germany, crossing the Iser by all the bridges along their line, and approached rapidly to the Inn. The Emperor liimself took the road to INIiihldorf, whence the Russians had just retreated, on hearing of the fall of Uhn. Beyond this place not a bridge had been left standing. The French, however, were well prepared for greater obstacles than this ; and continued theii- march, with little delay, to Saltzburg, Braunan, and Lintz, cautiously fol- lowing the route of the retiring Russians. At Lintz, jXapoleon -vs'as visited by the Elector of Bavaria and his son : and here Diu'oc rejoined him, after his mission to Berlin. It was in this town, also, that he received accounts of the operations of the other divisions of the army. Two days after the capitulation of Ulm, INIurat, with his division, which formed the left wing of the Grand Army, invested Trochtel- fi'ugcn, and forced it Avith a garrison of ten thousand men to capitulate. Massena, meanwhile, after some fighting in Italy, had crossed the Adige at Verona, obtained possession of St. Michel, and pursuing his victories, attacked and defeated the Archduke Charles 3 I, FLIGHT OF FRANCIS. at Caldiero, where the latter had strongly posted himself mth his army of upwards of eighty thousand men. The last assault took place on the 30th, and gave to the French five thousand additional prisoners, besides compelling the Archduke to a precipitate retreat through the mountain passes of Carinthia into Hungary, whence he hoped to be able to emerge in time to defend his brother's capital, which was threatened by the rapid advance of Napoleon in person. At the same time, the Archduke John was sorely pressed in the Tyrol by the intrepid gallantry of Ney, who, having led his army into that mountainous country, by paths previously deemed impracticable, had already obtained possession of the fortresses of Schwartz and Neu- stadt, and was investing Innspruck. Under these circumstances, Prince John, abandoning the Tyrol, hastened, with all the forces he could save from his pursuers, after Prince Charles, into Hungary. From the whole series of admirably conceived and well executed manffiuvres of the French Emperor, by which the enemy had been expelled from the Vorarlberg, the Tyi'ol, and the North of Italy, and every di\'ision of the army left at liberty to act in concert upon any given point, the capture of Vienna, the moment it should be assailed, became certain. The combined Austrian and Russian armies were in full retreat before the advancing columns of Najioleon, and scarcely ventured to halt for rest or refreshment. Their march was directed towards Moravia, where the Grand Russian Army, with the Emperor Alexander, had now arrived ; and Avherc it seemed to be the purpose of the Allies to assemble for a general and decisive effort. An attempt was made to save the Austrian capital, by calling upon the inhabitants to rise e;? masse ; but it was soon discovered that the fortifications were in such disrepair, and the organization of the people so defective, that resistance could have no efiect but to provoke the the plunder, if not the destruction, of the city. On the 7th of November, therefore, the Emperor Francis with his family quitted Vienna — that imperial city which for ages had not beheld the front of an armed foe — to place themselves under the protection of the Russians, whose head-quarters were now at Brunn in Moravia. A last feeble hope lay in the chance that Napoleon might be induced to ncgociate. Count Giulay, one of the generals who had been included in the capitulation of Ulm, was, therefore, sent with a 44S CAPTURE OF VIENNA. flag of truce to Lintz, to propose an armistice, previously, it was urged, to negociating for a general peace. The device, however, was too transparent. Time was wanted to allow the two Archdukes to form a junction with the Russians beneath the walls of Vienna. The troops of the Emperor Alexander were not even mentioned in the pro- posal, though, had there been any serious intention of treating on fair terms, they would certainly not have been omitted. Napoleon, after healing the message of Giulay, merely observed that, though he had a sincere desire for peace, he could not, under existing circumstances, suspend his operations ; and that if the Austrian Court was anxious to brmg the war to a speedy termination, it must include its allies in the armistice. In the meantime, both parties might fight while the preliminaries of a treaty were being arranged. The army continued to advance, gaining in its progress several minor victories at Marienzel, ]\[erhcnbach, Lambach, Lovers, and Amstetten, till the division of Marshal Mortier reached the village of Dernftein, where it encountered a large body of Russians and Austrians, and received a severe check, losing several men and three eagles. This was the first reverse which the French had experi- enced during the campaign, and, although slight in itself, it annoyed Napoleon exceedingly; detaining him for more than two days at the village of Polten, where he happened to be when intelhgence of the disaster reached him. Giulay, at tliis time, again endeavom-ed to open negociations to save the Austrian capital; but Napoleon would now listen to no proposal unless Venice and the Tyrol were placed in his hands to guarantee the sincerity of the AlHed Powers — terms which Francis, in his turn, indignantly rejected. On the 13th of November, the advanced guard of the Grand Army was in the suburbs of Vienna, and in possession of all the roads leading to the city. A bold stratagem of Murat and Lannes, two of the bravest generals in an army where all the leaders were distinguished for courage and enterprise, won the proud capital of the proudest royal house in Europe, without imposing upon their followers the necessity of striking a single blow. Riding forward in advance of the troops, the two INIarshals observed a number of Austrians preparing to blow up the bridge of Tabor. They instantly saw the advantage that might be gained if this work of destruction could be delayed; and. A'lENNA. giving directions to the officers wlio accompanied them for the approach of the soldiers at a concerted signal, they pushed straight onward to the middle of the bridge, and at once entered into cool and composed conversation with the officers who were directing the works. Rumours of an armistice had been for some days current; and it was known that Count Giulay was still at Napoleon's head- quarters. Murat and Lannes spoke of this, and treated it as a matter of certainty that hostilities were about to be suspended. The attention of the Austrians was thus diverted from its proper object, while a column of grenadiers, having reached the Danube, rushed upon the bridge, being protected from the fiie of the enemy by the presence of several Austrian officers between them and the batteries. The materials and implements for destroying the bridge were in a moment thi'own into the water, the cannon intended to protect the passage seized, and the French soldiers' placed in undisputed possession of the Austrian capital. The German officers were not a Httle chagrined on discovering that they were prisoners of war, and that their blunder had enabled the Imperial Eagle of France to be exalted in triumph above the Griffin Eagle of Austria, even on the tui'rets of the ancient palace of Charles V., the vanquisher of the great and gallant Francis. This siu-prise was of the utmost importance in all its consequences. Not only did it secure to the French the occupation of Vienna, with its immense military stores, arms, and clothing, but it interposed an insurmountable barrier to the junction of the Archdukes Charles and John with the Russians. Napoleon at once established his head-quarters at the palace of Schonbrunn, whence he issued orders for concentrating all his forces, which henceforth directed theu- march upon Vienna from every quarter, in order that they might be pre- pared to act decisively against the combined armies of the Archdukes, or that of the Russians, whichever should be most within reach, or the defeat of which should offijr the greatest advantage. The day after the Emperor entered Vienna, the authorities of that city, -with M. de Bubna at their head, repaired to Schonbrunn to present the homage of the inhabitants to the victor, and to petition for clemency in his administration. Napoleon spoke kindly to the deputation, and directed the pulilicntion of an order of the day, in which he com- manded the soldiers to observe the strictest discipline, and to pay the 444 ANECDOTE. most implicit respect to the persons and property of the citizens. A few days previously, he had performed an act which deserves to be recorded ; not as a mere instance of generosity, which, after the many anecdotes of active philanthi'opy already noticed, would be super- fluous, but as marking more strongly the character of the man. Just before his entry into Vienna, Napoleon, riding along the road, dressed as usual in his favourite uniform of a Colonel of the Guard, met an open carriage in which was a lady weeping, and an aged ecclesiastic. The Emperor reined his horse, and enquii-ed of the lady the cause of her tears. She replied: — "My country-house, about tAvo leagues hence, has been pillaged by soldiers, who have murdered my gardener. I go to seek the Emperor, who knew my family, and will, I doubt not, protect us." Napoleon enqidred her name. " De Bunny," was the reply ; " I am the daughter of M. de Marbceuf, formerly governor of Corsica." — " I am delighted, Madam," exclaimed the Emperor, at the same time informing her who he was, " to have an opportunity to be ser\4ceable to you. Be pleased to wait for me at head-quarters : I will see you there presently. All who are of the family of De ]Marboeuf have a right to my regard." A picquet was assigned from the chasseurs of his own Guard to escort the lady ; and the Emperor, after expressing his regret for what had happened, and almost oifering personal excuses for the injury, hastened forward to give directions for tracing and punishing the delinquents. On his return, Madame de Bunny was honoured with the most marked attentions ; and, when she departed, her losses were indemnified M-ith princely munificence. The occupation of Vienna, Napoleon well knew would be of little consequence, unless it were followed up by the defeat of the Russians and of Prince Charles. Ha^-ing, therefore, appointed General Clark Governor of the capital, and left Mortier and jNIarmont to protect it, with orders to keep the roads of Italy and Hungary, he advanced, in person, with the di\dsions of Murat and Lanncs, towards Znaim, in Moravia. On the day of his departure, the 1 5th, the advanced guard of the French overtook the rear of the retreating Bussian army, at Hollabrunn, where a severe action ensued, perhaps on the whole to the disadvantage of the French; though the enemy was unable to make a stand, and continued his flight. In this engagement, General INNSPRUCK. Oudlnot was •wounded, and tlie temporary command of his corps in consequence given to Dui'oc, who had been during the whole campaign exceedingly eager to distinguish himself. Next day, a similarly indecisive battle was fought between Soult and the Russians at Juntersdorf. INlarshal Ney, in the meantime, had acquitted himself " with his customary valour and intelligence." On the 16th of November, he entered Innspruck, the Tyrolese capital, and, in the arsenal, found sixteen thousand stand of arms, and an immense quantity of ammu- nition. Among other prizes in this place were two flags, which, during the last war, had been taken from the 76th regiment, than whom none had exhibited higher courage during the present cam- paign, and to whom the loss of their colours had been a constant source of profound affliction. These flags were now- found among the trophies which had been preserved at Innspruck, and at the inter- cession of an officer, were formally restored by Ney to the regiment. The soldiers went, in a body, to the arsenal, and the veterans, as their long lamented colours were taken from the walls, shed tears of joy, whilst the young conscripts exliibited almost equal enthusiasm at ha\-ing assisted in the recapture of ensigns which had been so much talked of, and so deeply regretted by their seniors. The Emperor, when informed of the circumstances of this scene, directed that its remembrance should be preserved by a painting worthy of the subject. BRUNN. Tlicy who have accused Napoleon of Avant of sympathy, appear to have forgotten that his biography is full of such incidents as this. On the 17th, Napoleon fixed his head-quarters at Znaim, whence they were successively transferred to Porthtz and Brunn : the Kus- sians, at each remove, sustaining a new though unimportant defeat. Brunn had been evacuated a few hours only before the arrival of u; KEGOCIATIONS. the French, and the magazines were full of stores, as if they had been kept by friends. Here Kellernian, with four regiments of light cavalry from the corps of Bernadotte, joined the Grand Army, having left the Marshal himself and General Wrcde (the commander of the Bavarian cavalry) at Iglau, in Bohemia, exhausted with pursuing the Archduke Ferdinand. On the 2Hth, Napoleon gave audience to M. de Stadion and Count Giulay, who came to him again to solicit peace. The conduct of Austria, however, had been insincere throughout; and though the French Emperor wished for peace, he was not inclined to dispense with the precaution adopted at the commencement of this war, that surety must accompany peace, and generosity be tempered by sound policy. Xevertheless, as he had expected that overtures for accommo- dation would speedily follow the many signal defeats of the enemy, he had sent for Talleyrand, the. Minister for Foreign Aifairs, to Vienna, to conduct any negociations that might be required. To this consummate diplomatist the Austrian envoys were now referred : and, to prove that he was in earnest, or at least to be enabled to claim the credit of sincerity. Napoleon sent Savary, one of his aides-de- camp, to Olmutz, to deliver a letter and his salutations to the Emperor of Russia. Savary had probably been selected for this mission, because he was known to be a keen observer. It was before dawn that he left the French head-quarters. At day-break he was at Vischau, where the first post of Cossacks was established, whence he was sent on through the whole Russian army to General Kutuson at Olmutz. As the morning rose, he saw the assembling of the wild Tartar hordes, from their bivouacks by the road side. Alexander had not risen when Savary reached his quarters : the latter was, therefore, left with a staff-officer until the gates of the fortress should be opened. The Generals who crowded round, and entered into conversation with the French envoy, during the hours that Savary waited, were chiefly young and vain men, without knowledge or experience, who were likely to be betrayed into rashness by their arrogance and presumption. These persons spoke loudly of the overweening ambition of France, and of the means by which they were about to curb it. The Czar himself appeared about ten o'clock. He was a man of NEGOCIATIONS. noble figure, about six-and-twenty years of age. After bearing Savary's message, and taking the letter he had brought, he said, "I didy appreciate this proceeding of your master, against whom I have taken up arms with regret. He has long been the object of my admiration, and I shaU not neglect the fii'st opportunity that offers to make the same assm-ance to him in person." The Emperor retired to write an answer, and in half an hour- returned, holding his note with the addi-ess doAvnwards, while he entered into conversation with Savary. He expressed his opinion, that to shew her moderation and good faith, France ought to restore all that she had won during the last ten years, and be content with the honoiu-s she had acquired in her splendid campaigns. "Here is my answer," concluded the Autocrat ; " the superscription does not express the title your master has of late assumed; but I attach no importance to such trifles." The address was, "To the Chief of the French Government." Savary, on his return, found Napoleon awaiting his arrival at the post-house of Posorzitz, only thi-ee- quarters of a mile fi'om the Russian outposts. The message and letter of Alexander were far from satisfactory; the Emperor, therefore, deshed Savary to return with all speed to propose an interview for the morrow. The circiun- stances of the French army were becoming critical. The Archdukes Charles and John were approaching the Danube ; Prince Ferdinand was levying a strong force in Bohemia ; Massena, who should, by this time, have brought his troops to the neighbourhood of Vienna, was still on the other side of the JuHan Alps ; and the announcement of the accession of Prussia to the CoaUtion was daily expected. There was, therefore, no time to be Jost. An armistice, including all the belhgerent parties, or a decisive victory, was necessary to enable Napoleon to maintain his position with hopes of a successful result. The last alternative appeared the preferable one; and although the French Emperor chose to appear desirous of pacification, he sought with more eagerness to provoke an instant battle. At nine in the morning of the 29th, the day on which Savary had been sent to the Eussian camp, an engagement took place a short distance fr'om Vischau, between the advanced posts estabhshed by Murat, and a swarm of Cossacks, when fifty dragoons of the 6th regiment fell into the hands of the Russians. The Emperor went in person to the village where this action had taken place ; and on his return walked his horse over the plain between Austerlitz and Brunn, attentively examining all the sinuosities of the ground, and causing the distances from height to height to be measured. " Gentlemen," he exclaimed to the officers of the staff, " it will be well to study this field : we shall shortly have to contest it." He passed the whole day on horseback, inspecting the position of every corps of his army, and giving directions for such changes as he conceived necessary. On the left of General Suchet's division, a single hillock overlooked die ^vhole front of the position. Hither Napoleon directed to be brought fourteen pieces of cannon ; and as ammunition waggons could not be placed there, two hundred charges of powder and ball were piled behind each gun. The foot of the hillock was then cut away as an escarpment, and the post thus secui'ed from assault. At night, the advanced parties of the army, which were two or three leagues beyond the spot where Napoleon desired to give battle, fell back to the positions which the Emperor had chosen for them. These movements misled the Russians, who conceived that they indicated Napoleon's intention to retreat. Alexander was elated beyond measure at the prosjicct thus opened to him ; and the pre- sumption of his officers and soldiers broke out in loud boasting. The RUSSIAN ENVOY. reverses of previous campaigns, tliey said, uere attributable to the cowardice of the Austrians. The Russian soldiery, countrymen of that Suwarrow who had beaten the French from their Lombard possessions, would soon bring the towering eagle of Trance from its pride of place. The Czar himself had previously been disposed to accede to Napoleon's wish for an interview ; he now resolved to send Prince Dolgorouki in his stead. Accordingly, on the morning of the last day of November, that young man, accompanied by Savary, presented himself at the French lines, bearing a message from the Emperor, his master. Napoleon had now a part to play. He was desirous of adding strength to the false impression which the Russians had derived from his manauvre of the preceding evening. He, therefore, as if the interior of his camp would reveal more than he desired to be kno^vTi, met Dolgorouki at the outposts of the army, which the soldiers were busy in covering with field-works, in order, apparently, to shield conscious weakness with entrenchments. The envoy, whom Napoleon afterwards described as being "utterly ignorant of the interests of Europe, and the situation of the Con- tinent ; as, in short, the mere mouth-piece of England," encouraged FRENCH DTSrOSITIONS. by what he observed, demanded, in the name of his master, the cession of Belgium and Holland, and the transfer of the Iron Crown of Italy to a less obnoxious head, as the conditions on which peace would be granted to France. The Emjicror listened, with a patience which seemed to be the effect of his precarious situation ; but in dismissing the Prince, said, " If that is all your errand, you may return, and tell the Emjicror Alexander that I had no conception of these expectations when I sought an interview. I would have shewn him my army, and referred to his equity for the conditions of peace. But if ho will have it so, we must fight. I wash my hands of it." "When Dolgorouki was gone. Napoleon, rejoining his staff, exclaimed, " Those people are mad ! They insist on my giving up Italy, when they cannot take from me Vienna. What then are their plans, and what would they do with France, if I were beaten ? Let it be as God pleases ; but, by my faith, before eight-and-forty hours are past, I shall have given them a sound drubbing ! " Preparations were now made, with increased rapidity, for the battle. Bernadotte had arrived, with two di\dsions of infantry; Soult had three ; Lannes two ; Davoust one. There was, also, in the field a strong division of grenadiers, and one of the Imperial Guard. Of horse, besides the light cavahy, there were three divisions of dragoons, two of cuirassiers, two regiments of carbineers, and the horse-guards. On the morning of the 1st of December, the Emperor himself stationed all the troops. Davoust was placed on the extreme right, behind the convent of Raygern ; being separated by a number of small lakes and narrow defiles from Soult, who was opposed to the Russian left wing. The centre was commanded by Bernadotte; supported by the light cavalry, dragoons, cuirassiers, and horse-guards, under Murat. The left was under Lannes, being supported by the fortified hill before alluded to, near the road to Olmutz, called Santon. Ten battalions of the Imperial Guard, with Oudinot's di\dsion, headed by Duroc, were kept as a reserve, under the eye of Napoleon himself, who intended that this force, with forty pieces of artillery, should act only in case of emergency, and then wherever its i^resence would be most likely to render victory certain. The Emperor was on horseback the whole day, viewing the artillery, inspecting the posts and ajipointments of the soldiers, attending to the distribution among them of ammunition 45f PRUSSIAN ENVOY. and provisions, and partaking of the last with the most good-humoured cordiaHty. Alexander, deceived by the report of Dolgorouki, who, on his return to the Russian camp, had expressed his conviction that the French were retreating, hastily adopted the resolution of extending his left wing, in order to tui-n the right of his opponents, and take them in flank and rear. This was a movement into which Napoleon, presuming on theii' ignorance of the art of war, had all along sought to tempt the Russians ; and when, about noon, he saw them begin to descend fi'om the heights, where they might have lain in safety, imtil the arrival of the Ai'chdukcs on the field, he could not refrain from expressing his joy, " Before sunset to-morrow," he exclaimed, " that army will be mine ! " In order, however, to confirm the enemy as to the supposed weakness of the French, Murat, having sent forward a small body of cavahy as if to oppose the advancing army, hastily withdrew it, and called in his outposts, on pretending to discover the force opposed to him. In the course of the afternoon. Count Haugwitz arrived at the bivouac of the Emj)eror, intending to offer the mediation of the King of Prussia between the contending parties, and with duections to declare war against France if this were refused. The envoy, on being introduced, intimated that he was the bearer of an important message. Napoleon guessed the purport of his mission, and replied : CAMP ILLUMINATION. " Count, you may see that the outposts of the armies are ah-eady meeting. There will be a battle to-morro\y ; return to Vienna, and deliver yoiur message "vvhen it is over." Haugwitz, according to Napoleon's expression, was no novice ; and, seeing how matters stood, prudently availed himself of the opportunity to withdraw, and wait the events of the fight. In the evening of the same day, an irregular firing of small arms was heard to the right of Soult's position, which was kept up so long as to give Napoleon considerable uneasiness. He, at last, sent an aide-de-camp to make enquiries, and soon learned, that a skirmish had taken place between the advanced guard of Legrand and some Russians, who wished to obtain possession of the village of Sokolnitz, which covered the French flank. The moon, which had pre-viously shone brightly, now became overcast, and the firing soon - afterwards ceased. The officer, who had been sent to reconnoitre, on his return found the Emjieror lying on some straw, so soundly asleep that it was necessary to shake him before he could be awakened. Having heard the report. Napoleon sent for Soult to accompany him in inspecting the line, in order to ascertain the precise nature of the Russian movement. He ajiproached the posts of the enemy as nearly as possible, and was desirous of returning to his bivouac without being recognised ; but the soldiers soon discovered liim ; when, remembering that the morrow was the anniversary of his Coronation, they lighted bunches of straw and hay, and the enthusiasm spreading, an extempore illumination took place along the whole line, while the au* was rent with loud cries of " Yive I'Emperevu- ! " ^ cterans and conscripts thronged around him with equal eagerness, loudly declaring that they would celebrate the folloAving day in a manner more -worthy of his glory. " But you must promise us," cried an old grenadier, "that you will keep your person from the fire of the enemy, and only combat with your eyes." — " I promise you," replied Napoleon, "I will remain with the reserve until you need us." A pledge which exhibits in the most forcible way thB mutual confidence between the chief and his soldiers : " shewinsr," says Sir- Walter Scott, " that the assurance of his personal safety was considered as great an encoui-agement to the troops as the usual protestations of sovereigns and leaders that they will be in the front and share the dangers of the day. Yet," adds the same author. *i\ '' there have not been wanting those who have thrown the imputation of cowardice on the victor of a hundi-ecl battles, whose reputation was so well established among the troops who must be the best judges, that his attention to the safety of his person was requested by them, and granted by him as a favour to his army." The promise that he would not expose himself to needless danger, was repeated in a proclamation issued to the troops at day -break. Napoleon was on horseback before dawn, and the soldiers were got under arms as noiselessly as possible. A dense fog covered the ground, so that it was impossible to distinguish objects from one bivouac to another. This afforded the French time to form their ranks unob- served. As it grew light, the mist gradually ascended : still an 4i5 SUN OF AUSTERLITZ. unbroken silence prevailed to the extremity of the horizon. "No one," says IMr. Hazlitt, "would have suspected that so many men, and so many noisy engines of destruction, were crowded together in so small a space." Napoleon again sent to reconnoitre the Russian position on his right. The enemy were noAv in motion; but it was impossible, through the remains of the fog, to ascertain what they were about, although it was seen that the two armies almost touched each other. Soon after seven o'clock, the mist cleared away, and the sun rose -with unclouded splendour. " On many an after day the French soldiery hailed a similar dawn Avith exultation as the sure omen of victory; and ' the Sun of Austerlitz ' has passed into a proverb." The French army,, infantry and cavalry, appeared formed into columns in the midst of the plain. The Emperor was surrounded by his marshals, who were all eas-cr to becrin the en2:ac:ement. Their importunities were resisted, however, till the fire of the Russians had commenced, and had become brisk on the riuht. The last directions AUSTERLITZ. for the battle were then issued, and the j^encrals departed at full gallop to their several posts to commence the attack. The whole army moved forward at the same moment, with such cool and steady- determination of purpose, and such precision of step and motion, that the Avord of command might be heard from the difterent officers alonpr the lines. The march was continued, with an occasional halt to rectify distances and direction, to the very foot of the Russian positions. The Emperor then passed in front of the several regiments, and exclaimed, " Soldiers, we shall finish this campaign with a thunder-clap which will confound the pride of our enemies!" Every hat was in an instant upraised, and an universal shout of " Vive I'Empereur ! " arose from the moving mass. At this signal for the onset, the can- nonade commenced on the extreme right, whither a large division of Russians had been allured by the hope of turning the French flank ; but where it found itself unexpectedly opposed by Davoust's division, of whose situation behind the convent of Raygern it was in total ignorance. The manoeuvre had been altogether badly executed. The intervals between the detached regiments had been suffered to become irregular, and the space left by their advance, in the line of the main army, was not filled up. Napoleon saw the opportunity, and immediately ordered Soult with the right wing to rush forward, intersect the enemy's line, and sever his left wing from the centre. The Czar, perceiving the fatal consequences of this movement, ordered the Russian Guards to make a desperate attack on Soult's division, and to restore the communication which had been cut off". This encounter took place on an eminence, called the hill of Pratzen, where General St. Hilaire sustained, for nearly two hours, a tremendous fire of musketry, such as it seemed impossible to with- stand. Each battaUon of his corps was engaged in a fierce contest : at length, however, Vandamme came up, and attacking the nearly exhausted columns of the enemy with fresh vigour, threw them into confusion, and became master of their position and artillery. At this moment, the Emperor despatched one of Bernadotte's divisions, and a portion of the grenadiers of the Guard, to the assistance of Vandamme and St. Ililaire. The Russians were now wholly occupied in de- fending themselves. Several times they attempted to fall back, in order to rcascend the Pratzen, but on every occasion they were «7 . 3N AUSTERLTTZ. assailed with such fury, as compelled them to stand at bay, without being able to advance or retreat. On a sudden, Soult directed a new movement to be made, by Vandamme's division, towards the right flank, for the purpose of turning and enclosing all the troops engaged with St. Hilaire. The troops intended to execute this movement received a severe check. The fourth regiment of the line was thrown into disorder, and lost one of its eagles, by a charge of Russian cavalry : an accident from which fatal consequences might have ensued ; but the genius of Napoleon seemed to triumph most in a crisis. Bessieres was ordered to lead on the Imperial Guard, while the Russians were disordered by their own impetuosity in attempting to snatch a victory. The latter resisted bravely, fighting with the energy of despair ; but the steady valour and matchless discipline of the soldiers of Napoleon finally prevailed, and the Russians were broken and dispersed. The Grand Duke Constantine, who had led this wing of his brother's army, seeing the rout of his troops, saved himself by the fleetness of his horse. The artillery and standards of the entire di\-ision fell into the hands of the French. Against Murat, who commanded the centre of the French army, meanwhile, close columns of the Allies were directed in continuous charges. The Czar caused his guard to deploy. Artillery, cavahy, and infantry were marched against a bridge, of which the French held possession, and which was a post of considerable importance. The movement was, at first, concealed from the observation of Napoleon by the inequality of the ground ; but a heavy rolling fire of musketry in that direction soon revealed what was passing, and he immediately afterwards learned that the enemy was repulsing one of his brigades. Their cavalry had, in fact, already penetrated the squares, and was sabring the men ; while at a little distance were hordes of horsemen in reserve. The Russians now advanced : four pieces of artillery were brought on the ground, at a gallop, and planted in position against the French. General Rapp, who had been despatched by the Emperor to the assistance of Murat, with the corps of Mamelukes which had accompanied Napoleon from Egypt, tMo squadrons of chasseurs, and one of grenadiers of the Guard, arrived on the spot at this critical moment. " Courage, my lads," cried Rapp,. on seeing the situation of his comrades ; " behold your brothers, your friends. 458 AUSTEllLITZ. butchered ; lot us avenge tliem, and the disgrace of our standards ! Forward!" There needed no further incitement to men akeady burning for distinction. The soklicrs dashed, at full speed, upon the foe, and, in an instant, drove them from and captured their guns. The advancing cavalry of the Russians, which halted for the attack, was overthrown by the leaders of this gallant charge, and fled in confusion. At length, the French became so mingled with the enemy, that they were compelled to fight man to man, and the infantry on either side dared not fire, lest they should kiU their own countrymen. The intrepidity and experience of the French finally succeeded ; and the Russian centre shared the fate of its left wing. '^""^jVtS^ The right of the enemy had been actively engaged, by Lannes, during the whole of the battle; but now all the troops on their left being routed. Napoleon was enabled to gather round them his forces on every side; and his artillery, incessantly playing upon them from AUSTERLITZ. the heiglits, forced tlicm, after a valiant stand, to give way and seek for safety. They were driven into a hollow, where some small frozen lakes offered the only means of escape from the closing cannonade. ISIany attempted to escape, but the numbers which rushed together upon the ice, and a storm of shot that followed them, broke the frail support, and nearly twenty thousand men perished, by drowning and the effects of the artillery. Napoleon himself compared the horrible spectacle to that of Aboukir, when " the sea was covered with floating turbans." Two columns of Russians, each consisting of four thousand men, surrendered as prisoners of war. Had Bernadotte properly executed a manoeuvre, Avhich had been entrusted to him, the entire army of the enemy might have been captured. He had been ordered to attack the inftmtry of the Russian Guard ; but having done so, and broken and chased the flying corps for a league, instead of pursmng his advantage, lie fell back to his first position, where 4M DEFEAT OF THE EN'EMY. Napoleon, to his great surprise, found him remaining inaetive at evening. By continuing to advance, he wouhl have obtamed pos- session of the road from Austerhtz to HolUtsch, and thus have intercepted the retreat of the Austrians and Russians. Bernadotte, however, had never borne any affection for Napoleon, who, from an inferior officer, had become his master; and the Marshals want of good will began about this time to lead him into repeated ^^ The' Emperors of Austria and Russia witnessed the defeat of their armies, from a rising ground, where they had stationed themselves din-ing the contest ; and only when the result was no longer doubtful, took an active part in the operations of theh- troops It was then, with the greatest difficulty, that they were able to rally the remains of their routed forces, in order to save them from utter destruction by precipitate retreat. The bravery of the Russians, and the loyal devotion of the Germans, were put to a severe test in securing the personal safety of their respective sovereigns, the only practicable route for who'se flight was along a causeway, between two partially frozen lakes; and they were hotly pursued by the French, whose leaders, from time to time, reminded the soldiers of their promise during the preceding night, to celebrate, with due honour, the anni- versary of the Coronation. Upwards of twenty thousand prisoners of war with an equal amount of killed and wounded, one hundred pieces of cannon, forty Russian and several Austrian standards and an immense quantity of baggage and stores, were left on the field. Of eiohty thousand Russians, and twenty-five thousand Austrians, engag'ed in this battle, not half the number could be mustered next day Of the French, the number of whom was little inferior to the eiiemy at the commencement of the engagement, there fell about fourteen hundred men, of whom eight hundred were killed, and the rest wounded. Such was the great conflict, which Napoleon called the Battle of Austerlitz ; his soldiers, the Battle of the Tlii-ee Emperors ; and a few others, the Day of the Anniversary. Napoleon, returning from the pursuit in the evening, passed over the c^round on which his various troops had fought. It was akeady dark- he, therefore, enjoined silence on those around him, that he might hear the cries of the wounded; and when a sound of THE WOUNDED. pain caught his car he went immediately to the spot, alighted, and ordered brandy to be given to the sufferer. In the performance of this duty, he was engaged till a late hour. His escort passed the whole night on the field of battle, taking the cloaks from the dead to cover those in whom life still remained. Fires were kindled on the ground near where the wounded lay, and the soldiers of the guard left on the spot were directed not to retire till every wounded soldier was lodged in a hospital. The men loaded him with blessings, " which," says Mr. Hazlitt, " found the way to his heart much better than all the flatteries of courtiers. He thus won the affection of his soldiers, who knew that when they suffered it was not his fault, and who, therefore, never spared themselves in his service." It was past midnight when Napoleon arrived at Brunn. He lost no time, however, in issumg orders for Davoust to collect his corps and pursue the Russians, who were in full retreat on the following day; and at the same time, Berthier was directed to ascertain the actual losses in the engagement, to visit the hospitals, and, in the name of the Emperor, to present every wounded soldier with a napoleon, as the piece of twenty francs was then called, and to distribute among the officers gratuities varying from five hundi-cd to three thousand francs, according to their rank. This signal defeat entirely crushed the hopes of the Emperor of Austria, of being able to maintain a successful opposition to France ; and he therefore, after consulting the Czar, resolved to trust himself 462 SUBMISSION OF AUSTRIA. to the clemency of the A'ictor. Accordingly, Prince John of Lichten- stein -was despatched, on the day after the battle, with a message to Napoleon, soliciting him to grant an interview to the Emperor Francis. The French head-quarters were estabhshed in a barn, where the Emperor sat upon a heap of straw, warming himself by a log fire, when the envoy was introduced. The demands for ceding ^ V the crown of Italy and the territories of Belgium and Holland were forgotten, and the tone of Austria was that of a submissive suppliant. The expectations of the Allies had been effectively humbled ; and they now sought and hoped for nothing beyond the saving of their own dominions from the grasp of the Conqueror, and permission to withdraw from the dangers by which they were sur- rounded. Their crippled and dispirited forces had been driven towards the bridges of Ilollitsch and Godmg; and, knowing that Davoust was in pursuit, they feared lest their reti-eat in that direction should be cut off, and their own foul designs retorted on them- selves : for they could not fail to reflect on theii- previous agreement to dethrone Napoleon and dismember France. Napoleon, however, was not entirely without apprehension. He had known before the battle of the approach of the Archdukes; and of the hostile inten- tions of Prussia. In order, therefore, to avoid all hazard, and if 403 IMPERIAL INTERVIEW. possible to conclude a durable peace, he, with some personal compliments to the negociator and his master, granted the request of Francis, and appointed the follo-^dng morning for his reception. Punctual to the appointment, the Emperor of Austria, at nine in the morning of the 4th of December, repaired, A^ith a small escort of guards, and accompanied by Princes John and jNIaurice of Lichten- stein, the Prince of A\'ui-temberg, Prince Schwartzenberg, Generals Kienmayer,, Bubna, and Stutterheim, and tAvo officers of hussars, to the place of meeting, -vA-hich was near a windmill on the road to Hollitsch, in front of the advanced posts of Bernadotte, about three leagues from Austerlitz. A tent had been pitched and a fire lighted, previously to the arrival of Napoleon, who was on the ground before 464 IMPERIAL INTERVIEW. the hour named for the interview. The French horse-guards were di-awn up in order of battle about two hundred paces behind the Emperor's tent. Francis was shortly afterwards announced. He came in an open cai-riage, with a company of Hungarian cavahy, which halted, as the French had done, and at about the same distance from the rendezvous. The French Emperor went from his tent to meet the Austrian Sovereign, and exchanging salutations they embraced. " Behold ! " said Napoleon, as he led Francis to his camp fire ; " such are the palaces you have compelled me to occupy for these two months." The humbled Monarch, with a bitter smile, repHed, " You have turned your residence to such good account, that you ought not to complain of the accommodation." The interview lasted two hours; and in the end an armistice was agreed on, to afford time to negociate on the conditions of peace. The Austrian was so vanquished in spu'it, as well as in the mere cii'cumstances of battle, that he sought to gratify his conqueror by thi-owing the entire blame of the war upon England, as Marshal Mack had done at Ulni; although this con- stituted one of the charges upon which that unfortunate General had been condemned and punished. " The EngUsh," said Francis, " are a race of merchants, who, in order to secure to themselves the commerce of the world, would set the Continent on fire : " an expression of which the bad logic was probably overlooked at the time, on account of its intended bitterness. Better terms than he had a right to expect having been granted to Francis, he next interceded on behalf of the Czar, requesting that the troops of Alexander might be allowed to retreat unmolested to their own country. " The Russian army," replied Napoleon, " is surrounded : not a man can escape me. If, however, your INIajesty will promise that Alexander shall at once evacuate Germany and Austrian and Prussian Poland, I will stop the advance of my columns." The Austrian pledged his honour that the Czar would do all that was required. The two Emperors parted, as they had met, with an embrace. Savary was then despatched to the Russian camp, to communicate to Alexander the arrangements that had been made, and to receive his adhesion to the conditions. The Autocrat was at Coding when Savary overtook him ; and, although it was but five in the morning, 465 3 O ALEXAN'DEIl AND SAVAHY. he was already up, and giving directions to destroy the bridge at that pL-ice, the moment his army shouhl have passed. Alexander was but too well pleased to be permitted to return to St. Petersbiu'g, with his troops, to raise the slightest objection to the proposals of his Ally. In the excess of his joy, at the generous treatment of his conqueror, he said to Savary, " Tell your master that he did miracles at Austerlitz : that bloody day has augmented my respect for him. He is the predestined of Heaven. It will take a hundred years ere my army can equal that of France. Though inferior to us on the whole, we found you superior on every point of action." — " That," replied the courteous Savary, " arises from experience in war ; the fruit of sixteen years of glory. This is the fortieth battle which the Emperor has won." Alexander, energetically, replied : " Napoleon is a great soldier. I do not pretend to compare myself with him. This is the first time I have been under fire r but it is enough. I came hither merely to assist the Emperor of Austria, who having now no further occasion for my services, I wish to return to my own capital. With all that the King of the Romans has stipulated, on my behalf, I shall titrictly comply." On the faith of his word, he received an assurance that his army would not be interrupted in its retreat. Savary knew not at this DUPLICITY OF ALEXANDER. time that Alexander had been exercising his talent for duplicity upon the French commanders ; or, in all likelihood, some better assurance than his promise would have been required. Davoust had arrived, the day before, within a league of Coding, and was preparing to force his way to the bridge, through an Austrian detachment, posted in the neighbourhood to keep the roads, when he received a note from the Russian Emperor, informing him of the interview between Napoleon and Francis, and that an armistice had been concluded — leaving it to be inferred that the Russians were included in its provisions. The French General, in consequence, had suspended his movement, when he mii>ht have rendered himself master of Godino', and thus cut off the enemy's retreat. Davoust had no doubt of the veracity of Alexander ; though it subsequently became evident that the note was intended solely to deceive. Savary, on reaching the bivouac of Davoust, and learning the particulars, could not avoid expressing his suspicions to some Austrian officers who accompanied him, that the absence of the Czar from the intervicAv of the preceding day was a designed evasion ; and that the object of the two hostile Emperors was not peace, but merely to extricate themselves from the dilemma in which they had been placed by their defeat. On the morning of the Gth, the Russians passed the bridge of Godmg, and proceeded by as rapid marches as their condition Avould permit, towards then- own country. Their number was now reduced to less than half its original amount. They were without cannon and baggage-waggons; many were severely wounded and without arms, and few had knapsacks ; it being a custom with their infantry, before the commencement of an engagement, to lay their knapsacks on the ground, that they might be unencumbered during the fight ; in con- sequence of which, if they were routed^ their baggage was necessarily lost. The plight of the brave jNIoscovites was indeed pitiable, and the favour of Napoleon the greater, inasmuch as he could have had no difficulty in capturing the whole army, and dictating whatever terms he had thought proper. On the same day that the Russians departed, the armistice, -which had been agreed on between France and Austria, was formally signed by Bcrthier and Prince John of Lichtenstein;' and the latter and Talleyrand were directed to repair to Presburg, to arrange the definitive conditions of a general pacification. ACT DECREES. Napoleon immediately afterwards issued three decrees : by the first of which pensions were granted to the wounded French soldiers and the widows and children of those killed at Austerlitz; the second ordained that the Russian and Austrian cannon, taken on the field of battle, should be broken up, for the purpose of erecting a triumphal column in the Place Vendome, to perpetuate the glorious victory of the French army ; and by the thu-d, all the children of the generals, officers, and soldiers who had fallen in the engagement, were thence- forth to be considered the adopted children of the Emperor, and to be provided for by the State. -^ V CHAPTER XXL PRUSSIA AND SWEDEN — BATTLE OF TRAFALGAR — PEACE OF PRESBURG — BAVARIA AND WURTEMBERG KINGDOMS — WAR WITH NAPLES — ADOPTION AND MARRIAGE OF EUGENE BEAUHARNAIS — DETHRONEMENT OF THE NEAPOLITAN BOURBONS — RETURN OF NAPOLEON TO FRANCE. 1805—1806. iTTLE attention was attracted to the proceedings of Prussia, until after the victory of Austerlitz. Haugwitz, the envoy, who had waited on Napoleon on the evening preceding the battle, had gone as directed to Vienna, and commenced negociations vnth. Talley- rand; but in a spirit that shewed the insincerity and jealous spleen of the Cabinet by which he was com- missioned. On the retui-n of Napoleon to Schonbrunn, he sent for the Count to have a firank explanation of the objects of his Court. The event of the war had been so contrary to the hopes of the King of Prussia, that Haugwitz felt his situation to be exceedingly dehcate. The message with which he had been entrusted was one of defiance, not of peace ; but now, if he dehvered it, he saw that his country must stanci alone against triumphant France, in a struggle from which nothing was to be reasonably hoped. He felt, therefore, that the PRt^SSIA. most reasonable course he could pm-sue would be to conciliate tlie Conqueror, by offering his master's congratulations on the recent victory. Napoleon smiled while he listened to compliments, which he knew to be designed for others. " This is a message," he said, " of which circumstances have altered the address." The Count protested that his Sovereign was perfectly sincere, and that he desired nothing but to assist in the re-estabhshment of peace, and the main- tenance of his alHance with France. " AV'hat then," asked Napoleon, sternly, " is the meaning of a Russian army at Breslau, and another in Hanover, communicating across the Prussian territory with the Grand Army?" Haugwitz, seeing that Napoleon was not likely to be the dupe of the shallow pretences, which were all that he could offer in excuse, was silent. " Is the conduct of your master frank or consistent?" con- tinued the Emperor, bect)ming warm. " It would have been far more honourable to have declared war at once, although he had no cause. He would then have served his new Allies, by compelling me to look twice before giving battle. You wish, however, to be the Allies of all the world, which is impossible ; and you must, therefore, choose between me and my enemies. If you wish to throw yourselves into the arms of those gentlemen, I shall offer no opposition to your doing so ; but if you remain with me, I must have sincerity. I prefer avowed enemies to false friends. If your powers are not sufficient to enable you to treat properly on all questions which may arise between France and Prussia, qualify yourself to do so with all speed. For my part I shall march against my enemies wherever they are to be found." Haugwitz, knowing that Napoleon seldom condescended to utter an empty threat, and that Prussia was entirely at his mercy, took upon himself, whether authorized by his Sovereign or not, to sign a treaty, by which Hanover was ceded to Frederick William in exchange for the margravates of Bareuth and Anspach : — a bribe which the envoy was pretty certain would prove irresistible to his master, notwithstanding that the latter had, in the meantime, con- cluded a treaty Avith England, the hereditary possessions of whose Sovereign he Avas noAv about to appropriate. The bearer of intelli- gence of the English alliance was met on his way to Vienna by Haugwitz, who was returning to Berlin to procure the ratification by the King of the Convention Avith Napoleon. This complication 4/0 SWEDEN. occasioned much embarrassment to the Prussian Cabinet. AVar on one side or the other seemed inevitable ; and the only question was whether it could be best sustained against England or France : the latter, having a large army in the field, flushed with recent triumph ; and the former having granted, but not yet paid, a subsidy of fifteen millions sterling. Not knowing how to fulfil or disentangle himself from his conflicting engagements, the Prussian Monarch had recourse to one of those pohtical shifts, which are so often put in requisition to avert impending dangers or protract the hour of their arrival. He consented to relinquish the Margravates, and to receive Hanover in pledge, till a general peace should be established. The King of Sweden, meanwhile, having, early in October, heard of the Russian and Austrian movements iu ]\Ioravia and Bavaria, collected his forces, and passing the Elbe at Luneburg, with an army of eight thousand Swedes, twelve thousand English, fifteen thousand Russians, and fifty- eight pieces of artillery, manoeuvred so as to induce a belief that he intended to make a descent upon Holland — a movement which, had it been ably executed, might have prevented the march of Bernadotte to the Danube, and would have greatly embarrassed the operations of Napoleon himself. But Gusta^^ls was deficient in the qualities necessary to constitute a great man, as king or general. Loving flattery and display, he contented himself with the comphments lavished upon him by the Allies, as the illus- trious descendant of his namesake Gustavus Adolphus, and the successor of Charles XH.; and instead of proceeding at once to the scene of action, he waited in the neighbourhood of Hamburg, issuing Quixotic proclamations, in which he assumed the title of Liberator of Germany, and disputing on petty punctilioes with those whom he was expected, at once, to lead the field, till news arrived of the battle of Austerlitz, and compelled him to break up his camp in haste, and retiurn with an army dimmished, at least, a third by desertion, to his own dominions; where his subjects, disgusted by his tryanny and pusillanimity, received him Avith the utmost reluctance, and with a determination, formed if not expressed, to deprive him on the earliest opportunity of the croAvn and power which he disgraced. > The French Emperor M'as satisfied with the ridicule which liis vaunting opponent had thus incurred, and took no active NAVAL AFFAIRS. Steps to punish him for his insolence. It was sufficient that he had rendered himself despicable in the eyes of the people whom he governed, as well as of the Courts of the surrounding States. Gratifying as were these successes, however, they were not without alloy. A cup of bitterness had been prepared for the Conqueror of the Continent by the only foe whom he had utterly failed to humble. The empire of the land seemed to be more strongly confirmed to Napoleon by every effort made to diminish his poM^er : but the sovereignty of the seas remained with the most determined of his enemies, in whose hands, conjointly with his own, he had himself admitted the fate of the world to be balanced. Allusion has been ah-eady made to the seizure by England of four Spanish treasure -ships without a previous declaration of war, though certainly not without provocation; — the Spaniards, under pretence of neutrality, havdng supplied the French with money and stores for continuing the war. The action of Commodore Moore with the galleons occurred on the 5th of October, 1804, and was immediately followed by hostiUties from the Court of Madrid ; the King of Spain placing his entire fleet at the disposal of France. Napoleon had not then abandoned the hope of being able to make a descent upon the British coast, and the operations of his naval forces were still directed with a view to the projected invasion. Villeneuve and Gantheume, the French admirals, and Gravina, the Spanish commander, were ordered to execute certain manoeuvres, which it was thought would distract the attention of England from her coast defence, and afford a better opportunity for aiming a decisive blow at her maritime superiority. The British blockading squadrons, however, maintained so strict a watch, that for some time it was found impossible to act upon the orders issued by the French Minister of Marine ; and when at length the Toulon and Rochefort fleets Avere enabled to elude the vigilance of their opponents, and put to sea, it was merely to run in terror to the West Indies, and return to their several ports, without rendering any real service to their country, or inflicting the least injury uj^on the enemy. It was, nevertheless, considered to be a matter for rejoicing that the Imperial vessels had regained thcii- harbours without loss; and this gave their commanders sufficient confidence to attempt a second sortie. Admiral Villeneuve accord- '•7,4 CAPE FINISTERRE. ingly, on tlie 18th of jNIarch, 1805, wliile the English fleet was driven off the coast by stress of weather, sailed from Toulon, bearing with him a large body of troops ; and, making directly for Cadiz, formed a junction there with the fleet of Gravina. The combined squadrons then crossed the Atlantic ; and, after rendering some trifling services in the West Indies, once more returned with speed to Europe, having been chased during the whole voyage by the great Nelson; whom, however, they were fortunate enough to elude : but they were unable again to reach then- harbours. Sir Eobert Calder, with fifteen sail of the line and two frigates, met them ofi" Cape Finisterre, on the 22nd of July; and though his force was greatly inferior to that of the Allies, who numbered tM'enty sail of the line, three fifty-gun ships, and four frigates, he brought them to an instant engagement, and captured two of their best ships. Such, nevertheless, was the confidence of the British nation in the superiority of its navy, that notwithstanding the disparity of strength in this engagement, and the partial success with which it was crowned, the murmurs of the people were so loud, that it was thought requisite to bring Sir Eobert Calder to trial before a court-martial, for having suffered the hostile fleets to escape without severer loss ; and the gallant Admiral was actually censured for not having improved his success more signally. The French and Spaniards were now compelled to put into Vigo to refit, and shortly afterwards, finding an opportunity to quit that port, they proceeded to Ferrol, and uniting themselves with the squadron lying there, sailed thence for Cadiz, which they once more entered in safety. The English Government having, at length, received accurate intelligence of the enemy's motions, placed Nelson at the head of the fleet in the Mediterranean, which was secretly reinforced with a number of the best ships in the British na^y. Cadiz, meanwliile, was strictly blockaded, and the Allies soon began to be in want of provisions, which, had nothing occurred to hasten such a movement, must speedily have forced them to put to sea. But when Napoleon heard of the action of the 22nd of July, he was so greatly exasperated that Yilleneuve had not availed himself of the advantage of his numbers to defeat the English, that he ordered Decres, the Minister of Marine, to make a report on the Admiral's conduct, ahd to bring him before a council of enquuy. Indeed, irs 3 p TRAFALGAR. M. Rosilly was already on his way to supersede the Admiral, and take the command at Cadiz. Villeneuve, who Avas undoubtedly a man of high spirit and undaunted courage, burned with impatience to retrieve his reputation, and turn away the displeasui'e of the Emperor by a final, and, as he hoped, a victorious struggle. Accord- ingly, on the 19th of October, the combined fleets got under weigh, and sailed from port; and two days afterwards, being the day after the surrender of Ulm by Mack, the hostile fleets came in sight of each other off" Cape Trafalgar. The advantage of niunbers was greatly in favour of the Allies, who had thirty-three sail of the line and seven large frigates, with four thousand soldiers, many of whom being excellent riflemen were placed in the tops. Nelson had only twenty-seven ships of the line and three frigates; and the disproportionate number of his men and guns made his inferiority still more considerable. The French Admiral, aware of the British custom of breaking the line, and engaging broadside to broadside, made the most skilful disposition of his vessels to prevent the success of this operation, should it be attempted. His fleet formed a double line, each alternate ship, at about a cable's length to the windward, covering the interval between the first and second of the foremost rank : an arrangement which seemed to preclude the possibihty of executing the operation which it was intended to foil. The genius and daring of Nelson, however, were more than a match for the skill and forethought of his anta- gonist. He resolved, notwithstanding the precautions of Villeneuve, to put his favoiu'ite manoeuvre in practice, but in a manner entirely original, and so as to defeat the calculations upon which it had been sought to frustrate him. His order for sailing and for battle was in two lines. An advanced squadron of six of his fastest sailing two- deckers was despatched to cut off" as many as they could of the enemy's vessels a-head of their centre ; Collingwood, the second officer in command, was ordered to break the line about the twelfth ship from the rear; and Nelson himself undertook to attack the centre. At the council of war, which was held preparatory to the battle, general explanations were given to the admirals and ofiiccrs, that the engagement was to be close and decisive ; and it was added, that if, in the confusion and smoke of the fight, the Admiral's signals 474 TRAFALGAR. should not be discernible, no captain could do wrong by laying his ship alongside of the enemy. On the morning of the 21st, Nelson hoisted his celebrated signal, "England expects every man to do his duty;" and immedi- ately afterwards CoUingwood, who led the British van, bore down upon the enemy, with all his sails set; and disdaining to furl them, as soon as he had reached his station among the thickest of the foe, cut the sheets, and let his canvass fly in the wind. Nelson ran his vessel, the Victory, on board the French Redoubtable. These gallant examples were followed by the whole fleet, which breaking the hostile lines on every side, engaged two or three ships each, and mamtauied the fiercest naval battle ever contested, at the very mouths of the cannon. The French and Spaniards fought with determined gallantry ; but, in the end, nineteen of their line-of-battle sliips were captured, none of which were of less calibre than seventy-foui* guns. Four ships of the hue, under Commodore Dimianoir, sailed away at the close of the engagement for the Straits ; but being encountered, a few days afterwards, by Su" Eichard Strachan, mth a superior force, they also struck to the British flag : while seven of the thirteen vessels which escaped into the harbour- of Cadiz, were total wrecks, and the rest rendered unserviceable. The fleets of France and Spain were ••;iv ...,, /^iF^ii'' \ 4,-5 TRAFALGAR. thus entirely annihilated ; and the tlu-eat of an English invasion turned into scoiF and mockery. But great as was the victory achieved, it was considered to have been dearly purchased, by the hfe of England's greatest naval hero; who fell, mortally wounded, early in the battle, and lived but just long enough to hear the exulting shouts which announced the defeat of the Allies. " Thank God," exclaimed the dying Admiral, "I have done my duty:" and with these words, which furnish the best commentary on his life and actions, yielded up his manly spirit. The Spanish achniral, Gravina, received several wounds in the action, of which he shortly afterwards died. Villeneuve was taken prisoner to England ; and being per- mitted, after a brief captivity, to return to France, on his parole, soon put a period to his own existence, feeling convinced that he had offended his Sovereign past hope. The news of Trafalgar reached Napoleon at Schonbrunn ; and though he was at once conscious of the magnitude of the disaster, he allowed few indications of uneasiness to appear. His first exclama- tion was one of petulance and pride. " I cannot be everywhere ! " he said ; as if his presence at Trafalgar would have wrought the same effect upon the captains and seamen of his fleet, as upon the generals and soldiers of his army at Austerlitz ; or, as though the Hero of the Nile would have quailed at hij; name, like the oft defeated marshals of the German empire. Few of the French newspapers ventured to allude to the event ; and those that did so, spoke of " a tempest that had deprived France of a few vessels, after an action imprudently entered into." Napoleon certainly did not allow the circumstance to interfere with other projects, or to engross more than its due share of his attention. He had a peculiar faculty of abstraction, which enabled him, when anything was likely to interfere with the immediate object in hand, of suspending the consideration of that which Avas obnoxious, or of a nature to distract his mind, till a more fitting season ; and to this absolute mastery of himself, and power of concentrating his mental energies, may be ascribed not only his escape from much mortification, but his brilliant successes, on numberless occasions, when common men would have been overwhelmed with the multiplicity of accruing cares and vexations. At the end of the year 1805, the predominant aim of Napoleon PEACE OF PRESBURG. was to make a final settlement of the continental war in which he had just been engaged : and to this he pcrseveringly devoted himself. He had stated before setting out on the campaign, that he wished for no accession of territory to France, and in the negociations at Presbm-g no stipulation was made in behalf of that empire. The kingdom of Italy, however, was consolidated by the cession of the ancient domains of Venice ; and Bavaria received the principality of Eichstett, part of the domain of Passau, the Tyrol, and the important city of Augsburg, being at the same time erected into a kingdom; as was also the electorate of Wurtemberg, The Elector of Baden received the title of Grand Duke. Saltzburg and Berchtolsgaden, meanwhile, were transferred to Austria; and the principality of Wartzburg was erected into a Grand Duchy, and conferred on the Archbishop of Saltzbm'g. Austria is said, by this treaty, wliich was signed on the 26th of December, 1805, to have lost upwards of twenty thousand square miles of territory, two millions and a half of subjects, and a revenue of about ten millions and a half of florins. It should be remembered, however, that in this account were included the do- minions, population, and revenues of Venice, to which Germany had never any sound or legitimate title. What probably afiected Francis even more than the cession of territory, was a military levy of a hundred million francs, to which he was subjected as a contri- bution towards the expenses of the war; and the fii'st instalment of which he was compelled to pay out of the subsidies sent, for a very diflferent purpose, from England. Before departing from Schonbrunn, Napoleon received a personal address from the civic authorities of Paris, congratulating him on his victory, and on the peace which, it was hoped, would be the result of that glorious event. As a mark of his confidence and approbation, the Emperor charged the deputation to bear to the capital the flags taken at Austerlitz, part of which he intended to place in the cathedral of Notre Dame ; and the guardianship of which, in the meantime, he conferred by letter upon the Cardinal- Archbishop of Paris; whom he desired, moreover, to institute a solemn office in the metropolitan church to be chaunted in honour, and for the repose, of the brave men who had fallen in their country's service during the campaign. At Schonbrunn, also, Napoleon reviewed his troops. The first 477 PROCLAMATION. battalion of the 4th regiment of the line had lost its eagle at Austerlitz. As the men filed past him, the Emperor observed the deficiency, and commanded a halt. " Soldiers," he exclaimed in a severe tone, " what have you done with the eagle which I gave you, which you swore should be your rallying point, and that you would defend it with your lives? Have you forgotten your oaths?" The major, stepping forward, rephed : " Sire, the standard-bearer having been killed in a charge, nobody, amidst the smoke, was conscious of the fact at the moment. The corps, nevertheless, did its duty, by beating two battalions of Russians, and taking their colours, which have been laid at the Emperor's feet." Napoleon smiled as he replied, " In that case, I must return you your eagle." On the 27th of December, the Emperor, in a proclamation addressed to the army, announced the establishment of peace ; reminding them, at the same time, that he had shared Avith them all the perils, pri- vations, and fatigues of the war ; and that if, at its close, they beheld him surrounded with all the splendour and jiomp of majesty, it was but as the Sovereign of the first people in the universe. " In the beginning of IMay," he said, " I shall give a fete in Paris, when, after all our hardships, you will be ranged around my palace — the preservers of our national interest and glory, and the witnesses of our country's happiness. The idea that this felicity is in store for you 4-8 PROCLAMATION. imparts joy to my heart, and inspires me with the most tender emotions. We will consecrate, worthily, the memory of those who have died on the field of honour ; till, inspired by the example of our fallen comrades, the world shall wonder at our deeds against those who would dare to assail our honour, or be basely seduced by the gold of the eternal enemies of the Continent." This, M. Laurent de L'Ardeche calls magic language : all-powerful upon the hearts of soldiers. It was this kind of appeal to the feelings and sentiments, this tone of sympathy and companionship, which had such electric effect in the field, and produced such marvels of heroism : this was what his enemies have characterized as a species of charlatanism, assumed to maintain an ignoble popularity. It may be added, that, in their day, all who have forsaken the accustomed road to fame, whether heroes, philosophers, scientific discoverers, or legislators, have been aspersed as charlatans, the Kst of whom, indeed, has been swollen with the names of Galileo, Bacon, and Newton. Since the prophetical ages, it has been the destiny of great men to be misunderstood and denounced in their generation. On the same day (the 27th), another proclamation announced Napoleon's departure from the Austrian capital. " Inhabitants of Vienna ! " ran this document ; " Before quitting you, I wish to con- vince you how highly I esteem youi- fidelity to yoiu- Prince, and the good conduct you have uniformly exhibited. Receive, therefore, as a present, what the laws of war have rendered my property — yom- arsenal, unmjiu-ed. Let this always serve as a pledge for the main- tenance of order. Attribute the misfortunes which you have suffered diu'ing the campaign, to the evils inseparable from war ; and the respect which has been paid by my army to yom- country, may be ascribed to the esteem which you have merited at the hands of the French soldiers." News now arrived of a declaration of war against France on the part of the Court of Naples. At the commencement of the campaign of Austcrhtz, the two countries had been on the most friendly terms ; and so late as the preceding September, a treaty of neutrality had been signed by Ferdinand, in order that General St. Cyi', whose troops, agreeably to a former stipulation, were quartered in the Neapolitan territories, might be at liberty to withdi-aw, and follow jNIassena 479 WAR WITH >"APLES. through Upper Italy to the assistance of the Grand Army before the gates of Vienna. The object of the King of the Two SiciHes was no sooner accompHshed by the removal of the French soldiers, than that ]\Ionarch collected all his forces, opened his harbours to the enemies of France, received into his states twelve thousand Russian and eight thousand English soldiers, and marched upon the Venetian States, Avith the insolence of certain triumph. His joy, however, was soon banished by the news of the Aictory of Austerlitz. The Russians and English did not even stand by him to see the result ; but, on learning the disasters of the Allies, marched at once to the coast and re-embarked. The King and Queen of Xaples fled to Sicily, so frequently their place of refuge from the storms which their perfidy had provoked : but Napoleon was not now, as on previous occasions, to be appeased by mere offers of submission. A last proclamation was pubhshed at Schonbrunn, which, after setting forth the many provocations to which France had submitted from Naples ; the generous treatment which the latter had constantly experienced; and the repeated treachery of Ferdinand and his Cabinet, announced that " the d}Tiasty of Naples had ceased to reign ; its existence being incompatible with the peace of Europe and the honour of the French empire." Rapp was despatched to General St. Cyr, with orders for him to lead his troops back to Naples ; and Joseph Bonaparte, who had been first honoured with a miUtary command at the camp of Boulogne, was dii*ected to enforce the sentence of expulsion, recently pronounced upon the Royal Family. The war was a brief one. The Queen of the Two Sicilies Avas the only distinguished person among her husband's subjects who retained a spark of manly spirit; and when her conduct made the cause of her covmtry appear desperate, few were inclined to make a venture for national independence or personal right. Fortress after fortress fell into the hands of the French, without a blow being struck to save them : the cowardly Neapolitan officers, with the Prince Royal at their head, setting the example of flight whenever a French cockade Avas discernible. " One single trait of gallantry," says Sir Walter Scott, " illuminated the scene of uni- versal pusillanimity." The Prince of Hesse-Philipsthal, to Avhom the defence of the strong fortress of Gaeta had been entrusted, refused to surrender it on the capitulation of the CroAvn Prince. " Tell your 4M AVAR WITH NATLES. General," said he, in reply to the French summons, " that Gaeta is not Ulm, nor the Prince of Hesse General Mack ! " The place, however, after a brave resistance, was compelled to surrender ; and the Prince who had defended it shortly afterwards died. The whole of his mainland territories were thus wrested from the imbecile King of Naples, whose subjects regarded the change of masters as a release from oppressive thraldom, rather than a question of foreign invasion and conquest. This branch of the Bourbons, indeed, had long been as unpopular as that of France at the time of the Revolution ; and the feehng of discontent against them was daily strengthened by reports of the prosperity, wliich had already resulted from a diiferent system of government in the neighbouring kingdom of Italy. During these proceedings, Napoleon repaired to ]Munich, in order to be present at the nuptials of the Princess Augusta, of Bavaria, with Prince Eugene Beauharnais, Viceroy of Italy, whom the Emperor had recently adopted as his son, and declared to be his presumptive successor in the kingdom of Italy. The Empress Josephine met her consort in the capital of Bavaria, and assisted at the celebration of her son's marriage, which took place on the 13th of January, 1806. Eugene is said to have had no idea of this match Avhen Napoleon sent for him from Milan, and was not well pleased when he learned the purport of his journey ; but, after seeing his bride, the repugnance Avhich he felt to a merely political alHance was dispelled by the beauty, grace, and accomphshments of the Princess. Magnificent iS] 3 Q MARRIAGE OF EUGENE BEAUHARNAIS. fetes were given on the occasion, whicli lasted for a week, and which received additional eclat from the presence of the Emperor and Empress ; to honour whom all the wit and loveliness of Bavaria seemed to have been assembled. In the ■ meantime, the people of Paris were preparing for the reception of their victorious Sovereign. Tlie whole French nation was in raptures. Napoleon, from the earliest dawn of his career, had wrought mu-acles as a general, and people were prepared for great achievements ; but the campaign of Austerlitz, by which, in a few months, and -vnth scarcely an apparent effort, so much had been effected, seemed like the realization of a faiiy tale. The veni, vidi, vici, of Cajsar, after reading a few of the bulletins, and tracing upon the map the progi-ess of Napoleon, loses its power over our minds; for we feci that, when those words were written, the conqueror of ancient Gaul could have had comparatively little to communicate, but what the words themselves were capable of expressing. AVe can scarcely wonder then, that we find men exalting one who had thus surpassed their conceptions of himian possibility to the dignity of a demigod. In the race of public adulation wherein all classes in France com- peted to welcome the Emperor, the Tribunate led the way. In the sitting of the 30th of December, 180.5, a resolution was adopted to render to Napoleon a testimony of the imbounded admiration, love. 483 FLAGS OF AUSTERLITZ. and gratitude of the people, " wHcli should be as immortal as his glory." On the 1st of January, 180G, the flags sent home by the Emperor, fifty-four of which had been given to the Senate, were taken to the Luxembom-g, by the Tribmiate in a body, attended by the civil authorities, the soldiers of the garrison, military bands, and an immense concourse of the populace. The Senate, with the Grand Elector as President, was assembled to receive them ; and the Arch- Chancellor and all the Ministers were present. Upon sight of the standards of the enemy, it was unanimously decreed : — " That a triumphal monument should be erected in honour of NAroLEON the Great. That the Senate and Tribunate, on his arrival in Paris, should wait on the Emperor to assui-e him of the gratitude and affection of the French people; and that his letter to the Senate, 4S3 PTTBLIC REJOICINGS. dated at Elchingen, on the ITtli of October, 1S05, should be engra- ven on marble tablets, to be placed in the saloon of the senatorial chamber." The cathedral of Notre Dame, according to the promise of the Emperor, made to the municipal deputation of Paris, at Schonbrunn, received its portion of the ti"ophics of the campaign, on the 1 9th of January ; when the metropolitan clergy were all in attendance at the church to receive them. Fetes and rejoicings were universal throughout the empire, and sustained for several days together. France, indeed, would have been tired of the numerous holidays which the victories of its Chief afforded ; but that it was universally known that his wars hitherto had been wars of defence and independence, and that consequently what contributed to his glory was an additional assurance of safety to the nation. CHAPTER XXII. I'UBLIC REJOICINGS — THE LEGISLATIVE SESSION NEW NOBILITY — JOSEPH BONAPARTE, KING OF NAPLES LOUIS, KING OF HOLLAND CONFEDE- RATION OF THE RHINE TREATY WITH THE PORTE DEATH OF PITT NEGOCIATIONS WITH ENGLAND — DEATH OF FOX — DOMESTIC LIFE OF THE EMPEROR. 1806. ATOLEON and Josephine returned to O Paris, on the 2Gth of January, 180G, and were received in the capital, as they had been in all the towns through which '^ they passed in their journey, with the ': utmost enthusiasm. The houses M'ere ^ everywhere illuminated, and splendid fetes were given by all who had the means of thus testifying their joy at the salvation of the country. The Senate and Tribunate waited on the Emperor, at the Tuileries, on the 28th, and invested him, in the name of the whole people, with the title of Great ; which it was said had been merited by achievements. PUBLIC MONUMENTS. for the preservation of the empire, surpassing those of the heroes of ancient and modern times. At the same period, Denon, who had the chief superintendence of the Imperial works of art, submitted to Napoleon a series of designs for medals and trophies to commemorate the magnificent actions of the campaign, commencing with the depar- ture of the army from the camp of Boidogne, and ending with the triumphal return of the victor to Paris. The Emperor examined these with some interest ; but, however he might have sought to conceal inimical facts from others, he had no relish for personal adu- lation. Perceiving that one of the designs represented an eagle in the act of destropng a leopard, he hastily asked its meaning. " It is. Sire," repUed Denon, " a French eagle, strangling in its talons a leopard, the ancient heraldic emblem of England." Napoleon threw the design violently to th^ further end of the apartment ; and, rising in anger, exclaimed, " Vile flatterer ! With what assurance do you tell me that the eagle of France subjects the leopard of England, when I cannot even send a fishing-boat to sea, but it is instantly seized by the English ? It is the leopard that strangles the eagle. Let me see no more of such absurdities." Then passing on to the design intended to depict the battle, he said, " Put on one side the words Battle of AusterlUz, with the date ; and, on the other, the eagles of France, Austria, and Russia — posterity will be at no loss for the rest." This anecdote seems sufficient to remove from Napoleon the impu- tation of being the author or director of the pompous inscriptions, extravagant compliments, and perplexed designs which disfigured many of the public monuments of France erected during the Empii-e. His taste, indeed, appears to have been remarkably simple, and his judgment severe; assimilating to those of the ancients, upon the model of whose characters, as di'awn by the classical historians, he avoAvcdly endeavoured to form his own. One other instance of delicacy of sentiment is worth recording. Kellerman was deputed by a large body of influential citizens to obtain the sanction of the Emperor to the erection of a mark of personal honour to himself. Napoleon modestly declined the proposal, and intimated that in his opinion no man could merit such a testimony of approbation till his career was closed. And though afterwards the Emperor's statue was placed upon the bronze column in the Place Vendome, on FINANCIAL EMBARRASSMENTS. which the campaign of AusterUtz was elaborately sculptured, it appears to have been in deference to the opinions of importunate courtiers, rather than with his voluntary assent ; as in the original design, which was prepared under his eye, the pillar was suraiounted by an image of Peace. Even as it was, the ornamental had to sur- render something to the useful. Before the cannon of Austerlitz were broken up, the Minister of Finance solicited the Emperor to grant him a score of the guns. "What!" exclaimed Napoleon, laughing, "docs our Minister wish to make war on us?" — " No," replied Gaudin, " but on some ricketty machines which kill the workmen in your mint. Twenty of these cannon will suffice to reconstruct the beams of the engines ; and that it may not be forgotten whence they were derived, I will have Austerlitz engraven on them." Of the guns granted upon this appeal were formed the machinery still used for stamping the coin of the kingdom of France. Though, externally, everything seemed to wear a smiling aspect. Napoleon was not without reason for uneasiness on his return to Paris. Through the failure of some extensive transactions between the heads of the French Victualling Office and the Spanish minion, Godoy, the Prince of Peace, to which upwards of eighty millions of francs had been appropriated, and the success of which had been frustrated by the vigilance of the English navy, considerable embarrassment had arisen in the financial operations of the empire, and a run upon the National Bank had followed. Before Napoleon quitted INIunich, the government bills had declined to twenty-two below par; and on his arrival in Paris he found that the frmds had fallen twelve per cent. He was not long, however, in discovering the occasion of the panic ; and, by his personal influence with commercial houses, native and foreign, soon succeeded in restoring public confidence, and in enabling the bank to resume its suspended payments. It has been observed, that after the battle of Austerlitz, Napoleon exhibited great anxiety to have his authority recognised by the crowned heads of Eui'ope. The Emperor of Austria, the Kings of Prussia and Denmark, and those of more recent creation, together with the independent Princes of Germany and Italy, had already acknowledged his title, and treated with him as a legitimate sovereign. England withheld its acknowledgment, because in admitting his 487 THE PANTHEON. — ST. DENIS. right to the throne he occupied, she would have abandoned one of her strongest arguments for continuing the "war, which was constantly asserted to be for the restoration of the Bourbons to their lawful inheritance. The Emperor of Russia, who had a keen eye to the subsidies of England, followed the example of that country in adchessing J^apoleon as "the Chief of the French Government;" and had artfully contrived to evade all further recognition, by his hasty withdrawal from the scene of his military exploits. There is no doubt that Napoleon repented of liis lenity towards his conquered enemies the moment he heard of their duplicity. It became certain, indeed, from that instant that no permanent peace was to be hoped for ; but that the Treaty of Presburg, like all former conventions, would endure only till a convenient opportunity should arise for the renewal of hostilities. The consideration of these circumstances is sufficient to remove any surprise we might otherwise feel at the sensibihty of the Emperor on the 'subject of his rank. He knew that until he should obtain admission to the charmed circle of monarchy, and become one of the ilite, he would, notwithstanding his investiture by the nation over which he ruled, experience neither faith nor justice from neighbouring states but such as his sword enabled him to command. In order to remove, as far as possible, all obstacles to the general recognition of his title, and to surround the institutions of the empu-e M'ith the same formalities and rites as distinguished the old monarchies of Europe, and thus impart to it an air of permanence, he now began to introduce some of those minuter reforms, which, wliile they seemed to aflfect no general principle, M^ere calculated to make a deeper impression upon the people, and more especially upon strangers, than things of greater moment. The Pantheon, which had been first desecrated by the heathen ritual established by the revolutionary philosophers, and afterwards dedicated to the memory of the great men of the country, whose ashes were deposited in its vaults, was restored to its original use as a cathoHc temple, rmder its former name of the church of St. Genevieve ; and the royal chapel of St. Denis, which had been the sepulchre of the various races of French Princes from the period when King Dagobert first consecrated the edifice to the patron saint of France, was restored to its pristine grandeui- and LEGISLATIVE SESSION. sanctity. A few Republicans murmured at this erasure of the hist traces of the great revolution; but their voices soon subsided into silence, when it was seen that the returned emigrants of the Faubourg St. Germain were as much outraged as themselves, at changes Avhich indicated a sense of security in the Bonaparte dynasty, while they made the hopes of the Bourbons grow fainter and fainter. On the 2nd of March, Napoleon opened in person the new session of the Imperial Legislatiu'e ; and, in his speech from the throne on the occasion, spoke of his military successes Avith force and truth. " The French armies," he said, " ceased not to conquer till they ceased to combat. Our enemies are humbled and confounded. The "'rnHnnlH ■i|plr^iSlj| Hf '''^IIIH HS'-i "■"■ T i il' '.1 ■ ^ •« « ? V ifrW- ' -• , . 1, 0> V -^ 489 3 R PUBLIC WORKS, royal house of Naples has ceased to reign, and the entii-e peninsula of Italy is allied to the Great Nation." At the same time, he could not avoid alluding, with some chagrin, to his own mistaken generosity in granting to Austria such easy terms of peace, and in permitting the Russian Emperor to retreat with all that remained of his army, without a guarantee for future pacific intentions. The INlinistcrs then rendered an account of the situation of the empire : the rapid progress of which towards internal prosperity may be inferred from the following statement of improvements in the several departments. Of the great roads, the Minister of the Interior enumerated those of Valogne to La Hogue, and of Caen to Honfleui*, as finished ; that of Ajaccio to Bastia as half completed ; that of Alessandria to Savona as being traced ; and those of Paris to Mayence, by way of Hamburg, and of Aix-la-Chapelle to Montjoie, as surveyed and ordered. " A laudable emulation," added the Minister, " animates a great number of the communes for the resto- ration of the public roads in their neighbourhood." The bridges re-estabhshed were those at Kchl and Brissac, on the Rliine ; at Givet, on the Mouse ; at Tours, on the Cher ; at Nevers and Eoanne, on the Loire ; at Auxonne, on the Saone ; and many others of less importance. The two fierce torrents of the Diu'ance and the Isere, previously deemed untractable, had been subjected to man's dominion, and made to flow under bridges which were at all times passable. Six grand canals carried the commerce of France from city to city, and province to province ; that of St. Quentin, the canal Napoleon, joining the Eliine to the Rhone ; the canal of Burgundy ; those of Blavet and LTle-et-Rance ; that of Aries ; and those running into Belgium. Several others were commenced, among which were those of St. Valery and Sedan, and those connecting Beaucaire with Aigues- Mortes, Niort Avith La RocheUe, and Nantes with Brest; several others were planned, embracing those of Censee, Charleroi, Ypres, and Briare. The ports and harbours had been improved, and rendered more commodious, more easily accessible, and more safe. The works of art and trophies of the national glory, with which the capital had been ornamented, were then spoken of by M. Champagny, who summed up their magnitude and importance by asserting, that the fruits of a year of war, under Napoleon, had been equal to those CIVIL CODE. of an ordinary half century of peace. New and splendid quays had been established on the banks of the Seine, where also two bridges had been erected in the preceding year. A third, more important than either of its predecessors, was on the point of being erected ; in the neighbourhood of which a new quarter of the city was designed to be built, the streets of which were intended to bear the names of the brave men who had fallen in defence of the comitry in the last campaign : while the bridge itself was to be called after the crowning victory of Austerhtz. At the entrance of the boulevards was to be placed a triumphal arch ; and a column, designed to commemorate the events of the war, was to attest to succeeding ages the grateful nation's sense of its soldiers' services. The Legislative bodies replied to these statements by an addi'ess to the Emperor, couched in language which to the ears of sober criticism appears, to say the least, somewhat too enthusiastic ; but which, notwithstanding, may have arisen naturally enough from the astounding circumstances which called it forth. Words, indeed, seem to have been felt inadequate to express the speaker's consciousness of the greatness of him who, by the force of his genius and character alone, had been able from the most chaotic elements to eiFect such wonders. " The years of your Majesty's reign," said De Fontanes, "are more prolific of glorious events, than centmies under other djTiasties." In this session, the Legislative bodies adopted the Code of Civil procedui'e, which had been prepared to regulate the forms of process in all the coiu'ts thi-oughout the empire, and to render justice more certain and easy of attainment. The Bank of France was reorganized, the Imperial University established, the taxes diminished, and greater encouragement afforded to commerce, manufactures, and agriculture. In the sitting of the 30th of March, the statute of the Imperial house received the sanction of the Legislature, in which the rights of suc- cession and laws for the governance of the Princes and Princesses of the Emperor's family were set forth. The Bonapartes were stated in tliis law to belong entirely to the coimtry; and, as a necessity of then- rank and position, they were to be ready, whenever the public weal should requii-e such a sacrifice, to lay aside all individual feeling, and to devote themselves to their country's service in whatever way KEW NOBILITY. she should rcqviirc. A new nobility was at the same time created; comprising hereditary principalities, dukedoms, and counties with grand fiefs attached, and titles of such importance, that the proudest of the ancient nobility of the Continent might vail their diminished heads before the humbly born marshals and generals with whom "the Corsican Adventurer" had conquered three-fourths of Europe. The principalities of Lucca, Massa-Carrara, and Garfagnana, were conferred on Eliza, the eldest of Napoleon's sisters, who, at an early age, and against the will of her brother, had married a Corsican captain of artillery named Bacciochi. Pauline, the second sister, whose first husband. General Leclerc, had died in the expedition against the negroes of St. Domingo, and who had afterwards been married to Prince Camillo Borghese, received in sovereignty the Duchy of Guastella. Mui-at was created Grand Duke of Berg and Cleves, Cambaceres Duke of Parma, Lebrun of Placenza; Berthier became Prince of Neufchatel, Talleyrand of Benevento, and Berna- dotte — who owed his elevation to his connexion by marriage with the Bonaparte family, added to a youthful attachment which had been entertained by Napoleon for Madame Bcrnadotte before her marriage — was honoured with the Italian principality of Ponte-Corvo. Soult was created Duke of Dalmatia, Lannes of Montebello, Ney of Elchingen, Caulaincourt of Vicenza, Bessieres of Istria, Augereau of Castiglione, and INlassena of Rivoli ; while below these were a long train of dukes and counts of the empire, each of whom, had he appeared in an age less fertile of the greatest men, would have had his separate biographer, and been deemed a hero of imperishable renown. These dignities were accompanied by grants of extensive feudatories in France, or the countries which had been annexed to the empire, the income from which was fixed at a fifteenth of the general revenue of the several estates. " The possessors of ancient titles," says Sir "\\"alter Scott, " tempted by this revival of the respect paid to bu'th and rank, did not fail to mingle with those whose nobility rested on the jiew creation; and the Emperor distinguished those olden minions of royalty with considerable favour, as they mingled among the men of new descent, and paid homage to the monaixh of the day; 'because,' as one of them expressed himself, 'one must necessarily serve some person.'" NAPLES. HOLLAND. Shortly after these creations, Joseph Bonaparte, without being allowed, however, to relinquish his office and title of Grand Elector of the French Empire, was elevated to the throne of Naples, from which the Bourbons had been ejected for their repeated breaches of faith and of which they were utterly unworthy for their cowardice, and their want of patriotism and principle. About the same period, a deputation from the Batavian Republic arrived in Paris, to request that, as France and Italy had been exalted into monarchies, then- states might be consolidated into a kingdom; and that the Emperor would allow his brother. Prince Louis, to become " supreme chief of their Ecpubhc, and king of Plolland."-" To him," they said, " we are willing, wholly and respectfully, to confide the guardianship ol our laws, the defence of our political rights, and aU the interests of oui- beloved country, under the sacred auspices of Providence and the protection of your Majesty." Napoleon, who relied on the good disposition of Louis towards himself and France, readily granted the request of the Dutch: then turning to Louis, who was by his side during the interview, he said, " You, Prince, are caUed to reign over a people whose fathers owed their independence to the assistance of France. Holland afterwards became united to England — she was conquered; and a second time became indebted to France for her existence. Let her owe to you kings who may protect her liberties, her laws, and her religion : but never do you cease to be a French- man. The dignity of Constable of the Empire shall remain to you and your descendants. It vdW recall those duties you have to perform towards me." King Louis and his beautiful Queen, Hortense, accord- ingly proceeded to the Hague, where they commenced theh reign, m the beginning of June, 180G. Lucien and Jerome, who had given offence to their brother by marriages, which deranged the Emperor's plans of forming poUtical alliances that might assist in the establish- ment of the Imperial dynasty, were, for the present, overlooked in the distribution of honoiu's and wealth among the members and connexions of the Bonaparte family. It has been said, and we have the authority of Napoleon himself to the same effect, that in establishing the thrones of Bavaria, Wurtembc^-g, and Holland, and in placing his brother Joseph on that of Naples, his object was to environ France with useful feuda- 4»3 REFORMS. tories and allies, whose dependance upon the Great Emph-e would induce them to assimilate their laws and institutions with those of the country from which they derived their power; and thus to advance the progress of civilization throughout Europe, and, it may be added, to extend Napoleon's personal authority in countries which, without precipitating a crisis for which he was not then prepared, could not be formally united to his own dominions. The new thrones and principalities, indeed, were meant to form paits of a great machine, the revolutions of all the parts of which were designed to work to one great end — " a unity of codes, princij^lcs, opinions, sentiments, views, and interests, by the helj) of which, and the universal diffusion of knowledge, the attempt might have been made to apply in the great European family, the principle of the American Congress, or the Amphictj'ons of ancient Greece. What a prospect," added the Emperor, when thus relating his views to the companions of his exile at St. Helena, " would thus have been opened of power, grandeui-, happiness, and prosperity ! " Notwithstanding the occupation which these matters afforded. Napoleon found time in the midst of them to direct his attention to the definitive organization of the Council of State, the duties of which were of the greatest importance to the empire; as from that body emanated all the laAvs and organic changes submitted to the Legis- lative bodies. The Emperor generally presided at the sittings of the Council, which were seldom held less frequently than thrice a week ; and the meetings very rarely failed to produce a result in the proposal or advancement of some reform calculated to benefit Frenchmen, or to improve the general or local administration of government. To this period also belongs the institution of a professorship of rural economy, in the college of Alfort, intended to promote the national agricultm-e, and the breed of farm cattle. An Imperial stud was established, on a liberal and large scale, to endeavour, after the English manner, to improve the French race of horses. Gambhng- houscs were suppressed throughout the empire ; and the Jews, who had formerly been subjected to many arbitrary and uncertain laws, which imposed upon them the most harsh restrictions, were invited to send deputies to Paris, to lay before the Emperor a statement of their disabilities and grievances, in order that proper remedies might 404 RHENISH CONFEDERATION. be applied, and so useful a class of subjects rendered more serviceable, as citizens, to the State. The formation of the Confederation of the Ehine has been already- mentioned, in relation to the "s-isit of Xapolcon to the Khcnish provinces of France, previously to the campaign of Austerlitz. The union, however, which had been then agreed upon, had not had time to be moulded into form, or to assume a decided character, before the recommencement of hostilities. But now that the war was closed, the Emperor resumed his project of establishing such a power, in alliance with himself, as would cormterbalance the influence of the House of Austria over the German States, in any fresh attempt of that house against the independence of France. Bavaria, Wurtemburg, and a number of the German Princes, whose territories lay on the right bank of the Rhine, formed among themselves an aUiance, offensive and defensive, and, renouncing their allegiance to the German Diet, chose Napoleon as their "Protector and Mediator." The reasons assigned by the Princes forming this league for separating from their ancient Allies were, that in every case of war between France and Austria they were exposed to all the c^-ils of invasion, from which the Germanic body were unable to defend them — that body having been, indeed, on more than one occasion the chief, if not the only aggressor. By the Constitution established by the Confederation, the Allies were bound to fui'nish to their Protector adequate military contingents for all wars involving the safety of the States comprised in the union, or affecting their joint or separate interests. The Emperor Francis, whose family had so long been at the head of the Germanic body, having foreseen that these measures would have the effect of stripping the Holy Roman Empii-e of its boasted supremacy, had, at an early stage of the proceedings, laid aside his title of Emperor of Germany; and now, finding his worst fears fully verified, he formally declared the ties dissevered which had bound the German States in allegiance to him as their Sovereign and to each other as Allies. Thus, after a thousand years of stormy existence, it having commenced in the year 800, when Charlemagne received the Imperial Crown from Pope Leo the Third, sunk the once magnificent Empire of the West ; not, however, without having outlived its date, and become both useless and inglorious. DEATH OF PITT. An advantageous treaty of peace and commerce was about the same time concluded, through the agency of General Sebastian!, the French ambassador at Constantinople, with the Sublime Porte, whose extraordinary envoy, ]Mouhed Effcndi, obtained his first audience of the Emperor on the same day that the Dutch deputation solicited Louis Bonapai'te for their king. The Sultan recognised the titles of Napoleon, and placed the " Great Nation " on a level in com- mercial relations with the most favoured of his Allies. The subse- quent publication of this treaty assisted, probably, to keep alive the hostility of England against France ; she having previously enjoyed many exclusive privileges in her deahngs with the Ottomans ; and, perhaps, reckoned iipon her services in freeing Egypt and Sp-ia fi-om French domination to retain the undivided friendship of her Eastern Ally. In the mean time, an event occurred which seemed to afford a reasonable prospect of, the general pacification of Europe. Mr. Pitt, whose health had been greatly affected by the frustration of his hopes at Mai-engo, had sunk under the disastrous intelligence of Austerlitz, and died on the 23rd of January, 180G. His generous opponent. Fox, on the demise of that great Minister, succeeded to the direction FOX, PREMIER. of the councils of his country, and having lickl a friendly personal intercourse with Napoleon, and uniformly expressed his beUef that a sound and beneficial peace might be established between Great Britain and France, his accession to power was looked upon as a pledge that amicable measures would, at least, be had recourse to. An opportunity for testing the inchnations of both parties was soon afforded. A few days after the formation of Mr. Fox's Cabinet, a French emigrant called upon the English Minister and offered for a sum of money to assassinate the Emperor; a proposal which was immediately communicated to Prince Talleyrand, with information that the British laws did not authorize the detention of foreigners, unless guilty of some offence for which they were amenable to justice beyond a hmitcd time ; but that the Premier had done the miscreant who had called on him the honour of taking him for a spy, and would not liberate him till the lapse of a sufficient period to allow "the head of the French Government" to take all necessary pre- cautions against a meditated secret attack. Napoleon, gratified with the noble conduct of his informant, directed Talleyrand to express his thanks for the manly frankness of the disclosure, and his own pleasure at the same time in coni- templating what might be expected from a Cabinet guided by such patriotic and honest principles as those evinced by its leader. Taking advantage of the opportunity thus afforded, to confirm the truth of his desire for peace, the Emperor forthwith sent Lord Yarmouth, one of the most distinguished of the English who had been detained in France from the time of the rupture of the peace of Amiens, to London, with certain proposals for a treaty, in which he voluntarily offered to recognise in favour of England the possession of the Cape of Good Hope and INIalta. All things seemed favourable for negoci- ation. France had effectually humbled the Continent, and England was mistress of the seas : having banished all foar of invasion by the decisive victory of Trafalgar. The amusement with which the French ladies had occupied themselves a few months before, of making purses for their countrymen to fill with British gold when they should be masters of London, had been superseded by works of better thrift; and the people began to pine for articles of British native and colonial produce, which the incessant hostilities of the two nations debarred 497 3 s DEATH OF FOX. them from obtaining. In England, too, tlic weight of taxation Avas heavily felt ; and greater importance gradually became attached to Gallic manufactures as they grew more difficult of attainment. Britain could not then hope to conquer the Emperor on shore, and Napoleon had ceased to dream of competing Avith the navies of England on the ocean. There seemed, therefore, little to prompt a continuance of the contest; while there Avas a bright prospect of mutual advantage in bringing it to a close. Accordingly, upon the overtures of Napo- leon, Lord Lauderdale Avas sent to Paris on the part of the British Government, and Champagny and General Clarke Avere despatched to London by the Emperor, to treat for terms of an equitable and lasting peace. It is difficult to assign a reason for the Avant of success Avhich folloA\'ed these favoui'able preliminaries. Different causes have always been assigned by the politicians of England and France — each ascribing the failure to the insincerity and obstinacy of the other. It is certain, hoAvever, that both parties approached the discussion with doubt and distrust, which probably induced each to magnify the obstacles which Avould necessarily arise where questions of such magnitude Avcrc to be decided, and to underrate e\cvj concession offered by the other as something Avhich could not be withheld, or as intended merely to gloss over some secret and sinister design. But to whatever it might have been attributable, the negociations were protracted through the summer of 1806, and only discontinued in consequence of the change of Ministry Avhich took place upon the death of Mr. Fox, of AA'hose services the country Avas deprived by death on the 15th of September, in the same year that had witnessed the demise of his rival Pitt. " The death of Fox," said Nai^oleon at St. Helena, " Avas one of the fatalities of my career. Had his life been prolonged, affairs Avould have taken a totally different turn. We should soon have settled our differences ; the cause of the people would have triumphed ; and not only Avould France have been at peace Avith a nation, at bottom, most Avorthy of esteem, but together we should have established a ncAV order of things in Europe." There is no doubt that, at the period referred to, both Fox and Napoleon were sincere in their desires for peace : but, as Sir AValter Scott has observed, "while the tAvo nations retained their relative poAvcr and positions, the deep jealousy and mutual animosity Avhicli subsisted 198 PRIVATE LIFE OF NAPOLEON. between tlicm, woiild probably have rendcrd any peace Avhich could have been effected a mere suspension of arms — a hollow and insincere truce, which was almost certain to give way on the sHghtcst occasion." Tliat the sole hope of a speedy termination to the war had rested on the personal influence and feelings of the Premier, was rendered perfectly apparent by the adverse policy pursued by the British Cabinet immediately the spirit of that patriotic statesman had ceased to inform and animate it in its proceedings. Before passing to the stirring events related in the following chapter, we may pause for a moment to bestow a brief glance at the private life— if such, indeed, the hasty snatches of domestic quietude which his rapid and whirling career afforded, can be justly called— of the man whom not Europe only, but the world, now regarded with fixed wonder and awe, as an agent sent upon earth by inscrutable Providence to effect a revolution in the destinies of mankind. His elevation to Imperial rank and power had changed nothing of his simple tastes and habits. He Avas still the unostentatious soldier of Toulon and Areola; still the same indefatigable man as when he first entered the army a subaltern, and aspired to chief command with no better patrons to push his fortune than his own inflexible integrity, genius, and perseverance. He suffered few idle hours to escape him. He usually rose at seven, dressed with fastidious neatness, breakfasted with two or three private friends in the apart- ments of the Empress, generally on chickens di-essed with oil and onions, and a glass of Bordeaux or Burgundy, followed by a single cup of strong coffee. Then retiring to his cabinet, the pubUc papers, especially German and English, with the most striking passages from successful pamphlets of recent appearance, were read to liim, together with such letters, reports, and petitions as requii-ed his attention. To these he sometimes wrote, but more frequently dictated answers. He afterwards received the Ministers or pubHc officers, attended the Council, or \isited and inspected the National Institutions; seldom failing to make himself acquainted with the details of the business of each. The public accounts were audited in his presence ; and more than once inaccuracies and peculations were detected by himself, when they had been overlooked by pro- fessional accountants. 499 PRIVATE LIFE. J lis dinner, Avhich was served punctually at six, was frugal, and hastily despatched, seldom consisting of more than one course; and when this was exceeded, the additional covers were placed for the guests of the Emperor, and not for himself. AYith wine he was as temperate at this meal as at breakfast ; and the small quantity he drank was generally diluted. Dinner, like his morning repast, invari- ably closed with a cup of coffee, which was presented by the Prefect of the palace, on a silver salver, and handed to Napoleon by the Empress. He rarely remained at table, but returned to his cabinet, to resume the labours of the morning ; it being his constant maxim, that " nothing should be put off till to-morrow that might be done to-day." He indulged in no kind of excess, except his passion for the bath may be so considered : a passion which he considered a necessity of his existence. Here he usually remained for two hours, during which he kept constantly turning _ the warm water valve, till the temperature of the apartment was raised to such a pitch that the attendants, unable to endure the heat and vapour, were compelled to open the door. He Avas seldom out of humour ; but when this was the case, his spleen usually vented itself in a kind of humming noise, which was intended for singing, or in a few hasty words uttered while he poised himself on the hinder legs of his chair, and carved notches with a penknife in its right elbow. If, however, he found occasion to express his serious disapprobation of the conduct of any one, his remarks were harsh, sarcastic, and humiliating. But this never occurred, except upon the clearest proof of flagrant culpability ; nor without the presence of a third party, in order, as he himself said, that the blow might resound to a greater distance. When pleased, nothing could surpass the easy gaiety and fascination of his conversation and manners. His expressions were rapid, pointed, and picturesque ; his discourse abounded with noble views and elevated ideas of science, literature, art, and politics. He was apt, indeed, to allow himself to be carried away by the fervour and frankness of the moment, and to make indiscreet disclosures as to his future views; a species of heedlessness against which he was never sufficiently on his guard in the society of those in •\\hom he had confidence. All who had access to him, in his hours of relaxation, speak with the PRIVATE LIFE. same enthusiasm of the spell whieh his eonversation ne^^r failed to create The wai-mth of his imagination, his accented declamation his quick utterance, which, when he was animated, it was difficult to follow; the hasty glances of his bright dark eye winch beamed with tenderness, sternness, or pleasure, according to the subject of his speech, and lighted his noble and expressive countenance mto grace and beauty, gave a character to his features, which the painter and the sculptor have been able but faintly to depict His mode of contradicting his friends was usually introduced with a shght pmch of the arm, or fillip of the ear, accompanied by the expression, « You are a simpleton," " a ninny," " a blockhead," or "an ini- becile-" but he was by no means impatient of contradiction liimseU, even in the gravest matters; and not unfrequently his previously declared resolutions have been entirely changed by the arguments adduced in his council, or by a friend. Napoleon was extremely fond of children, and loved to question and converse with those with whom he was brought in contact; always encouraging them to answer frankly, and without reserve. His inter- course with women was more constrained, and less gallant than that of the generahty of Frenchmen. He frequently addressed to them awkward comphments upon their dress or adventures; which w^e usually intended as gentle satfres upon what displeased him. He especially disliked the appearance of ladies who were too robust or who exposed theh necks. For coloui-ed dresses he had also a great aversion. Josephine was usually in white; was tall and graceful ; .nd by her exquisite taste had moulded his into fastidiousness. His evenings were generaUy passed in the drawing-room of the Empress, where the ladies of honour and officers of the house- hold, with a few other privileged persons, were usually assemb ed AH was freedom and aifabiUty at these parties. Napoleon laid aside the Emperor, and spoke with pleasui'e and candour to all Monge, Bertholet, Denon, Costaz, Corvisart (his physician), and David, Gerard, Isabey, and Talma were frequently present; and the conversations which ensued have been echoed by the press throughout the world. He usually retii'ed to rest soon after mid- Bi.ht ; and it was one of his directions to his secretary, that, dm-ing the night, he should never be disturbed, except upon the PRIVATE LIFE. arrival of bad news : " In which case," he said, " not an instant should be lost." When he first acquired possession of unlimited power, he was accustomed to ramble of an evening through the streets of Paris, dressed in a grey surtout and round hat, and to make small purchases in shops where he was not likely to be recognised. While the single attendant, who accompanied him on these occasions, looked at the articles proposed to be bought. Napoleon entered into conversation with the shopkeeper, asking the news, and the opinions afloat respecting Bonaparte. Once he was compelled to make a precipitate retreat, to avoid the consequences of the irreverent manner in which he had spoken of himself. His household arrangements were all under his own surveillance, and regulated with the strictest economy. It has been observed, that he was, in a great measure, his own butler, steward, and upholsterer ; so strictly did he examine every account that was tendered for payment. After he became Emperor, he still continued to employ the same tradesmen who had served him in the days of his obscurity. " A silversmith, who, when the command of the Army of Italy was first conferred upon him, had given him credit for a dressing-case, worth fifty pounds, was afterwards rewarded with the patronage of the Imperial family; and, ultimately, became one of the wealthiest citizens of Paris. A hatter and a shoemaker, who had also served Napoleon when a subaltern, might have risen in a similar manner, had then- skill equalled the silversmith's ; but not even the Emperor's example could persuade the Parisians to wear ill-shaped hats and clumsy boots ; though he himself adhered, through life, to liis original connexion with these humble artisans." The extravagance of Jose- phme, her greatest foible, was an occasional source of annoyance to her husband. She seemed to have no idea of the value of money, and, of course, understood nothing of economy. At one period, her debts, which had been all contracted without the knowledge of Napoleon, amounted to twelve hundi-ed thousand francs (fifty thousand pounds sterling). Napoleon was exceedingly vexed, Avhcn, through the complaints of the numerous un2")aid creditors, it became necessary that he should be informed of the circumstances. " Let the bills be settled," he said, giving orders concerning the funds for that pur- PRIVATE LIFE. pose ; " but not witliout being first submitted to me. These creditors must be rascals, robbers." From a few of the items of which the accounts were composed, it is perfectly apparent that these epithets were not Avholly unmerited. The overcharges, both in quantity and price, were of the most exorbitant character. In a milliner's bill, thirty-eight new hats were charged for one month, being more than one per diem ; the feathers for which cost eighteen hundred francs ; and for the same period eight hundred francs were charged for perfumery. So gross and glaring, indeed, was the knavery practised, that almost every creditor was satisfied -ndtli half the amount of his account ; and one, who accepted thirty -five thousand in full for eighty thousand francs, admitted that he had made a good profit after all. This thoughtless profusion of the Empress created the sole disorder which was ever known in the Imperial household. In literature, Xapoleon seldom occupied his time with the light works of the day. Homer, Virgil, Tasso, Ossian, who was an especial favourite ; the classical historians, philosophers, and orators ; the great French poets and historians ; the novelists of France and England, and the best mathematical writers, engaged nearly aU the houi's he could devote to reading. Corneille he esteemed the greatest poet of modern times. " Had he lived in my day," he once exclaimed, after witnessing the representation of 'Cinna,' " I would have made him a prince." The memory of the Emperor, for facts, persons, and localities, was prodigious ; but he less readily remembered names and dates. He had no faith in physic, which he deemed merely a con- jectural art, the advantages of which were incapable of demonstration. He took snufi"; though not in large quantities, nor fi-om the pocket of his vest, as has been sometimes represented. He had finely formed hands, of which he was exceedingly careful. His teeth were white, and well set. In walking, he stooped a little in his gait; and generally, if alone, had his hands crossed behind his back. He seemed almost insensible to fatigue, whether with the army, in his cabinet, or at his ordinary exercise of walking, writing, or dictating. His health was excellent, and his sleep sound and refr-cshing. To sum the character of his private life, he was cheerful, kind, and benevolent ; with a large share of indulgence for the weakness and frailty of others, and Avith less follies of his own than might have been PRIVATE LIFE. pardonable in his situation and circumstances. So they who knew hiin best have always spoken of him; even those who were least lenient to what they considered the errors of his poKtical career, or the madness of his ambition. S04 -.U»Mx*i\i\it'-'.v '(t*rai.vrv- CHAPTER XXIII. NORTHERN CONFEDERACY - SECOND VISIT OF ALEXANDER TO BERLIN - RENEWAL OF THE WAR WITH RUSSIA AND PRUSSIA— SAALFELD — DEATH OF PRINCE LOUIS — JENA — AUERSTADT — THE DUKE OF BRUNSWICK WOUNDED — POTSDAM — VISIT TO THE TOMB OF FREDERICK THE GREAT. 1806. NDER the guidance of the British Go- venimcnt, the Emperor Alexander had -ucd for peace in the summer of 1806, and a treaty had been signed by the Ministers of France and Russia on the 20th of July ; but the death of Fox having diverted the Court of England from its pacific policy, the Autocrat refused to ratify the act of his ambassador, and entered into a new compact with England to renew the war on the Continent. In the meantime, the negociations that had been carried on between France and England necessarily transpked in the British Parliament; by which it appeared, that although, by the treaty with ^aug^^atz KY ro5 NORTHER?? CONFEDERATION. at Vienna, the electorate of Hanover had been ceded to Prussia, Napoleon had not considered that a final disposition; and was pre- pared, for the sake of a general peace, to restore to the King of England his German dominions, and to indemnify Prussia in some other way. Frederick William, notwithstanding his former pro- fessions, that he held Hanover only till peace should be restored, was not prepared to let his prize so speedily escape him, and was therefore exasperated, beyond measure, to find that his own duplicity was likely to be retorted on himself. He now first began to perceive, that his own arts had not misled Xapoleon ; and that, having allowed the time when decisive conduct on his part might have had an influence on the aflau's of Europe, to pass away in treacherous inactivity, his power was despised and himself contemned by all parties. The' rage of the King and his Court knew no bounds. " Prussia," says Mr. Hazhtt, " had followed the war as a suttler, to pickup what she could get;" and iiow seeing that her acquisitions, in that more than questionable capacity, were only to be held on sufferance, she resolved to abaiulon the character of mercenary, and assume a chivalrous and heroic part. The power of Austria had been hvimblcd ; a circumstance which occasioned rejoicings, rather than sympathy, at Berlin — for the house of Brandenbui'g had long aspired to the Imperial crown of Germany, and saw no way of attaining its object but by the depression of the family whose brows that crown had so long encircled. The Confederation of the Rhine, and the consequent dissolution of the Germanic League, had dissij)ated these illusive hopes ; and Frederick WilHam saw, with the bitterest chagrin, that the influence which he had reckoned to acquire, by the prostration of his rival, had already passed into the hands of the French Emperor. In order to oppose an eflective barrier to the growing power of Napoleon, the Prussian Monarch endeavoured to form a confederacy, of which he should be Protector, of the same character as that of the Eliine. The Prince of Hesse Cassel, however, and the Elector of Saxony, chose to decline acceding to the proposal ; the former from fear of Napoleon's displeasure, the latter from attachment to his person and policy : and Avhen the French Emperor was appealed to, respecting the force Avliich Prussia sought to exert, he at once asserted, that as no compulsion had been used in the Pvheuish 50 R QI7EEN OF PRUSSIA. Confederation, none should be permitted in that designed to op- pose it. Finding all his schemes of national and personal aggrandisement, therefore, likely to prove abortive, Frederick AVilliam resolved to have recourse to arms. Every artifice was used to mflame the Prussians against the French. Prince Louis, the brother of the King, talked incessantly of the victories of the Great Frederick, and contrasted the glory and prosperity of those days, with the present inactivity and the decaying importance of the nation. The Queen, a beautiful and masculine-spirited woman, put on the uniform of the regiment which bore her name, frequently appeared at its head, and harangued the soldiers on Avhat she called the wrongs and insults Avhich had been heaped upon the country. The enthusiasm of the young courtiers. who held command in the arm}", was soon excited and communicated to the soldiery. Some of the former, indeed, are reported in their fury to have broken the windows of such of the Prussian INIinisters' houses as they conceived to be pacifically inclined towards France, to have applied every offensive term in their vocabulary to Napoleon, and to have sharpened their swords on the threshold of the French ambassador's hotel. The movement party hi Paris Avas as active in fomenting the rupture EXECUTION OF PALM. as that at Berlin. The officers and generals, who had won rank and fame in the wars of Napoleon, were desirous of increasing their laiu'els and fortunes; and those who had not yet attained the rank to which they aspired, could hope only to acquhe the distinction they sought on the field of battle. Murat was at the head of this faction; and finding some hesitation on the part of the Emperor to commence hostihties, he got up a petty quarrel of his own, by seizing the abbeys of Etten, Essen, and Werdcn in the county of Marck, as part of the domain of his Grand Duchy of Berg. The Prussians, to whom these estates seem really to have belonged, resisted this stretch of authority, and in the end some musket shots were exchanged. Prince Talley- rand stood almost alone among the French Ministry, in contending that the Empire could only be consolidated by peace. " The \dctories of the Emperor," he said, "" may be best designated by an algebraic series, of which the first term was a, and the last will be zero.''^ In the meantime, the press throughout Germany and France teemed with libellous papers and pamphlets, filled with the utmost rancour and malignity, against Napoleon and his family on the one hand, and the King and Queen and Prince Louis of Prussia on the other. This species of warfare was not unattended by crimes of a deeper dye than generally belongs to literary skirmishing. Among the emigrants in the free towns of Germany, miscreants were con- stantly starting up and offering for sums of money to assassinate the Emperor and his officers. General Dumouriez was the patron of these men, and the advocate of their schemes ; and one Palm, a bookseller of the city of Naumburg, was the publisher of their detestable speculations. Some attempts were made to arrest the leader of these desperadoes; but failing in that, a body of gens- d'armes, by order of Davoust, who had been left in command of the district, seized upon Palm, and conveyed him prisoner to Braunau, where he was tried before a military tribunal, condemned, and immediately afterwards shot. Tliis, although the bookseller's conduct was highly reprehensible, was an illegal, and therefore unjustifiable proceeding, inasmuch as Palm was not amenable to the tribunal by which he was sentenced; and it excited universal indignation throughout (Germany. Su' Walter Scott ascribes to it consequences of the utmost importance. " The thousand presses of Germany," he 50 () ALEXANDER AT BERLIN. says, "continued on every possible opportunity to dwell on the fate of Palm; and, at the distance of six or seven years from his death it might be reckoned amongst the leading causes which determined the popular opinion against Napoleon." There is no evidence, however, and scarcely any probability, that the Emperor himself was aware of the crime, for such it certainly was, untd after its com- mission. It served the purpose of the moment, nevertheless to fix new ocUum upon liim; and furnished an additional pretext for the hostiUty of those who were predetermined to be his enemies. In the midst of the excitement which now prevaded in 1 russia, the Emperor Alexander once more appeared at Berlin to urge the King to take up arms in the cause of the Alhes. Frederick ^^ ilham, who had nothing to hope from further delay or dissimulation, readily renewed his vow at the tomb of the Great Frederick for the liberation of Germany, and received a promise from the Czar that when he was ready to take the field, the whole mditary force of Russia should be at his disposal. The EngUsh Government, also, about this time, notwithsanding the retention of Hanover by Frussia, sent Lord ^lorpeth to Berlin to offer a large subsidy for her assistance acamst France ; so implacable was the hatred of the Coiuts of Em-ope against the new Empire, that neither national wrong nor personal insult inflicted by each other could be strong enough to cause a diversion from the one great object of humbling Napoleon. Prussia began her preparations for war about the middle of August ; the whole people appearing to enter upon the work with enthusiasm. Napoleon, perfectly acquainted with what was passmg, was not idle. He wrote to his Allies of the Rhenish Confederation to denounce the intentions of Prussia and Russia, and to claim the contingents pro- mised by the Constitution of the Union. On the 25th of September, having heard from Berthicr, who was at Munich, that the Prussians were disposed to commence hostihties without a previous declaration, he resolved to anticipate them, and accordingly quitted Paris for the Rhine, accompanied as far as ^layence by the Empress. Orders were thence despatched to Strasburg, to embark all the troops from that fortress and the neighboui-hood on the Rliine; and to Hoi and, to dii-ect the Dutch army to enter INIunster and advance with aU speed to the Weser. On the 30th the Emperor was at AVuitzbui-g, where LETTER OF FREDERICK WILLIAM, he was hospitably cntertamed by the Elector, and received the accession of that Prince to the Confederation of which Napoleon was Protector. On the 1st of October he passed the Rhine; and on the same day, Prince Talleyrand, who had remained at Paris, demanded of the Prussian ambassador, who had not yet been recalled, an explan- ation of the preparations which were being made at Berlin. Count Knobelsdorff, in reply, delivered a manifesto, containing a long Hst of grievances and demands ; in which, among other things, it was required that the French troops should evacuate the territories of the Rhenish Confederacy by the 8th of October; and that the Emperor should thenceforth cease to offer any obstacle to the formation of a league in the north of Germany. This was occompanied by a letter, or pamphlet, of about twenty pages, signed by the King of Prussia, containing the most insulting remarks on the character and i:)ohcy of Napoleon ; proving, according to the admission of Sir Walter Scott, that Frederick William felt " less actually aggrieved, than mortified and offended." On the 7th of October, the French head-quarters were at Bamberg, when the messenger despatched by Talleyrand overtook the Emperor with the Prussian documents. On reading the letter. Napoleon handed it to the generals near him, with the observation, " I pity my brother, the King of Prussia, who does not understand French, and has certainly never read that rhapsody." With reference to the manifesto he remarked, " The French army has done more than it was bidden. We are commanded to quit the territories of the Rhenish Confederation by the Sth ; this is but the 7th, and we have already quitted them." An address to the army was at this time published, in which allusion was made to the offensive notes of the Prussian Sovereign. " Our enemies have dared to demand," he said, "that we, the soldiers of Austerlitz, should retreat at sight of their armies. The same faction, the same giddy spirit, which taking advantage of the internal dissensions of France, conducted Prussian troops fourteen ^-cars ago to the plains of Champagne, now presides over their councils. They then encountered defeat, death, and shame. March ! therefore, and let them again meet the same ftite ; since experience has not taught them, that while it is easy with the friendship of France to acquire increased power and territory, her PRUSSIAN DISPOSITIONS. enmity, Avliich none mIU provoke ■svho are not lost to all sense and reason, is more terrible than the tempests of the ocean." These pointed remarks were addressed more particularly to the Duke of Brunswick ; who, after having lost his youthful reputation, by his disgraceful flight from Champagne before Dumoiuicz and his army of conscripts, in 1792, had now again been placed at the head of the Prussian troops. The Duke was seventy-two years old, obstinate, and self-sufficient, entertaining profound contempt for the opinions and experience of others, and gifted with Httle of that genius which was indispensable to him who should hope to compete success- fully M'ith Napoleon. His plan of the campaign was singularly injudicious. Instead of awaiting the advance of the Russians on his own frontier, he resolved to push forwards towards Franconia, in order to comjDcl the Elector of Saxony, who wished to remain neutral, to unite his forces to those of Prussia. The conduct of Frederick William in this respect, was an exact counterpart of that of the Emperor Francis towards Bavaria, in the preceding campaign. The Saxon Prince, however, was not so fortunate as Maximilian, to be able to withdraw his troops before the arrival of the coercing army. His troops were therefore united with those of Prussia, but necessarily without the slightest good- will to the cause, of which they were thus forced to become partisans : nor was their friendship at all conciliated by their masters, who conducted themselves in Saxony in precisely the same manner as if in an enemy's country. The Prussian line was next extended to a length of ninety miles, in order to enable the troops to procure forage and subsistence, which the barren country of "Weimar was unable to supply. Their disposition, there- fore, resembled cantonments rather than a military position ; and as the Duke of Brunswick remained on the defensive, an opportunity was afforded for Napoleon to attack his forces in detail : a mode by which he had ruined every European army yet opposed to him. The magazines, reserves of artillery, ammunition, and provisions of the Prussians, instead of being in the rearward of their centre, were placed at Naumburg, on their extreme right. Having obtained information of this fact, and observed the general want of skill in the tactics of his opponents, the French Emperor immediately decided on the plan of his campaign. Dividing his army into three bodies, he 511 OPENING OF THE CAMPAIGN, gave orders, on the 8tli of October, for a simultaneous advance on several points of the enemy's line. The right wing, commanded by Ney and Soult, marched upon Hof. The centre, under Davoust and Bernadotte, with the Guard, which was led by Murat, and accom- panied by Napoleon himself, moved towards Saalburg ; and the left, under Lannes and Augereau, marched against Coburg and Saalfeld. The first skirmish took place, on the 9th, when the village of Schleitz, in the forest of Franconia, was captvu'ed by the corps of Bernadotte, and the greater portion of its defenders, consisting of six thousand Prussians, became prisoners of war. In this action, Murat particularly distinguished himself, heading the charges of the Guard, sabre in hand. On the 10th, the division of Lannes encountered, at Saalfeld, Prince Louis of Prussia with the advanced guard of Prince Hohenlohe, who commanded the Prussian left. The young Prince, instead of waiting to defend the bridge over the Saalc, abandoned that strong position and advanced into the open plain to give battle, with the vain hope that bravery might serve, instead of skill and experience, against superior numbers and a commander of the liighest talent. Prince Louis exhibited the utmost gallantry in leading his soldiers 512 DEATH OF PRINCK LOUIS. to the attack, and rallying them ^vhen they fled; but the impetuosity of the French bore down all opposition; and, after a brief but vahant resistance, the rout of the Prussians was complete. The Prmce, in a last desperate attempt to stay his flying squadrons, was overtaken by a quarter-master of hussars, named Guindet, who, after calling upon him to surrender, and receiving a sabre cut for reply, ran his sword throu-h the Prince's body : thus, according to the bulletm which contained the account of the battle, "Among the earliest results of the war, was the death of one of its authors." This ^-ictory gave the French access to the country behind the Saale, and enabled them to advance upon Naumburg, in the enemy's rear. On the 12th, the advanced posts of Napoleon's ai'my were at the gates of Leipsic, and his own head-quarters at Gera. The issue ol the struggle appeared, to the Emperor, no longer doubtful: in order, therefore, to remove from his own mind the responsibility of con- 3 U 513 LETTER TO FREDERICK WILLIAM. tinning what must henceforth be an aggressive war, and to evince his desire for peace, he addressed a letter to the King of Prussia, in whicli, feigning to reply to that of Frederick William which had been received at Bamberg, he expressed his regret that his brother had been made to sign the absurd compositions of his ministers, which were opposed alike to the honour and dignity of then- master, and of him to whom they had been sent. Notwithstanding this, however. Napoleon expressed his willingness to grant to Prussia any reasonable favour, so that it might save the lives of the num- bers A\hich must otherwise fall on each side, ere a final victory coidd decide the contest. He reminded the King, that this was not Avith himself the commencement of a military career ; and that he Avas not hkely to fear the hazards of battle : he merely Avished, he said, to save his Majesty, the mortification of utter defeat, to pre- serve his repose, and the existence of his subjects. Assuming that the Prussian Monarch must be aAvare that he Avas vanquished. Napoleon offered to treat Avith him on terms, and in a manner befitting his rank ; but informed him, that a month hence their relative situ- ations might be different, and that what Avas now voluntarily offered might be then refused to the most earnest solicitations. In conclusion, he ui-gcd his brother to dismiss from his councils those malevolent persons Avho had urged the commencement of the present Avar, and thereby endangered the existence of his Majesty's throne, and dis- turbed the tranquillity of his people. Without Avaiting for, or perhaps expecting, a reply to this letter. Napoleon directed the concentration of his right and left at Jena, Avhile the centre adA^anced to Naumburg, Avhere the magazines of the enemy were captured and consigned to the flames : their explosion first announcing to the astonished Duke of Brunswick, and the King his master, that the French army Avas in their rear, had destroyed their reserves, and that they had consequently no alternative but to give battle in an isolated position, and Avithout the possibility of exercising any discretion as to time or place. The Prussian chiefs had also this additional reflection to embarrass their councils ; that, in case of disaster, no line of retreat Avas open to them, and it could not be hoped that their scattered forces could be again collected for a concerted movement. " The enemy was betwixt them and Magde- M4 PRETAKATIONS. burg, ^vhich ought to have been their rallying point ; and the army of the Great Frederick," says Scott, " was brought to combat Avith as little miHtary science as a herd of school-boys might have displayed in a mutiny." In this desperate situation, llie Duke of Brunswick resolved to make a last effort for the recovery of Naumburg, and the re-establishment of communications with his rear. "With this intention he divided his army into two bodies, one of which he led in person, accompanied by the King of Prussia, towards Naumburg ; and the other, under the command of Marshal Mollendorf and the Prince of Hohenlohe, Avas directed to force its passage through the French lines in the neighbourhood of Jena. Napoleon, with the division of Lannes and the foot-guards, reached Jena in the evening of the 1 3th of October. The enemy was akeady in line a short distance in advance, and evidently intended to attempt forcing the passes of the Saale next morning. The sun had not quite set, when the Emperor, who had not expected that the Prussians were so near, and whose heavy artillery was still thirty-six hours' march behind, alighted from his horse, and went to reconnoitre, proceeding until some musket shots were fii-ed at him : he then returned, and ordered the positions of the columns to be taken up after dark. The utmost precautions and vigilance were necessary to complete the required arrangements before day-break. Soult and Ney had not yet come up ; and Murat, Davoust, and Bernadotte were at Naumburg. Napoleon's bivouac was on the summit of a plateau, or rising ground, overlooking Jena, and in the midst of his troops. Here he supped witli his generals, and afterwards went to see that nothing had been neglected that could conduce to the success of the next day's fight. He had scarcely descended the hillock when he found that the whole of Lannes' artillery had stuck fast in a ravine, which, in the darkness, had been mistaken for a road. There was no time to waste in reproaches or enquiries. The Emperor, therefore, set instantly to work to rectify the mishap. Taking upon himself tlie duties of an artillery officer, he collected the men, -nith their park tools and lanterns, and directed the widening of the ravine so as to extricate tlie axle-trees of the gun carriages from the rocks between which they were wedged. He did not quit the spot till the first waggon hud been di'awn up the new road thus formed, and some PREPARATIONS. guns mounted on the plateau, where no enemy would have looked for such engines, and where consequently a small park was likely to be more effective than a much larger one in a situation where its presence might have been expected. Retui'niug to the plateau, accompanied by two or thi'ee officers only, he was mistaken for a spy, and fired upon by a sentinel of his own army. The Prussians were said to be greatly addicted to nocturnal attacks, and a large portion of the line, alarmed by the report, instantly discharged their muskets. The Emperor had no refuge but to throw himself flat upon the ground mitil the mistake should be discovered; a situation which was rendered more unjjlea- saut by apprehension that the enemy would also take the alarm and fire. He did not regain his bivouac till after midnight, when he saw by the watch-fires in the enemy's front that the Prussians still lay stretched on a line of six leagues, while his own army was concentrated within the narrowest compass. Both armies were actively preparing for the work of the ensuing day. The hostile ranks Avere within half cannon-shot of each other, and the sentinels at the advanced posts nearly met. Ney and Soidt arrived during the night, and took the posts which had been reserved for them. Before daybreak, on the 14th of October, the whole of the French troops were under arms; but there Avas a dense fog vipon the ground, which prevented the Emperor from commencing the engagement so early as JENA. he had purposed. He harangued his soldiers, however, exhorting them to stand firm against the Prussian cavahy, the charges of which had been represented as extremely formidable. He reminded them that it was nearly a year since the capitulation of Ulm, when the Austi'ians Avere in similar circumstances to those of the Prussians at present ; being cut off from their line of operations, thek magazines and stores, and^compelled to fight, not for glory, but for the means of retreat. The corps, he added, which should permit the enemy to escape would forfeit its honour and reputation. The soldiers rephed to this ani- mating addi-ess with loud shouts, demanding instant orders to march agam^t the foe. The columns Avhich were to commence the attack were then ordered to advance into the plain : this being done, at about nine o'clock the ^N-ind arose and the sun shone out, which, speedily dissipating the mist that had previously concealed the movements of the two armies, discovered the hostile lines close upon each other. The French centre was commanded by Lannes, who was supported by the Imperial Guard under Lefebvrc ; the corps of Augercau formed the right, and that of Soult constituted the left. The conflict instantly commenced, the Prussians attacking the French right in order to expel Augereau from a village of which he had taken possession, and to turn his flank. The charge was vigorous and well-sustained, and the battle raged for some time on this point with variable success : the French and Prussians alteniately occupying the contested position. A detachment from the centre was at length sent by Napoleon to the assistance of the right, and the enemy was effectively dislodged. The entire centre now advanced, and by the rapidity of its move- ment, the skill with which it was managed, and the cool bravery of the soldiers, forced Mollendorf to shift his whole position. Still, however, the Prussians fought gallantly ; and though compelled by the impe- tuosity of their opponents to give way, they retreated steadily and slowly, disputing the ground inch by inch, so as to afibrd no ad- vantage to any one who might have attempted pursuit. Soult, mean- while, had led a series of heavy charges against the Prussian right, and, after a struggle of the most desperate character, succeeded in dispossessing the enemy of the woods in wliich they had been stationed alt the commencement of the action. At this period. Marshal 5J7 JENA. Ney appeared upon the field -vWth the reserve, eager for action, in high spirits, and confident of victory. The enemy ah'eady wavered. The Emperor ordered a general attack along the whole line, which the exhausted Prussians were unable to resist. They began to rethe in good order ; but Napoleon poured after them charge upon charge, Avith such tempestuous vehemence and rapidity, that, unable to withstand the shock, their rout became general. The cavahy and infantry became mixed in their flight, and added, by confusion, to the terrible carnage of pursuit. The panic-stricken troops fled towards "Weimar, on the road to which they became inextricably mingled with another tide of their fugitive countrymen, rushing with headlong speed in the same direction to escape the slaughtering swords of Murat's intrepid cavalry. The love for the Emperor's person which animated his troops was never more forcibly evinced than at Jena. At every pause of the cannonade arose loud cries of " Vive I'Empereur ! " droA^Tiing alike the ' sound of the drums and the SIS ATJERSTADT. screams of the wounded. If any corps, being opposed to a superior force, hesitated for a moment, the Emperor's name was sufficient to revive their courage and induce them to rush to the combat. In the midst of a fierce melee, Napoleon, perceiving that the eagles of one of his infantry regiments were menaced by the enemy's cavalry, galloped instantly to the spot to form the square and rej^ulse the assailants. The Imperial Guard are said to have been exceedingly vexed at the inactivity in which they were kept, wliile the rest of the army were engaged; and as the Emperor was about to ride from their front to another part of the field, one of the young soldiers, imconsciously exclaimed, " Forward ! " The Emperor paused for a moment, and, tui'nmg to the youth who had displayed such eagerness to signalise his courage, said, " It is not for a beardless boy to teach me what should be done. When he has obeyed the word of command in thirty pitched battles, he may presume to offer mc ad\'ice ! " On the same day, and at nearly the same hour, a battle was fought between Davoust and the Duke of Brunswick, .who met neaidy in the same manner as the armies of Napoleon and Mollendorf and Hohenlohe on the evening of the 13th. Davoust, guessing the intentions of the enemy, took possession of the strong defiles of Kcesen to prevent the passage of troops towards Naimaburg. On the morning of the 14th, after some delay, occasioned by the fog, the conflict commenced at the village of Hassen-Haussen. The Prussians out- numbered the French by four- to one ; but the discipline and valour of the latter seemed to afford a match for all odds. The German cavah-y charged repeatedly, but was on every occasion repelled with loss by the brave infantry of Napoleon, which it seemed impossible to break or to throw into disorder. Davoust, however, fearful for the result, despatched a messenger to Bemadotte, who was not above a league behind, to hasten to the scene of action ; but tJie Prince, taking offence at the peremptory demand of tlie Marshal, instead of crossing the Saale at the bridge by which Davoust had debouched, sought a passage higher up the river, and contrived to absent himself, and to keep his corps from the whole engagement. The cannonade com- menced at eight ; and, about eleven, the French soldiers, having carried the woods and villages of Spilberg at the point of the bayonet, assumed the offensive on all points of the enemy's line. AUERSTADT. The Generalissimo, Duke of Brunswick, was about this time wounded in the face by a grape-shot, which obhged him to be carried off the field. General Schmettau and several other officers of distinction were shortly afterwards borne away in a similarly helpless con- dition : but Frederick William himself was in the midst of his soldiers, and still cheered them on to the fight, which continued to be so fiercely maintained, that Davoust could only retain his men in the field, against such fearful disparity of numbers, by shewing himself everywhere. In vain did his aides-de-camp hurry to and fro to urge Bernadotte to hasten forward with succour : that General continued to "seek for a bridge, where he well knew none existed, in the hope, perhaps, that the forces of Davoust would be annihilated, and the power of Napoleon himself by that means, in some measure, humbled. He even contrived for a time to !>29 AUERSTADT. mislead Murat and the cavalry, Avho consequently did not arrive at Auerstadt in time to render nearly so much service as they might have done an hour or two earlier. At length, the King of Prussia, having received intelligence that Hoheidohe and Mollendorf were on the point of being defeated at Jena, and hoping, by one blow, to retrieve the fortune of the day, took the desperate resolution of maldng a general attack along the whole of the French line, with all the troops he had in the field. The soldiers had now lost confidence in their leaders, and the charge was consequently feeble and irresolute, and easily repelled by the French. As a last resource, the enemy's reserves were sent in ; but the battle was already lost. Davoust advanced with ardour; and being admirably supported by !Murat, who just then arrived on the ground with his dragoons, broke through the Prussian lines at all points, and, throwing them into confusion, pursued them, with dreadful havoc, towards Weimar ; where, blending with the routed squadrons of theu- right-wing, who were flying in the same direction, the retreat assumed the most terrific character. The roads were choked with artillery, baggage-waggons, men and horses, trampling down and impeding each other in their haste to escape. The King, himself, seeing no chance of safety among the mass of his soldiers, quitted the high road, and fled across the fields, with a small escort of cavalry and the officers of his staff". There was henceforth an end to all discipline among the wrecks of this magnificent army, which the evening before had numbered upwards of a hundred thousand men. Scarcely a general, indeed, remained Avith them to issue orders, had the soldiers been disposed or able to obey. The pursuit continued for a space of six leagues, and was only discontinued in consequence of the darkness of the night. After dusk, the Emperor rode over the field of battle, as at Auster- litz, often alighting from his horse to speak a few cheerful words, or administer a little brandy to the wounded, or to place his hand on the breast of a soldier, to ascertain if his heart still beat, or there remained any chance of life. He then proceeded to Jena, to pass the night, where he was waited on by the Professors of the University : the Vicar was also presented to him, who, having shewn great atten- tion to the wounded, was rewarded for his humanity. I'risoners PRUSSIAN LOSSES. ■Jp continued to be brought into the town during the whole night, among whom were about six thousand Saxons, wath a great number of generals and officers of distinction. On the following morning, these officers were assembled in the great hall of the University, when the Emperor, through an interpreter, informed them that he was not their enemy, nor the enemy of their Prince, whom he knew to have been compelled to aid the designs of Prussia. " The place of Saxony," he said, " is marked in the Confederation of the Rhine. France is the natm-al protector of the Saxons against the violence of rrussia." On condition that they would not again bear arms against France during the campaign, the whole of these prisoners were liberated and sent home ; being made the bearers of a proclamation to their countrymen, stating that the people of the Great Nation regarded them as friends and brothers. The loss of the enemy, in the two battles of Jena and Auerstadt, is computed to have exceeded twenty thousand in killed and wounded, and double that number in prisoners; among whom were more than twenty generals and several lieutenant-generals, including General Schmettau. The Duke of Brunswick was carried to Altona, whence he intended to embark for England, but his wound proved mortal; and, after lingering for a few days at a miserable inn on the coast, he died on the 10th of November. Prince Henry of Prussia was also among the wounded. The cannon taken on this day amounted to three hundred; the standards, to sixty. The French loss was com- paratively trifling — about fifteen hundred killed and three thousand wounded. Not a man of any considerable note was injured. Lannes had his breast laid bare, and Davoust had his hat carried away, and his clothes pierced by a number of balls during the action ; but neither of these brave officers was wounded. Napoleon, after ascertaining the results of the battle, went in an open carriage to Weimar, near which he met an officer, bearing a letter from the King of Prussia, desiring an armistice. This was refused, on the grounds that the object sought "svas not peace, but to remove the seat of war from Prussia into the dominions of the Princes in alliance with France ; that the Emperor's mistaken generosity, at the close of the last campaign, had been a means of encouraging the present war; and, consequently, that it would be unjust towards the PRUSSIAN LOSSES. French and the Rhenish Confederation to cease hostiUties, without the prospect of a satisfactory peace. From Weimer, orders were de- spatched to Bernadotte to advance against the Prince of Wurtembcrg, who being desirous of military distinction had, contrary to the express commands of his father, solicited and obtained a post in the Prussian army ; and ha\ing been disengaged during the recent actions, instead of retiring with his corps of sixteen thousand fresh troops, which woukl have formed an admirable nucleus for dispersed parties of his friends to rally round, advanced towards Halle, to confront the vic- torious troops which had just overthi'own the grand army of the King, his master. The Prince's military career of course ended with his first engagement. Napoleon, on learning that he was a prisoner^ refused to receive him as a Prussian General, but sent him back to his father's capital, as one whose chief offence consisted in his in- fraction of paternal discipline. Murat, about this time, invested Erfurt, into which Marshal Mollendorf and the Prince of Orange had thrown themselves, with a garrison of eighteen thousand men, and which surrendered almost at the first summons. General Kalkreuth, at the head of a large body of troops, was overtaken and made prisoner while attempting to escape across the Hai"tz mountains. Sir Walter Scott describes the wrecks of the Prussian army, at this time, as resembling " coveys of heath-fowl, which the sportsman marks down and destroys in detail, and at his leisure." The discomfited soldiers were wandering about the country, indeed, in all directions, each seeking a means of escape for himself, and fi-equently shunning an union with other stragglers, lest pvu'suit should be attracted by numbers. In the meantime. Napoleon removed his head-quarters to Naum- burg, where he first learned from Davoust the extent of Bernadotte's misconduct at Auerstadt. "If I were to deliver him to a court- martial," said the Emperor, "nothing could save him from being shot. I must, therefore, overlook it. I do not think him so lost to every sense of honour as not to feel the disgrace of having committed a base action : nevertheless, I shall not fail to let him know my mind on the subject." This conversation was shortly afterwards reported at Hamburg to Bernadotte, who endeavoured to palliate his behaviour by stating, that he was piqued at receiving what he considered 5-23 FIELD OF ROSBACII. orders from Davoiist. " I, hoAvcver, did my duty!" added the Gascon Marshal. The infatuation of the Emperor, with regard to this man, can only be accounted for by the fact, that we are frequently at more pains to win the esteem of one whom we have always considered adverse to us, than to conciliate and do justice to those of whose fidelity and attachment we have never entertained a doubt. Passing from Naumburg to Halle, Napoleon rode over the field of Eosbach, Avhere, in 1757, the Great Frederick obtained a signal victory over the French and Hanoverian armies. Although he had never been in the neighbourhood, the ground was so familiar to him from former geograpliical and military studies, that he Avas enabled to du'ect an aide-de-camp to the spot where a column had been erected to commemorate the victory. " Gallop in that direction," said the Emperor, pointing with his hand, " and at the distance of half a league you will find the Prussian monument, which I intend to have removed to Paris." The column was found at the place indicated, and, being taken down by some of General Suchet's sappers, and placed among the other trophies of Imperial conquest, was eventually transported on carriages to the French capital. The hopes which Napoleon had frequently expressed concerning the hlK DUKE OF URLXSWICK. respect Mhich posterity Avould pay to the monuments of his own vic- tories, were little in accordance with his conduct in despoiUng the plain of Rosbach of its sohtary pillar. HaUc was captured on the 17th of October. On the 18th, Davoust entered Leipsic ; and on the 21st, Soult and Murat attacked Magde- burg, where Prince Hohenlohe had coUected nearly fifty thousand fugidves and newly-arrived troops, hoping to make a stand till the advancing Russians could come up to save the capital. ISIagdeburg, however, had been drained of its stores and provisions by the Duke of Brunswick before the battle of Jena, and famine, as weU as assault, threatened the numerous assemblage now cooped within the waUs of the fortress. The Prince, therefore, leaving about sixteen thousand men in the city as a garrison, attempted to efiect his escape with the rest to the Oder ; but being hotly pursued, he di-ew up the advanced guard and centre of his army on the heights of Prentzlau, where being without forage, provisions, or ammunition, they were compelled to the number of twenty thousand to lay down their arms. The rear of this army, consisting of about ten thousand men, did not hnmedi- ately share the fate of its main-body and van; but, under the skilful generalship of the celebrated Blucher, contrived to slip away towai'ds Strelitz, determined to pass the Elbe at Lauenbm-g, and reinforce the Prussian garrisons in Lower Saxony. On the 22nd or 23rd, Napoleon received an envoy from the wounded Duke of Brunswick, who, feeling his end approaching, was desirous to concihatc his victor, and induce the latter to spare his hereditary dominions, as being unconcerned in the quarrels of Prussia, although he, the Prince, as an individual, had assumed the Prussian uniform and appeared in arms against France. The Emperor, in replying to this calculating and sophistical appeal, reminded the Duke that he had held different language in 1 792, when, in his vaunting manifesto published in the name of the Allied Sovereigns, he had denounced military execution against all the constituted authorities of Paris, thi-eatened to consign that capital to the hcence of pillage and the flames, and not to leave one stone of its walls and houses upon another; while the inhabitants of the departments who should endeavour to defend their country or themselves, were menaced with death as traitors and rebels: their towns and villages were to be 525 rOTSDAM. sacked and burnt, and their fields ravaged and destroyed — unless the decrees of the several powers, which had armed against the assumption by the French People of a right to choose their own form of govern- ment, should be implicitly and literally obeyed. The Prince was fui'ther reminded of the recent threat of chastisement held forth to the Grand Army of France unless, in a given time, it evacuated the territories of the Rhenish Confederacy. He was charged, also, as one of the chief instigators of the war, which his councils ought to have prevented ; and, finally, he was informed that, although by the laws of retaliation the Emperor Avould be justified in threatening to take the same vengeance upon the Brunswickers as their Chief had denounced against the French, the Duke might be assured that the persons and property of the peaceable citizens in his State would be respected by their victors, not a man of whom was capable of com- mitting such outrages as those, the bare enumerations of which in the German proclamation alluded to, proved to have been at least contemplated by others. A period was put to all further corre- spondence on the subject by the speedy death of the aged and mor- tified Duke ; and the Principality of Brunswick was taken possession of by the French. Much has been said in England of the Emperor's harsh treatment of the Duke ; — it has been characterized as being imworthy of a soldier and a monarch : but this appears to have arisen from a false sympathy with the father-in-law of the heii* to the British thi'one, rather than to have been elicited by a fair consider- ation of the circumstances themselves. The Duke, as one of the oldest soldiers in Europe, could not fail to be aware, that in unsheathing his sword against France, he defied the hazards of war, in fortune as well as in person. On the 24th of October, Napoleon entered Potsdam, and in the evening visited the palace of Sans-Souci ; where he went over the apartments of the Great Frederick, the furniture and decorations of which were in precisely the same state in which they had been left at the death of their royal occupant. The old writing-table of the King still bore the inkstand and pens of the correspondent of Voltaire and patron of Hogarth. His favourite books were still upon their shelves, and Napoleon was evidently the first who had taken them thence since the decease of their original oAvner. INIany contained CABINET OF FREDERICK 11. V, ,*;,i!i ; 4'^ ^; marginal notes in the hand-writing of the Monarch ; and the maps cxliibitcd proofs of having been used for tracing the miUtary opera- tions of the Seven- Years' War. The Emperor sat for some time in profound meditation, in the royal cabinet; and, before departing, examined the gardens and terraces around the palace, and requested that the favourite walks and resorts of the King should be pointed out to him. He retui-ned for the night to Potsdam, where he forbade any one to occupy the private apartments of the Prussian Queen. In one of the di-awers of her Majesty's diessing-room, however, wliich, notwithstanding the prohibition, seems to have been strictly examined, was found a memorial drawn up by the emigrant Dumouriez, detailing a scheme of that general's for subduing the power of Napoleon, and subjugating his own country. 52/ TOMB OF FREDERICK II. On the morning of the 25th, after having reviewed the Imperial foot-giiards, Napoleon -went with his staff to inspect the vault con- taining the ashes of Frederick II. The remains of that celebrated ■warrior, legislator, and author, were enclosed in a double coffin of wood and copper, in a niche, protected by a massive door. But there was neither ornament, trophy, nor any mark of distinction, save the word Frederico II., engraven on the coffin itself, to recall the deeds K > which had first caused the Prussian name to be respected throughout Europe, Among the spoils which the Emperor took from Potsdam, were the sword, the Cross of the Black Eagle, and the sash of the deceased King, and the flags which had been borne by his guards during his campaigns. These trophies of conquest, which an ordinary victor would probably have spared, were presented by Napoleon to the Hotel of Invalids, at Paris ; where they were received by the disabled veterans of the army which had served against Frederick in Hanover, with the most profound respect and veneration, as apper- taining to one of the greatest captains whose exploits have been RELICS. recorded in history. " I am better pleased Avith these rehes," said Napoleon, as he took the sword of Frederick from above the tomb where it hung, and drew it from its scabbard, " than if I had found a treasure of twenty millions of francs ! " 3 Y CHAPTER XXIV. FRENCH ENTRY INTO BERLIN — CLEMENCY OF NAPOLEON — BERLIN DECREE FOR THE BLOCKADE OF THE BRITISH ISLES — FALL OF STETTIN, CUSTRIN, LUBECK — SUSPENSION OF ARMS — LEVY OF EIGHTY THOUSAND MEN POLISH ADDRESSES — PROCLAMATION OF POSEN^ — DECREE. 1806. ITTLE more than a month after quitting Paris, and only sixteen clays from the commencement of the campaign, namely on the 27th of October, 1806, Napoleon entered Berlin, in triumph, by the mag- nificent gate of Charlottcnburg. He was on horseback, accompanied by the Prince of Neufchatel, INIarshals Davoust and Augercau, and the brave Duroc, Grand-Marshal of the Palace. The Imperial Guard, and the corps of Davoust, which had wrought such .miracles at Auerstadt, had been selected to form the escort upon this proud occasion. Tlie whole population of the capital seemed to be BKULIN. assembled ia the streets an.l at the windows, and expressed the.r grief at the disgrace of their comt.ry hy profound silence; and, m some instances, by tears. It was no liberating army entering their territory, as had been the case with the Italians, in the early campaigns of the victor, to free the people from the hated yoke of a foreigner; but the conqueror of their native land, the invader of their hearths and h.alls, who, having stripped them of the glory won in former years, was taking possession of their homes; to impose upon them perhaps new laws, new taxes, and new masters. The Emperor alighted at the Kin-'s palace, where the keys of the city were presented to him by General HulUn, the commandant of the garrison, who took occasion to crave the clemency of his ilajesty towards the inhabitants. One of the first acts of Napoleon was to form a municipal coqis ol sixty members, who were directed to select two thousand of the richest burgesses to assist them in maintaining due order and dis- cipUne in BerUn. The municipal guard was also reorganised ; and Prince Hatzfeld, who accepted the civil government of the capital m the name of the French Sovereign, was placed at 'ts head. Ihis Fiince, it appears, was desnous of ingratiating himself with Napoleon ; not so mneh with a view to procure moderation for liis tel low^citizcns, as to act as a spy on behalf of the King of Prussia and the Russiairs. He must, however, have known very Uttle of the man he dealt with if he hoped to overmaster him by strategy, at a time when recourse to such means might be reasonably expected. ,, „ t It was among the first measures of the Emperor to place the ost- offiee under the direction of his well-trained pohce, by whom alnios all letters passing to and from Berlin were examined, and re-sealed with such eare and skill that no suspicion was excited of their having ever been opened. By these means an envelope addrcs^d o the Postmaster, containing a letter for Frederick AVilbam, fell in to e hands of the French. It contained a detailed account of all that had occurred in Beilbi since the departure of the Kmg, a minute description of the French force, with its number, ^-^''^"^'^^'^ situation of every corps, and was signed by Frince Hatzfeld i document was immediately laid before Napoleon, who ordered that the culprit should be arrested and brought before a mditary eom- mis4on for trial. The arrest took place, and the court was summoned 531 PRINCESS OF HATZFELD. the next day; but the Emperor, meanwhile, who had not returned the paper which constituted the only evidence against the Prince, had that morning gone to a distance from Berlin to review one of the divisions of his army. The trial was, therefore, necessarily adjoui-ned till the letter could be procured. The Princess of Hatzfeld, on learning that her husband had been arrested, hastened to Duroc, wath whom she had become acquainted during his former visits to Berlin, to complain of the treatment the Prince had experienced. The Grand Marshal knew nothing of the business, but on sending for Savary learned that Hatzfeld's hfe was in danger. Duroc resolved to procure the Princess an audience of the Emperor, as the only means of saving her husband. Napoleon at his return, met the Marshal on the grand staircase ; and, surprised to find him ■udthin at that hour, enquired if anything new had occurred. " Yes, Sire," replied Duroc ; and followed him into his cabinet, soliciting permission to introduce a suppliant. Napoleon was seldom inaccessible by his own wish or consent. The Princess was intro- duced; and being ignorant of the cause of her husband's arrest, she threw herself at the Conqueror's feet, and demanded justice upon those whom she supposed to have wronged him by calumnious reports. The Emperor, when she had finished, handed to her the traitorous letter which had been WTitten by the Prince, saying, " You know the writing of your husband; judge yourself, if it be calumny." She glanced over the contents hastily, and bursting into a flood of tears, replied, with the ingenuousness of perfect innocence and simpKrity, ''It is but too surely his writing!" Her accent went to Napoleon's soul ; her situation — she was far advanced towards maternity — grieved him exceedingly; yet he was unwilling to interfere with the course of justice in behalf of one who had so little right to expect mercy. After a few moments' struggle between his feelings and his judg- ment, he turned to the Princess, who still retained possession of her husband's letter, and said, " Well, Madam, that paper is the sole evidence of the Prince's guilt : thi-ow it into the fire, and I shall have no means of condemning him." The Princess retired quite happy; and those who best knew the Emperor, affirm that he was equally so. An interesting letter, written by Napoleon to Jose- phine about this time, has been preserved, in reply to one in which taa I, E T T I', U TO JOS K 1' H I N I : ^•-^\ ^ ''^ the Empress reproved him for the language of one of his bulletins, con- cerning the character of the young and beautiful Queen of Prussia. " You seem grieved that I should think ill of women," said the Emperor; "it is true that I have no sympathy for intriguing females. I have been accustomed to those who are amiable, gentle, and con- ciliating, and such I love. If they have spoiled me, it is not my fault, but thine. Thou wilt be pleased, nevertheless, to learn that I have been kind to one who exhibited goodness and feeling — Madame Hatzfeld, whose husband is restored to liberty and tranquillity. Two hours later, and he would have been lost. Thou seest, then, that I esteem women who are gentle, ingenuous, and amiable ; but it is because they alone resemble thee." It was during the Emperor's residence at Berlin, that the famous Decree for the Blockade of the British Isles was first published. This proceeding, which was intended to destroy the commerce, and by terminating the prosperity eventually to crush the ]i(nver, of England, but which, in operation, recoiled upon Napoleon, and accelerated, if BEKLIN DECREE. it did not produce, his overthrow, was dated on the 21st of November, 1806. After setting forth, — That England would not consent to regulate naval warfare by the laws and amenities which were estab- lished on land, but had introduced new customs into her maritime code, and revived those of a barbarous age ; that she refused to recognise the distinction of private property, and the rights of foreigners not serving in war, but seized on merchant vessels and made their crews prisoners, as if they had been armed and sent out by their respective governments against an enemy; and that the British declaration of blockade extended to places not actually blockaded, — thus extending the evils of war to peaceful and unarmed citizens, — the British isles were declared by the Decree to be in a state of blockade. All commerce and correspondence with them were strictly prohibited. All English subjects found in countries occupied by the troops of France were declared to be prisoners of war. All mer- chandise or property of any kind belonging to British owners, and all articles of British manufacture, or the produce of British colonies, were declared to be lawful prize. Half of the proceeds of all confiscations were to be applied to the relief of those merchants whose ships had been captured by English cruisers. No vessel from England or the English colonies was to be admitted into a conti- nental port, but every one entering a foreign harbour was to be seized and forfeited. Two prize-courts were to be established; one at Paris for the French Empire, and the other at Milan for the Kingdom of Italy. The system thus established, had, there is no doubt, been for some time in contemplation, but Napoleon had not deemed the time favourable for its promulgation till he was master of nearly all the line of coast round Europe. We have no means of ascertaining how far it had been contemplated that such a measure, as to the immediate effect desired, Avas practicable or otherwise, except by the means used to bring it into operation, and upon these we must form our estimate of its policy. The habits of two or three centuries of unrestricted commerce had placed many of the articles sought to be prohibited among the absolute necessaries of life ; to dispense with which would ~ have occasioned great and universal distress and inconvenience. It was, therefore, a proclamation of war with the feelings, tastes, and 531 BERLIN DECREE. wishes of mankind ; an attempt to force civilization backward for three centuries, which the most tyrannic and absohite power could not have succeeded in effecting One blow in one place was useless. To exclude commerce it required a constant tension of watchful energy on every point of the Continent, not only at the known ports and harbours, but at every creek, cove, and inlet, by which the shores of the ocean were indented. " The attempt," says Sir Walter Scott, "resembles that of a child, who tries to stop with his hand the stream of an artificial fountain, which escapes, in a hundred partial jets from under his palm and between his fingers. The Genius of Commerce, like a second Proteus, assumed every variety of shape, in order to elude the Imperial interdiction, and all manner of evasions were practised for that purpose. False papers, false certificates, folse bills of lading, were devised; and these frauds were overlooked in the sea-ports by the very agents of the police and custom-house officers to whom the execution of the decree was committed." Two or three instances will shew the futility of the system as effectively as a volume. Less than a week afler the publication of the Decree, Napoleon, being about to advance into Poland, sent to his Minister at Hamburg for a supply of sixty-six thousand cloth great-coats, and thirty-seven thousand vests — an order which it was impossible to execute without infringing the new law; there being no manufactories of coarse cloth in Hrmburg or the neighbouring territories, and the importation of woollen stuffs being proliibited. The Minister ^v.as, therefore, com- pelled to authorize the merchants to evade the edict, and procure the goods illegally. Another order arrived for two hundred and forty thousand pairs of shoes; but tanned and curried hides were among the forbidden articles of commerce, and all Germany could not at the time have supplied the requisite materials from its home resources. Napoleon smiled when informed that he was the first to occasion an infraction of his own system; but he allowed no punctilious scruple to prevent his troops from being comfortably clothed and shod. It would have increased the absurdity of his restrictive laws, had they been enforced to his own actual injury. Perhaps, indeed. Napoleon looked beyond the passing moment for the full effect of his system; and if we give him credit for this there will appear somewhat more of foresight, and a broader policy than has usually been ascribed to it, in BERLIN DECREE. the celebrated blockade of Britain. He evidently proceeded upon the consideration that England owed her wealth and power to her colonial produce and manufactures, with which she supplied the Continent at a cheaper rate than they could be otherwise prociu'ed. By increasing the difficulties of then- introduction, and consequently their price, so as to induce the Continent to manufacture for itself, there was good reason to suppose that he would be able to sap the power of England, and render the Continent more independent of the proud islanders, by throwing the States in alliance with France upon their own resources. By those who have thus viewed the subject, it has been questioned, whether Napoleon's Continental system has even yet been finally developed : but these reasoners appear not to have taken into account the great accession of means which England has subsequently obtained by the use of the steam-engine, and her internal resoui'ces of coal and iron, for maintaining commercial pre-eminence. Even while the Decree was being brought into oj^eration, it excited the greatest dissatisfaction throughout Europe ; and, accord- ing to De Bourrienne, created for the Emperor more enemies than if he had hui'led twenty kings from theh thrones. Every individual suffered in comfort and in fortune. The produce of Eng- land could not be excluded from foreign consumption, but its cost was frequently doubled, and even trebled ; and the odious fiscal regulations, which Avere everywhere established, fostered a spirit of discontent, which, gathering strength with time, at last burst out against Napoleon Avith an enthusiasm almost equal to that which so generally displayed itself upon the news of the first French Revo- lution. In the meantime, the commercial towns of France, Holland, and Germany suffered severely fr-oni repeated confiscations : the greatest mercantile houses became bankrupt; the fair dealer found himself reduced to poverty ; while the reckless contraband adventurer acquired new motives for daring, in the certainty that a large fortune Avould reward success, and that every obstacle would be thrown in the way of executing the laws against him even by the authorities who were directed to enforce them. During these proceedings against England, which Napoleon con- sidered as the originator of the war, his marshals and generals were pursuing the advantages gained at Jena and Auerstadt, over the 536 BLUCHER. Prussian army. On the 29th of October, the fortress of Stettin sur- rendered to LasaUe, who commanded the right of Murat's d^^nslon Gastrin opened its gates, on the 2nd of November, to Marshal Davoust. Magdebm-g capituhited, on the 8th, to Isey. bpandau, Hamelen, and a number of other fortresses, which ought to have retarded the advance of an army for months, opened their gates at the first sound of the French trumpets, or the explosion of two or tln-ee bombs. The liigh courage of Prussia was destroyed and the yery name of Napoleon was sufficient to put her soldiers to flight, and to fill the breasts of her people ^vnth dismay. One man alone among the -enerals, formed under the Great Frederick, was worthy of the school in which he had studied, and of the name of a brave soldier- the heroic and patriotic General Blucher, who, after separating from Prince Hohenlohe, traversed the country for some days with his corps unbroken; but being pressed hard by Soult, Murat, and Bernadotte, he was at length compelled to throw himself into Lubeck; where, on the 6th of November, a fm-ious battle was fought m the street.. •■''ki. ■ Q>~ ■■■, . r^felii^^'-'r^ but with SUA inequality of numbers on the Me of the rruss.ans that the Fieneh, after a few hours' fighting, remarned undisturbed masters of the eity. KU.eher, at the head of a large body of troops fought his way gallantly through the ranks of the enemy, ami retreated FLIGHT OF FREDERICK WILLIAM. towards Schwerta ; but, being without ammunition, provisions, or artillery, he there drew up his faithful followers on the 7th, and, with the Duke of Brunswick-Oels, ten generals, five hundred and eighteen officers, and more than twenty thousand men, laid down his arms, and sui'rendered. The conduct of Blucher m this brief struggle first fixed upon hmi the attention of Europe, as the last hope of dispirited Germany. The rapid and entire subjugation of Prussia in so brief a space, and the little effort made by the people themselves, though almost all trained to arms, to resist the invaders, may be ascribed to the peculiar constitution of the Prussian monarchy, the various provinces of which were unconnected by olden affections and sympathies, having been recently bound together by the violence of conquest, or the barter and intrigue of diplomacy, without renouncing theii* ancient habits, customs, laws, and usages. The kingdom had been too recently formed to have any common bond of union ; and, finding that the spirit and genius of Frederick the Great had departed from his race, the people, who prided themselves on military renown, would pro- bably have preferred that their sovereign should be a victorious Bonaparte rather than a vanquished member of the house of Bran- denburg. Their relation to Frederick Wilham was that of servants to a master, not that of loyal subjects to a paternal prince ; and it mattered little, therefore, under whose sway their country passed, so long as theii- homes were untouched and their resources were undi- minished. From other powers the Court of Prussia could scarcely expect commiseration, considering what had been its own conduct with respect to Austria and Hanover. Not even honour remained to cheer the Monarch who had been recently deemed the legitimate inheritor of one of the proudest names of modern times, now that reverses had wrested from him his sceptre, and dashed his throne to the earth. The fugitive King of Prussia fled to Konigsberg, one of the few fortresses which still acknowledged his authority, whence he de- spatched the Marquis Lucchesini to Berlin, to solicit an armistice, the conditions of Avhich were signed, on the 10th of November, at Charlottenburg, and pubhshed amid great rejoicings on the part of the Prussian nobility and gentry who had remained in the capital. DEPUTATION I'ROM PAUIS. Jt^ and to whom it seemed a presage of returning peace. The ncgoci- ations, however, were shortly afterwards broken off, in consequence of the advance of the Russians, from which it became evident that Frederick AVilham merely sought to gain time while Alexander was marching to his aid — a trick which was not Hkely to impose upon Napoleon ; and the attempt to practise which was calculated to throw suspicion upon all after-transactions between France and Prussia. Napoleon, meanwhile, received at BcrUn a deputation from the French Senate, to congratulate him on his successes, and urge that he would, if possible, seek to procure peace for the Empire and for Europe ; and at the same time to express the profoundest apprehension for his Majesty's safety should he attempt to cross the Oder. The Emperor was not prepared for this interference with his plans, and he did not conceal his vexation. He told the deputation that, before they recommended a course for adoption, the Senators should at least have enquired on which side the obstacles to peace lay, assiu-ing them that he had no end to serve but that of securing the safety, and pro- moting the welfare of the empire, and of maintaining the national honoiu*. Prussia, he said, had desired war, and her English and Russian Allies would not yet allow her to abandon the enterprise in which she had embarked. On dismissing the Deputies, the Emperor made them the bearers of a message, announcing to the Legislative bodies the Berlin Decree against England, and confided to them the i>39 ADDRESS TO THE ARMY. trophies taken during the campaign, consisting of two hundred and eighty stand of colours, the rehcs taken from Potsdam, and a number of the finest paintings and works of art which had decorated the galleries and museums of Berhn. He also, through them, demanded of the Senate a levy of eighty thousand men, to enable him to carry into effect the blockade of England, to maintain his conquests in Prussia, and advance to meet and overthrow the Russians, who seemed burning with impatience to wash out the disgrace their arms had already sustained in Germany, on the day of Austerhtz. About the middle of November, the Emperor, from his head- quarters at Charlottenburg, published the following proclamation to the army: "Soldiers! You have justified my hopes, and the confi- dence of the French people. You have endured privations and fatigues with a fortitude equal to yoiu* intrepidity and steadiness in the conflict. You are worthy to be the defenders of my crown and of the glory of the Great Nation. While you continue to be animated by this spirit, notliing will be able to resist you. Behold the result of your toils ! One of the fu-st powers of Europe, which, in its delirium, lately dared to threaten us, is annihilated. The forests and defiles of Franconia, the Saale, the Elbe, which our sires would not have traversed in seven years, have been crossed by us in seven days, dming which we fought seven minor engagements and one great battle. We were preceded in Potsdam and Berlin by the fame of our victories ; yet more than half of you complain of not having fired a single shot. " All the provinces of Prussia, as far as the Oder, are in our power. Soldiers ! The Russians vaunt that they are on the road to meet us. We will march to encounter them, and thus spare them half their journey. In the midst of Prussia they shall find another Austerlitz. A nation which has so speedily forgotten our generosity to her after that battle in "svhich her Emperor, her court, and the wreck of her army, were indebted for their safety to our forbearance, is one wliich cannot successfully contend against us. "In the meantime, while we march against the Russians, new armies organized in the interior of France approach to occu2:)y our place and guard our conquests. My people have arisen as one man, indignant at the terms which the Prussian Court had dared to propose MO WINTER CAMPAIGN S. to US. Our highways and frontier cities are filled with conscripts ai-dently longing to follow our steps. A\'e will not again be the sport of a treacherous peace, nor lay aside our arms till we have forced the English, those eternal enemies of our country, to renounce theu- design of troubhng the Continent, and their tyranny of the seas." These were not intended as empty threats. Although the depth of winter approached. Napoleon was determined to commence a new campaign in the North, with as little delay as possible ; and accord- ingly ordered Davoust to advance towards the frontiers of Poland. He could not comprehend the tactics of those faii'-weather generals, who in olden times used to bring theu- troops into the field during the first fine days of spring, and with the earhest blasts of autumn retii-e again to winter-quarters, with a regularity, conceded to on the part of their opponents, which gave occasion for war to be considered a matter of routine, the details of which might be learned Hke those of a piece of mechanism of which the capabiUties had been ascertained and settled, beyond the chance of improvement, save in a few manau- vres which might be added by the experience of years. It was General Pichegru who, during the campaign in Holland, had first set the example of disregai'ding the calendar; and Napoleon, m Italy, had been as fortunate as he in the splendid factories which, " contrary to all the rules," he had obtained over the Austrians, at a time, when, according to immemorial usage, friend and foe should have been reposing in quiet winter-quarters. In a colder cHmate, and under less favourable circumstances, the battle of Austerlitz had shewn that war might be made to confer as much glory, and to produce as important results, amid the frosts of winter as beneath the warm suns and unclouded skies of June or August; and Napoleon was not the man to regard the mere chivalry or romance of war as possessing the least weight in opposition to the objects for which the field was taken. He looked but to the one piupose in hand; and while he had men capable of foUo^Wng him, and of obepng his commands, it was of small importance whether his destiny led him over the burning sands of the East, or through the immeasui-able snows of the wild and trackless North. His own genius and activity seemed to disdain the checks of climate; and he had the poAver beyond all generals, perhaps, ancient or modern, of mfusing into his 541 POLAND. followers a portion of his own enthusiastic energy, and contempt of common obstacles. The march of the Russians rendered it necessary that the war should be forthwith carried beyond the Vistula, in order that the French troops might winter in the capital of Poland. The army accordingly pushed forward; and had aheady reached Posen when, on the 25th of November, Napoleon quitted Berlin. On the 28th, the Emperor arrived at head-quarters; and the same day, Murat, who led the vanguard, and whose ardent passion for miUtary renown surpassed that of all his comrades, entered "Warsaw. The Poles hailed their invaders with songs of joy, and poured forth addresses from every town and village, in which the French were stj4ed Liberators, and the Emperor exalted into a divinity. The national dress was generally resumed, and volunteers flocked to the standards of France, animated by the hope that the hour of revenge and of independence approached. Napoleon was almost besieged with deputations petitioning him to espouse the cause of Poland, and redress her wrongs. " The Polish nation," said Count Radyiminski, the Palatine of Gnesna, "presents itself before your Majesty, stiU groaning under the German yoke, and hails, with purest joy, the regenerator of its beloved country, the Legislator of the L^niverse. Full of submission to your will, the people offer you their homage, and repose on you, with confidence, all theh hopes, as upon Him who has the power to raise and destroy empires and to humble the proud." The address of the President of the Judicial Council of the PoHsh Regency was equally oriental in its style and conception. " Already," it said, "we see our dear country saved, for in your person we revere the most just and profound Solon; and committing our fate and hopes into your hands, we implore the powerful protection of the most august Caesar." Napoleon was deeply affected by the numerous instances of patriotic enthusiasm which he daily witnessed, but his situation at the moment was one of no ordinary difficulty. If he announced himself at once as the emancipator of Poland, in addition to Russia and Prussia he foresaw that he should have to maintain a fierce stugglc with Austria, who lay ready to rise in his rear; and Russia would uige the war with double vigour if she had an important personal stake in the issue, instead of fighting merely as the ally of S12 POLAND. Prussia. " I love the Poles," said the Emperor to his aide-de-camp, Rapp ; " their ardour is worthy of their cause. I would willingly constitute them a free people, but this would be a difficult achieve- ment. Too many states have profited by the iniquitous partition of their country : Austria, Russia, Prussia, are equally interested. "Were I to fire the train, it is impossible to tell where the conflagration might stop. My first duty is to France, and I must not sacrifice her to Poland. No — we must defer to the arbiter of all things — Time ; which ere long will shew what we ought to do." The Emperor abstained, therefore, from making any express decla- ration of his intentions. His sentiments being generally known, however, the Poles continued to recruit his forces, and to hail him as the Saviour of their land. Dombrouski and AVibichi, two Polish ofiicers serving in the French armies, particularly distinguished themselves by theu- efforts to rouse their countrymen. One of the addresses which they issued from the camp of the Grand Army ran as follows. " Poles ! Napoleon the Great, the In^'incible, enters Poland with an army of three hundred thousand men. Without seeking to fathom his views, let us strive to merit his magnanimity. ' I M-ill see,' he has said to us, ' whether you deserve to be a Nation.' Poles ! It depends on ourselves to exert a national spirit and possess a country. Your avenger, your restorer, is at hand. CroAvd from all quarters to his presence, as afflicted children hasten to behold a succoui'ing parent. Present to him your hearts, your arms. Rise as one man, and prove that you seek not to spare yoiu" blood when your country requires it." In the meantime, the French had invested the last remaining fortresses of the Prussian monarchy, and overrun the provinces east of the Oder. The Russians, under General Bcningsen, having advanced as far as AVarsaw, on learning that Murat was in the neighbourhood, hastily retreated, and recrossed the Vistula, leaving the capital to be occupied by the troops of Napoleon; which, ha-v-ing been recently subjected to the most inclement weather, marcliing frequently in roads knee-deep with mud and water, and suffering severely for want of provisions and shelter, were glad to get into comfortable quarters. It was not the Emperor's intention, however, that they should remain inactive ; a fact \\ hich was communicated to £43 PROCLAMATION^. the army, on the morning of the 2nd of December, by the following proclamation : — " Soldiers ! On this day twelve-months, at this very hour, you were upon the battle-field of Austerlitz. The terror- stricken battalions of Russia were flying in disorder, or, being sur- rounded, yielded theu' arms to theu* victors. On the morrow, they proifered words of jieace, but these were deceitful; for scarcely had they escaped, through a generosity which was probably blameable, from the disasters of the third coalition, than they organized a fourth. But the Ally, upon whose co-operation they founded their principal hopes, is ah'eady no more. His fortresses, capital, magazines, arsenals, two hundred and eighty standards, seven hundred field-pieces, and five fortified cities, are in our possession. The Oder, the Wartha, the deserts of Poland, the rigours of the season, have not been sufiicient to arrest your course for a moment. You have braved and sur- mounted all. Every foe has fled on your approach. In vain have the Russians endeavoured to defend the capital of ancient and renowTied Poland. The eagle of France soars over the Vistula. The brave and unfortunate Pole, on seeing you, deems that he beholds the legions of Sobieski returning from their memorable expedition. " Soldiers ! We will not sheath our swords until a general peace has established and seciu*ed the power of our Allies, and restored to our commerce its freedom and colonies. On the Elbe and the Oder, we have reconquered Pondicherry, our establishments in India, the Cape of Good Hope, and the Spanish colonies. What can give to the Russians the right of holding the balance of destiny, or of inter- fering with our just designs ? They and we are still the soldiers of Austerlitz ! " This proclamation produced the greatest sensation not only through- out the army, but in every city and town in Germany where coj)ies were profusely distributed. Of the French troops, "the divisions stationed in the rear," says De Boui'rienne, "burned to traverse by forced marches the space which separated them from head-quarters; while those near the Emperor forgot their fatigues, their sorrows, and privations, and begged earnestly to be led to the conflict. They recalled the battles in which they had borne a share, marched on cheerfully, though without shoes, passed the long hours without food or shelter, and without complaint." The effect of Napoleon's DECREE. Stirring addresses indeed was to produce, among his soldiers, a species of fanaticism; and though it may be fairly presumed that they did not always comprehend what was addressed to them, — for instance, how Pondicherry and the Cape of Good Hope had been regained on the Oder, — it seemed sufficient that the Emperor, who seldom used words without meaning, had asserted such to be the fact, and attri- buted the result to the gallant exploits of his followers. Before entering upon the new campaign. Napoleon wished, by a splendid monument, to commemorate the deeds which had been per- formed during the two last wars. Accordingly, the proclamation of the 2nd of December was followed, on the same day, by the publi- cation of a decree, containing the following ordinances : — " There shall be established on the site of the Madeleine, at Paris, at the charge of the Imperial treasury, a monument, dedicated to the Grand Army, bearing in front the inscription, — " THE EMPEROR NAPOLEON TO THE SOLDIERS OF THE GRAND ARMY. " In the interior of the monument, on marble tablets, shall be inscribed the names of all the men, according to their several corps and regiments, who assisted at the capture of Ulm, and in the battles of Austerlitz and Jena : on tables of massive gold shall be recorded the names of all who fell in battle ; and on tables of silver shall be engraven a recapitulation, for the departments, of the soldiers fui*- nished by each to the Grand Army. " Around the hall shall be sculptured, in bas-relief, representations of the colonels of each regiment, with their names and designations ; and the interior shall constitute a sacred depository for the trophies taken from the enemy during the two campaigns." It was also, at the same time, ordained that the anniversaries of the battles of Austerlitz and Jena shoidd be solemnly celebrated as national fetes throughout France. The Emperor has been accused of indulging a childish passion for display in the erection of such monuments ; but this is not borne out on reference to his own views and sentiments. It was part of his policy to adorn the city which he had often expressed a desire to render the capital of the world ; and he considered, also, that the public monuments of a nation constitute an important part of its PUBLIC MONUMENTS. history. A victory, a conquest, a peace, was deemed incomplete while it wanted a fitting memorial for posterity. The imagination of Napoleon always kindled at the thought of future ages. " Fame," he said, "is but a sound: but it is audible in many lands, and from generation to generation. Laws, institutions, nations themselves perish ; but the echoes of fame are prolonged for ever." But while, by means of the arts, he sought to extend his living reputation, and to consecrate his memory, his acts afford the best proof that his mind was not wholly engrossed by the desii'e of self-glorification. .on. So confident were they, indeed, of approaching victory, that at the castle of Sierock they celebrated theii' junction with fetes and illuminations, the light of which the French were enabled to perceive from the towers of Warsaw. Napoleon remained in the Polish capital till near Christmas, making the necessary arrangements for prosecuting the campaign, for provisioning the army, and taking advantage of whatever ckcum- stances might be rendered favourable to himself. At the same time also, the government of France occupied much of his attention. Despatches arrived almost daily, bringing the portfolios of the several ministers with nearly as much regularity as if they had merely been forwarded to the Tuileries. The administration was always at head- quarters, and public affairs were as rigidly scrutinized as if they formed the sole business of the time. On the 23rd of December, the Emperor quitted AVarsaw, and immediately afterwards passed the Bug, on a bridge which he directed to be thrown over the river. 551 PULTUSK. The corps of Davoust then attacked a Russian division at Czarnovo, and after an obstinately contested engagement, wliich was prolonged till past midnight, General Petit, by the hght of the moon, carried some redoubts which had been thi'OTsoi up by the enemy, and, about two in the morning, succeeded in effecting the complete rout of the Russians. Kaminski, seeing that his present position was untenable, now dhected the retreat of his army behind the Niemen. Beningsen, accordingly, fell back to Pultusk, Prince Galitzin to Golymin, and Buxhowden and D'Anrep sought for safety in other directions, each sustaining heavy losses in his march from the French skirmishers; who were only prevented from effecting the complete disorganization of the enemy by the difficulties presented in a country covered with woods and intersected by ravines, and the roads of which were filled with mud, to the depth of three or four feet, from a recent thaw. On the 25th of December, the corps of 'Beningsen occupied a strong position behind Pultusk; where, notwithstanding Kaminski's orders to retreat at all hazards, the General resolved to await the advance of the French and give battle. On the morning of the 26th, he was attacked by the divisions of Lannes and Davoust and that of the Imperial Guard. After some skhmishing, the French made a deter- mined effort to overwhelm the Russians by turning their right wing ; the charge for which purpose was so impetuous that Barclay de Tolly was compelled to fall back on his reserves, and the French became masters of a wood, which had supported the enemy's right, together with several guns stationed there. Beningsen was not dismayed, however, but ordering Tolly to continue his retreat, he suffered the French to advance in pursuit till the cavalry which had covered the manoeuvre being suddenly withdrawn, a battery of a hundi*ed and twenty guns, extending along the whole Russian front, opened a tremendous fire on the advancing columns. The enemy's line now advanced in turn ; and, recovering the ground from which they had been driven, threatened to drive the French from their position. Night put an end to the combat ; in which, it is said, the Russians lost nearly eight thousand men in killed and wounded, and the French about an equal number — one of the wounded, among the latter, being ]\Iarshal Lannes himself. The effect of this action was 5F.2 CArXUKE OF BRESLAU. to raise the spii-its of the Russians soldiers to an extravagant pitch of enthusiasm, it being the first cflectual check they had been able to offer to the French arms. Beningsen, however, was unable to keep his ground; but, uniting his corps Math that of Gahtzin, which had been unsuccessfully engaged on the same day at Golymin, retreated precipitately to Ostrolenka. The courage and skill dis- played by Beningsen at Pultusk, procured for him the chief command of the Russian army — Kaminski being about this time superseded on a charge of insanity. Napoleon, from this period, evidently felt that he was engaged m ith an enemy of higher courage, and greater skill and determination, than any he had recently encountered. Instead, therefore, of pressing the operations which had been commenced, he ordered his troops into winter-quarters, retiring himself with the guard to ^N'arsaw, where he arrived on the 2nd of January, 1807. Here he received the authorities of the city, the foreign Ministers, and a deputation from the Kingdom of Italy; and in order to excite the emulation of the various auxiliary troops which were ser^ang in the Grand Army, he bestowed considerable rewards upon the Wm-temberg soldiers, who had distinguished themselves by their bravery at the captiu-e of Glogau ; and at the same time, he sent to the King of A\'urtemberg several of the flags taken at that city, and ten decorations of the Legion of Honour, to be distributed among the be§t soldiers of liis army. On the 5th of January, Breslau capitulated, after having had its suburbs fired by the garrison within the walls. !Many women and children perished in the flames. Jerome Bonaparte displayed much goodness of heart and praiseworthy activity on this occasion, in his efforts to save the inhabitants from the conflagration ; and the French soldiers, renouncing every consideration that interfered with the duties of humanity, carried assistance to all points where it could be availing, rescuing those who were unable to escape, and cheerfully encountering every danger to lessen the horrors of a scene to which the licence of war w^as comparatively trifling. It was an affecting sight to see the besieging troops at their bivouacs, sharing their rations with the sufferers who were rendered houseless by this terrible calamitv. During Napoleon's residence at ^^'"arsaw, he received intelligence 553 4 B TURKISH REVOLUTION. of a revolution in Constantinople, in which the Sultan Selim had been assassinated, and Mahmoud raised to the Moslem throne : a change which was highly advantageous to France, inasmuch as the new Sovereign was an admirer of the mihtary genius of Napoleon, and inclined to cultivate his friendship and alliance. Taking advantage of this disposition in favour of his master, and of the encroachments of the Russians upon the provinces of Moldavia and "VVallachia, General Sebastiani, the French Ambassador to the Porte, obtained a decla- ration of war against the Moscovites, and thus created a diversion of the enemy's forces towards the banks of the Danube. About the same time, also, some hostile demonstrations on the part of Persia served to embarrass the councils of the Czar, and to make him desu'ous of putting a speedy termination to the hostilities in which he was at present engaged. Before departing from Warsaw, the Emperor received the following singular petition from an aged Pole : "Sire, The register of my baptism is dated in the year 1690, I am now, therefore, a hundred and seventeen years old. I remember NAROCKI, the battle of Vienna and the times of John Sobeiski; times that I had not hoped to see again, much less to have witnessed a re\'ival of the days of Alexander. My extreme age has procui-ed me the kind- ness of all the Sovereigns who have been here, and I implore the same from the Great Napoleon, since, having outlived the conunon span, I am no longer able to work. May you live, Siie, as long as I have lived; not that your glory needs it, but that the happiness of the human race demands it. — Narocki." fiy The Emperor, to Avhom the old man presented the petition in person, was greatly impressed with his venerable figure and request ; and granted him a pension of a hundred napoleons, the fii'st yeai'ly payment of which was ordered to be made in advance. Beningscn, now invested with the supreme command, and finding CONDITION OF THE RUSSIANS. that lie had at his disposal about a hundred thousand men, determined to attack the French in their cantonments, concluding, from the Emperor's retirement after the battle of Pultusk, that the ardour of the French troops was diminished, and that the moment was favour- able for assuming the offensive. Napoleon, however, no sooner perceived that the enemy had commenced operations, than he took the field, purposing to concentrate his army at Willenberg, in the rear of the great Russian camp at Mohringen, and betAveen the enemy and his resources ; intending to attract him by a false manoeuvre towards the Vistula, and turn his line, in the way which had proved so fatal to the Austrians at Ulm, and to the Prussians at Jena. A despatch, however, which had been sent to Bernadotte, dii-ecting liim and Ney to engage the attention of the army of Beningsen in front, while INIui'at and Soult advanced in its rear, was intercepted by a band of Cossacks, and the design of the French being thus disclosed, the Russian General became alarmed, and -instantly changed his plan of operations, counter -marched his army, and involved Napoleon in a series of manoeuvres, the execution of which imposed the utmost hardship upon his troops. The state of the country and climate, indeed, was such, that even the Russians, inured as they were to the intense cold of Northern latitudes and to the most miserable fare, were reduced to a state of savage phi'enzy by the privations of the long marches they had to undergo. Their only resource for pro- visions was to prowl about in the vicinity of the towns and villages, and dig for the scanty stores which the Poles had concealed, or for frozen roots and vegetables which were hidden by the deep snow. Their only bed was the frost-bound earth, and theii* clothing was scanty and ragged. At length, unable to endure the tortures of the campaign, they vehemently demanded that Beningsen would lead them to battle, or txu'n their march homewards — an alternative in which, although contrary to his own judgment, the General pelded to the former demand, as that which involved the least evil, by preventing the desertion of his soldiers. Accordingly, after having retreated with great loss through Bergfried, Waterdorf, Deppen, and Landsberg, the Russians, closely pursued by the French, arrived on the Gth of Fe- bruary at the town of Preuss-Eylau, where they resolved to try the fortune of a general engagement. A mistake of orders produced a EYLAU. premature conflict on the evening of the day on which the two armies reached the chosen field of action. Beningsen had directed that the village shovdd be occupied by a strong guard, but this had been under- stood to apply merely to the time during which the Russians were passing through, and, consequently, when the last troops had defiled, the division left in possession evacuated the place. The error was no sooner discovered than a Russian corps returned to recover the ground ; but the French van was already in possession. A desperate struggle ensued, in which a great number of men were lost on each side, and the village was several times taken and retaken — the Russian General Barclay de Tolly being severely wounded M'hile leading his men to the attack. At night fall, the French remained masters of Preuss-Eylau. Napoleon liimself arrived on the ground during the conflict, and passed the night in making dispositions for the battle which he saw was inevitable on the morrow. The moon shone brilliantly over the snow-covered country, and shewed the Russian lines occupying a space of uneven ground about two miles in length and one in depth; their left resting on the \dllage of Serpallen, their right on a chain of heights extending towards Schloditten on the road to Konigsberg, and their centre overlooking the vale in which Preuss-Eylau was situated. The space between the hostile armies was an open hollow, containing several frozen lakes. The French head-quarters were at Eylau; the corps of Davoust was despatched about thi-ee leagues to the right, in order to dislodge a Russian column stationed on the Allcr, and to get into the enemy's rear ; Augercau commanded the left, and the guard and reserves formed two lines behind the -s-iUage where the centre was stationed. The battle commenced at daybreak on the 7th, when the Russians, still intent on carrying Preuss-Eylau, charged the French centre with the utmost fuiy; but after the most frightful carnage on both sides, the assailants were repulsed. The French, in turn, charged in two columns upon separate points of the enemy's line, but they were unable to gain any advantage. About mid-day a violent storm arose, the piercing wind drifting the snow directly in the eyes of the Russian soldiers, so that they could not clearly discern the movements of their opponents; and the obscurity was presently increased by 557 EYLAU. dense volumes of smoke from an adjacent village, which had been set on fire. Napoleon, -who was on the steeple of the church of Eylau, now ordered Augereau to advance under cover of the dark- ness, and break the enemy's lines ; a manoeuvre which had nearly succeeded, as the Eussians did not perceive the French troops till the latter were within a few yards of their front. The infantry of the enemy, however, sustained the shock with steady valour, and Beningsen mstantly brought up his reserves in person, which, uniting in perfect order with the froiit line, bore back theii- antagonists at the point of the bayonet. By a skilfully executed movement, the Russian General contrived to place the corps of Augereau between his right and centre, and a conflict of the most sanguinary character ensued. The dragoons supported by the guard now rushed forward with the utmost impetuosity; but unable to accomplish then- purpose at the moment, they traversed the field in every direction, cutting down all who soiight to oppose them. • It requhed, indeed, all the vigour of the daring Murat and his cavahy to extricate then- comrades from the perilous position in which they stood. 556 EYLAU. In the meantime, Davoust and Ney approached. The former, having taken Serpallcn and turned the enemy's flank, was enabled to attack in tlie rear, -svhile Ney advanced at charging pace on their left. The Russian left-wing, and part of the centre, were thus thrown into disorder, and compelled to reti'eat and change their front, so as to form, almost at right angles, with the rest of the line. The Prussian corps of L'Estocq, a remnant of the battle of Jena, appeared on the field at this crisis, and displayed a gallantry which might have been useful at an earlier period ; but Davoust was now gaining ground in the Russian rear ; and the village of Schloditten ha\-ing been captured by the French, Beningsen feared that his communi- cation with Konigsberg and his resources would be cut oflf, and therefore gave orders for retreat. This was about eight at night. It was necessary, however, to regain Schloditten, to enable the retiring army to pass, A desperate assault was, therefore, made on the \-illage, which, in an hour or two, was carried at the point of the bayonet. The slaughter in this di'eadful battle was immense. Sir AV alter Scott computes it at fifty thousand men ; but this is, probably, some- what exaggerated. The French accounts give about six thousand as the number killed, and twenty thousand wounded, on the part of the Russians ; and on that of the French, thi-ee thousand killed and fifteen thousand wounded. The corps of Augereau had suficred severely in the engagement ; and of one French regiment of cuiras- siers which had been engaged, only eighteen men are said to have remained alive after the action — General d'FIautpoul being among the slain. The Russians, .by their coolness, intrepidity, and utter disregard of danger, suffering, and death, had amply redeemed the disgrace they incurred at Austerhtz. Their chief, indeed, as he was not pursued from the field, claimed for them a victory ; but, without conceding this, it was doubtless a subject of congratulation, that, being opposed to the Emperor in person, they did not sustain an absolute defeat. The French lost twelve eagles at Eylau; the Russians left behind them their wounded and sixteen pieces of cannon. Napoleon remained master of the well-contested ground, which was literally covered with the bodies of the dead and wounded : but no immediate advantage accrued to either party from this great conflict. 569 EYLAU. Napoleon -was grieved beyond measure at the havock and misery wliicli he saw around him, and which was greatly increased by the severity of the weather and the desolation of the surrounding country. He remained eight days on the field of battle, contributing all in his power to diminish the calamities of the surviving sufferers of that fatal day, and rendering assistance with as prompt humanity to the iOO EYLAU. wounded Russians, as to the disabled of his own army. On the fourth day after the battle, he despatched an officer to the King of Prussia, at Kcinigsberg, to propose an armistice, on terms considerably more favourable than those which had been agreed upon after the battle of Jena ; but Eylau had revived the hopes of Frederick William, who accordingly regarded the offer as an indication of conscious weakness on the part of his conqvieror, and he, consequently, peremptorily refused to listen to any terms, but such as should be also acceded to by the Emperor Alexander, and which should have a general peace for their object. The Czar, it should be observed, had just caused Te Deiim to be sung as for a \'ictory, and was too much elated with the prospect of military glory to be desu'ous of peace. Finding, therefore, that it was impossible to bring the campaign to a close without further bloodshed, Napoleon determined on retii-ing upon the Vistula, in order to recruit his forces, and adopt measures for prosecuting the war with increased vigour when he should again take the field. Before breaking up his head-quarters, however, he published an ordinance, that the cannon taken in the last battle should be used to construct a statue of General d'Hautpoul, who had met liis death 10' r, ^^;.•!;;■;;llp;;M•;^:n"nv:1;,o,,:fl mi»m -^^ 5^V in the engagement, while leading his brave cuirassiers to a desperate charge. Eylau was abandoned on the 1 Gth of February ; and, on the same day, an action took place at Ostrolenka, between a body of twenty-five thousand Russians under General Essen, and the fifth corps of the French army conunanded by Savary, who was supported by Oudinot, 561 SIEGE or DANTZIC. Suchet, and Gazan; in which, after much hard fighting, the French were finally victorious. A son of the celebrated Suwarrow was killed in this engagement. The Emperor expressed the highest satisfaction at the conduct of Savary, whose previous mihtary reputation had never stood very high. Several subsequent actions of more or less importance in themselves, but of little consequence to the issue of the war, were fought during the succeeding month; and on the 25th of April, Napoleon fixed his head-quarters at Finkenstein, and the greater portion of his army again went into cantonments. The operations of the Emperor henceforth exhibited more caution, and an impression of greater diificulty and danger than at almost any pre\'ious period of his history. He began to think that his advance into Poland had been premature, while Dantzic, a city whence many dangerous movements might be made in his rear, remained in the hands of the enemy. The siege of that fortress was, accordingly, ordered to be forthwith undertaken;* and, in the meantime, the Grand Army was augmented by every practicable expedient. The siege of Colberg was raised; and the troops which had been engaged there, marched to the Vistula, and joined the main body. The greater part of the force which had occupied Silesia was withdrawn from that pro\dnce; a new levy was ordered to be made in Switz- erland ; and Prince Eugene was desii'ed to send a corps of auxiliaries from Italy. Large bodies of Poles were raised in every direction; and, to complete his means, the Emperor demanded of the French Senate an additional supply of conscripts, in anticipation of that which, as a matter of routine, would be raised in the year 1808. The siege of Dantzic was entrusted to Marshal Lefebvre and a corps of about twenty-five thousand men. The defence was dii'ected by the Prussian General Kalkreuth, who had under orders a strong garrison of his countrymen, and several Pussian regiments which had been sent by sea to reinforce him. The operations on both sides were long and tedious. Many gallant sorties were made by the besieged, but without effect; and once or twice the French were defeated in attempts to surprise the place. At length, on the 1.5th of May, General Kaminski, son of the Field Marshal who had been recently superseded, was sent by Alexander to carry succour to the belea- guered city ; but Napoleon, having obtained timely intelligence of the S62 CAPTURE OF DANTZIC. movement, despatched Lannes and Oudinot to intercept the enemy on his landing. A sharp engagement took place, in consequence, at Weischelmundc ; when the Russians, being defeated, sought refuge, first within the fortifications of the place, and afterwards, deeming these insecure, on board the ships which had transported them to the coast. The wounded were hurried on board with the utmost pre- cipitation, and the whole armament speedily retm-ned to Konigsberg — the distressed garrison of Dantzic, from the ramparts of that city, beholding the flight of their " Liberators " with the utmost con- sternation. The outer works of the fortress having been taken, Lefebvre, on the 21st of May, commanded an assault; but, at the moment when the signal was given, Kalkreuth sent a flag of truce with an ofier to capitulate, on conditions, wliich, being modest and equitable, were instantly granted. Napoleon was higlily pleased with the conduct of Marshal Lefebvre in the capture of this important city; and, in ad- dition to a high public eulogium, conferred on him the title of Duke of Dantzic. At the beginning of June, the Emperor, by almost incredible exertions, in hurrying forward his expected reinforcements, and reuniting the greater part of the force which had been engaged in the siege of Dantzic with his main army, was enabled to take the field at the head of upwards of two hundred thousand men. The Russian army had also been recruited; but, owing to the poverty of the national treasury, the utmost strength that Alexander was enabled to muster did not exceed the half of that of his opponent. BRIDGE OF STANDEN. Eiissia had men to any number at her command, but the state of her finances rendered it difficult to maintain a large army at a distance from home. Great blame has usually been cast upon the British Government for its unwonted economy at this period. " England/' says Mr. Locldiart, " instead of lavishing gold on the Emperor of Russia, as had been done in other similar cases, was with difficulty persuaded to grant him, at this critical time, so small a supply as eighty thousand pounds." Six millions had been applied for; but the manner in which the large subsidy to Austria had been dis- posed of, after the battle of Austerlitz, not eighteen months before, must be admitted as forming some excuse for the precaution now observed. Alexander, however, was deeply offended with the un- expected parsimony of his wealthy Ally, and henceforward displayed less repugnance to those in his council who had previously ventured to hint that peace was desirable. The campaign was re-opened on th6 .5th of June, the Russians commencing hostilities by a vigorous attack on the French troops stationed at the bridge of Spanden. Twelve regiments rushed to the encounter, but were repulsed with considerable slaughter. Seven times they renewed the attempt to clear a passage, and on each occasion were beaten back with loss. After the seventh assault, a single regiment of the corps of Bernadotte charged briskly across the bridge, and compelled the enemy to make a precipitate retreat. A HEILSBERG. like unsuccessful attempt was made, at the same time, to force the bridge of Lomittcn. On the Tth, the Russian Imperial Guard, sup- ported by three other divisions, and commanded by Beningsen in person, -with Avhom Avas the Grand Duke Constantino, attacked the posts occupied by Ney at Altkirken ; when the ;Marshal, pursuing a line of operations which had been laid down by the Emperor, made a feint of retreating. The enemy pursued as far as Deppen, where the French made a stand, and, after a desperate engagement on the 8th, put Beningsen to flight, with a loss of two thousand killed, and about three thousand wounded. The Cossack Ilctman, Platoff, on this occasion saved the Russian army from utter desti'uction. The skirmishers of the French vanguard, and the soldiers intended to support them, had rushed forward impetuously in pursuit of the retreatmg columns, when Platoff, wheehng round suddenly, charged with his fierce warriors, and not only dispersed the troops nearest to him, but compelled the infantry to form squares, and rendered it necessary for the whole of the French cavah-y to advance to the attack. The Cossacks, however, having obtained their purpose of checking the pursviit, instantly dispersed over the field, and united in front of the battalions, whose retrograde march they had pro- tected. After much forced marchmg, and various skii-mishes, in M-hich his army sustained great loss, Beningsen reached Heilsberg ; where, concentrating all his force, he resolved to await the approach of his pursuers. A desperate engagement was fought here, in which the sturdy Russians maintained their positions, from morning till near midnight, in the face of a foe greatly superior in numbers, and flushed with recent triumph. No victory could be claimed on either side. At dawn, next day, the space between the hostile lines was found to be not merely strewn, but literally covered with dead and wounded. The Russians, without further molestation, continued their retreat; and, crossing the Aller, placed that barrier between them- selves and the French army. On the 13th of June, Beningsen, pursued by Napoleon in person, arrived opposite to Friedland, a large town on the western bank of the Aller, having a long and narrow wooden bridge communicating with the side of the river on which the Russians lay. The Emperor 565 FRIEDLAND. saw immediately the advantages which might be obtained, if he could allure the enemy from his position, and induce him to cross the bridge and accept battle. He exerted all his art, therefore, to provoke liim to make this false step. The French main body lay concealed in some thick woods behind the town ; and the division of Oudinot, which had suffered severely at Heilsberg, was the only force that shewed itself in opposition. Beningsen fell into the snare ; and, in order to chastise so impotent an adversary, ordered a few Russian regiments to cross the bridge, and march to the attack. The resist- ance offered by the French was firm, but not such as to undeceive Beningsen respecting the force which, with so httle precaution, he had ventured to engage. His first division was reinforced by another, and his opponents still maintaining the contest, sometimes retreating, and at others renewing the fight, the Russian General, by degrees, transported his whole army, except a single division, to the western hank of the Aller, where they bivouacked for the night, on a small plain adjoining the toM^n, with the river about a mile in their rear. FRIEDLANB. Napoleon was on horseback by three o'clock on the morning of the 14th, and before five had disposed his troops, and got his artillery into position. The llussians commenced the contest soon afterwards, still unconscious that they were opposed to more than the enfeebled corps which had dared, on the pre\dous day, to dispute the field with them. The Emperor when he heard the first report of the enemy's guns exclaimed, with evident satisfaction, "This will be a fortunate day; it is the anniversary of Marengo." The French skirmishers now advanced briskly, and heavy columns of infantry began to shew themselves from the surrounding woods, soon convincing Beningsen, by their numbers and confidence, that he was in the presence of the Grand Army, and was about to encounter Napoleon himself. It was too late, however, to rectify his error. The divisions of Lannes and Mortier were already advancing to the onset. The utmost that could be done to save the Russian army from annihilation was to resume its communication ^\^th Wehlau, a town situated on the Prcgel. To secure this object, six thousand men were detached from the mam body vN-ith orders to march to Allerberg, several mHes lower down the river, for the pm-pose of keeping the bridge there, as a means of retreat. NotAvithstanding all disadvantages, however, the Russians, fighting with the most obstinate valour, maintained their gi'ound, though exposed to a heavy cannonade, and to numberless charges of the well-disciplined cavalry and infantry of Napoleon, till about four in the afternoon, when the Emperor put himself at the head of the French hne and commanded a general assault, in order, by one of those usually overwhelming effbrts, to which he owed the victory in many doubtful engagements, to bring the battle to a close. The attack, with cavalry, infantry, and artiUery, was simultaneous at all points. The French rushed forward with shouts of "Vive I'Em- pereur!" The Russians, who appeared to be hemmed in by a semicircle of glittering steel, and were akeady weakened and dis- pirited by the loss of more than twelve thousand men in killed and wounded, were unable to sustain the shock, but fled in terror to the town in the rear. Their troops poured hke a torrent into the nai-row streets of Friedland, impedmg and trampling down each other in their haste*. The bridge and pontoons were speedily crowded with 56/ FRIEDLAND, fugitives ; and tlie French, thundering after them, must have destroyed the entire army, but for the courage and presence of mind of the Russian Imperial Guard, which suddenly forming and charging their pursuers %vith the bayonet created some disorder in their ranks, and thus snatched sufficient time to re-estabUsh order. The first di\ision which passed the river, however, set fire to the bridge and pontoons to prevent the French from obtaining possession of them : thereby increasing the horror and confusion of the scene, and the difficulty of escape for their comrades. At this critical moment, a ford was discovered at a little distance from the town, and afforded a means of retreat to a great portion of the army, while the rest fled by a circuitous route on the right of Fricdland, and passed the stream by another ford, also discovered in the moment of extremity, and which, being deep and dangerous, destroyed all the ammunition in the tumbrils, and drowned a great number of soldiers. The Russians lost fifteen thousand men in killed, and a great number of wounded, including thirty general officers, together with seventeen cannons and many standards, in this action. The greater portion of their baggage was saved; and as Napoleon, from motives of policy, took no imme- diate steps to improve his \4ctory, Beningsen was enabled to rally his broken forces on the eastern bank of the AUer, and pursue his disastrous flight towards the frontier of his own country, unmolested. The French Emperor, in Avriting to Josephine after the battle, said, " My children have once more shed a lustre over my career. The victory of Friedland will be inscribed in history beside those of Marengo, Austerlitz, and Jena." The importance attached by the enemy to this victory was speedily evinced. The King of Prussia forthwith evacuated Konigsberg; being convinced that liis Russian Allies could no longer mamtain the war in Poland, and that the ancient capital of his country was thenceforward no place of security, Soult accordingly took possession of the city on the IGth of June, and found immense stores of grain, munitions of all kinds, including a hundred and sixty thousand muskets, recently received from England, and more than twenty thousand wounded soldiers in the hospitals. Beningsen, meanwhile, found it necessary to continue his retreat on the Niemen ; and the Emperor Alexander, being \\dthout the means of reinforcing his army, uncertain as to the arrival of the 566 NEGOflATlOXS. promised assistance from England, at war with Turkey, and alarmed by reports of the intended reorganization of Poland as a nation, became anxious for peace. Napoleon also, having been longer absent from his capital than he had contemplated, and probably feeling that it would be dangerous to follow such determined foes, as the Russian troops had proved themselves, into their own territories, earnestly desii-ed the termination of hostiUties ; and by many acts of generosity towards such of the enemy as fell into his power, and by abstaining from increasing their distresses under defeat, had not only kept open a door to reconciliation, but excited the Czar's admiration and gratitude. On the 19th, Napoleon advanced his head-quarters to Tilsit, where, on the 21st, he received a message from Alexander desii'ing an armistice, which was immediately conceded, and accompanied with the offer of a personal interview to treat for a definitive peace. The Russian Emperor, himself ambitious of the title of a hero, felt flattered that he, whom Sir Walter Scott calls the " Destined Victor," should still, notwithstanding his manifest superiority in genius and power, be willing to confer with a humbled opponent as an equal, on matters which seemed to involve the fate of the world. A meeting was, accordmgly, appointed to take place in a pavilion constructed upon a raft moored in the middle of the Nicmen, on the 2.'3th. In the interim, namely, on the 22nd, Napoleon published the following address to his army: " Soldiers ! On the 5th of June we were attacked by the Russian army in our cantonments. The enemy was mistaken as to the causes of our inactivity, and perceived not till too late that our repose was' that of the lion. Summoned iiom the banks of the Vistula, we have reached the waters of the Niemen with the rapidity of the eagle. You celebrated at Austerlitz the anniversay of the Coronation; you have this year celebrated that of ^Marengo, which put an end to the second Coalition. " Frenchmen ! Your deeds have been worthy of both you and me. You will return to France covered m ith laurels, after having obtained a glorious and durable peace." On the 25th of June, at one in tlie afternoon, the two Emperors embarked at the same instant from the opposite sides of the Niemen, to hold the appointed conference. The bank^ of the river were IMPERIAL INTERVIEW. crowded with spectators. Napoleon was accompanied by Murat, Berthicr, Bessieres, Duroc, and Caulaincourt ; Alexander by his brother the Grand Duke Constantino, Generals Beningsen and Ouvaroff, Prince LebanofF, and the Count de Lieven. The two boats arriving at the raft at the same time, the Emperors disembarked, and embracing each other with an aj^pearance of the utmost cordiality, amid the loud acclamations of their respective armies, entered together the pavilion, where they conversed in private for two hours. The officers in attendance, who had remained without during the interview, were then introduced, and the best understanding seemed to be established between the two monarchs, who parted, as they had met, with an embrace, and each retired to his camp. The next day a second interview took place in the pavilion, at which the King of Prussia was present. He exhibited considerable emotion on being introduced to the conqueror of his dominions, on whose generosity his future fortunes depended. Napoleon himself seemed aifected by his dejection, and treated him with greater courtesy and kindness than had been hoped for. It was agreed, at this meeting, that Tilsit should be immediately neutralized, and negociations there entered upon for a peace. The three Sovereigns, accordingly, fixed their courts in that town, and during their residence lived on such terms of amity with each other, — an example which 570 RESIDENCE AT TILSIT. was followed by the officers and soldiers of their several armies, — "that," says Sir "Walter Scott, "it was difficult to conceive that men so courteous and amiable had been for many months drenching trampled snows and muddy wastes with each other's blood," The intercourse of the Emperors assumed by degrees the character of brotherly intimacy. Their mornings were passed in reviews, or in unattended rides ; their evenings were devoted to fetes and entei'tain- ments of every kind, in which each sought to rival the other in affording the highest gratification to his guest. The King of Prussia was tx'eated with more reserve than his Ally, and soon discovered that all his expectations depended upon the influence of Alexander and the clemency of the French Monarch. Napoleon, when at St. Helena, attributed his coolness at Tilsit towards Frederick "NVilham, to that Prince's want of tact and talent. According to his account, when the three Sovereigns rode out together, Napoleon was con- stantly between the other two, and the Prussian King seldom failed to jostle or incommode him, or to fall in the rear. On their return to the town, the Emperors dismounted in an instant, and took each other by the hand to ascend the stairs ; but the honours being invariably performed by Napoleon, who alone had a household establishment in attendance, and kept a regular table, he was under the necessity of waiting till the King had passed, which on two or three occasions, was for a considerable time, and as it happened to be rainy weather, the Emperors sometimes got wet in conse- quence. Alexander was greatly annoyed at the abstraction and awkwardness of his Ally; and suggested to Napoleon that, after dining together, it would be advisable in order to be rid of their companion to separate, on pretence of urgent business, and resume their meeting in another apartment ; which, being adopted, they sometimes continued in conversation till past midnight. The terms of future peace and alliance, in the meantime, were discussed and settled with a rapidity v.diich was entu-ely new in diplomatic nego- ciations. The young and beautiful Queen of Prussia arrived at Tilsit, at noon on the Gth of July, and, about two hours afterwards. Napoleon paid her a visit. She received him with an air of injured dignitj', and claimed justice at his hands. "Prussia," she exclaimed, "was 571 QUEEN OF PRUSSIA. ignorant in respect to her power. Kelying on the glory she had derived from the great Frederick, and deeming his success her in- heritance, she had ventured to contend with a hero ; and, instead of cukivating his auspicious friendship, to oppose herself to the destinies of France. She has been punished with ruin." The beauty, fas- cinating manners, wit, and adroitness of this Princess were such, that, as Napoleon afterwards admitted, had she been present at the commencement of the negociations, she might have exercised con- siderable influence on the result; but the general terms being now arranged, the Emperor was determined to bring the treaty to a close without delay. The Queen and her husband accepted Napoleon's invitation to dinner; and while leading her to a seat the host informed his fair guest that he restored to her Silesia, a province for which she had - earnestly solicited at their previous interview. Seated between the two Emperors, the Queen exerted all her talents to extort promises 5;2 TREATY OF TII.SIT. of favour, and with such eftbct, that Napoleon was compelled to keep a strict guard over his words, and thus avoid making cxpUcitly, or by implication, any engagement, or uttering what might be con- strued into an vmintcnded concession — a species of constraint ^^'hich required the utmost vigilance, and, being new to the Emperor, more than once drove him almost to extremity. The importunities which he then encountered, however, were the means of accelerating the conclusion of the treaty; for in the evening, when the Queen had retired, orders were sent to Talleyrand and Prince Kourakin to bring the negociations to a close forthwith. "A woman and a piece of gallantry," observed Napoleon, " ought not to be permitted to inter- fere with arrangements conceived for the welfare of nations." The Treaty was accordingly signed on the 8th, and peace proclaimed on the same day. By this compact, the entire territories of ancient Prussia were restored to Frederick William, together with the French conquests in Upper Saxony and the province of Silesia. The portion of Poland which had been annexed to Prussia, at the time of the partition of that kingdom in 1772, with the exception of the pro^-ince of Bialystock, which was added to the Russian dominions to complete the hue of frontier of that empire, was erected into a separate princi- pality, under the designation of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, and conferred on Augustus, a descendant of the Kings of Poland, whose title of Elector was changed for that of King of Saxony. The means of free commimication between Dresden and Warsaw were stipulated for, in the reservation to Augustus of a right to construct a grand military road across Silesia. Dantzic was declared to be a free city, and placed under the protection of the Kings of Prussia and Saxony ; but it was to be provisionally garrisoned, till the ratification of a maritime peace, by French soldiers. The provinces of Prussia in Franconia and Lower Saxony, united with Hanover, Hcsse-Casscl, Westphalia, and Brunswick, were formed into a kingdom, entitled that of Westphalia, which was conferred on Jerome Bonaparte ; who, in order to appease the anger of his brother, which had been incurred by his marriage with :Miss Patterson, an American lady, had recently obtained a divorce, and, on consenting to an alliance with a daughter of the King of Wurtembcrg, had been again admitted to Imperial favour. Russia ceded the domain of Jcver to Holland, in return for .■^73 TREATY OF TILSIT. the Polish province of Bialystock. The rights of the Kings of Wui-temburg and Saxony, together with those of Joseph Bonaparte to the crown of Naples, Louis of Holland, and Jerome of Westphalia, were fully recognised and guaranteed. Napoleon himself was acknow- ledged as Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine ; his assumption of which title had been one of the chief causes of the war. A Consti- tution was assigned to the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, by which slavery was abolished, and the equality of legal rights among all classes of citizens was established. The executive power was vested in the Grand Duke, and the legislative functions in a Senate and Chamber of Deputies. The " Continental System," as the British blockade was called, was imposed upon Prussia, and adopted by the newly-created Kings. Russia, by an unpublished article, accepted the mediation of France for peace with Turkey, and France that of Russia with England ; and, in case of non-acceptance by the last-named power of the terms agreed to be proposed, .the Emjjeror Alexander bound himself to recognise and enforce the Continental System throughout his vast dominions ; and to engage the Northern Courts in a new coalition, for the purpose of destroying the English maritime superi- ority. It has been said, but upon no good authority, that there were other secret articles in the treaty ; by which, on condition that Napoleon should permit to Russia the conquest of European Turkey and of the Swedish province of Finland, which Alexander deemed necessary to the security of his capital, the Czar pledged himself not to interfere with Napoleon in the seizure and appropriation of Spain, Portugal, and Great Britain ! The Queen of Prussia was prepared to renew her solicitations to Napoleon, when she heard, with surprise and indignation, that the treaty was signed. She wept much, and complained that Napoleon had cruelly deceived her ; but Alexander assured her that, by enter- taining false hopes, she had deceived herself. " You should have been present at the commencement of the negociations," he added, " or not have come at all." The Princess felt so deeply mortified at the little influence which she had been able to exercise, in modifying the humiliating terms to which her husband was subjected, that her grief is supposed to have hastened her death, which happened shortly afterwards. 574 CLOSE OF THE CONGRESS. Before quitting Tilsit, the soldier reputed to be the bravest among the Russian Imperial Guard was presented to Napoleon, and received At the same time, the the golden eagle of the Legion of Honoiu- French Emperor was presented with a portrait of the brave Cossack Hetman, PlatofF. On the 9th of July, at eleven in the forenoon, Napoleon, decorated with the ribbon of the first class of the Russian order of St. Andrew, with which he had been honoured by Alexander, went to take leave of his new Ally, to whom he presented the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour. The two Emperors continued in conversation for about three hours, when they mounted their horses, and proceeded, at the head of the Russian Guard, to the banks of the Niemen, where the Czar embarked to return to St. Petersbui-g ; Napoleon, in token of amity, remaining on the river's brink till the Autocrat had gained the opposite side. On the same day, the King and Queen of Prussia departed for Berlin, and Napoleon himself for Konigsberg. Thence he set out, on the 13th of July, for Dresden; where he arrived on the 17th, accompanied by the King of Saxony, who had gone as far as Bautzen, on the frontier of his dominions, to welcome him. On the '^Tth, the Emperor, amid the congratulations 575 PEACE. of a vast concourse of his subjects, re-entered the palace of St. Cloud, from which he had been absent ten months. The Peace of Tilsit has been called the culminating point of Napoleon's career : till then, his star had been rising. The waters of the Niemen reflected it in its meridian splendour; and its light, which was beheld from afar, filled surrounding nations with astonish- ment and awe. ■-^^xr END OF VOUi^lE 1. Loiidniii PaLMKII Mi CLAYtoN, fl, Crnne-couft, Fleet-Street. 576 UNIVERSITY OF CALIIjukjma Santa Barbara Goleta, California THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW. AVAILABLE FOR ;iRCULATION AFTER DISPLAY PERIOD NOVl 0'61 p^P^ «■ iOni-8,'60(B2594s4)476 S?nm»^,'^."^'^'°'^'^'- LIBRARY FACILm D 000 803 48 1 1