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Principles of Decorative Design.

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ptcoRAiivE Design.

PRINCIPLES

Decorative Design.

Christopher Dresser,

Ph.D., F.L.S., F.E.B.S., etc. ;

Author of " The Art of Decorative Design," " Unity in Variety f tie.

FOURTH EDITION.

Cajsjsell, Petter, Qalpin & Co.

LONDON, PARIS &° NEW YORK.

Preface.

-*Y object in writing this work has been that of aiding in tbe
art-education of those who seek a knowledge of ornament
as applied to our industrial manufactures.

I have not attempted the production of a pretty book,
but have aimed at giving wbat knowledge I possess upon
the subjects treated of, in a simple and intelligible manner. I have
attempted simply to instruct.

The substance of the present work was first published as a series of
lessons in the Technical Educator. These lessons are now collected into
a work, and have been carefully revised ; a few new illustrations have
been inserted, and a final chapter added.

As the substance of this work was written as a series of lessons for
the Technical Educator, I need not say tbat the book is addressed to
working men, for the whole of the lessons in that publication have been
prepared especially for those noble fellows who, through want of early
opportunity, have been without the advantages of education, but who
have the praiseworthy courage to educate themselves in later life, wben
the value of knowledge has become apparent to them.

That the lessons as given in the Technical Educator have not been
written wholly in vain I already know, for shortly before I had completed
this revision of them, I had the opportunity of visiting a provincial town
ball which I had heard was being decorated, and was pleasingly surprised

Vi PREFACE.

to see decoration of considerable merit, and evidences that much of what
[ saw had resulted from a consideration of my articles in the Technical
Educator. The artist engaged upon the work, although having suffered
the disadvantage of apprenticeship to a butcher, has established himself
as a decorator while still a young man ; and from the manifestation of
ability which he has already given, I hope for a brighter future for one
who, as a working man, must have studied hard. If these lessons as
now collected into a work should lead to the development of the art-
crerras which doubtless lie dormant in other working men, the object
which I have sought to attain in writing and collecting these together
will have been accomplished.

Tower Cressy, Notting Hill,
London, W.

CojMTE^T£,

CnAPTER I. pacp

Introductory— Division I. Art-knowledge; Historic Styles .... 1

„ II. Truth, Beauty, Power, etc. ..... 14

„ III. Humoub in Ornament ..... 25

CHAPTER II.
Colour . . • . . . . . . . . .30

CHAPTER III.
Furnitube ........... 50

CHAPTER IV.

Decoration of Buildings— Division I. General Considerations — Ceilings . . 73

„ II. Decorations of Walls . . . .83

CHAPTER V.
Carpets ........... 94

CHAPTER VI.

Curtain Materials, Hangings, and Woven Fabrics generally . . . 107

CHAPTER VII.

Hollow Vessels — Division I. Pottery ....... 117

II. Glass Vessels ...... 127

„ III. Metal- work . . . . . .135

CHAPTER VIII.
Hardware ....■•«•••• 144

CHAPTER IX.
Stained Glass ..•••■•••• 153

CHAPTER X.
Conclusion .....•• ... 160

Principles of Design.

CHAPTER I.

Division I.

There are many handicrafts in which a knowledge of the true principles of orna-
mentation is almost essential to success, and there are few in which a knowledge
of decorative laws cannot be utilised. The man who can form a howl or a vase well
is an artist, and so is the man who can make a beautiful chair or table. These are
truths ; but the converse of these facts is also true ; for if a man be not an artist he
cannot form an elegant bowl, nor make a beaut iful chair.

At the very outset we must recognise the fact that the beautiful has a com-
mercial or money value. We may even say that art can lend to an object a value
greater than that of the material of which it consists, even when the object be formed
of precious matter, as of rare marbles, scarce woods, or silver or gold.

This being the case, it follows that the workman who can endow his productions
with those qualities or beauties which give value to his works, must be more useful
to his employer than the man who produces objects devoid of such beauty, and his
time must be of higher value than that of his less skilful companion. If a man,
who has been born and brought up as a " son of toil/' has that laudable ambition
which causes him to seek to rise above his fellows by fairly becoming their superior,
I would say to him that 1 know of no means of his so readily doing so, as by his
acquainting himself with the laws of beauty, and studying till he learns to perceive
the difference between the beautiful and the ugty, the graceful and the deformed,
(he refined and the coarse. To perceive delicate beauties is not by any means an easj
task to those who have not devoted themselves to the consideration of the beautiful
for a long period of time, and of this be assured, that what now appears to you to be
beautiful, you may shortly regard as less so, and what now fails to attract you, may
ultimately become charming to your eye. In your study of the beautiful, do not be
led away by the false judgment of ignorant persons who may suppose themselves
possessed of good taste. It is common to assume that women have better taste than
men, and some women seem to consider themselves the possessors of even authorita-
tive taste from which there can be no appeal. They may be right, only we must
be pardoned for not accepting such authority, for should there be any over-estimation

2 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

of the accuracy of this good taste, serious loss of progress in art-judgment might
result.

It may he taken as an invariable truth that knowledge, and knowledge alone,
can enable us to form an accurate judgment respecting the beauty or want of beauty
of an object, and he who has the greater knowledge of art can judge best of the
ornamental qualities of an object. He who would judge rightly of art-works must
have knowledge. Let him who would judge of beauty apply himself, then, to
earnest study, for thereby he shall have wisdom, and by his wise reasonings he will
be led to perceive beauty, and thus have opened to him a new source of pleasure.

Art-knowledge is of value to the individual and to the country at large. To
the individual it is riches and wealth, and to the nation it saves impoverishment.
Take, for example, clay as a natural material: in the hands of one man this material
becomes llower-pots, worth eighteen-pence a "cast" (a number varying from sixty
to twelve according to size) ; in the hands of another it becomes a tazza, or a vase,
worth five pounds, or perhaps fifty. It is the art which gives the value, and not the
material. To the nation it saves impoverishment.

A wise policy induces a country to draw to itself all the wenlth that it can,
without parting with more of its natural material than is absolutely necessary. If
for every pound of clay that a nation parts with, it can draw to itself that amount of
gold which we value at five pounds sterling, it is obviously better thus to part wit li
but little material and yet secure wealth, than it is to part with the material at a low
rate cither in its native condition, or worked into coarse vessels, thereby rendering a
great impoverishment of the native resources of the country necessary in order to
its wealth.

Men of the lowest degree of intelligence can dig clay, iron, or copper, or quarry
stone ; but these materials, if bearing the impress of mind, are ennobled and
rendered valuable, and the more strongly the material is marked with this ennobling
impress the more valuable it becomes.

I must qualify my last statement, for there are possible cases in which the
impress of mind may degrade rather than exalt, and take from rather than enhance,
the value of a material. To ennoble, the mind must be noble ; if debased, it can
only debase. Let the mind be refined and pure, and (lie more fully it impresses itself
upon a material, the more lovely does the material become, for thereby it has
received the impress of refinement and purity; but if the mind be debased and
impure, tin,' more does the matter to which its nature is transmitted become degraded.
Let me have a simple mass of clay as a candle-holder rather than the earthen
candlestick which only presents such a form as is the natural outgoing of a degraded
mind.

There is .-mot her reason why the material of which beautiful objects are formed
should be of little intrinsic value besides thai arising out of a consideration of the

ECONOMY 01' MATERIAL. o

exhaustion of the country, and this will lead us to see that it is desirable in nil cases
to form beautiful objects as far as pos>il>]<> of an inexpensive material. Clay, wood
iron, stone, are materials which may be fashioned into beautiful forms, but beware of
silver, and of gold, and of precious stones. The inosl fragile material often endures for
a long period of time, while the almost incorrosible silver and gold rarely escape the
ruthless- hand of the destroyer. " Beautiful though gold and silver are, and worthy,
even though they were the commonest of things, to be fashioned into the most
exquisite devices, their money value makes them a perilous material for works
of art. How many of the choicest relics of antiquity are lost to us, because
they tempted the thief to steal them, and then to hide his theft by melting them!
How many unique designs in gold and silver have the vicissitudes of war reduced in
fierce haste into money-changers' nuggets ! Where are Benvenuto Cellini's vases,
Lorenzo Ghiberti's cups, or the silver lamps of Ghirlandajo ? Clone almost as com-
pletely as Aaron's golden pot of manna, of which, for another reason than that
which kept St. Paul silent, ' we cannot now speak particularly.' Nor is it only
because this is a world ' where thieves break through and steal' that the fine gold
becomes dim and the silver perishes. This, too, is a world where ' love is strong as
death;' and what has not love — love of family, love of brother, love of child, love of
lover — prompted man and woman to do with the costliest things, when they
could be exchanged as mere bullion for the lives of those who were beloved?"*
Workmen ! it is fortunate for us that the best vehicles for art are the least costly
materials.

Having made these general remarks, I may explain to niy readers what I am
about to attempt in the little work which I have now commenced. My primary
aim will be to bring about refinement of mind in all who may accompany me
through my studies, so that they may individually be enabled to judge correctly
of the nature of any decorated object, and enjoy its beauties — should it present any
— and detect its faults, if such be present. This refinement I shall attempt to bring
about by presenting to the mind considerations which it must digest and assimilate,
so that its new formations, if I may thus speak, may be of knowledge. We shall
carefully consider certain general principles, which are either common to all fine arts or
govern the production or arrangement of ornamental forms: then we shall notice the
laws which regulate the combination of colours, and the application of colours to
objects ; after which we shall review our various art-manufactures, and consider art
as associated with the manufacturing industries. We shall thus be led to consider
furniture, earthenware, table and window glass, wall decorations, carpets, floor cloths,
window-hangings, dress fabrics, works in silver and gold, hardware, and whatever

• From a lecture by the late Professor George Wilson, of Edinburgh.

4 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

is a combination of art and manufacture. I shall address myself, then, to the
carpenter, the cabinet-maker, potter, glass-blower, paper-stainer, weaver and dyer,
silversmith, blacksmith, gas-finisher, designer, and all who are in any way engaged
in the production of art-objects.

But before we commence our regular work, let me say that without laborious
study no satisfactory progress can be made. Labour is the means whereby we raise
ourselves above our fellows; labour is the means by which we arrive at affluence.
Think not that there is a royal road to success — the road is through toil. Deceive
not yourself with the idea that you were born a genius — that you were born an artist.
If you are endowed with a love for art, remember that it is by labour alone that you
can get such knowledge as will enable you to present your art-ideas in a manner
acceptable to refined and educated people. Be content, then, to labour. In the case
of an individual, success appears to me to depend upon the time which he devotes
to the study of that which he desires to master. One man works six hours a day ;
another works eighteen. One has three days in one ; and what is the natural
result? Simply this— that the one who works the eighteen hours progresses with
three times the rapidity of the one who only works six hours. It is true that indivi-
duals differ in mental capacity, but my experience has led me to believe that those
who work the hardest almost invariably succeed the best.

While I write, I have in my mind's eye one or two on whom Nature appeared
f o have lavishly bestowed art-gifts ; yet these have made but little progress in life.
I see, as it were, before me others who were less gifted by Nature, but who
industriously persevered in their studies, and were content to labour for success; and
these have achieved positions which the natural genius has failed even to approach.
Workmen ! I am a worker, and a believer in the efficacy of work.

We will commence our systematic course by observing that good ornament —
good decorations of any character, have qualities which appeal to the educated, but
are silent to the ignorant, and that these qualities make utterance of interesting
facts ; but before we can rightly understand what I may term the hidden utterance
of ornament, we must inquire into the general revelation which the ornament of any
particular people, or of any historic age, makes to us, and also the utterances of
individual forms.

As an illustration of my meaning, let us take the ornament produced by
the Egyptians. In order to see this it may be necessary that we visit a museum —
say the British Museum — where we search out the mummy-cases; but :is most
provincial museums boast one or more mummy-cases, we are almost certain to find
in the leading country towns illustrations t hat will serve our present- purpose. On a
mummy-case you may find a singular ornament, which is a conventional drawing of

EGYPTIAN ORNAMENT.

the Egyptian lotus, or blue water-lily* (see Figs. 1, 2, :j), and in all probability you
will find this ornamental device repeated over and over again on the one mummy-
ease. Notice this peculiarity of the drawing of the lotus — a peculiarity common to
Egyptian ornaments — that there is a severity, a rigidity of line, a sort of sternness
about it. This rigidity or
severity of drawing is a
great peculiarity or charac-
teristic of Egyptian draw-
ing. But mark ! with this
severity there is always
coupled an amount of
dignity, and in some cases
this dignity is very ap-
parent. Length of line,
firmness of drawing, se-
verity of form, and sub-
tlety of curve are the great
characteristics of Egyptian
ornamentation.

What does all this ex-

press

expresses

the

iiiiiiniiiniimiiiimiimHuiuiiiHHiinHiiiumuiiiiuiiimimuiHinininmrrniuni

character of the people
who created the ornaments.
The ornaments of the
ancient Egyptians were all
ordered by the priesthood,
amongst whom the learn-
ing of this people Avas
stored. The priests were
the dictators to the people
not only j >£ religion, but
of the forms which their
ornaments were to assume.
Mark, then, the expression
of the severity of character

and dignified bearing of the priesthood : in the very drawing of a simple flower we
have presented to us the character of the men who brought about its production. But
this is only what we are in the constant habit of witnessing. A man of knowledge

* This can be seen growing in the water-tanks in the Kew Gardens conservatories, and in
the Crystal Palace at Sydenham.

HUH 1 !! IHil!llllllllllllllll|ilH!llll!ll)lll[|l

sy»s^S!^sp|si^^

Fig. 1.

Fig. 3.

fc PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

writes with power and force; while the man of wavering opinions writes timidly and
with feebleness. The force of the one character (which character has been made
forcible by knowledge) and the weakness of the other is manifested by his written
words. So it is with ornaments : power or feebleness of character is manifest by the
forms produced.

The Egyptians were a severe people; they were hard task-masters. When a
great work had to be performed, a number of slaves were selected for the work, and
a portion of food allotted to each, which was to last till the work was completed; and
if the work was not finished when the food was consumed, the slaves perished. We
do not wonder at the severity of Egyptian drawing. But the Egyptians were a noble
people — noble in knowledge of the arts, noble in the erection of vast and massive
buildings, noble in the greatness of their power. Hence we have nobility of
drawing — power and dignity mingled with severity in every ornamental form which
they produced.

We have thus noticed the general utterance or expression of Egyptian drawing ;
but what specific communication does this particular lotus make? Most of the
ornaments of the Egyptians — whether the adornments of sarcophagi, of water-
vessels, or mere charms to be worn pendent from the neck — were symbols of some
truth or dogma inculcated by the priests. Hence Egyptian ornament is said to be
symbolic.

The fertility of the Nile valley was chiefly due to the river annually overflowing
its banks. In spreading over the land, the water carried with it a quantity of rich
alluvial earth, which gave fecundity to the country on which it was deposited. When
the water which had overspread the surrounding land had nearly subsided, the corn
which was to produce the harvest was set by being cast upon the retiring water,
through which it sank into the rich alluvial earth. The water being now well-nigh
within the river-banks, the first flower that sprang up was the lotus. This flower was
to the Egyptians the harbinger of coming plenty, for it symbolised the springing
forth of the wheat. It was the first flower of spring, or their primrose (first rose).
The priesthood, perceiving the interest with which this flower was viewed, and the
watchfulness manifested for its appearance, taught that in it abode a god, and that
it must be worshipped. The acknowledgment of this flower as a fit and primary
object of worship caused it to be delineated on the mummy-cases, and sarcophagi,
and on all sacred edifices.

A\ e shall have frequent occasion, while considering decorative art, to notice
symbolic forms; but we must not forget the fact that all good ornaments make
utterance. Let us in all cases, when beholding them, give ear to their teachings !

Egyptian ornament is so full of forms which have interesting significance that
I cannot forbear giving one other illustration; and of this I am sure, that not only
does a knowledge of the intention of each form employed in a decorative scheme

EGYPTIAN ORNAMENT. /

cause the beholder to receive ;i special amount of pleasure when viewing it, hut also
that without such knowledge no one can rightly judge of the nature of any
ornamental work.

There is a device in Egyptian ornament which the most casual observer cannot
have failed to notice; it is what is termed the " winged globe," and consists of a
small hall or globe, immediately at the sides of which are two asps, and from which
extend two wings, each wing being in length about five to eight times that of the
diameter of the ball (Fig. I). The drawing of this device is very grand. The force
with which the wings are delineated well represents the powerful character of
the protection which the kingdom of Egypt afforded, and which was symbolised by
the extended and overshadowing pinions.

I know of few instances where forms of an ornamental character have been
combined in a manner either more quaint or more interesting than in the example
before us. The composition presents a charm that few ornaments do, and is worthy

- ' - : - - - <■ i - - - ^ - ^ - -

Fig. 4.

of careful consideration. But this ornament derives a very special and unusual
interest when we consider its purpose, the blow which was once aimed at it, and the
shock which its producers must have received, upon finding it powerless to act as
they had taught, if not believed, it would.

The priesthood instructed the people that this was the symbol of protection, and
that it so effectually appealed to the preserving spirits that no evil could enter
where it was portrayed. With the view of giving a secure protection to the inmates
of Egyptian dwellings, this device, or symbol of protection, was ordered to be placed
on the lintel (the post over the door) of every building of the Egyptians, whether
residence or temple.

It was to nullify this symbol, and to show the vain character of the Egyptian
gods, that Moses was commanded to have the blood of the lamb slain at the passover
placed upon the lintel, in the very position of this winged globe. It was also enjoined
as a further duty that the blood be sprinkled on the door-post ; but this was merely
a new duty, tending further to show that even in position, as well as in nature, this
winged globe was powerless to secure protection. This device, then, is of special
interest, both as a symbolic ornament and as throwing light on Scripture history.

Besides the two ornamental forms mentioned—/.?., the lotus and the winged
globe— we might notice many others also of great interest, but our space will not

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGX.

enable ns to do so; further information may, however, be got from the South
Kensington Museum library,* where several interesting works on Egyptian ornament
maybe seen; — from the "Grammar of Ornament" by Mr. Owen Jones, — the works on
Egypt by Sir Gardiner Wilkinson ; and, especially, — by a visit to the Egyptian Court
of the Crystal Palace at Sydenham, and by a careful perusal of the hand-book to
that court. f Much might also be said respecting Egyptian architecture, but on this
we can say little here ; yet, as the columns of the temples are of a very ornamental
character, we may notice that in most cases they were formed of a bundle of papyrus J
stems bound together by thongs or straps — the heads of the plant forming the capital
of the column, and the stems the shaft (Fig. o). In some cases the lotus was sub-
stituted for the papyrus ; and in other instances
the palm-leaf was used in a similar way ; these
modifications can be seen in the Egyptian Court
at Sydenham with great advantage, and many
varieties of form resulting from the use of the
one plant, as of the papyrus, may also there be
observed.

We have here an opportunity of noticing how
the mode of building, however simple or primitive
in character, first employed by a nation may
become embodied in its ultimate architecture ; for,
undoubtedly, the rude houses first erected in Egypt
were formed largely of bundles of the papyrus,
which were gathered from the river-side — for
wood was rare in Egypt — and, ultimately, when
buildings were formed of stone, an attempt was
made at imitating in the new material the form
which the old reeds presented. But mark, the imitation was no gross copy of the
original work, but a well-considered and perfectly idealised work, substituting for
the bundle of reeds a work having the true architectural qualities of a noble-looking
and useful column. We must now pass from the ornament of the Egyptians to
that of the Greeks, and here we meet with decorative forms Laving a different
object and different aim from those already considered.

* Any person can have admission to the South Kensington Museum Ait library and its
Educational library, for a week, by payment of sixpence.

t A hand-book to each of the historic courts erected in the Sydenham Palace was prepared at
the time the courts were built. These are still to be got in the Literary department, in the north-east
gallery of the building. They are all worthy of careful study.

t The papyrus was the plant from which Egyptian paper was made. It was also the bulrush of
the Scriptures, in which the infant Moses was found.

GREEK ORNAMENT. V

Egyptian ornament was symbolical in character. Its individual forms had
specific meaning's — the purport of each shape being taught by the priests — but wo
find no such thing as symbolism in Greek decoration. The Greeks were a refined
people, who sought not to express their power by their art-works so much as their
refinement. Before the mental eye they always had a perfect ideal, and their most
earnest efforts were made at the realisation of the perfections of the mental
conception of absolute refinement. In one respect the Greeks resembled the
Egyptians, for they rarely created new forms. When once a form became sacred to
the Egyptians, it could not be altered ; but with the Greeks, while bound by no such
law, the love of old forms was great ; yet the Greeks did not seek simply to
reproduce what they had before created, but laboured hard to improve and refine
what they had before done ; and even through succeeding centuries they worked at
the refinement of simple forms and ornamental compositions, which have become
characteristic of them as a people.

The general expression of Greek art is that of refinement, and the manner in
which the delicately cultivated taste of some of the Greeks is expressed by their
ornaments is astonishing. One decorative device, which we term the Greek
Anthemion, may be regarded as their principal ornament — (the original ornamental
composition by one of my pupils, Fig 6, consists primarily of three anthemions)
— and the variety of refined forms in which it appears is most interesting.

But it must not be thought that the Greek ornaments and architectural forms
present nothing but refinement made manifest in form, for this is not the case.
Great as is the refinement of some of these forms, we yet notice that they speak of
more than the perfected taste of their producers, for they reveal to us this fact — that
their creators had great knowledge of natural forces and the laws by which natural
forces are governed. This becomes apparent in a marked degree when we inquire
into the manner in which they arranged the proportion of the various parts of their
works to the whole, and especially by a consideration of the subtle nature of the
curves which they employed both in architectural members and in decorative forms;
but into this we must not now inquire. Yet, by way of throwing some faiut light
upon the manner in which knowledge is embodied in Greek forms, I may refer to
the Doric column, such as was employed in the Parthenon at Athens* (Fig. 7) . The
idea presented by this column is that of energetic upward growth which has corns
in contact with some superposed mass, the weight of which presses upon the
column from above, while the energy of the upward growth causes the column
to appear fully equal to the task of supporting the superincumbent structure. Mark
this — that by pressure from above, or weight, the shaft of the column is distended,

* A capital, and portion of the shaft, of one of these columns are to be seen in the British
Museum Sculpture-room, and a cast of the same at the Crystal Palace, Sydenham. This Doric
column is employed in the Greek Court of the Crystal Palace.

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGX.

or Lent out, about one-third of the distance from its base to its apex (just where
this distension would occur, were the column formed of a slightly plastic material),

Fig. 7.

and yet tins distension of the shift is no! such as to give any idea of weakness, for
the column appears to rise with the energy of such vigorous life as to be more than
able to bear the weight which it lias to sustain.

Mark also the singularly delicate curve of the capital of the column, which

EASTERN AND CHRISTIAN ORNAMENT. 1 1

appears as a slightly plastic cushion intervening between the shaft and the super-
incumbent mass which it has to support. The delicacy and refinement of form
presented by this capital is perhaps greater than that of any other with which we
are acquainted.

The same principle of life and energy coming in contact with resistance or
pressure from above is constantly met with in the enrichments of Greek cornices
and mouldings; but having called attention to the fact, I must leave the student to
observe, and think upon, these interesting subjects for himself. Let me, however,
say that there are few classic buildings in England which will aid the learner in his
researches; there is but little poetry in our architectural buildings, and but little
refinement in the forms of the parts, especially in our classic buildings ; and, added
to this, Greek art without Greek colouring is dead, being almost as the marble statue
to the living form. For the purposes of my readers, the Greek Court at the Crystal
Palace will be the best example for study.

I might now review Roman ornament, and show that in the hour of pride the
materials of which the Roman works were formed were considered, rather than
the shapes which they assumed ; and how we thus get little worthy of praise from
the all-conquering Romans — how the sunny climate and religious superstitions of the
East called forth the gorgeous and beautiful developments of art which have existed,
or still exist, with the Persians, Indians, Turks, Moors, Chinese, and Japanese ; but
I have not space to do so ; yet all the forms of ornament which these people have
created are worthy of the most careful and exhaustive consideration, as they present
art-qualities of the highest kind. I know of no ornament more intricately beautiful
and mingled than the Persian — no geometrical strapwork, or systems of interlacing
lines, so rich as those of the Moors (the Alhambraic) — no fabrics so gorgeous as
those of India — none so quaintly harmonious as those of China; and Japan can
supply the world with the most beautiful domestic articles that we can anywhere
procure.

We must pass on, however, to what we may term Christian art, or that develop-
ment of ornament which had its rise with the Christian religion, and has associated
itself in a special manner with Christianity.

Neither the Egyptians nor early Greeks appear to have used the arch structurally
in their buildings; the Romans, however, had the round arch as a primary structural
element. This round arch was also used by the Byzantines, and amongst their
ornaments we find those combinations of circles, or parts of circles, which so constantly
recur in later times in Gothic architecture and Gothic ornament. Norman buildings,
again, show us the round arch, and present us with such intersected arcs as would
naturally suggest the pointed arch of later times, with which came the full development
of Gothic or Christian architecture and ornamentation. There was a very fine ami
marvellously clever development of decorative art, enthusiastically worked at by the

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

Christian monks of the seventh and eighth centuries, called Celtic, of which we have
many beautiful examples in Professor Westwood's great work on early illuminated
manuscripts; but what is generally understood by Christian or Gothic art had its
finest development about the thirteenth century.

Gothic ornament, like the Egyptian, is essentially symbolic. Its forms have
in many instances specific significance. Thus the common equilateral triangle is in
some cases used to symbolise the Holy Trinity ; so are the two entwined triangles.
But there are many other symbols employed in Gothic ornament which set forth the
mystery of the Unity of the Trinity. Thus in Fig. 8 we have three interlaced
circles, which beautifully express the eternal Unity of the Holy Trinity, for the circle

Fig. 8.

Fig. 10.

alone symbolises eternity, being without beginning and without end, and the three
parts point to the Three Persons of the Godhead. A very curious and clever symbol
of the Trinity is portrayed in Fig. 9, where three faces are so combined as to form
an ornamental figure.

Baptism under the immediate sanction of the Divine Trinity was represented
by three fishes placed together in the manner of a triangle (Fig. 10) ; but so
numerous wei - e Christian symbols after the ninth century, that to enumerate them
merely would occupy much space. Every trefoil symbolised the Holy Trinity, every
quatrefoil the four evangelists, every cross the Crucifixion, or the martyrdom of some
saint. And into Gothic ornamentation the chalice, the crown of thorns, the dice,
the sop, the hammer and nails, the flagellum, and other symbols of our Lord's
passion have entered. But, besides these, we have more purely architectural forms
making gentle utterance : the church spire points heavenwards, and the long lines
of the clustered columns of the cathedral direct the thoughts upwards to heaven
and to ( rod.

Gothic ornament, having passed from its purity towards undue elaboration,
began to lose its hold on the people for whom it was created, and the form of religion

RENAISSANCE ORNAMENT. IS

with which it had long heen associated had become old, when the great overthrow
of old traditions and usages occurred, commonly called the Reformation. ^\'it h the
reformation of religion came a revival of classic learning, and a general diffusion of
knowledge, and thus the immediate necessity for art-symbols was passing away, it
being especially to an unlettered people that an extended system of symbolism
appeals. With this revival of classic learning came the investigation of classic
remains — the exploration of Greek and Roman ruins ; and while this was going on,
a dislike to whatever had been associated with the old form of religion had sprung
up, which dislike turned to hate as the struggle advanced, till the feeling against
Gothic architecture and ornament became so strong that anything was preferred to
it. Now arose Renaissance architecture and ornament (revival work), which was
based on the Roman remains, but was yet remoulded, or formed anew ; so that the
ornament of the Renaissance is not Roman ornament, but a new decorative scheme,
of the same genus as that of the Roman. Here, however, all my sympathies
end. I confess that all Renaissance ornament, whether developed under the soft
sky of Italy (Italian ornament), in more northerly France (French Renaissance),
or on our own soil (Elizabethan, or English Renaissance), fails to awaken any
feeling of sympathy in my breast; and that it, on the contrary, chills and repels
me. I enjoy the power and vigour of Egyptian ornament, the refinement of the
Greek, the gorgeousness of the Alhambraie, the richness of the Persian and
Indian, the quaintness of the Chinese and Japanese, the simple honesty and bold-
ness of the Gothic; but with the coarse Assyrian, the haughty Roman, and the
cold Renaissance, I have no kindred feeling — no sympathy. They strike notes
which have no chords in my nature : hence from them I instinctively fly. I
must be pardoned for this my feeling by those who differ from me in judgment,
but my continued studies of these styles only separate me further from them
in feeling.

It will be said that in my writings I mingle together ornament and architecture,
and that my sphere is ornament, and not building. I cannot separate the two. The
material at command, the religion of the people, and the climate have, to a great
extent, determined the character of the architecture of all ages and nations; but
they have, to the same extent, determined the nature of the ornamentation of the
edifices raised. Ornament always has arisen out of architecture, or been a mere
reflex of the art-principles of the building decorated. We cannot rightly consider
ornament without architecture ; but I will promise to take no further notice of
architecture than is absolutely necessary to the proper understanding of our subject.

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

Division II.
In my previous remarks I have attempted to set forth some of the first
principles of ornament, and to call attention to the purport or intention of certain
of the leading historic styles, and the manner in which they make utterance to us of
the faith or sentiments of their producers.

But there are other utterances of ornament, and other general expressions
which decorative forms con vey ( , , the mind. Thus sharp, angular, or spiny forms are

more or less exciting (Fig. 11); while
bold and broad forms are soothing, or
tend to give repose.

Sharp or angular forms, where
combined in ornament, act upon the
senses much as racy and pointed say-
ings do. Thus " cut " or angular
glass, spinose metal-work, as the
pointed foliage of some wrought-iron
gates, and other works in which there
is a prevalence of angles and points,
so act upon the mind as to stimulate
it, and thus produce an effect opposite
to repose ; while " breadth " of form
and " largeness " of treatment induce
tranquillity and meditation.

Nothing can be more important
to the ornamentist than the scientific
study of art. The metaphysical in-
quiry into cause and effect, as relating
to decorative ideas, is very important
— indeed, all-important — to the true decorator. He must constantly ask himself
what effect such and such forms have upon the mind — which effects are soothing,
which cheerful, which melancholy, which rich, which ethereal, which gorgeous,
which solid, which graceful, which lovable, and so on; and in order to do this
he must separate the various elements of ornamental composition, and consider
these apart, so as to be sure that he is not mistaken as to what affects the mind
in any particular manner, and he must then combine these elements in various
proportions, and consider the effects of the various combinations on his own mind
and thai of others, and thus he will discover what will enable him to so act on
the senses as to induce effects such as he may desire to produce.

Are we to decorate a dining-room, let the decoration give the sense of richness;

Fig. II.

TRUTH, BEAUTY, POWER. ] 5

ii drawing-room, let it give cheerfulness; a library, let it give worth ; a bed-room,
repose; but glitter must never occur in large quantities, for that which excites can
only be sparingly indulged in — if too freely employed, it gives the sense of vulgarity.

In this chapter I have to speak primarily of Truth, Beauty } and Power. Long
since I was so fully impressed with the idea that true art-principles are so perfectly
manifested by these three words, that I embodied them in an ornamental device
which I painted on my study door, so that all who entered might learn the
principles which I sought to manifest in my works.

There can he morality or immorality in art, the utterance of truth or ol
falsehood ; and hy his art the ornamentist may exalt or debase a nation.

Truth. — How noble, how beautiful ; how righteous to utter it ; and how
debasing is falsehood; yet we see falsehood preferred to truth — that which debases
to that which exalts, in art as well as morals; and I fear that there is almost as
much that is false, degrading, and untrue in my beautiful art as there is of the
noble, righteous, and exalting, although art should only be practised by ennobling
hands. It is this grovelling art, this so-called ornamentation, which tends to
debase rather than exalt, to degrade rather than make noble, to foster a lie rather
than utter truth, which brings about the abasement of our calling, and causes our
art to fail in many instances in laying hold of, and clinging to, the affections of the
noble and the great. Ornamentation is in the highest sense of the word a Fine
Art ; there is no art more noble, none more exalted. It can cheer the sorrowing;
it can soothe the troubled ; it can enhance the joys of those who make merry ; it
can inculcate the doctrine of truth ; it can refine, elevate, purify, aud point onward
and upward to heaven and to God. It is a tine art, for it embodies and expresses
the feelings of the soul of man — that inward spirit which was breathed by the
Creator into the lifeless clay as the image of his life — however noble, pure, or holy.

This being the case, those who ignore decoration cast aside a source of
refinement, and deprive themselves of what may induce their elevation in virtue
and morals. Such a neglect on the part of those who can afford luxuries would be
highly censurable, were it not that the professors of the art are for the most part
false pretenders, knowing not what they practise, and men ignorant of the power
which they hold in their hands. The true artist is a rare creature ; he is often
unknown, frequently misunderstood, or not understood at all, and is not unfrequently
lost to a people that prefer shallowness to deep meaning, falsehood to truth, aud
glitter to repose.

We now see the utter folly of appealing simply to what is called " taste " in
matters of art, and the uselessness of yielding to the caprice (falsely called taste) of
the uneducated in such matters, especially as this so-called taste is often of the
most vulgar and debased order. We also see the absurdity of persons who employ
a true artist interfering with his judgment and ideas. The true artist is a noble

16 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

teacher ; shall he be told, then, what morals he shall inculcate, and what lofty
truths he shall embody in his works, or omit from them ? Do we tell the preacher
what he shall say, and ask him to withhold whatever is refining and elevating ?
We do not, and in art we must leave the professors free to teach, and hold them
responsible for their teachings.

If I thought that I had now convinced my reader that decorative art does not
consist merely in the placing together of forms, however beautiful they may be
individually or collectively ; nor in rendering objects simply what is called pretty;
but that it is a power for good or evil ; that it is what will elevate or debase — that
which cannot be neutral in its tendency — I would advance to consider its principles ;
but I cannot teach, nor can I be imderstood, unless the reader feels that he who
practises art wields a vast power, for the rightful use of which he must be held
responsible.

All graining of wood is false, inasmuch as it attempts to deceive; the effort
being made at causing one material to look like another which it is not. All
"marbling "is false also: a floor-cloth made in imitation of carpet or matting is
false; a Brussels carpet that imitates a Turkey carpet is false; so is a jug that
imitates wicker-work, a printed fabric that imitates one which is woven, a gas-lamp
that imitates an oil-lamp. These are all untruths in expression, and are, besides,
vulgar absurdities which are the more lamentable, as the imitation is always less
beautiful than the thing imitated ; and as each material has the power of expressing
beauty truthfully, thus the want of truth brings its own punishment. A deal door
is beautiful, but it will not keep clean ; let it then be varnished. It is now preserved,
and its own characteristic features are enhanced by the varnish, so that its indivi-
duality is emphasised, and no untruth told. A floor-cloth can present a pattern with
true and beautiful curves — how absurd, then, to try and imitate the dotty effect of
a carpet ; and the Brussels carpet can express truer curves than the Turkey carpet,
then why imitate the latter in the finer material ? But perhaps the most senseless
of all these absurdities is the making an earthen jug in imitation of wicker-work
when if so formed it would be useless as a water-vessel. I can imagine a fool in his
simplicity priding himself on such a bright thought as the production of a vessel of
this kind, but I cannot imagine any rightly constituted mind producing or com-
mending such an idea. Let the expression of our art ever be truthful.

Beauty. — I will say little on this head, for decorative forms must be beautiful.
Shapes which are not beautiful are rarely decorative. I will not now attempt to
express what character forms should have in order that they be considered beautiful,
but will content myself by saying that they must be truthful in expression, and
graceful, delicate, and refined in contour, manifesting no coarseness, vulgarity, or
obtrusiveness. My views of the beautiful must be gathered from the series of
chapters which will follow, but this I may here say, that the beautiful manifests

UTILITY. 17

no waut, no shortcoming. A composition that is beautiful must have no parts
which could be taken from it and yet leave the remainder equally good or
better. The perfectly beautiful is that which admits of no improvement. The
beautiful is lovable, and, as that which is lovable, takes hold of the affections and
clings to them, binding itself firmer and firmer to them as Lime rolls on. If an
object is really beautiful we do not tire of it; fashion does not induce us to change
it ; the merely new does not displace it. It becomes as an old friend, more loved as
its good qualities are better understood.

Power. — We now come . to consider an art-element or principle of great
importance, for if absent from any composition, feebleness or weakness is the result,
the manifestation of which is not pleasant. With what power do the plants burst
from the earth in spring ! With what power do the buds develop into branches !
The powerful orator is a man to be admired, the powerful thinker a man we esteem.
Even the simple power, or brute force, of animals we involuntarily approve — the
powerful tiger and the powerful horse call forth our commendation, for power is
antagonistic to weakness. Power also manifests earnestness; power means energy ;
power impilies a conqueror. Our compositions, then, must be powerful.

But besides all this, we, the professors of decorative art, must manifest power
in our works, for we are teachers sent forth to instruct, and ennoble, and elevate our
fellow-creatures. We shall not be believed if we do not utter our truths with
power ; let truth, then, be uttered with power, and in the form of beauty.*

There are other principles governing the production and application of orna-
ment which we must now notice, the first of which is utility, for the first aim of the
designer of any article must be to render the object which he produces useful. I
may go further, and say that an article must be made not only useful, but as
perfectly sruted to the purpose for which it is intended as it can be. It matters
not how beautiful the object is intended to be, it must first be formed as though it
were a mere work of utility, and after it has been carefully created with this end in
view it may then be rendered as beautiful as you please.

There are special reasons why our works should be useful as well as beautiful,
for if an object, however beautiful it may be in shape, however richly covered with
beautiful ornaments, or however harmoniously coloured, be unpleasant to use, it will

* I have given in this chapter an original sketch (Fig. 12), in which I have sought to embody
chiefly the one idea of power, energy, force, or vigour ; and in order to this, I have employed such
lines as we see in the bursting buds of spring, when the energy of growth is at its maximum, and
especially such as are to be seen in the spring growth of a luxuriant tropical vegetation ; I have
also availed myself of those forms to be seen in certain bones of birds which are associated with
the organs of flight, and which give us an impression of great strength, as well as those observable
in the powerful propelling fins of certain species of fish.

PKINX'IPLES OF DESIGN,

Fig. 12.

UTILITY AND BEAUTY. IV

ultimately be set aside, and that which is move convenient for use will replace it,
even if the latter be without beauty. As an illustration of this fact, let us suppose
the balustrade railings of a staircase very beautiful, and yet furnished with such
projections as render it almost impossible that we walk up or down the stairs without
tearing the dress, or injuring the person, and how soon will our admiration of the
beautiful railing disappear, and even be replaced by hate ! In like manner let the
handle of a door, or the head of a poker, be so formed as to hurt the hand, and
the simple round knob, or round head, will be preferred to it, however ornamentally
or beautifully formed.

In relation to this subject, Professor George Wilson has said : " The conviction
seems ineradicable from some minds, that a beautiful thing cannot be a useful thing,
and that the more you increase the beauty of the necessary furniture or the
implements of every-day life the more you lessen their utility. Make the Queen's
sceptre as beautiful as you please, but don't try to beautify a poker, especially iu
cold weather. My lady's vinaigrette carve and gild as you will, but lea\e untouched
my pewter ink-bottle. Put fine furniture, if you choose, into my drawing-room ;
but I am a plain man, and like useful things in my parlour, and so on. Good folks
of this sort seem to labour under the impression that the secret desire of art is to
rob them of all comfort. Its unconfessed but actual aim, they believe, is to realise
the faith of their childhood, when it was understood that a monarch always wore his
crown, held an orb in one hand and a sceptre in the other, and a literal interpretation
was put upon Shakespeare's words,

" ' Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown.'

Were art to prosper, farewell to fire-proof, shapeless slippers, which bask like
salamanders unharmed in the hottest blaze. An aesthetic pair, modelled upon
Cinderella's foot, and covered with snow-white embroidery, must take their place,
and dispense chilblains and frost-bite to miserable toes. Farewell to shoot ing-eoats
out a little at the elbows, to patched dressing-gowns, and hair-cloth sofas. Nothing
but full-dress, varnished boots, spider-legged chairs, white satin chair-covers,
alabaster ink-bottles, velvet door-mats, and scrapers of silver or gold. It is
astonishing how many people think that a thing cannot be comfortable if it is
beautiful. ... If there be one truth which the Author of all has taught us in
his works more clearly than another, it is the perfect compatibility of the highest
utility with the greatest beauty. I offer you one example. All are familiar with
the beautiful shell of the nautilus. Give the nautilus itself to a mathematician, and
he will show you that one secret of its gracefulness lies in its following in its volute
or whorl a particular geometrical curve with rigid precision. Pass it from the
mathematician to the natural philosopher, and he will show you how the simple
superposition of a great number of very thin transparent plates, and the cIosp

20 rniNCiPLES of design.

approximation of a multitude of very fine engraved lines, are the cause uf its
exquisite pearly lustre. Pass it from the natural philosopher to the engineer, and
he will show you that this fairy shell is a most perfect practical machine, at once a
sailing vessel and a diving-bell, in which its living possessor had, centuries before
Archimedes, applied to utilitarian ends the law of specific gravity, and centuries
before Halley had dived in his bell to the bottom of the sea. Pass it from the
engineer to the anatomist, and he will show you how, without marring its beauty, it
is occupied during its lifetime with a most orderly system of rowing and sailing
tackle, chambers for food, pumps to keep blood circulating, ventilating apparatus,
and hands to control all, so that it is a model ship with a model mariner on board.
Pass it lastly from the anatomist to the chemist, and he will show you that every
part of the shell and the creature is compounded of elements, the relative weights of
which follow in each individual nautilus the same numerically identical ratio.

" Such is the nautilus, a thing so graceful, that when we look at it we are
content to say with Keats —

" ' A thing of beauty is a joy for ever ; '

and yet a thing so thoroughly utilitarian, and fulfilling with the utmost perfection
the purely practical aim of its construction, that our shipbuilders would be only too
thankful if, though sacrificing all beauty, they could make their vessels fulfil their
business ends half so well."

Viewing our subject in another light, and with special reference to architecture,
we notice that unless a building is fitted for the purpose intended, or, in other
words, answers utilitarian ends, it cannot be esteemed as it otherwise might be, even
though it be of great aesthetic beauty. In respect to this subject, Mr. Owen Jones
has said : " The nave and aisles of a Gothic church become absurd when filled with
pews for Protestant worship, where all are required to see and hear. The columns of
the nave which imj>ede sight and sound, the aisles for processions which no longer
exist, rood screens, and deep chancels for the concealment of mysteries, now no
longer such, are all so many useless reproductions which must be thrown aside."
Further, "As architecture, so all works of the decorative arts, should possess fitness,
proportion, harmony; the result of all which is repose." Sir M. Digby Wyatt has
said: " Infinite variety and unerring fitness govern all forms in Nature." Vitruvius,
that " The perfection of all works depends on their fitness to answer the end proposed,
and on principles resulting from a consideration of Nature itself." Sir Charles L.
East lake, that "In every case in Nature where fitness or utility can be traced, the
characteristic quality, or relative beauty, is found to be identical with that of
fitness.'" A. W. Pugin (the father): "How many objects of ordinary use are
rendered monstrous and ridiculous simply because the artist, instead of seeking the
most convenient form, and then decorating it, has embodied some extravagance to

ADAPTATION TO I'l'IU'OSE. 21

conceal (he real purpose for which the article has been made." And with the view
of pointing out how fitness for, or adaptation to, the end proposed is manifested in
the structure and disposition upon the earth of plants, I have written in a little work
now out of print : " The trees which grow highest upon the mountains, and the
plants which grow upon the unsheltered plain, have usually long, narrow, and rigid
leaves, which, owing to their form, are enabled to bear the fury of the tempest, to
which they are exposed, without injury. This is seen in the case of the species of
fir which grow at great altitudes, where the leaves are more like needles than leaves
such as commonly occur ; and also in the species of heath which grow upon exposed
moors : in both cases the plants are, owing to the form of the leaf, enabled to defy
the blast, while those with broad leaves would be shattered and destroyed.

"Not only is the form of leaf such as fits these plants to dwell in such
inhospitable regions, but other circumstances also tend to this result. The stems
are in both cases woody and flexible, so that while they bend to the wind they resist
its destroying influence by their strength and elasticity. In relation to the stem of
the papyrus/' which is a plant constantly met with in Egyptian ornaments, " the late
Sir W. J. Hooker mentions an interesting fact which manifests adaptation to its
position. This plant grows in water, and attaches itself to the margins of rivers
and streams, by sending forth roots and evolving long underground stems in the
alluvium of the sides of the waters. Owing to its position it is exposed to the
influences of the current, which it has to withstand, and this it does, not only by
having its stems of a triangular form — a shape well adapted for withstanding
pressure — but also by having them so placed in relation to the direction of the
stream, that one angle always meets the current, and thus separates the waters as
does the bow of a modern steam-ship."

I might multiply illustrations of this principle of fitness, or adaptation to
purpose, as manifested in plants, to an almost indefinite extent; but when all had
been said we should yet have but the simple truth before us, that the chief
end which we should have in creating any object, is that of rendering it perfectly
fitted to answer the proposed end. If those works which are beautiful were but
invariably useful, as they should be ; if those objects which are most beautiful were
also the most convenient — and there is no reason why they should not be so — how
the beautiful would become loved and sought after ! Cost would be of little
moment, the price would not be complained of, if beautiful objects were works of
perfect utility. But, alas ! it is far otherwise : that which is useful is often ugly,
and that which is beautiful is often inconvenient to use. This very fact has given
rise to the highly absurd fashion of having a second poker in a drawing-room set of
fire-irons. The one poker is ornamental, possibly, but it is to be looked at ; the
other is for use, and as it is not to be looked at, it is hidden away in some corner, or
close within the fender. I do not wonder at the second poker being required ; for

•£•& PltlNCIPLES OF DESIGN.

nineteen out of every twenty pokers of an ornamental (?) character which I have-
seen during the last few years would hurt the hand so insufferably if they were used
to break a lump of coal with, that it would be almost impossible to employ them
constantly for such a purpose. But why not abolish the detestable thing altogether?
If the poker is to he retained as an ornament, place it on the table or chimney-piece
of your drawing-room, and not down on the hearth, where it is at such a distance
from the eye that its beauties cannot be discovered. It is no use saying it would be
out of place in such a position. If to poke the tire with, its place is within the
fender ; if it is an ornament, it should he placed where it can be best seen — in a glas«
case, if worthy of protection.

I hope that sufficient has now been said upon this all-important necessity, that
if an object is to be beautiful it should also he useful, to cause us to consider it as
a primary principle of design that all objects which we create must be useful. To
this as a first law we shall constantly have to refer. When we construct a chair we
shall ask, is it useful ? is it strong ? is it properly put together ? could it he stronger
without using more, or another, material ? and then we should consider whether it
is beautiful. When we design a bottle we shall inquire, is it useful ? is it all that a
bottle should he ? could it he more useful ? and then, is it beautiful ? When we
create a gas-branch we shall ask, does it fulfil all recpiirements, and perfectly answer
the end for which it is intended? and then, is it beautiful? And in relation to
patterns merely we shall also have to make similar inquiries. Thus, if drawing a
carpet design, we shall inquire, is this form of ornament suitable to a woven fabric ?
is it suitable to the particular fabric for which it is intended ? is the particular treat-
ment of the ornament which we have adopted the best possible when we bear in mind
that the carpet has to be walked over, as it is to act in relation to our furniture as a
background does to a picture, and is to be viewed at some distance from the eye ? and
then, is it beautiful ? Such inquiries we shall put respecting any object the formation
of which we may suggest : hence, in all our inquiries, I shall, as I love art, consider
utility before beauty, in order that my art may be fostered and not despised.

There are many subjects yet not named in these pages which we ought to
consider, but I must content myself by merely mentioning them, and you must be
willing to think of them, and consider them with such care as their importance may
demand. Some of them, however, we shall refer to when considering the various
manufactures.

A principle of great importance in respect to design is, that the material of which
an object is formed should be used in a manner consistent with Us own nature, and in
that particular way in ichich it can be most easily "worked."

Another principle of equal importance witli that just set forth, is this: that
when an object is about to be formed, that material (or those materials) which is (or
are) most appropriate to its formation should be sought and employed. These two

CURVES, PROl'ORTIOX, ORDKR, REPETITION. 23

propositions are of very great importance, and the principles which they set forth
should never he lost sight of by the designer. They involve the lir.st principles of
successful designing, for if ignored the work produced cannot be satisfactory.

Curves toill be found to he beautiful just as they are subtle in character ; those
which are most subtle in character being most beautiful.

The arc is the least beautiful of curves (I do not here speak of a circle, but of
the line, as a line, which bounds the circle) ; being struck from one centre its origin
is instantly detected, while the mind requires that a line, the contemplation of which
shall be pleasurable, must be in advance of its knowledge, and call into activity its
powers of inquiry. The elliptic curve, or curve bounding the ellipse, is more beautiful
than the are, for its origin is not so strikingly apjiarent, being formed from two
centres. The curve of the egg' is more beautiful still, being formed from three
centres.* As the number of centres necessary to the formation of a curve increases,
the difficulty of detecting its origin also becomes greater, and the variety which the
curve presents is also proportionally great; the variety being obviously greater as
the number of the centres from which it is struck is increased.

Proportion, like the curve, must be of a subtle nature.

A surface must never be divided for the purpose of decoration into halves. The
proportion of 1 to 1 is bad. As proportion increases in subtlety it also increases in
beauty. The proportion of 2 to 1 is little better ; the proportion of 3 to 8, or of
5 to 8, or of 5 to 13, is, however, good, the last named being the best of those which
I have adduced; for the pleasure derived from the contemplation of proportion
increases with the difficulty of detecting it. This principle is true in relation to the
division of a mass into primary segments, and of primary segments into secondary
forms, as well as in relation to the grouping together of parts of various sizes ; hence
it is worthy of special note.

A principle of order must prevail in every ornamental composition.

Confusion is the result of accident, wdiile order results from thought and care.
The operation of mind cannot well be set forth in the absence of this principle; at
least, the presence of a principle of order renders the operation of mind at once
manifest.

The orderly repetition of parts frequently aids in the production of ornamental
effects.

The kaleidoscope affords a wonderful example of what repetition will do. The
mere fragments of glass which we view in this instrument would altogether fail to
please were they not repeated with regularity. Of themselves repetition and order
can do much. (Figs. 13 and 14.)

* The ellipse and egg-shape here spoken of are not those which are struck by compasses in any
way, for the curves of such figures are merely combined arcs, but such as are struck with string, or
a " tramel."

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

Alternation is a principle of primary importance in certain ornamental com-
positions.

In the case of a flower (as the buttercup, or chiekweed, for example) the
coloured leaves do not fall over the green leaves (the petals do not fall over the

Fig. 14.

Eig. 16.

sepals), but between them — (hoy alternate with them. This principle is not only
manifested in plants, hut also in many ornaments produced in the best periods of art
(Fig. L5).

If /tin n Is are employed as ornaments they must nut be treated imitatively, but must
be conventionally treated, or rendered into ornaments (Fig. 16).

A monkey can imitate, man can Create.

EASTERN GROTESQUES. 25

These are the chief principles which we shall have to notice, as involved in the
production of ornamental designs.

Division III.

Some other principles of a less noble character than those which we have
already noticed as entering into ornament yet remain to be mentioned. Man will be
amused as well as instructed; he must he pleased as well as ennobled by what he sees.
I hold it as a first principle that ornamentation, as a true fine art, can administer
to man in all his varying moods, and under all phases of feeling. Decoration, if
properly understood, would at once be seen to be a high art in the truest sense of the
word, as it can teach, elevate, refine, induce lofty aspirations, and allay sorrows ; but
we have now to notice it as a fine art, administering to man in his various moods,
rather than as the handmaid to religion or morals.

Humour seems to be as much an attribute of our nature as love, and, like it,
varies in intensity with different individuals. There are few in whom there is not a
certain amount of humour, and in some this one quality predominates over all others.
It not unfrequently happens that men who are great thinkers are also great humorists
— great talent and great humour heing often combined in the one individual.

The feeling for humour is ministered to in ornament by the grotesque, and the
grotesque occurs in the works of almost all ages and all peoples. The ancient
Egyptians employed it, so did the Assyrians, the Greeks, and the Romans ; but none
of these nations used it to the extent of the artists of the Celtic, Byzantine, and
" Gothic " periods. Hideous " evil spirits " were portrayed on the outside of
almost every Christian edifice at one time, and much of the Celtic ornament produced
by the early monks consisted of an anastomosis, or network, of grotesque creatures.

The old Irish crosses were enriched with this kiud of ornamentation,* and some
of the decorative embellishments of these works are of extraordinary interest; but
those who have access to the beautiful work of Professor Westwood on Celtic manu-
scripts will there see this grotesque form of ornament to perfection. As regards the
Eastern nations, while nearly all have employed the grotesque as an element of
decorative art, the Chinese and Japanese have employed it most largely, and for it
they manifest a most decided partiality. The drawings of dragons, celestial lions
(always spotted), mythical birds, beasts, fishes, insects, and other supposed inhabi-
tants of the Elysian plains, which these people produce, are most interesting and
extraordinary.

Without in any way going into a history of the grotesque, let us look at the
characteristic forms which it has assumed, and what is necessary to its successful

* Casts of one or two of these can be seen in the central transept of the Crystal Palace at
Sydenham.

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

production. We have said that the grotesque in ornament is the analogue of
humour in literature. This is the ease; but the grotesque may represent the truly
horrible or repellent, and be simply repulsive. This form is so seldom required in
ornamentation that I shall not dwell upon it, and when required it should always
"be associated with power ; for if the horrible is feeble
it cannot be corrective, but only revolting, like a
miserable deformed animal.

I think it may be taken as a principle, that the
further the grotesque is removed from an imitation of
a natural object the better it is, provided that it be

energetic and vigorous-

-lifelike.

Nothing is worse

Fig. 17.

Fig. 18.

than a feeble joke, unless it be a feeble grotesque. The amusing must appear to
be earnest.

In connection with this subject I give here a series of grotesques, with the
view of illustrating my meaning, and I would fain n-ive more, but space will not
permit me t<> do so.

The initial letter S, formed of a bird, is n characteristic Celtic grotesque
(Fig. 17). It is quaint and interesting, and is sufficiently unlike a living creature
to avoid giving any sense of pain to the beholder, while it is yet in a most unnatural
position. It is, in truth, rather an ornament than a copy of a living creature, yet

NATURE OF GROTESQUES.

Fig. 19.

it is so suggestive as to call forth the thought of a bird. It should be noticed;
in connection with this figure, that the interstices between certain portions of the
creature are rilled by a knot.
This is well — the whole
thing being an ornament;
and not a- naturalistic repre-
sentation.

Fig. IS is a Siamese
grotesque head, and a fine
sample it is of the curious
form of ornament which it
represents. Mark; it is in
no way a copy of a human
head, but is a true orna-
ment, with its parts so ar-
ranged as to call up the idea
of a face, and nothing more.
Notice the volutes forming
the chin ; the grotesque, yet
highly ornamental, lines
forming the mouth and the
upper boundary of the fore-
head, and the flambeauant
ears ; the whole thing is
worthy of the most careful
study.

Fig. 19 is a Gothic foli-
ated face ; but here we have
features which are much too
naturalistic. We have, in-
deed, only a hideous human
face with a marginal ex-
crescence of leafage. This
is a type to be avoided ; it
is not droll, nor quaint ; but
is simply unpleasant to look
upon.

Fig. 20 is a fish, with the feeling of the grotesques of the Middle Ages.
a good type, being truly ornamental, and yet sufficiently suggestive.

In order that I convey to the reader a fuller idea of my views respecting the

Fig. 20.

ids

PRINCIPLES 01' DESIGN.

grotesque than I otherwise could, 1 have sketched one or two original illustrations —
Tig-. 21 being 1 suggestive of a face, Fig. 22 of a skeleton (old bogev), and Fig. 28
of an impossible animal. They are inten-
tionally far from imitative. If naturalistic
some would awaken a sense of pain, as they
are contorted into curious positions, whereas
that which induces no thought of feeling
induces no sense of pain.

Of all grotesques with which I am ac-
quainted, the dragons of the Chinese and

Fig. 21.

Japanese arc those which represent a com-
bination of power, vigour, energy, and passion
most fully. This is to be accounted for by
the fact that these peoples are believers in
dragons. When the sun or moon is eclipsed
they believe that the luminous orb. has been
swallowed by some fierce monster, which they
give form to in the dragon, and upon the occurrence of such a phenomenon they,
with (.-ins and kettles, make rough music, and thus cause the monster to disgorge
the luminary, the brilliancy of which it would otherwise have for ever extinguished.
I can understand a believer in dragons drawing these monsters with the power and
spirit that the Chinese and Japanese do; but I can scarcely imagine that a disbeliever
could do so — a man's very nature must be saturated with a belief in their existence
and mischievous power, in order that he embody in his delineation such expres-

Fi<* 22.

urvorit in ornament.

sion of the assumed character of tin's imaginary creature as do the Chinese and

Japanese.

Although 1 am no1
now considering the struc-
ture of objects, I may say
that the grotesque should
frequently he used where
•we meet with naturalistic
imitations. We not unfre-
quentlysee a figure, naturally
imitated, placed as a support
to a superincumbent weight
— a female figure as an
architectural pillar bearing
the weight of the entab-
lature above, men crouched
in the most painful positions
supporting the bowl of some
colossal fountain. Natural-
istic figures in such positions
are simply revolting, how-
ever perfect as works of
sculpture. If weight has
to be supported by that
which has a resemblance to
a living creature of any
kind, the semblance should
only be suggested ; and the
more unreal and wooden v (if
I may make such a word)
the support, if possessing
the quaintness and humour
of a true grotesque, the
better.

It is not the business
of the ornamentist to pro-
duce that which shall induce the feeling of continued pain, unless there is some
exceptional reason for his so doing, and such a reason is of rare occurrence.

CHAPTER II.

COLOUR.

Having considered some of the chief principles involved in the production of
decorative design so far as " expression " goes, we come to notice that constant
adjunct of form which has ever played an important part in all decorative schemes
— namely, colour.

Form can exist independently of colour, hut it never has had any important
development without the chromatic adjunct. From a consideration of history, we
should be led to conclude that form alone is incapable of yielding such enrichments
as satisfy ; for no national system of decoration has ever existed in the absence of
colour. Mere outline-form may be good, but it is not satisfying ; mere light and
shade may be pleasing, but it is not all that we require. With form our very nature
seems to demand colour ; and it is only when we get well-proportioned forms which
are graceful, or noble, or vigorous, in combination with colours harmoniously
arranged, that we are satisfied.

Possibly this feeling results from our contact with nature. The flowers appear
in a thousand hues, and the hills are of ever-varying tints. What a barren world
ours would appear, were the ground, the hills, the trees and the flowers, the sky and
the waters all of one colour ! Form we should have, and that in its richest variety ;
light and shade we should have, with ever-varying intensity and change ; but colour
would be gone. There would be no green to cheer, no blue to soothe, no red to
excite; and, indeed, there would be a deadness, although the world be full of life,
so appalling that we can scarcely conceive of it, and cannot feel it.

Colour alone seems to have greater charms than form alone. A sunset is
entrancing when the sky glows with radiant hues; the blue is almost lost in red, the
yellow is as a sea of transparent gold, and the whole presents a variety and blending
of tints which charm, and soothe, and lull to reverie; and yet all form is indistinct
and obscure. If so charming when separate from form, what is colour when properly
combined with beautiful shapes? It is difficult, indeed, for many of those for
whom I write to answer this question, even by a mental conception, save by
reference to nature; for I could scarcely point to a single building in England
which would be in any way a satisfactory illustration of what may be done by the
combination of forms and colours. There is a beauty in Art which we in England
d<> nut even know of : it does not exist around us, it is little talked of, rarely
thought about, and never seen. A decorator is called in to beautify a house, and

OBJECT OP APPLYING COLOUR. 31

yei not one in fifty of the so-called decorators know even the first principles of their
art, and would not believe were they told of the power of the art which they employ.
They place on the walls a few sickly tints — so pale that their want of harmony is
not very apparent. The colours of the wall become the colours of the cornice and
of the doors, because they know not how to produce a harmony of hues ; and the
result is a house which may be clean, but which is in every other respect an offence
against good taste. I do not wonder that persons here in England do not care to
have their houses " decorated," nor do I wonder at their not appreciating the
" decorations " when they are done. Colour, lovely colour, of itself would make our
rooms charming.

There are few objects to which colour may not be applied, and many articles
which are now colourless might be coloured with advantage. Our reasons for apply-
ing colour to objects are twofold, and here, in fact, we see its true use. 1st.
Colour lends to objects a new charm — a charm which they would not possess if
without it ; and, 2nd, Colour assists in the separation of objects and parts of objects,
and thus gives assistance to form. These, then, are the two objects of colour.
Mark, first, it is to bestow on objects a charm, such as they could not have in
its absence. In the hands of the man of knowledge it will do so — it will make an
object lovely or lovable, but the mere application of colour will not do this. Colour
may be so applied to objects as to render them infinitely more ugly than they were
without it. I have seen many a bowl so coloured at our potteries as to be much
less satisfactory when coloured than when white — the colouring having marred,
rather than improved, its general effect. Here, again, it is knowledge that we want.
Knowledge will enable us to transmute base materials into works of marvellous
beauty, worth their weight in gold. Knowledge, then, is the true philosopher's
stone ; for, we may almost say, if possessed by the artist it does enable him to
transmute the baser metals into gold. But a little knowledge will not do this. In
order that we produce true beauty, we require much knowledge, and this can only
be got by constant and diligent labour, as I have before said ; but the end to be
gained is worth the plodding toil. Believe me, there is a pleasure in seeing your
works develop as things of beauty, delighting all who see them — not the illiterate
only, but also the educated thinker — such as words fail to express. Although
there is no royal road to art-power, and although the road is long, and lies through
much tod and many difficulties, yet as you proceed there is pleasure in feeling
that one obstacle after another is cleared from your path, and at the end there is
inexpressible satisfaction. The second object of colour is that of assisting in the
separation of form. If objects are placed near to one another, and these objects are
all of the same colour, the beholder will have much more difficulty in seeing the
boundaries or terminations of each than he would were they variously coloured ; he
would have to come nearer to them in order to see the limits of each, were all

32 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

coloured in the same manner, than he would were they variously coloured : thus
colour assists in the separation of form. This quality which colour has of separating
forms is often lost sight of, and much confusion thereby results. If it is worth while
to produce a decorative form, it is worth while to render it visible ; and yet, how
much ornament, and even good ornament, is lost to the eye through not being ren-
dered manifest by colour ! Colour is the means by which we render form apparent.
Colours, when placed together, can only please and satisfy the educated when
combined harmoniously, or according to the laws of harmony. What, then, are the
laws which govern the arrangement of colours ? and how are they to be applied ?
We shall endeavour to answer these questions by making a series of statements in
axiomatic form, and then we shall enlarge upon these propositions.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.

1. Regarded from an art point of view, there are but three colours — i.e., blue,
red, and yellow.

2. Blue, red, and yellow have been termed primary colours; they cannot be
formed by the admixture of any other colours.

3. All colours, other than blue, red, and yellow, result from the admixture of
the primary colours.

4. By the admixture of blue and red, purple is formed; by the admixture of
red and yellow, orange is formed ; and by the admixture of yellow and blue, green
is formed.

5. Colours resulting from the admixture of two primary colours are termed
secondary : hence purple, orange, and green are secondary colours.

6. By the admixture of two secondary colours a tertiary colour is formed : thus,
purple and orange produce russet (the red tertiary) ; orange and green produce citrine
(the yellow tertiaiy) ; and green and purple, olive (the blue tertiary); russet, citrine,
and olive are the three tertiary colours.

CONTRAST.

7. When a light colour is juxtaposed to a dark colour, the light colour appears
lighter than it is, and the dark colour darker.*

8. When colours are juxtaposed, they become influenced as to their hue. Thus,
when red and green are placed side by side, the red appears redder than it actually
is, and the green greener; and when blue and black are juxtaposed, the blue mani-
fests but little alteration, while the black assumes an orange tint or becomes "rusty."

9. No one colour can be viewed by the eye without another being created.
Thus, if red is viewed, the eye creates for itself green, and this green is cast upon

• If a dark grey tint be mixed upon a white slab it will appear dark in contrast with the
white, but if a small portion of this same grey is applied to black paper it will appear almost white.

COLOUR — CONTRAST AND HARMONY. 33

whatever is near. If it views green, red is in like manner created and <;ist upon
adjacent objects; thus, if red and green are juxtaposed, each creates the other in
the eye, and the red created by the green is cast upon the red, and the green created
by the red is cast upon the green ; and the red and the green become improved by
being juxtaposed. The eye also demands the presence of the three primary colours,
either in their purity or in combination ; and if these are not present, whatever is
deficient will be created in the eye, and this induced colour will be cast upon what-
ever is near. Thus, when we view blue, orange, which is a mixture of red and
yellow, is created in the eye, and this colour is cast upon whatever is near; if black
is in juxtaposition with the blue, this orange is cast upon it, and gives to it an
orange tint, thus causing it to look " rusty."

10. In like manner, if we look upon red, green is formed in the eye, and is
cast upon adjacent colours ; or, if we look upon yellow, purple is formed.

HARMONY.

11. Harmony results from an agreeable contrast.

12. Colours which perfectly harmonise improve one another to the utmost.

13. In order to perfect harmony, the three colours are necessary, either in their
purity or in combination.

11. Red and green combine to yield a harmony. Red is a primary colour, and
green, which is a secondary colour, consists of blue and yellow — the other two
primary colours. Blue and orange also produce a harmony, and yellow and purple,
for in each case the three primary colours are present.

15. It has been found that the primary colours in perfect purity produce exact
harmonies in the proportions of eight parts of blue, 5 of red, and 3 of yellow ; that
the secondary colours harmonise in the proportions of 13 of purple, 11 of green,
and 8 of orange ; and that the tertiary colours harmonise in the proportions of olive
21-, russet 21, and citrine 19.

16. There are, however, subtleties of harmony which it is difficult to understand.

17. The rarest harmonies frequently lie close on the verge of discord.

18. Harmony of colour is, in many respects, analogous to harmony of musical
sounds.

QUALITIES OF COLOURS.

19. Blue is a cold colour, and appears to recede from the eye.

20. Red is a warm colour, and is exciting ; it remains stationary as to distance.

21. Yellow is the colour most nearly allied to light; it appears to advance
towards the spectator.

22. At twilight blue appears much lighter than it is, red much darker, and
yellow slightly darker. By ordinary gaslight blue becomes darker, red brighter,
and yellow lighter. By this artificial light a pure yellow appears lighter than
white itself, when viewed in contrast with certain other colours.

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

23. Bv certain combinations colour may make glad or depress, convey the idea
of purity, richness, or poverty, or may affect the mind in any desired manner, as
does music.

TEACHINGS OF EXPERIENCE.

24. When a colour is placed on a gold ground, it should be outlined with a
darker shade of its own colour.

25. When a gold ornament falls on a coloured ground, it should be outlined
with black.

26. When an ornament falls on a ground which is in direct harmony with it, it
must be outlined with a lighter tint of its own colour. Thus, when a red ornament
falls on a green ground, the ornament must be outlined with a lighter red.

27. When the ornament and the ground are in two tints of the same colour, if
the ornament is darker than the ground, it will require outlining with a still darker
tint of the same colour ; but if lighter than the ground no outline will be required.

ANALYTICAL TABLES OF COLOUR.

W T hen commencing my studies both in science and art, I found gi-eat advantage
from reducing all facts to a tabular form so far as possible, and this mode of study I
would recommend to others. To me this method appears to have great advantages,
for by it we see at a glance what otherwise is difficult to understand ; if carefully
done, it becomes an analysis of work ; and by preparing these tabular arrangements
of facts the subject becomes impressed on the mind, and the relation of one fact to
another, or of one part of a scheme to another, is seen.

The following analytical tables will illustrate many of the facts stated in our
propositions. The figures which follow the colours represent the proportions in
which they harmonise : —

Primary Colours.
Blue . . 8
Bed . . 5
Yellow . . 3

Secondary Colours.
Purple . . 13
Green . . 11

Orange . . 8

Primary Colours. Secondary Colours.

Tertiary Colours.
Olive . . 24
Russet . . 21
Citrine . . 19

Tertiary Colours.

Red .

Yellow

Blue .

Yellow

Blue .
Red .

Red .
Yellow

Blue .
Yellow

Blue .
Red .

o Orange

G rcen

Purple

Orange

Green

Purple

8 ^

> Citrine, or Y
11 .)

ellow Tertiary 10

V Russet, or Red Tertiary . 21
8)

■si

Olive, or Blue Tertiary

COLOUR — PROPORTIONS THAT HARMONISE.

This latter table shows at a glance how each of the seeondary and tertiary
colours is formed, and the proportions in which they harmonise. It also shows
why the three tertiary colours are called respectively the yellow tertiary, the red
tertiary, and the blue tertiary, for into each tertiary two equivalents* of one primary
enter, and .one equivalent of each of the other primaries. Thus, in citrine we find
two equivalents of yellow, and one each of red and blue; hence it is the yellow
tertiary. In russet we find two equivalents of red, and one each of blue and of
yellow ; and in olive two of blue, and one each of red and yellow. Hence they are
respectively the red and blue tertiaries.

PURPLE 13

RED 5.

BLUE 8.

PURPLE 13.

OLIVE 24.

YELLOW 3.

ORANGE 8.
Fig. 24.

RUSSET 21.

GREEN II.

ORANGE 8.

CITRINE 19.
Fig. 25.

Figs 2 1- and 25 are diagrams of harmony. I have connected in the centre, by
three similar lines, the colours which form a harmony ; thus, blue, red, and yellow
harmonise when placed together. Purple, green, and orange also harmonise (I have
connected them by dotted lines in the first of the two diagrams). But when two
colours are to produce a harmony, the one will be a primary colour, and the other a
secondary formed of the other two primary colours (for the presence of the three
primary colours is necessary to a harmony), or the one will be a secondary, and the
other a tertiary colour formed of the two remaining secondary colours. Such
harmonies I have placed opposite to each other ; thus blue, a primary, harmonises
with orange, a secondary ; yellow with purple ; and red with green ; and the secondary
colour is placed between the two primary colours of which it is formed; thus, orange
is formed of red and yellow, between which it stands; green, of blue and yellow;
and purple, of blue and red. In the second of the two diagrams we see that purple,
green, and orange produce a harmony, so do olive, russet, and citrine. We also see
that purple and citrine harmonise, and green and russet, and orange and olive.

Continuing this diagrammatic form of illustration, we may set forth the
quantities in which the various colours harmonise : thus : —

* An equivalent of blue is 8, of red 5, of yellow 3.

36 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

Blue.

Bed.

Yellow.

ooo

o o o o

o o

ooo

Blue.

Orange.

ooo

harmonises with

ooo

Bed.

Green.

OOO

harmonises with

OOO

O
O

ooo
o o

Yellow.

Purple.

OOO

harmonises with

o
o
o

OOO

ooo
ooo

Purp le.

Citrine.

OOO

harmonises with

OOO

ooo

o
o

ooo
o o

Green.

Russet.

OOO

harmonises with

OOO

ooo

OOO

o
o
o

ooo
ooo
ooo

Orange

Olive.

OOO

harmonises with

ooo

o
o
o
o

ooooo
ooooo
ooooo

To those who are about to practise ornamentation, it is very important that
they have in the mind's eye a tolerably accurate idea of the relative quantities of
the various colours necessary to harmony, even where the colours are considered
as existing in a state of absolute purity. We have rarely, however, to use the
brightest blues, reds, and yellows which pigments furnish, and even these are but
poor representatives of the potent colours of light as seen in the rainbow, and with

TRUE COLOURS AND PIGMENTS. .'57

the agency of the prism ; nevertheless, a knowledge of the quantities in which these
pure colours harmonise is very desirable. The proportions in which we have stated
that colours perfectly harmonise, and in which the primary colours combine to form
the secondaries, and the secondaries the tertiaries, are given in respect to the colours
of light, and not of pigments or paints, which, as we have just said, are more or less
base representatives of the pure colours of light. Yet certain pigments may, for
our purpose, he regarded as representing pure colours. Thus, the purest real
ultramarine we will regard as blue (cobalt is rather green, that is, it has a little
yellow in it, and the French and German ultramarines are generally rather purple,
or have a little red in them, yet the best of these latter is a tolerably pure colour),
the purest French carmine as red (common carmine is frequently rather crimson,
that is, has blue in it; vermilion is much too yellow), and lemon-chrome as yellow
(the chrome selected must be without any green shade, and without any orange
shade, however slight) ; and these pigments will be found to represent the colours
of the prism as nearly as any that can be found. I would recommend the learner to
get a small quantity of these colours in their powder form, substituting the best
pale German ultramarine for real ultramarine, as the latter is of high price,* and to
fill the various circles of our diagrams, which represent the primary colours, with
these pigments, mixing them with a little dissolved gum arabic and water — just
sufficient to prevent the colours from rubbing off the paper. The secondary
colours will be fairly represented by pale-green lake, often called drop-green,
by orange-chrome — that of about the colour of a ripe, rather deep-coloured,
orange-rind — and the purple by the admixture of pale German ultramarine and
crimson-lake, in about equal proportions, with a little white to bring it to the same
depth as the green. I cannot name any pigments which would well represent the
tertiary colours. Citrine is about the colour of candied leu/on-peel ; olive about the
colour of candied citron-peel, and russet is often seen on the skin of certain apples
called "russet apples," in the form of a slight roughness; but this russet is in many
cases not quite sufficiently red to represent the colour bearing the same name. Iron
rust is rather too yellow. This colour should bear the same relation to red that
the candied lemon-peel does to yellow.

If the student will try carefully to realise these colours, and will fill up the
circles in our diagrams with them, he will thereby be much assisted in his studies;
but it will be still better if he prepare fresh diagrams on a larger scale, and use
squares instead of circles. I should recommend, and that I do strongly, that the

* Real ultramarine is sold at £8 per ounce. The be3t imitation, or German ultramarine, is
procurable at any oil-shop at about 3s. to 4s. per pound. The best carmine should be procurable
at 6s. per ounce, but artiste' colourmen often charge £1 Is., owing to the small demand for this
pigment. The best chrome yellow (chrome yellow is kept in many shades) is about Is. 6d. per
pound.

38 FKINCIPLES OF DESICN.

student work out all the diagrams which I have suggested on a tolerably large
scale, using the colours where I have used words. I should also advise him to do
an ornament, say in red on a gold ground, and outline this red ornament with a
deeper red ; to do a gold ornament on a coloured ground, and outline it with black ;
and indeed to carefully work out an ornamental illustration of our propositions, Nos.
24, 25, 26, and 27, and to keep these before him till he is so impressed by them as
to feel the principle which they set forth. This should be done on a large scale in
all our designing-rooms and art -workshops.

As we shall have to refer to colours by naming pigments, and as I am
constantly asked what pigments I employ, I shall enumerate the paints in my
colour-box ; but I shall place a dagger against those which I have in my private
box, and which I do not supply in my offices ; but these I seldom use. Of yellows
I have fking's yellow (not a permanent colour), tvery pale chrome, lemon-chrome
(about the colour of a ripe lemon) , middle-chrome (half-way between the lemon and
orange-chrome), orange-chrome (about the colour of the rind of a ripe orange),
tyellow-lake, -fTndian yellow. Of reds — vermilion, carmine, crimson-lake. Of
blues — fcobalt, German ultramarine, both deep and pale, Antwerp blue, indigo.
Of greens — emerald, green-lake, pale and deep. Of browns — raw Turkey umber,
Vandyke, Venetian red, purple-brown, brown-lake. Besides these I have what is
called celestial blue, which is a very pure and intense turquoise, vegetable black,
flake white, and gold bronze.*

There are certain facts connected with the mixing of colours which must never
be lost sight of; thus, while the colours of light co-mingle without any deterioration,
or loss of brilliancy, pigments or paints will not do so, but by admixture tend to
destroy one another. This takes place only to a small extent when but two primary
colours are combined ; but if any of the third primary enters into the composition
of a tint, a decided deterioration, or loss of intensity, occurs.

For this reason we employ many pigments, so as to avoid as far as possible the
mixing of colours. But there is another reason why the great admixture of colours
is undesirable. Colours are chemical agents, and in some cases the various pigments
act chemically on one another. Of all colours yellows suffer most by admixture
with other colours ; but this is accounted for by their delicacy and purity. For this
reason I use a greater variety of yellow pigments than of red or blue.f

Were it possible to procure three pigments devoid of chemical affinities, and

* Some of these colours are not of a permanent character and could not be used in work
intended to he lasting. I use them for patterns for our manufactures, where when the drawing is
once copied in a fabric it is destroyed. Some of the brightest colours are unfortunately the most
fleeting.

f Of all mediums in which colours can be mixed, paraffine is the safest; it is without
chemical affinities, and is therefore well calculated to preserve pigments in thoir original condition.

COLOUR — SHADES, TINTS, AND HUKS. 39

each of the same physical constitution, as of equal degrees of transparency or
opacity, one truly representing the blue of light, another the red, and another
the yellow, we should need no others, for of these we could form all other colours;
but as no pigments come even near to the fulfilment of these conditions, we have
to employ roundabout and clumsy methods of arriving at desired results.

There is one statement which I have made that, perhaps, needs a little
elucidation, although the careful student may have seen the reason of my asser-
tion. I said that purple harmonised with citrine, green with russet, and orange
with olive. I might have expressed it (and many would have done so) thus : —
The complement of citrine is purple, the complement of russet is green, and the
complement of olive is orange. A colour which is complementary to any other
is that which, with it, completes the presence of the three primary colours : thus
green is the complement of red, and red of green, for each, together with the colour
to which it is the complement, completes the presence of the three colours. But in
order to a harmony, the complement must be made up in certain proportions. Let
us now refer to our second diagrammatic table, and we there see that citrine is
formed of two equivalents of yellow and only one equivalent of red and of blue.
Now, in order to a harmony, each primary should be present in two equivalents,
as one is present in this quantity — i.e., the yellow. One equivalent of blue and
one of red (both of which are wanting in the citrine) form purple ; hence purple
is the complement of citrine, or the colour that with it produces a harmony. In
russet one equivalent of blue and one of yellow are wanting, and these in com-
bination are green — green, then, is the complement of russet. And in olive one
equivalent of red and one of yellow are wanting — red and yellow form orange, hence
orange is the complement of olive.

I have spoken of all colours as of full intensity and purity, but we have to deal
also with other conditions. All colours may be darkened by black, when shades are
produced ; or reduced by white, when tints are produced. Besides these alterations
in intensity, a portion of one colour may be added to another. Thus, if a small
portion of blue be mingled with red, the red becomes a crimson or blue-red ; or if a
small portion of yellow be added to the red, the latter becomes a scarlet or yellow-
red. In like manner, when yellow is in excess in a green, we have a yellow-green ;
or when blue is in excess, a blue-green; and so with the other colours. Such
alterations produce hues of colour.

We now come to the subtleties of harmony. Thus, if we have a yellow-red or
scarlet — a red with yellow in it — the green that will harmonise with it will be a
blue-green ; or if we have a blue-red or crimson — a red with blue in it — the green
that will harmonise with it will be a yellow-green. This is obvious, for the following
reasons : — Let us suppose a red represented by the equivalent number, five, with one
part of blue added to it, thus causing it to be a blue-red or crimson. Were the red

40 PRINCIPLES OP DESIGN.

pure, there should be eleven parts of green as a complement to the live of red, of
which green eight parts would be blue and three yellow ; but the blue-red occurs in
six parts, one of which is blue — there are, then, but seven parts of blue remaining
in the equivalent quantity to combine with the three of yellow, one being already
used ; hence the green formed is a yellow-green, one of the equivalents of blue
necessary to the formation of a true green being already in combination with the
red, and thus absent from the green.

The same reasoning will apply to the scarlet-red and blue-green, and, indeed, to
all similar cases; but to take the case of the crimson-red and yellow-green, as just
given, and carry it a stage further, we might add two parts (out of the eight) of
blue to the red, and make it more blue, and then form the complementary green of
six parts of blue and three of yellow, and thus make it more yellow. Or we may go
further still, and add to the red six of the eight parts of blue, when the admixture
would appear as a red-purple rather than as a blue-red, in which case the com-
plementary green — or, rather, green-yellow — would consist of two parts of blue and
three of yellow. These facts are diagrammatically expressed in the following- : —

Bed. OOOOO) n . , . Yelloiv- ( O O O Yell

.- Crimson harmonises with ■; ^,

Blue. O ) Green- ^OOOOOOO Blue.

Or,

B<>,1. OOOOO ) Blue- , . . Very ( O O O Yellow.

- harmonises with Yellow -? „.

Blue. OO ) Crimson ff?ye/ . i OOOOOO Slue.

Or,

Bed. OOOOO 7 Ee(1 - . Green- ( O O O Yellow.

harmonises with

Purple Yelloio. ^ O O

Blue.

In all these cases it will be seen that we have eight parts of blue, five of red,
and three of yellow, only the mode of combination varies. This variation may occur
to any extent, provided the totals of each be always the equivalent proportions.

These remarks will apply equally to hues of colour, shades, and tints, and to
shades and tints of hues.

Care, and a little practice, will enable the learner to arrange colours into
a number of degrees of depth, or shades, as they are. generally called. (We do
not here use the term as signifying pure colours darkened with black.) Ten shades
of each colour differing obviously in degree of depth can readily be arranged by the
experienced, the ten shades being equidistant from each other as regards depth — that
is, shade -'3 will be as much darker than shade 2 as shade 2 is darker than shade 1, and
so on throughout the whole. Purple is a colour intermediate between blue and red.
Imagine ten hues between the purple and the red, and ten more between the purple
and the blue: thus we should have purple, then a slightly red purple, then a rather
redder purple, then a purple still redder, and so on f .ill we get purple-reds, and

COLOUR DIAGRAMS OF HARMONY.

finallv the pure red ; and the same variations of hue at the blue side also. Imagine,
further, the green having ten hues extending towards the blue, and ten more stretch-
ing towards the yellow ; and the orange having ten hues towards the red, and ten
towards the yellow — in all cases I count the colour from which we start as one of
the ten, thus : —

• Bluo Purple Red

09 8 76543212 3 4507890

■ — and we shall have 54 colours and hues of colour. Of each of these 54 colours
and hues imagine 10 degrees of depth, and we get 540 colours, hues, tints, and
shades, all differing from one another to an obvious degree.

Mark this fact, that any colour, tint, hue, or shade of such a diagram has its
complement in one other of the colours, tints, hues, or shades of the diagram, and
that only two of this series of 540 are complementary to each other; thus, if you
fix on any one colour of the 540, there is but one colour in the whole that is
complementary to it, and it is complementary to but this one other colour.

The student will do well to try and make a colour-diagram of this kind,
of a simple character, say such as the following, only using pigments for my
numbers ; but in doing so he must exercise the utmost care, in order that he secure
some degree of accuracy of tint or shade, and if he can call to his aid an experienced
colourist it will be of great assistance to him.

Red-

P'»-pi e

*T3
4.

v 1

1 * £

•b 3 3

* *. v & 5 s *

fS-

w fi-moll»J

/> u ri' Ie

TCt

** >~.

<»°/p6.

KH4Q

/ 8

42 PRINCIPLES OP DESIGN.

Tbis table is highly valuable, as it gives ninety harmonies, if carefully prepared
in colour ; and the preparation of such a table is the very best practice that a student
can possibly have.

Let us for a moment consider this table, and supj. ose that we want to find the
complement to some particular colour, as the third shade of red. We find the com-
plement of this in the third shade of green opposite. If we want the complement
of the second shade of orange-yellow, we find it in the second shade of blue-purple
opposite, and so on. Thus we have a means of at once judging of the harmony of
colours.

It must ever be borne in mind that pigments mixed in the proportions given
will not yield results such as would occur when the coloured rays of light are
combined ; thus three parts, either by weight or measure, of chrome yellow when
combined with eight parts of ultramarine would not form a colour representing
the secondary green, nor would the result be more satisfactory were other pigments
combined in the proportions given. What we have said in respect to the proportions
in which colours combine to form new colours applies only to the coloured rays
of light.

It must now be noticed that while colours harmonise in the proportions stated,
the areas occupied by the different colours may vary if there be a corresponding
alteration in intensity. Thus eight of blue and eight of orange form a perfect
harmony when both colours are of prismatic intensity; but we shall still have a
perfect harmony if the orange is diluted to one-half its strength with white, and
thus formed into a tint, provided there be sixteen parts of this orange of half strength
to the eight parts of blue of full strength.

The orange might be further diluted to one-third of its full power, but then
twenty-four parts would be necessary to a perfect harmony with eight parts of
prismatic blue ; or to one-fourth of its strength, when thirty-two parts would be
necessary to the harmony.

It is not desirable that I occupy space with diagrams of these quantities, but
the industrious student will prepare them for himself, and will strive to realise
a true half-tint, quarter-tint, etc., which is not a very easy thing to do. By
practice, however, it will readily be accomplished, and anything achieved is a
new power gained.

What I have said respecting the harmony of blue with tints of orange will
apply in all similar cases. Thus red will harmonise with tints of green, provided
the area of the tint be increased as the intensity is decreased ; and so will yellow
harmonise with tints of purple under similar conditions.

But we may reverse the conditions, and lower the primary to a tint retaining
the secondary in its intensity. Tims blue, if reduced to a half-tint, will harmonise
with orange of prismatic intensity in the proportion of sixteen of blue to eight of

COLOUR IIAItMONY OF SHADES AND TINTS, 43

orange ; or, if reduced to a quarter-tint, in the proportion of thirty-two of blue to
eight of orange. Red, if reduced to a half-tint, will harmonise in the proportion of
ten red to eleven of green ; and yellow as a half-tint in the proportion of six yellow
to thirteen of purple.

The same remarks might be made respecting the harmony of shades of colour
with colours of prismatic intensity. Thus, if orange is diluted to a shade of half
intensity with black, it will harmonise with pure blue in the projx>rtion of sixteen
of orange to eight of blue, and so on, just as in the case of tints ; and this principle
applies to the harmony of all hues of colour also.

To go one step further : we scarcely ever deal with pure colours or their shades
or tints, or even come as near them as we can. With great intensity of colour we
seem to require an. ethereal character, such as we have in those of light; but
our pigments are coarse and earthy — they are too real-looking, and are not ethereal
— they may be said to be corporeal rather than spiritual in character. For this
reason we have to avoid the use of our purest pigments in such quantities as render
their poverty of nature manifest, and to use for large surfaces such tints as, through
their subtlety of composition, interest and please. A tint the composition of which
is not apparent is always preferable to one of more obvious formation. Thus we are
led to use tints which are subtly formed, and such as please by their newness and
bewilder by the intricacy of formation.

To do what I here mean it is not necessary that many pigments be mixed
together in order to the formation of a tint. The effect of which I speak can
frequently be got by two well-chosen pigments. Thus a fine series of low-toned
shades can be produced by mixing together middle-chrome and brown-lake in various
proportions, and in all of the shades thus formed the three primary colours will be
represented, but in some yellow will predominate, and in others red; while in many
it will not be easy to discover to what proportionate extent the three primary colours
are present.

Let us suppose that we make a tint by adding white to cobalt blue. This blue
contains a small amount of yellow, and is a slightly green blue. But to this tint
we add a small amount of raw umber with the view of imparting a greyness* or
atmospheric character. Raw umber is a neutral colour, leaning slightly to yellow —
that is, it consists of red, blue, and yellow, with a slight excess of the latter. In
order that an orange harmonise with this grey-blue of a slightly yellow tone,
the orange must be slightly inclined to red, so as to form the complement of
the little green formed by the yellow in the blue. It may harmonise with the
grey-blue as a pure tint if the area of the diluted and neutralised primary is

* Cobalt, raw umber, and white make a magnificent grey, both in oil-colours, in tempera
(powder-colours mixed with gum-water), and in distemper (powder-colours mixed with size).

41 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

sufficiently extended, or may itself be likewise reduced to a tint of the same
depth, when both tints would have the same area.

I might go on multiplying cases of this character to almost any extent,
but these I leave the student to work out for himself, and pass to notice that while
it is desirable to use subtle tints (often called "broken tints'") it is rarely expedient
to make up the full harmony by a large area of a tertiary tone and a single positive
colour. Thus, we might have a shade or a tint of citrine spreading over a large
surface as a ground on which we wished to place a figure. This figure would
harmonise in pure purple were it of a certain size, and yet if thus coloured it would
give a somewhat common-place effect when finished, for the harmony would be too
simple and obvious. It would be much better to have the nineteen parts of citrine
reduced, say, to half intensity, when the area would be increased to thirty-eight,
with the figure of eight parts of blue and five of red, than of thirteen parts of
purple.

But it would be better still if there were the thirty-eight parts of reduced
citrine, three parts of pure yellow, thirteen of purple, five of red, and eight of blue,
together with white, black, or gold, or all three (these may be added without altering
the conditions, as all act as neutrals), for here the harmony is of a more subtle
character.

If we count up the equivalents of the colours employed in this scheme of
harmony, we shall see that we have, in the citrine —

Ycilow . . . . . .6' (two equivalents).

Blue . . . . . .8 (one equivalent).

Red . . . . . .5 (one equivalent).

In the purple-
Blue . . . . . .8 (one equivalent).

Bed . . . . . .5 (one equivalent).

Of the nure colours —

Yellow . . . . . .3 (one equivalent).

Bed . . . . . .5 (one equivalent).

Blue . . . . . .8 (one equivalent).

Thus we have three equivalents of each primary, which give a perfect harmony.

I must not say more respecting the laws of harmony, for in the space of
a small work it is impossible to do so, but proceed to notice certain effects or
properties of colours, which I have as yet only alluded to, or have passed altogether
unnoticed.

I have said that black, white, and gold are neutral as regards colour. This
is the case, although many would suppose that gold was a yellow. Gold will act
as a yellow, but it is generally employed as a neutral in decorative work, and

COLOUR TEACHINGS OP EXPERIENCE. 45

it is more of a neutral than a yellow, for both red and blue exist largely in it.
The pictorial artist frames his picture with gold because it, being a neutral, does
not interfere with the tints of his work. It has the further advantage of being
rich and costly in appearance, and thus of giving an impression of worth where
it exists.

Black, white, and gold, being neutral, may be advantageously employed to
separate colours where separation is necessary or desirable.

Yellow and purple harmonise, but yellow is a light colour and purple is dark.
These colours not only harmonise, but also contrast as to depth, the one being
light and the other dark. The limit of each colour, wherever these are used in
juxtaposition, is therefore obvious.

It is not so with red and green, for these harmonise when of the same dep'h.
This being the case, and red being a glowing colour, if a red object is placed on a
green ground, or a green object on a red ground, the "figure" and ground will
appear to "swim" together, and will jjroduce a dazzling effect. Colour must ;issist
form, and not confuse it. It will do this in the instance just named if the figure is
outlined with black, white, or gold, and there will be no loss of harmony. But
experience has shown that this effect can also be averted by outlining the figure
with a lighter tint of its own colour. Thus, if the figure is red and the ground
green, an outline of lighter red (pink) may be employed. (See Proposition 26,
page 34.)

A blue figure on a red ground (as ultramarine on carmine), or a red figure on a
blue ground, will also produce this swimming and unsatisfactory effect, but this is
again obviated by an outline of black, white, or gold.

Employing the outline thus must not be regarded as a means of merely ren-
dering what was actually unpleasant endurable, for it does much more — it affords
one of the richest means of effect. A carmine ground well covered with bold green
ornament having a gold outline is, if well managed, truly gorgeous; and were
the figure blue on the red ground, the lavish use of gold would render the employ-
ment of yellow unnecessary as the yellow formed in the eye and cast upon the
gold would satisfy all recpiirements.

It is a curious fact that the eye will create any colour of which there is a de-
ficiency. This it will do, but the colour so created is of little use to the composition
unless white or gold is present; if, however, there be white or gold in the com-
position, the colour which is absent, or is insufficiently represented, will be formed
in the eye and east upon these neutrals, and the white or the gold, as the case
may be, will assume the tint of the deficient or absent colour. (See Propositions
8 and 9, page 32.)

While this occurs (and sometimes it occurs to a marked degree, as can be shown
by experiment), it must not be supposed that a composition in which any element is

46 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

wanting 1 is as perfect as one which reveals no want. It is far otherwise; only Nature
here comes to our assistance, and is content to help herself rather than endure our
short-comings ; but in the one case we give Nature the labour of completing the
harmony; while in the other, all being prepared, we receive a sense of satisfaction
and repose.

In Proposition 8 we showed that when blue and black are juxtaposed, the black
becomes " rusty," or assumes an orange tint; and in Proposition 9 we gave the cause
of this effect. Let a blue spot be placed on a black silk necktie, and however black
the silk, it will yet appear rusty. This is a fact; but we sometimes desire to employ
blue on black, and wish the black to look black, and not an orange-black. How can
we do this ? Obviously by substituting for the black a very dark blue, as indigo.
The bright blue spot induces orange (the complement of blue) in the eye. This
orange, when cast upon black, causes the latter to look " rusty ; " but if we place in
the black an amount of blue sufficient to neutralise the orange cast upon it, the
effect will be that of a jet-black.

We have now considered those qualities of colour, and those laws of contrast and
harmony, which may be said to be of the grosser sort ; but we have scarcely touched
on those considerations which pertain to special refinement or tenderness of effect.
But let me close the part of my subject of which I have treated, by repeating a
statement already made — a statement, let me say, which first led me to perceive
really harmony of colour — that those colours, and those particular hues of colour,
which improve each other to the utmost, are those which perfectly harmonise. (Consider
this statement in connection with Propositions 8, 9, 10, and 11, pages 32 and 33.)

We come now to consider delicacies and refinements in colour effects, which,
although dependent upon the skilful exercise of the laws enunciated, are yet of a
character, the power to produce which only results from the consideration of the
works of the masters of great art-nations ; but of these effects I can say little beyond
pointing out what should be studied.

This principle however I cannot pass without notice — namely, that the finest
colour effects are those of a rich, mingled, bloomy character.

Imagine a luxuriant garden, the beds in which are filled with a thousand
flowers, having all the colours of the rainbow, and imagine these arranged as closely
tfi^i'tlu.-r as will permit of their growth. When viewed from a distance the effect is
sr.lt and rich, and full and varied, and is all that is pleasant. This is Nature's
colouring. It is our work humbly to strive at producing like beauty with her.

This leads me to notice that primary colours (and secondary colours, also, when
of greal intensity) shoi.M be used chiefly in small masses, together with gold, white,
or black.

COLOUR REFINEMENTS OF HARMONY. 17

Visit the Indian Museum at Whitehall,* and consider the beautiful Indian
shawls and scarves and table-covers ; or, if unable to do so, look in the windows of
our large drapers in the chief towns, and see the true Indian fabrics, t and observe
the manner in which small portions of intense reds, blues, yellows, greens, and a
score of tertiary tints, are combined with white and black and gold to produce a very
miracle of bloom. I know of nothing in the way of colour combination so rich, so
beautiful, so gorgeous, and yet so soft, as some of these Indian shawls.

It is curious that we never find a purely Indian work otherwise than in good
taste as regards colour harmony. Indian works, in this respect — whether carpets,
or shawls, or dress materials, or lacquered boxes, or enamelled weapons — are almost
perfect — perfect in harmony, perfect in richness, perfect in the softness of their
general effect. How strangely these works contrast with ours, where an harmonious
work in colours is scarcely ever seen.

By the co-mingling (not co-mixing) of colours in the manner just described,
a rich and bloomy effect can be got, having the general tone of a tertiary colour of
any desired hue. Thus, if a wall be covered with little ornamental flowerets, by
colouring all alike, and letting each contain two parts of yellow and one part of blue
and one of red, as separate and pure colours, the distant hue will be that of citrine :
the same effect will result if the flowers are coloured variously, while the same
proportions of the primaries are preserved throughout. I can conceive of no
decorative effects more subtle, rich, and lovely than those of which I now speak.

Imagine three rooms, all connected by open archways, and all decorated with a
thousand flower-like ornaments, and these so coloured, in this mingled manner, that
in one room blue predominates, in another red, and in another yellow; we should
then have a beautiful tertiary bloom in each — a subtle mingling of colour, an ex-
quisite delicacy and refinement of treatment, a fulness such as always results from
a rich mingling of hues, and an amount of detail which would interest when
closely inspected ; besides which, we should have the harmony of the general effect
of the three rooms, the one appearing as olive, another as citrine, and the other as
russet.

This mode of decoration has this advantage, that it not only gives richness and
beauty, but it also gives purity. If pigments are mixed together they are thereby
reduced in intensity, as we have already seen ; but if placed side by side, when
viewed from a distance the eye will mix them, but they will suffer no diminution of
brilliancy.

With the view of cultivating the eye, Eastern works cannot be too carefully
studied. The Indian Museum should be the home of all who can avail themselves of
the opportunity of study which it affords ; and the small Indian department of the

* This museum is open free to the public. f These will only be seen in very first -class shops.

48 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

South Kensington Museum should not be neglected, small though it is.* Chinese
works must also be considered, for they likewise supply most valuable examples of
colour harmony ; and although they do not present such a perfect colour bloom as do
the works of India, yet they are never inharmonious, and give clearness and sharp-
ness, together with great brilliancy, in a manner not attempted by the Indians.

The best works of Chinese embroidery are rarely seen in this country; but these
are unsurpassed by the productions of any other people. For richness, splendour,
and purity of colour, together with a delicious coolness, I know of nothing to equal
them.

The works of the Japanese are not to be overlooked, for in certain branches of
art they are inimitable, and as colourists they are almost perfect. On the commonest
of their lacquer trays we generally have a bit of good colouring, and their coloured
pictures are sometimes marvels of harmony.

As to the styles of colouring adopted by the nations referred to, I should say
that the Indians produce rich, mingled, bloomy, warm effects — that is, effects in
which red and yellow prevail ; that the Chinese achieve clearness, repose, and
coolness — a form of colouring in which blue and white prevail; and that the Japanese
effects are warm, simple, and quiet.

Besides studying the works of India, China, and Japan, study those also of
Turkey and Morocco, and even those of Algeria, for here the colouring is much better
than with us, although not so good as in the countries first named. No aid to
progress must be neglected, and no help must be despised. f

"With the view of refining the judgment further in respect to colour, get a good
colour-top, J and study its beautiful effects. See also the "gas tubes" illuminated

* It may not be generally known, but nearly all our large manufactnring towns have, in
connection with the Chamber of Commerce, a collection of Indian fabrics, filling several large
volumes, which were prepared, at the expense of Government, under the superintendence of
Dr. Forbes Watson, and which were given to the various towns on the condition that they be
accessible to all persons who are trustworthy. Although these collections do not embrace the
costly decorated fabrics, yet much can be learned from them, and the combinations of colour are
always harmonious. A much larger collection is now in course of formation.

t The South Kensington Museum has a very interesting collection of art-works from China
and Japan ; but the latter are chiefly lent. It is a strange thing that the perfect works of the
East are bo poorly illustrated in this national collection, while costly, yea, very costly works of
inferior character, illustrative of Eenaissance art, swarm as thickly as flies in August. This can
only be accounted for by the fact that the heads of the institution have a feeling for pictorial
rather than decorative art, and the Eenaissance ornament is that which has most of the pictorial
element. To me, the style appears to owe its very weakness to this fact, for decorative art should
be wholly ideal. Pictorial art is of necessity more or less imitative.

% Not the so-called colour or "chameleon" top sold in the toy-shops, but the more scientific
toy procurable of opticians, together with the perforated discs of Mr. John Graham, M.K.C.S., of
Tunbridge, Kent.

COLOURING — EASTERN* METHODS. ]-9

by electricity, as sold by opticians, and let the prism yield you daily instruction.
Soap-bubbles may also be blown, and the beautiful colours seen in them carefully
noted. These and any other available means of cultivating the eye should constantly
be resorted to, as by such means only can we become great colourists.

As to works on colour, we have the writings of Field, to whom we are indebted
for valuable discoveries; of Hay, the decorator, and friend of the late David Roberts,
but some of his ideas are wild and Utopian ; of Chevreul, whose work will be most
useful to the student ; and the small catechism of colour by Mr. Redgrave, of the
South Kensington Museum, which is excellent. The student will also do well to
carefully study the excellent manual of "Colour" by Professor Church, of Cirencester
Coll cere.

CHAPTER III.

FURNITURE.

Having considered those principles which are of primary importance to the orna-
meutist, we may commence our notice of the various manufactures, and try to
discover what particular form of art should be applied to each, and the special manner
in which decorative principles should be considered as applicable to various materials
and modes of working'.

We shall first consider furniture, or cabinet-work, because articles of furniture
occupy a place of greater importance in a room than carpets, wall-papers, or, perhaps,
any other decorative works ; and, also, because we shall learn from a consideration of
furniture those structural principles which will be of value to us in considering the
manner in which all art-objects should be formed if they have solid, and not simply
superficial, dimensions.

In the present chapter, I shall strive to impress the fact that design and
ornamentation may be essentially different things, and that in considering the
formation of works of furniture these should be regarded as separate and distinct.
" Design," says Redgrave, " has reference to the construction of any work both for
use and beauty, and therefore includes its ornamentation also. Ornament is merely
the decoration of a thing constructed."

The construction of furniture will form the chief theme of this chapter, for
unless such works are properly constructed they cannot possibly be useful, and if not
useful they would fail to answer the end for which they were contrived.

But before commencing a consideration of the principles involved in the
construction of works of furniture, let me summarise what is required in such works
if they are to assume the character of art-objects.

1. The general form, or mass form, of all constructed works must be carefully
considered. The aspect of the "sky-blotch" of an architectural edifice is very
important, for as the day wanes the detail fades and parts become blended, till the
members compose but one whole, which, when seen from the east, appears as a solid
mass drawn in darkness on the glowing sky ; this is the sky-blotch. If the edifice
en masse is pleasing, a great point is gained. Indeed, the general contour should
have primary consideration. In like manner, the general form of all works of
furniture should first be cared for, and every effort should be made at securing to the
general mass beauty of shape.

FURNITURE GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 51

2. After having cared for the general form, the manner in which the work
shall he divided into primary and secondary parts must he considered with reference
to the laws of proportion, as stated in a former chapter.

3. Detail and enrichment may now be considered ; but while these cannot be
too excellent, they must still be subordinate in obtrusiveness to the general mass, or
to the aspect of the work as a whole.

4. The material of which the object is formed must always be worked in the
most natural and appropriate manner.

5. The most convenient or appropriate form for an object should always be
chosen, for unless this has been done, no reasonable hope can be entertained that the
work will be satisfactory; for the consideration of utility must in all cases precede
the consideration of beauty, as we saw in our first chapter.

Having made these few general remarks, we must consider the structure
of works of furniture. The material of which we form our furniture is wood.
Wood has a " grain," and the strength of any particular piece largely depends upon
the direction of its grain. It may be strong if its grain runs parallel with its
length, or weak if the grain crosses diagonally, or very weak if the grain crosses
transversely. However strong the wood, it becomes comparatively much weaker if
the grain crosses the piece; and however weak the wood, it becomes yet weaker if the
grain is transverse or diagonal. These considerations lead us to see that the grain
of the wood must always be parallel with its length whenever strength is required.

For our guidance in the formation of works of furniture, I give the following
short table of woods arranged as to their strength : —

Iron-wood, from Jamaica — very strong, bearing great lateral pressure.

Box of Illawarry, New South Wales — very strong, but not so strong as iron-wood.

Mountain ash, New South Wales — about two-thirds the strength of iron-wood.

Beech— nearly as strong as mountain ash.

Mahogany, from New South Wales — not quite so strong as last.

Black dog-wood of Jamaica — three-fourths as strong as the mahogany just
named.

Box-wood, Jamaica — not half as strong as the box of New South Wales.

Cedar of Jamaica — half as strong as the mahogany of New South Wales.*

Wood can be got of sufficient length to meet all the requirements of furniture-
making, yet we not uufrequently find the arch structurally introduced into furniture,
while it is absurd to employ it in wooden construction of any kind. The arch is
a most ingenious invention, as it affords a means of spanning a large space with
small portions of material, as with small stones, and at the same time gives great

* For full particulars on this subject see " Catalogue of the Collection illustrating Construction
and Building Material," in the South Kensington Museum, and the manual of " Technical Drawing
for Cabinetmakers," by E. A. Davidson.

52 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

strength. It is, therefore, of the utmost utility in constructing stone buildings; but
in works of furniture, where we have no large spaces to span, and where wood is of
the utmost length required, and is stronger than our requirements demand, the use
of the arch becomes structurally foolish and absurd. The folly of this mode of struc-
ture becomes more apparent when we notice that a wooden arch is always formed of
one or two pieces, and not of very small portions, and when we further consider that,
in order to the formation of an arch, the wood must be cut across its grain throughout
the greater portion of its length, whereby its strength is materially decreased ; while
if the arch were formed of small pieces of stone great strength would be secured.
Nothing can be more absurd than the practice of imitating in one material a mode of
construction which is only legitimate in the case of another, and of failing to avail
ourselves of the particular mode of utilising a material which secures a maximum
of desirable results.

While I protest against the arch when structurally used in furniture, I see no
objection to it if used only as a source of beauty, and when so situated as to be free
from strain or pressure.

One of the objects which we are frequently called upon to construct is a chair.
The chair is, throughout Europe and America, considered as a necessity of every
house. So largely used are chairs, that one firm at High Wycombe employs 5,000
hands in making common cane-bottomed chairs alone; and yet we see but few chairs
in the market which are well constructed. All chairs having curved frames — whether
the curve is in the wood of the back, in the sides of the seat, or in the legs — are
constructed on false principles. They are of necessity weak, and being weak are not
useful. As they are formed by using wood in a manner which fails to utilise its
qualities of strength, these chairs are offensive and absurd. It is true that, through
being surrounded by such ill-formed objects from our earliest infancy, the eye often
fails to be offended with such works as would offend it were they new to it; but this
does not show that they are the less offensive, nor that they are not constructively
wrong. Besides, whenever wood is cut across the grain, in order that we get any-
thing approaching the requisite strength, it has to be much thicker and more bulky
than would be required were the wood cut with the grain ; hence such furniture is
unnecessarily heavy and clumsy.

Fig. 20 represents a chair which I have taken the liberty of borrowing from Mr.
Eastlake's work on household art* This chair Mr. Eastlake gives as an illustration
of good taste in the construction of furniture; but I give it as an illustration of that
which is essentially bad and wrong. The legs are weak, being cross-grained

» The title of the work is ** Hints on Household Taste." It is well worth reading, as much may
be learned from it. I think Mr. Eastlake right in many views, yet wrong in others, but I cannot
help regarding him somewhat as an apostle of ugliness, as he appears to me to despise finish
and refinement.

FURNITURE CH Ml:-.

throughout, and the mode of uniting' the upper and lower portions of the legs (the
two semicircles) by a circular boss
is defective in the highest degree.
Were I sitting in such a chair, 1
should be afraid to lean to the
right or the left, for fear of the
chair giving way. Give me a
Yorkshire rocking-chair, in pre-
ference to one of these, where I
know of my insecurity, much as
I hate such.

A chair is a stool with a
back-rest, and a stool is a board
elevated from the ground or floor
by supports, the degree of eleva-
tion being determined by the
length of the legs of the person
for whom the seat is made, or by
the degree of obliquity which the
body and legs are desired to take
when the seat is in use. If the
seat is to support the body when
in an erect sitting posture, about
seventeen to eighteen inches will
be found a convenient height for
the average of persons ; but if the
legs of the sitter are to take an
oblique forward direction, then the
seat may be lower.

A stool may consist of a thick
piece of wood and of three legs
inserted into holes bored in this
thick top. If these legs pass to
the upper surface of the seat, and
are properly wedged in, a useful
yet clumsy seat results. In order
that the top of the stool be thin
and light, it will be necessary that
the legs be connected by frames,
and it will be well that they be Fig. 27.

Fig. 26.

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

connected twice, once at the top of each leg, so that the seat may rest upon this
frame, and once at least two-thirds of the distance from the top. The frame would
now stand alone, and although the seat is formed of thin wood it will not crack, as
it is supported all round on the upper frame.

A chair, I have said, is a stool with a hack. There is not one chair out of fifty
that we find with the hack so attached to the seat as to give a maximum of strength.
It is usual to make a hack leg and one side of the chair-hack out of one piece of
wood — that is, to continue the hack legs up above the seat, and cause them to become

ihe sides of the chair-back.
When this is done the wood
is almost invariably curved
so that the back legs and
the chair-back both incline
outwards from the seat.
There is no objection what-
ever to the sides of the back
and the legs being formed
of the one piece, but there
is a great objection to either
the supports of the back or
the legs being formed of
cross-grained wood, as much
of their strength is thereby
sacrificed. Our illustrations
(Figs. 27 to 32) will give
several modes of construct-
ing chairs such as I think legitimate ; but I will ask the reader to think for
himself upon the construction of a chair, and especially upon the proper means of
giving due support to the back.

I have given, in an axiomatic form, those principles which should guide us in
the construction of works of furniture, and endeavoured to impress the necessity of
using wood in that manner which is most natural — that is, "working" it with the
grain (the manner in which we can most easily work it), and in that way which
shall secure the greatest amount of strength with the least expenditure of material.
I wish to impress my readers with the importance of these considerations, for they
lie at the very root of the successful construction of furniture. If the legs of chairs,
or their seat-frames, or the ends or backs of couches, are formed of wood cut across
tlic grain, tliey must cither lie thick mid clumsy, or weak; but, besides this, the
rightly constituted mind can only receive pleasure from the contemplation of works
which arc wisely formed. Daily contact, as we have before said, with ill-shaped

Fig. 28.

FURNITURE — CHAIRS.

objects may have more or less deadened our senses, so that we are not so readily
offended by deformity and error as we might be; yet, happily for us, directly we
seek to separate truth from error, the beautiful from the deformed, reason assists the
judgment, and we learn to feel when we are in the presence of the beautiful or in
contact with the degraded.

My illustrations will show how I think chairs should be constructed. Fig. 20
is essentially bad, although it has traditional sanction, hence I pass it over without
further comment. Fig. 27 is in the manner of an Egyptian chair. It serves to
show the careful way in which the Egyptians constructed their works. The curved

Wm^MMMM

uTu'i utii't »7YYiYn f

Fig, 29.

Fig. 30.

rails against which the back would rest are the only parts which are not thoroughly
correct and satisfactory in a wood structure. Were the curved back members metal,
the curvature would be desirable and legitimate. The back of this chair, if the side
members were connected by a straight rail, would have immense strength (the backs
of some of our chairs are of the very weakest), and if well made it is a seat which
would endure for centuries. Fig. 28 is a chair of my own designing, in which I
have sought to give strength to the back by connecting its upper portion with a,
strong cross-rail of the frame.

Fig. 29 is a chair slightly altered from one in Mr. Eastlake's work on
"Household Taste;" as shown in our illustration, it is a correctly formed work.
Fig. 30 is an arm-chair in the Greek style, which I have designed. Fig. 31 is a
lady's chair in the Gothic style ; Fig. 32, a lady's chair in early Greek. These I
have prepared to show different modes of structure; if the legs are fitted to a frame

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

(the seat-frame) , as in the early Greek chair just alluded to, they should he very
short, as in this instance, or they must he connected by a frame below the seat, as in
Figs. 33 and 34. The best general structure is that in which the front legs pass to
the level of the upper surface of the seat.

Fig. 33 is a copy of a chair shown by Messrs. Gillow and Co., of Oxford Street,
in the last Paris International Exhibition. In many respects it is admirably
constructed. The skeleton brackets holding the back to the seat are very desirable

Fig. 31.

Fig. 32.

adjuncts to light chairs; so are the brackets connecting the legs with the seat-frame,
as these strengthen the entire chair. The manner in which the upper rail of the
back passes through the side uprights and is "pinned" is good. The chief, and
only important, fault in this chair is the bending of the back legs, involving their
being cut against the grain of the wood.

Fig. 84 is a chair from Mr. Talbertfs very excellent work on "Gothic Fur-
niture." It shows an admirable method of supporting the hack. Fig. 35 I have
designed as a high-backed lounging chair. "Willi the view of giving strength to the
back, I have extended (he seat, and arranged a support from this extension to
the upper back-rail, and this extension of the seat I have supported by a fifth leg.

1'TliXITrUE COUCHES.

There is no reason whatever why a chair should have four legs. If three would he
better, or five, or any other number, let us use what would he best.*

I have now given several illustrations of modes of forming chairs. I might
have given many more, but it is not my duty to try and exhaust a subject. What
I have to .do is simply point out principles, and call attention to facts. It is the
reader who must think for himself — first, of the principles and facts which I adduce ;
secondly, of the illustrations which I give; thirdly, of other works which he may

Pig, 34.

Fig. 33.

meet with , and fourthly, of further means of producing desirable and satisfactory
results than those set forth in my illustrations.

As it cannot be doubted that a well-constructed work, however plain or simple
it may be, gives satisfaction to those who behold it — while a work of the most
elaborate character fails to satisfy if badly constructed — we shall give a few further
illustrations of structure for other articles of furniture, besides chairs, which have
become necessary to our mode of life.

Fig. 36 is one of my sketches for Greek furniture, designed for a wealthy
client, It was formed of black wood. Here the frame of the seat is first formed,

In my drawing, the stuffing of the back has been accidentally shown too much rounded.
E

•j 8

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

and the legs are inserted beneath it, and let into it, while the wood-work of the
end of the couch stands upon it, being inserted into it. This appears to have been
the general method with the Greeks of forming their furniture, yet it is not so
correct structurally as Fig. 37, another of my sketches, where the end and the leg
are formed of one piece of wood. The first formation (that of Fig. 36) would bear
any amount of pressure from above, but it is not well calculated for resisting lateral
pressure; while the latter would resist this lateral pressure, but would not bear quite

the same amount of pressure from above.
The latter, however, could bear more
weight than would ever be required of it,
and would be the more durable piece of
furniture.

Fig. 38 gives a legitimate formation
for a settee; the cutting-out, or hollowing,
of the sides of the legs is not carried to an
extreme, but leaves a sufficiency of strong
wood with an upright grain to resist all
the pressure that would be placed on the
seat, and the lower and upper thickened
portions of the legs act as the brackets

— j l~fZH beneath the seat in Fig. 33. The arch

here introduced is not used structurally,
but for the sake of a curved line, and acts
simply as a pair of brackets. This illus-
tration is also from Mr. Talbert's work.
Fig. 39 is a table such as we occasionally
Fig. 35. meet with. I see no objection to the legs

leaning inwards at the top; indeed, we have
here a picturesque and useful table of legitimate formation. Fig. 40 is the end
elevation of a sideboard from Mr. Talbert's work. Mark the simplicity of the
structure. The leading ok structural lines are straight and obvious. Although
Mr. Talbert is not always right, yet his book is well worthy of the most careful
consideration and study ; and this I can truly say, that it compares favourably with
all other works on furniture with which I am acquainted.

The general want which we perceive in modern furniture is simplicity of
structure and truthfulness (if construction. If persons would but think out the
easiest mode of constructing a work liel'ore they commence to design it, and would
be content with this simplicity of structure, we should have very different furniture
From what we have. Think first of what is wanted, then of the material at
command.

Fl'KNITl'ItE — Til I Til I'll. CONSTRUCT* >\.

I fear that I have very feebly enforced and very inefficiently illustrated the
true principles on which works of furniture should he constructed ; and yet I feel
that the structure of such works is of importance beyond all other considerations.

Fig. 36,

Space is limited, however, and I must pass on; hence I only hope that. I have
induced the reader to think for himself, and if I have done so I shall have fulfilled
my desire, for his progress will then be sure.

Respecting- structure I have but a few general remarks further to make, and

Fig. 37.

all these are fairly embraced in the one expression, "Be truthful.'" An obvious and
true structure is always pleasant. Let, then, the "tenon" and the "mortise" pass
through the various members, and let the parts be "pinned'" together by obvious
wooden pins. Thus, if the frame of a chair-seat is tenoned into the legs, let the
tenon pass through the leg and be visible on the outer side, and let it be held in
its place by glue and wooden pins — the pins being visible. Yet they need not
protrude beyond the surface ; but why hide them ? In this way that old furniture

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

Fig. 38.

was made which lias endured while piece after piece of modern furniture, made
with invisible joints and concjaled nails and screws, has perished. This is a true

structural treatment, and is honest in
expression also.

I do not give this as a principle
applicable to one class of furniture only,
but to all. When we have "pinned"
furniture with an open structure (see
the back of chair, Fig. 33), the mode of
putting together must of necessity be
manifest ; but in all other cases the
tenons should also go through, and the
pins by which they are held in their
place be driven from one surface to the
other side right through the member.

In the commencement of this

chapter on furniture, I said that after

the most convenient form has been chosen for an object, and after it has been

arranged that the material of which it is to be formed shall be worked in the

most natural or befitting way, that then the block-form must be looked to, after

which comes the divi-
sion of the mass into
primary parts, and
lastly, the considera-
tion of detail.

As to the block-
form, let it be simple,
and have the appear-
ance of appropriateness
and consistency. Its
character must be re-
gulated, to an extent.
by the nature of the
house for which the
furniture is intended,
and by the character
of the room in which it is to !>«• placed. All I can say to the student on this part of
the subject is this : Carefully consider good works of furniture whenever oppor-
tunity occurs, and note their general conformation. A fine work will never have
strong architectural qualities — that is, it will not look like pari of a building formed

Fig. 39.

FURNITU11E PROPORTION AND ENBICHMEHT.

( 1

of wood instead o£ stone. There is but small danger of committing any great
error in the block-form, if it be kept- simple, and to look like ;i work in wood,
provided that the proportions of height to width and of width and height to
thickness are duly eared for (see page ~-"5).

After the general form has been considered, the mass may bo broken into
primary and secondary parts. Tims, if we
have to construct a cabinet, the upper part
of which consists of a cupboard, and the
lower portion of drawers, we should have to
determine the proportion which the one part
should bear to the other. This is an in-
variable rule — that the work must not consist
of equal parts ; thus, if the whole cabinet be
sis feet in height, the cupboards could not
be three feet while the drawers occupied
three feet also. The division would have to
be of a subtle character — of a character which
could not be readily detected. Thus the cup-
board might be three feet five inches, and
the drawers collectively two feet seven inches.
If the drawers are not all to be of the same
depth, then the relation of one drawer, as
regards its size, to that of another must be
considered, and of each to the cupboard above.
In like manner the proportion of the panels
of the doors to the styles must be thought
out ; and until all this has been done no
work should ever be constructed.

Next comes the enrichment of parts.
Carving should be sparingly used, and is
best confined to mouldings, or projecting or
terminal ends. If employed in mouldings,

those members should be enriched which are more or less completely guarded
from dust and injury by some overhanging member. If more carving is used,
it should certainly be a mere enrichment of necessary structure — as we see on
the legs and other uprights of Mr. Crace's sideboard, by Pugin (Fig. 41). I am
not fond of carved panels, but should these be employed the carving should never
project beyond the styles surrounding them, and in all cases of carving no pointed
members must protrude so as to injure the person or destroy the dress of those who
use the piece of furniture. If carving is used sparingly, it gives us the impression

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN

Fig n

Fl KXtTIRE MODES OF ENRICHING. 63

that it is valuable ; if it is lavishly employed, it appears to be comparatively worth-
less. The aim of art is the production of repose. A large work of furniture which
is carved all over cannot produce the necessary sense of repose, and is therefore
objectionable.

There may be an excess of finish in works of carving connected with cabinet-
work; for if the finish is too delicate there is a lack of effect in the result. A piece
of furniture is not a miniature work, which is to be investigated in every detail.
It is an object of utility, which is to appear beautiful in a room, and is not to
command undivided attention ; it is a work which is to combine with other works
in rendering an apartment beautiful. The South Kensington Museum purchased in
the last Paris International Exhibition, at great cost, a cabinet from Fourdonois ; but
it is a very unsatisfactory specimen, as it is too delicate, too tender, and too tine for
a work of utility — it is an example of what should be avoided rather than of what
should be followed. The delicately carved and beautiful panels of the doors, if cut
in marble and used as mere pieces of sculpture would have been worthy of the
highest commendation ; but works of this kind wrought in a material that has a
" grain," however little the grain may show, are absurd. Besides, the subjects are
of too pictorial a character for " applied work" — that is, they are treated in too
pictorial or naturalistic a manner. A broad, simple, idealised treatment of the
figure is that which is alone legitimate in cabinet work.

Supports or columns carved into the form of human figures are always
objectionable.

Besides carving, as a means of enrichment, we have inlaying, painting, and
the applying of plaques of stone or earthenware, and of brass or ormolu enrich-
ments, and we have the inserting of brass into the material when buhl-work
is formed.

Inlaying is a very natural and beautiful means of enriching works of furniture,
for it leaves the flatness of the surface undisturbed. A great deal may be done in
this way by the employment of simple means. A mere row of circular dots of
black wood inlaid in oak will often give a remarkably good effect ; and the dots
can be " worked " with the utmost ease. Three dots form a trefoil, four dots a
quatrefoil, six dots a hexafoil, and so on, and desirable effects can often be produced
by such simple inlays.

Panels of cabinets may be painted, and enriched with ornament, or flatly-
treated figure subjects. This is a beautiful mode of decoration very much
neglected. The couch (Fig. 37) I intended for enrichment of this kind. If this
form is employed, care should be exercised in order that the painted work be in all
cases so situated that it cannot be rubbed. It should fill sunk panels and hollows
and never appear on advancing members.

I am not fond of the application of plaques of stone or earthenware to works

6-1

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

of furniture. Anything that is Lrittle is not suitable as an enrichment of wood-
work, unless it can be so placed as to be out of danger.

Ormolu ornaments, when applied to cabinets and other works in wood, are
also never satisfactory. They look too separate from the wood of which the work is
formed — too obviously applied ; and whatever is obviously applied to the work, aud

is not a portion of its general
fabric, whether a mass of Mowers
even if carved in wood or an
ormolu ornament, is not pleasant.
Buhl-work is often very
clever in character and skilfully
wrought, but I do not care for it.
It is of too laborious a nature,
and thus intrudes upon us the
sense of labour as well as that of
skill. As a means of enrichment,
I approve of carving, sparingly-
used, of inlays, and of painted
ornament in certain cases ; and
by the just employment of these
means the utmost beauty in
cabinet-work can be achieved.
Ebony inlaid with ivory is very
beautiful.

In order to illustrate my
remarks respecting cabinets, side-
boards, and similar pieces of
furniture, I give an engraving of
a sideboard executed by Mr. ('race,
from the design of Mr. A. Welby
Pugin (the father), to which 1
have before alluded (Fig. 4>1), and
a painted cabinet by Mr. Burgess (Fig- '12), the well-known Gothic architect, whose
architecture must be admired. Both of these works are worthy of study of a very
careful kind.

In the sideboard, notice first the general structure or construction <if the
work, then the manner in which i( is broken into parts, and lastly, that it is the
structural members which arc carved. If this work has faults, they arc these:
first, the carving is in excess — thus, the panels would have been better plain ; and,

second, iii some parts there is :i slight indication of a stone structure, as in the
buttress character of the ends of the sideboard.

Fig. 42.

THE FALSE IN FURNITURE. 65

To the cabinet much more serious objections may be taken.
1st. A roof is a means whereby the weather is kept out of a dwelling - , and
tiles afford a means whereby small pieces of material enable us to form a perfect
covering- to our houses of a weather-proof character. It is very absurd, then, to
treat the roof of a cabinet, which is to stand in a room, as if it were an entire
house, or-an object which were to stand in a garden.

2nd. The windows in the roof, which in the case of a house let light into
those rooms which are placed in this part of the building-, and are formed in a
particular manner so as the more perfectly to exclude rain, become simply stupid
when placed in the roof of a cabinet. These, tog-ether with the imitation tiled
roof, degrade the work to a mere doll's house in appearance.

3rd. A panelled structure, which is the strongest and best structure, is ignored ;
hence strong metal bindings are necessary.

The painting of the work is highly interesting, and had it been more flatly
treated, would then have been truthful, and would yet have lent the same interest
to the cabinet that it now does, even if we consider the matter from a purely
pictorial point of view.

Before we pass from a consideration of furniture and cabinet-work generally,
we must notice a few points to which we have as yet merely referred, or which we
have left altogether unnoticed. Thus we have to consider upholstery as applied to
works of furniture, the materials employed as coverings for seats, and 1he nature of
picture-frames and curtain-poles; we must also notice general errors in furniture,
6trictly so called.

When examining certain wardrobes and cabinets in the International Exhibi-
tion of 1S62, I was forcibly impressed with the structural truth of one or two of
these works. One especially commended itself to me as a fine structural work of
classic character. Just as I was expressing my admiration, the exhibitor threw open
the doors of this well-formed wardrobe to show me its internal fittings, when, fancy
my feelings at beholding the first door bearing with it, as it opened, the two
pilasters that I conceived to be the supports of the somewhat heavy cornice above,
and the other door bearing away the third support, and thus leaving the super-
incumbent mass resting on the thin sides of the structure only, while they appeared
altogether unable to perform the duty imposed upon them. " Horrible ! horrible \"
was all I could exclaim.

Some of the most costly works of furniture shown by the French in the last
Paris International Exhibition were not free from this defect ; and this is strange,
for to the rightly constituted mind this one defect is of such a grave character as to
neutralise whatever pleasure might otherwise be derived from contemplating the
work. We see a man, a genius perhaps — a man having qualities that all must
admire; but he has one great vice — one sin which easily besets him. While the

fifi PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

man has excellent and estimable qualities, we yet avoid him, for we see not the
excellences but the vice. It is so with such works of furniture as those of which we
have been speaking, for their defects are such as impress us more powerfully than
their excellences.

Respecting these works of furniture, this should be said : they are more or less
imitative of works of a debased art-period — of a period in which structural truth was
utterly disregarded— yet this is no reason why we should copy the defects of our
ancestors.

Infinitely worse than the works just spoken of, is falsely constructed Gothic
furniture, where the very truthfulness of structure is openly set before us. Not long
since I was staying with a client whose house is of Gothic style. Being about to
furnish drawings for the decorations of this mansion, I was carefully noting the
character of the architecture and of the furniture, which latter had been designed and
manufactured expressly for the house by a large Yorkshire firm of cabinet-makers.
The structure of the furniture appeared just, the proportions tolerably good, the wood
honest, and the inlays judicious ; but, can it be imagined, the whole was a mere
series of frauds and shams — the cross-grain ends of what should be supports were
attached to the fronts of drawers, pillars came away, and such falsity became
apparent as I never before saw. How any person could possibly produce such
furniture, be he ever so degraded, I cannot think. I have seen works that are bad,
I have seen falsities in art, but I never before saw such falsity of structure and such
uncalled-for deception as these works presented. The untrue is always offensive ;
but when a special effort is made at causing a lie to appear as truth, a double sense
of disappointment is experienced when the untruthfulness is discovered.

In his work on "Household Taste," to which I have before alluded, Mr. Eastlake
objects, and I think very justly, to the character of an ordinary telescopic dining-
table. He says : "Among the dining-room appointments, the table is an article of
furniture which stands greatly in need of reform. It is generally made of planks of
polished oak or mahogany laid upon an insecure framework of the same material, and
supported by four gouty legs, ornamented by the turner with mouldings which look
like inverted cups and saucers piled upon an attic baluster. I call the framework
insecure, because I am describing what is commonly called a ' telescope ' table, or
one which can be pulled out to twice its usual length, and, by the addition of exl ra
leaves in its middle, accommodate twice the usual number of diners. Such a tabic
cannot be soundly made in the same sense that ordinary furniture is sound ; it must
depend I'm- its support on some contrivance which is not consistent with the material
of which if is made. Few people would like to sit on a chair (he logs of which slid
in and out, and were fastened at the required height by a pin ; there would be a
sense of insecurity in the notion eminently unpleasant. You might put up with
6uch an invention in camp, or on a sketching expedition, but to have it and use it

THE FALSE IN M'KXITUIiE.

under your own roof, instead of a strong and serviceable chair, would be absurd.
Yet this is very much what we do in Hie ease of the modern dining-room table.
When it is extended it looks weak and untidy at the sides ; when it is reduced to its
shortest length the legs appear heavy and ill-proportioned. It is always liable to
get out of order, and from the very nature of its construction must be an inartistic
object. Why should such a table be made at all? A dining-room is a room to dine
in. Whether there arc few or many people seated for that purpose, the table might
well be kept of a uniform length, and if space is an object it is always possible to
use in its stead tw r o small tables,
each on four legs. These might
be placed end to end when dinner
parties are given, and one of them
would suffice for family use. A
table of this kind might be solidly
and stoutly framed, so as to last
for ages, and become, as all fur-
niture ought to become, an heir-
loom in the family. When a man
builds himself a house on freehold
land, he does not intend that it
shall only last his lifetime; he
beuueaths it in sound condition
to posterity. We ought to lie
ashamed of furniture which is
continually being replaced ; at all
events, we cannot possibly take

any interest in such furniture. In former days, when the principles of good
joinery were really understood, the legs of such a large table as that of the dining-
room would have been made of a very different form from the lumpy, pear-shaped
things of modern use."

In nearly all these remarks I agree with Mr. Eastlake, and especially in his
remark that, owing to the very nature of its construction, a modern dining-table
must be an inartistic object. No work can be satisfactory in which any portions of
the true supporting structure or frame are drawn apart; and this occurs to a marked
degree in this table, as is shown in Mr. Eastlake's illustration, which we here copy
(Fig. 43).

Falsities of structure, although not so glaring as that of the telescopic dining-
table, are everywhere met with in our shops, and, curious as it may appear, the great
majority of the works offered to the public are not only false in structure, but are
utterly offensive to good taste in every way, and are formed almost exclusively of

Fig. 43.

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

wood cut across the grain, which secures to the article the maximum amount of
weakness. Figs. 44, -15, ±6, and -17 are examples of utterly had furniture.

Fig. 44.

Fig. 45.

Fig. 46.

I'V- 17.

Another falsity in furniture is veneering — a practice which should be wholly
abandoned. Simple honesty is preferable to false show in all cases; truthfulness in
utterance is always to be desired. It was customary at one time to veneer almost

VENEERING. (59

every work of furniture, and even to place the grain of the veneer in a manner totally
at variance with the true structure of the framework which it covered. This was a
method of making- works, which might in their unfinished state be satisfactory,
appear when finished as most unsatisfactory objects. Since this time much progress
has been made in a knowledge of truthful structure and of truthful expression, yet
this method of giving a false surface by means of veneer is not wholly abandoned as
despicable and false.

A few months back I had occasion to visit a cabinet warehouse in Lancashire,
and the owner called my attention to the fine grain of some old English oak, and
remarked that certain pieces of furniture were of solid wood. Upon investigation,
however, I discovered that while the furniture in question was made throughout of
oak, the bulk of the structure was of common wainscoting, and the surface was
veneered with English oak. I confess that I would much rather have had the
furniture without its false exterior, and daily my love for fine grain in wood gets
less. I think that this arises from the fact that strong grain in wood takes from
the " unity " of the work into which it is formed, and tends to break it up into
parts, by rendering every member conspicuous. What is wanted in a work of
furniture, before all other considerations, is a fine general form — a harmony of all
parts — so that no one member usurps a primary place — and this it is almost im-
possible to achieve if a wood is employed having a strongly marked grain.

With us a room is considered as almost unfurnished if the windows are not
hung with some kind of drapery. The original object of this drapery was that of
keeping out a draught of air, which found its way through the imperfectly fitting
windows; and the antitype of our window-hangings was a simple curtain, formed of
a material suitable to achieve the purpose sought. Such a curtain was legitimate
and desirable, and would contrast strangely with the elaborate festooning and
quadrupled curtains of our present windows. We daily see yards of valuable
material, arranged in massive and absurd folds, shutting out that light which is
necessary to our health and well-being ; a pair of heavy stuff curtains and a pair
of lace curtains being hung at each window, each curtain consisting of a suffi-
cient amount of material to more than cover the window of itself. An excess of
drapery is always vulgar, while a little drapery usefully and judiciously employed
is pleasant.

Many windows that are well made, and thus keep out all currents of air, need
no curtains. If the window mouldings are of an architectural character, and are
coloured much darker than the wall, so as to become an obvious frame to the window,
and thus do for the window what a picture-frame does for a picture, no curtains will
be required. I have recently had a wonderfully striking illustration of this. Two
adjoining rooms are alike in their architecture; one is decorated, and has the window
casement of such colours as strongly contrast, while they are yet harmonious, with

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

c *=-

O =-

o ■=-

o <=*

O c»

o =*

Fig. 48.

the wall. Before the room was decorated, and the windows were thus treated, a
general light colour prevailed, both on the wood-work and on the walls of the room,

and curtains were hung at the windows in
the usual way. With the altered decora-
tions, the windows became so effective that I
at once saw the imdesirability of re-hanging
the curtains, and yet not one of all my
friends has observed that there are no cur-
tains to the windows; while if the curtains
are removed from the adjoining room, where tbe window-frames are as light as the
walls, the first question asked is, " Where are your curtains?"

Curtains should be hung on a simple and obvious pole (Fig. 48). All means

of hiding this pole are foolish and
useless. This pole need not be very
thick, and is better formed of wood
than of metal, for then the rings to
which the cm-tains are attached pass
along almost noiselessly. Tbe ends
of the pole may be of metal, but I
prefer simple balls of wood. The
pole may be grooved, and any little-
enrichments may be introduced into
tbese grooves, providing tbe carving
does not come to the surface, and
tbus touch the rings, which by their
motion would injure it. Whatever
is used in the way of enrichment
should be of simple character, for
the height at which the curtain pole
is placed would render fine work
altogether ineffective.

As to upholstery, I would say,
never indulge in an excess. A wood
'•'i'-'- >■' frame should appear in every work

of furniture, as in the examples we
have given. Sofas arc now made as though they were feather beds; they are so
soft that you sink into them, and become uncomfortably warm by merely resting
upon them, and their gouty forms are relieved only by a few inches of wood,
which appeal' as legs. Stuffing should be employed only as a means of rendering
a properly constructed seat c fortablj soft. If it goes beyond this it is vulgar

<$T

LTHOLSTEIUNG OF Fl'UNITURE. PICTURE- 1'i! AMES.

f : ^ r ^Ti

rT^^a

Fig. 50

72 F1UN0IPLES OF DESIGN.

and objectiu liable. Spring stuffing is not to be altogether commended; a good
old-fashioned hair-stuffed seat is more desirable, as it will endure when springs have
perished. As to the materials with which seats may be covered I can say little, for
they are many. Hair cloth, although very durable, is altogether inartistic in its
effect. Nothing is better than leather for dining-room chairs; Utrecht velvet,
either plain or embossed, looks well on library chairs ; silk and satin damasks,
rep, plain cloth, and many other fabrics are appropriate to drawing-room furniture.
Chintz I am not fond of as a chair covering, and in a bed-room I would rather
have chairs with plain wooden seats than with cushions covered with this glazed
material.

With a mere remark upon picture-frames I will finish this chapter. Picture-
frames are generally elaborately carved mouldings, or are simple mouldings covered
with ornaments, which, whether carved or formed of putty, are overlaid with
gold leaf; they are, indeed, highly ornamented gilt mouldings. I much prefer
a well-formed, yet somewhat simple, black polished moulding, on the interior of
which runs a gold bead (Fig. 49). A fanciful yet good picture-frame was figured
in the Building News of September 7th, 1SC6, which we now repeat (Fig. 50).

CHAPTER IV.

DECORATION OP BUILDINGS.

Division I. — General Considerations — Ceilings.

Having considered furniture, the formation of which requires a knowledge of
construction, or of what we may term structural art, we pass on to notice principles
involved in the decoration of surfaces, or in " surface decoration," as it is usually
called. We commence by considering how rooms should be decorated ; yet, in so
doing, we are met at the very outset with a great difficulty, as the nature of the
decoration of a room should be determined by the character of its architecture.
My difficulty rests here. How am I to tell you what is the just decoration for a
room, when the suitability of the decoration is often dependent upon even structural
and ornamental details ; and when, in all cases, the character of the decoration
should be in harmony with the character of the architecture? Broadly, if a building
is in the Gothic style, all that it contains in the way of decoration, and of furniture
also, should be Gothic. If the building is Greek, the decorations and furniture
should be Greek. If the building is Italian, all its decorations and furniture should
be Italian, and so on.

But there are further requirements. Each term that I have now employed, as
expressive of a style of architecture, is more or less generic in character, and is
therefore too broad for general use. What is usually termed Gothic architecture, is
a group of styles having common origin and resemblances, known to the architect
as the Semi-Norman or Transition style, which occurred in the twelfth century
under Henry II. (it was at this time that the pointed arch was first employed) .
The Early English, which was developed in the end of the twelfth and early part of
the thirteenth century, under Richard I., John, and Henry III. ; the Decorated,
which occurred at the end of the thirteenth, and early portion of the fourteenth
century, under Edward I., Edward II., and Edward III. ; the Perpendicular, which
occurred at the latter part of the fourteenth, and through the greater portion of the
fifteenth century, under Richard II., Henry IV., V., and VI., Edward IV. and V.,
and Richard III. ; and, lastly, the Tudor, which occurred at the end of the fifteenth,
and the beginning of the sixteenth century, under Henry VII. and Henry VIII.
All these styles are popularly spoken of as one, and are expressed by the one term —
Gothic. It is so also, to an extent, with the Greek, Roman, and Italian styles, for
each of these appears in various modifications of character, but into such details we
F

74 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

will not enter : it must suffice to notice that the character of the decoration must be
not only broadly in the style of the architecture of the building which it is intended
to beautify, but it must be similar in nature to the ornament produced at precisely
the same date as the architecture which has been employed for the building.

It must not be supposed that I am an advocate of reproducing works, or even
styles of architecture, such as were created in times gone by, for T am not. The
peoples of past ages carefully sought to ascertain their wants — the wants resulting
from climate — the wants resulting from the natui-e of their religion — the wants
resulting from social arrangements — the wants imposed by the building material at
command. We, on the contrary, look at a hundred old buildings, and without
considering our wants, as differing from those of our forefathers, take a bit from one
and a bit from another, or we reproduce one almost as it stands, and thus we bungle
on, instead of seeking to raise such buildings as are in all respects suited to our
modern requirements.

Things are, however, much better in this respect than they were. Bold men
are dealing with the Gothic style in its various forms. Scott, Burgess, Street, and
many others are venturing to alter it; and thus, while it is losing old characteristics,
and is acquiring new elements, it is already assuming a character which has nobility
of expression, truthfulness of structure, and suitability to our special requirements.
In time to come, further changes will doubtless be made ; and thus the style which
arose as an imitation of the past will have become new, through constantly departing
from the original type, and as constantly adopting new elements.

I have said that the decoration of a building should be brought about by the em-
ployment of such ornament as was, in time past, associated with the particular form
of architecture employed in the building to be decorated, if a precisely similar
form of architecture previously existed. Let not the ornament, however, be a mere
servile imitation of what has gone before, but let the designer study the ornament of
bygone ages till he understands and feels its spirit, and then let him strive to
produce new forms and new combinations in the spirit of the ornament of the past.

This must also be carefully noted — that the ornament of a particular period
does not consist merely of the forms employed in the architecture, drawn in colour
on the wall, or the ceiling, as the case may be. The particular form of ornameut
used in association with some forms of Gothic architecture was very different in
character from what we might expect from the nature of the architecture itself, and
did not to any extent consist of ilatly-treated crockets, gable ends, trefoils, cinque,
foils, etc. The ornament of the past must be studied in its purity, and not from
those wretched attempts at the production of Gothic decoration which we often see.

In what wc may call the typical English house of the present day there is really
no architecture, and if such a building is to be decorated it is almost legitimate
to eninlov any style of ornamentation. In such a case I should choose a style

DECORATION OF CEILINGS. 75

which has no very marked features — which is not strongly Greek, or strongly
Gothic, or strongly Italian ; and if there is the necessary ability, I should say try
and produce ornaments having novelty of character, and yet showing your knowledge
of the good qualities of all styles that are past. If this is attempted, care must be
exercised in order to avoid getting a mere combination of elements from various
styles as one ornament. Nothing can be worse than to see a bit of Greek, a
fragment of Egyptian, an Alhambraic scroll, a Gothic flower, and an Italian husk
associated together as one ornament; unless this were done advisedly and in order to
meet a very special want, such an ornamental composition would be detestable.
What I recommend is the production of new forms; but the new composition may
have the vigour of the best Gothic ornament, the severity of Egyptian, the intri-
cacy of the Persian, the gorgeousness of the Alhambra, and so on, only it must not
imitate in detail the various styles of the past.

Now as to the decoration of a room. If one part only can be decorated, let that
one part be the ceiling. Nothing appears to me more strange than that our ceilings,
which can be properly seen, are usually white in middle-class houses, while the walls,
which are always in part hidden, and even the floor, on which we tread, should have
colour and pattern applied to them ; and of this I am certain, that, considered from
a decorative point of view, our ordinary treatment is wrong.

"VVe glory in a clear blue sky overhead, and we speak of the sky as increasing in
beauty as it becomes deeper and deeper in tint. Thus the depth of the tint of the
Italian sky is familiar to us all. Why, then, make our ceilings white ? I often ask
this question, and am told that the whiteness renders the ceiling almost invisible ;
hence it is preferred. This idea is very absurd; first, because blue is the most
ethereal and most distant of all colours (see Chap. II., page 33) ; and, second, do we
not build a house with the view of procuring shelter? hence why do we seek to
realise the feeling that we are without a covering over our heads ? We only like a
white ceiling because we have been accustomed to such from infancy, and because
we have been taught to regard a clean white ceiling as all that is to be desired. I
knew a Yorkshire lady who, upon being asked by her husband whether she would
like the drawing-room ceiling decorated, replied that she thought not, as she could
not then have it re-whitewashed every year. The idea was clean certainly. Blue, I
have said, is ethereal in character; it is so, and may become exceedingly so if of
medium depth and of a grey hue ; hence, if a mere atmospheric effect was sought,
it would be desirable that this colour be used on the ceiling rather than white. But,
as we have just said, invisibility of the ceiling is absurd, as it is our protection from
the weather. Further, the ceiling may become an object of great beauty, and it can
be seen as a whole. Why then neglect the opportunity of arranging a beautiful
object when there is no reason to the contrary ? We like a, beautiful coloured vase,
or, if we do not, we can have it whitewashed, or even dispense with it altogether.

7«

PKIXCIPLES OP DESIGN.

We like beautiful walls, or we would have them whitewashed also ; indeed, we like
our surroundings generally beautiful. Why not, then, have beautiful ceilings,

Kg. 61.

especially as they can be seen complete, while the wall is in part hidden by furniture
;iik1 pictures ?

I will suppose thai we have an ordinary room to deal with. First, take away

PAPERS FOIt CEILINGS.

the wretched plaster ornament in the centre of the ceiling, for it is sun' to be had.
There is not one such ornament out of a thousand that can he so treated as to make
the ceiling 1 look as well as it would do without it. Now place all over the ceiling ;i
Hat painted or stencilled pattern, a pattern which repeats equally in all directions (as
Fi^. 51),. and let this pattern be in blue (of any depth) and white, or in blue (of any
depth) and cream-colour, and it is sure to look well (the blue being the ground, and
the cream-colour or white the ornament).

Simple patterns in cream-colour on blue ground, but having a black outline
also look well (Fig. 52) ; and these
might he prepared in paper, and
hung on the ceiling as common
paper-hangings, if cheapness is
essential. Gold ornaments on a
deep blue ground, with black out-
line, also look rich and effective.
These are all, however, simple treat-
ments, for any amount of colour
may be used on a ceiling, provided
the colours are employed in very
small masses, and perfectly min-
gled, so that the effect produced
is that of a rich coloured bloom
(see Chap. II., page 46). A ceiling
should be beautiful, and should also
be manifest ; but if it must be
somewhat indistinct, in order that
the caprices of the ignorant be
humoured, let the pattern be in
middle-tint or pale blue and white
only. Fig. 52.

I like to see the ceiling of a
room covered all over with a suitable pattern, but I do not at all object to a large
central ornament only, or to a centre ornament and corners ; especially if the
cornice is heavy, so as to give compensating weight to the margin. I have recently
designed and seen carried out one or two centre ornaments for drawing-rooms,
which ornaments were twenty-one feet in diameter. A centre ornament, if properly
treated, may be very large without looking heavy ; it may, indeed, extend at least
two-thirds of the way from the centre to the margin of the ceiling. I do not speak
of plaster ornaments, but of flat decorations.

If the ceiling is flat all ornament placed upon it must not only be flat also, but

rnixciPLES or design.

must not fictitiously represent relief, for no shaded ornament can be pleasant when
placed as the decoration of a flat architectural surface.

I have already noticed that the decoration of a room should be in character
with its architecture, but that while this should be so, the ornament applied by way
of enrichment should not be a servile copy of the decorative forms employed in

t'tg 63.

ages gone by, but should be such as is new in character, while yet of the spirit

of the past.

.Many circumstances tend to determine the nature of the decoration which
should be applied to a ceiling: thus, if a ceiling is structurally divided into square
panels, the character of the ornament is thereby restricted, and should these panels
be large it will probably be desirable thai each be fitted with the same ornament;
while if they arc small three or four different patterns may be employed, if arranged
in some orderly or methodical manner.

TREATMENT or JOISTS IN A CEILING.

7 'J

A ceiling may also have the joists or beams visible upon it : in this case the
decoration would have fco be of a very special character. The bottoms of the joists

Fig. 54.

might have a string pattern upon them (a running pattern), as the "Greek key," or
guilloche ; whilst the sides might have either a running pattern, or a pattern with
an upward tendency, as the "Greek honeysuckle;" and the ceiling intervening

PRINCIPLES 01' DESIGN.

between the joists might have a running pattern, or better, a star, or diaper pattern,
or it mio-ht have bands running in the opposite direction to the joists, so as, with
thern, to form squares, which squares might be filled with ornament.

If, however, the ceiling is flat, and is not divided into sections structurally.

Fig. 55.

almost any " setting out " of the surface may be employed, as Fig. 53 ; or a large
centre ornament, as Figs. 54 and 55 ; or a rosette distributed over the entire surface, as
Fig. 50. In any case it is not necessary or even desirable that the ornament be in
relief upon the ceiling. Flatly treated ornaments may be employed with advantage,
and all fictitious appearance of relief, as we have already said, must be avoided.

COLOURING OF FLAT CEILINGS.

There are so many different ways of setting out ceilings, that I cannot attempt
even to make any suggestions. I would simply say, however, Avoid an archi-
tectural setting out, if there are no structural members; for ornament which is Hat
may spread in any manner over a surface without even appearing to need structural
supports. As to the colour of a ceiling it' there is to be no ornament upon it, let it
be a cream-colour (formed of white with a little middle-chrome) rather than white.
Cream-colour always looks well upon a ceiling, and gives the idea of purity. A
grey-blue is also a very desirable colour for a ceiling, such as is formed of pale
ultramarine, white, and a
little raw umber, just suffi-
cient to make the bine
slightly grey (or atmos-
pheric). In depth this blue
should be about half-way
between the ultramarine
and white. Another effect
which I like is produced by
the full colour of pure (or
almost pure) ultramarine.
In this case the cornice
should l>e carefully coloured,
and pale blue and white
should prevail in it, but a
little pure red must be
present.

A further and very de-
sirable effect is produced by
placing pale cream-coloured

stars irregularly over the pale blue, or even the deep blue ceiling, or by placing
pale blue stars upon the cream-coloured ceiling. The stars should vary for an
ordinary room ceiling (say a room sixteen feet square by ten feet high) from
about three inches from point to point down to one inch ; the larger stars having
six points ; others being smaller and with five points ; and the small ones having,
some four points, and some three. If such stars are irregularly (without order)
intermixed over the ceiling, and yet are somewhat equally dispersed, a very pleasing
and interesting effect will thereby be produced. This effect is in much favour with
the Japanese. The stars, however, should be smaller if placed on a deep, than on a
pale, blue ground.

Another good effect is produced by giving the ceiling the colour of Bath, or
Portland, stone, and starring it with a deeper tint of the same colour. This effect

82 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

is improved by each star having 1 a very fine outline of a yet darker tint of the same
colour.

I should recommend those interested in the decoration of ceilings to study
carefully the Egyptian, Alhambra, and Greek Courts at the Crystal Palace,
Sydenham, especially the two last named ; also to notice the ceiling in St. James's
Great Hall, Piccadilly, London, and the ceiling of Ushaw College chapel near
Durham. The ceilings in the Oriental Courts, by Mr. Owen Jones, at the South
Kensington Museum are worthy of careful notice ; but the Renaissance ceilings in
other parts of the Museum are both wrong in principle and are bad examples of their
style. The structurally formed glass ceiling of the Crystal Palace Bazaar in Oxford
Street, London, and still better, the ceiling of Mr. Osier's glass warehouse in
Oxford Street, are well worthy of note.

On the Continent we very frequently meet with ceilings on which large
pictures have been painted, as in the Louvre and the Luxembourg in Paris ; and the
authorities of the South Kensington Museum are making efforts to introduce this
style into England, but such pictorial ceilings are in every way wrong.

1st. A ceiling is a flat surface, hence all decoration placed upon it should
be flat also.

2nd. A picture can only be correctly seen from one point, whereas the deco-
ration of a ceiling should be of such a character that it can be properly seen from
any part of the room.

3rd. Pictures have almost invariably a right and wrong way upwards. A
picture placed on a ceiling is thus wrong way upwards to almost all the guests in
the room.

4th. In order to the proper understanding of a picture, you must see the whole
of its surface at one time ; this is very difficult to do without almost breaking your
neclc, or being on your back on the floor, if the picture is on the ceiling ; whereas an
ornament which consists of repeated parts may render a ceiling beautiful without
requiring that the whole ceiling be seen at the one glance.

Most of the French pictorial ceilings are so painted that they are properly seen
when the spectator stands with his back close to the fire. This is very awkward, as
the rules of society do not allow us to stand in this position before company.
Pictorial works are altogether out of place on a ceiling ; they ought to be framed
and hung right way upwards upon walls where they can be seen. We have a well-
known painted ceiling at the Greenwich Hospital.

Arabesque ceilings, such as that of the Roman Court at the Crystal Palace, are
also very objectionable.

What can be worse than festoons of leafage, like so many sausages, painted
upon a ceiling, with griffins, small framed pictures, impossible flowers, and feeble
ornament,all with fictitious light and shade? But not content with such absurdities

WALL DECORATIONS. S3

and incongruities, the festoons often hang upwards on vaulted or domed ceilings,
rather than downwards. Such ornaments arose wdien Rome, intoxicated with its
conquests, yielded itself up to luxury and vice rather than to a consideration of
beauty and truth.

Decorations like these were to an extent again revived by the great painter
Raphael ; but it must ever be remembered that Raphael, while one of the greatest
of painters, was no ornamentist. It requires all the energy of a life to become a
great painter ; and it requires all the energy of a life to become a great ornamentist ;
hence it is not expected that the one man should be great at the two arts.

In all ages when decorative art has flourished, ceilings have been decorated.
The Egyptians decorated their ceilings, so did the Greeks, the Byzantines, the
Moors, and the people of our Middle Ages, and a light ceiling appears not to have
been esteemed as essential, or as in many cases desirable. It is strange that so few
of our houses and public buildings contain rooms with decorated ceilings ; but the
want is already felt, the fashion has set in, and many are at this present moment
being prepared. We must get simple modes of enrichment for general rooms —
modes of treatment which shall be effective, and yet not expensive— and then we
may hope that they will become general.

Division II. — Decorations op Walls.

We must now devote ourselves to the consideration of wall decoration, or to the
manner in which ornament should be applied to walls with the view of rendering
them decorative.

It will appear absurd to say that all ornament that is applied to a wall should
be such as will render the wall more beautiful than it would be without it ; but this
statement is needed, for I have seen many walls ornamented in such a manner, that
they would have looked much better if they had been perfectly plain, and simplv
washed over with a tint of colour.

To ornament is to beautify. To decorate is to ornament. But a surface cannot
be beautified unless the forms which are drawn upon it are graceful, or bold, or
vigorous, or true, and unless the colours applied to it are harmonious. Yet how
many walls do we meet with even in good houses — -walls of corridors, walls of stair-
cases, walls of dining-rooms, walls of libraries, and, indeed, walls of every kind of
room — which are rendered offensive, rather than pleasing, by the decorations they bear.

A wall may look well without decoration strictly so called, and this statement
leads me to notice the various ways in which walls may be treated with the view of
rendering them beautiful.

A wall may be simply tinted either with "distemper" colour, or oil colour
" flatted." Distemper colour gives the best effect, and is much the cheapest, but it
is not durable, and cannot be washed. Oil colour when flatted makes a nice wall,

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

whether "stippled" or plain, and is both durable and washable. An entire wall
should never be varnished.

I say that a wall can look well even if not decorated. Let me give one or two

s.ea.fcSMftF

Fig. 58.

Fig. 57.

instances ; but, perhaps, I had better give treatments for the entire room, including
the ceiling, and not for the wall simply.

A good effect of a very plain and inexpensive character would be produced
by having a black skirting, a cream-colour wall (this colour to be made of the

Fig. 59.

colour called middle-chrome and white, and to resemble in depth the best pure
cream), a cornice coloured with pale blue of greyish tint, with deep blue, white,
and a slight line of red, and a ceiling of blue of almost any depth. The ceiling
colour to be pure French ultramarine, or this ultramarine mixed with white and
a touch of raw umber (the cornice blues to be made in the same way). The red

DECORATIVE DESIGN.
IUnstrxuting Cornice, Ceiling & JIM Colouring.

WAIX DKCOUATIONS.

in the cornice to be deep vermilion if very narrow (one-sixteenth of an inch), or
carmine if broad.*

A room of a slightly more decorative character would be produced by making
the lower three feet of the wall of a different colour (by forming a dado) from the
upper part of the wall : thus, if the other parts of the room were coloured as in the
example just given, the lower three feet might be red (vermilion toned to a rich
Indian red with ultramarine blue) or chocolate (purple-brown and white, with a little
orange-chrome) ; this lower portion of the wall being separated from the upper
cream-coloured portion by a line of
black an inch broad, or better by a
double line, the upper line being an
inch broad, and the lower line three-
eighths of an inch, the lines being-
separated from each other by five-
eighths of the red or chocolate.

I like the formation of a dado, for
it affords an opportunity of giving
apparent stability to the wall by
making' its lower portion dark ; and
furniture is invariably much improved
by being seen against a dark back-
ground. The occupants of a room
always look better when viewed in
conjunction with a dark background,
and ladies' dresses certainly do. The
dark dado gives the desired back-
ground without rendering it necessary
that the entire wall be dark. If the

furniture be mahogany, it will lie wonderfully improved by being placed against
a chocolate wall.

The dado of a room need not be plain ; indeed, it may be enriched to any
extent. It may be plain with a bordering separating it from the wall, such as
Figs. 57, 58, and 51), or the coloured border on Plate I. (frontispiece) ; or it may
have a simple Hower regularly dispersed over it ; or it may be covered with a
geometrical repeating pattern, in either of which cases it would have a border ; or
it may be enriched with a specially designed piece of ornament, as Fig. 60. This
particular pattern should not, however, be enlarged to a height of more than twenty

I:ti:ri:g3.n.t3:g3.iy.g3.g:i.r3

Km. :.:'.

In some parts of the country it is customary to wash the cornice over with quick-lime.
If this has been done the lime must be carefully removed, for lime will turn carmine black.

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

to twenty-four inches; but if of this width, and above a skirting of twelve or

fifteen inches, it would look well.

I have designed two or three narrow dado papers for Messrs. Wylie and

Lockhead, of Glasgow, which are about eighteen inches broad, and are printed in the

direction of the length of
the paper, so as to save
unnecessary joins ; and
Messrs. Jeffrey and Co.,
of Essex Road, Islington,
are issuing a complete
series of my decorations
for walls, dados, and
ceilings.

If the dado is en-
riched with ornament, and
the cornice is coloured,
and a pattern spreads all
over the ceiling, the walls
can well lie plain, but
they may be covered with
a simple "powdering" as
the patterns in Fig. 01,
if these are in soft colours,
or with patterns such as
those set forth in colours
<m Plate I.; but these,
especially that on the blue
ground, would only be
used where a very rich
effect is desired.

A good room would

Fig. 61.

be produced by pattern

Fie:.

behn

ceiling in dark blue and cream-colour, by the cornice being coloured with a pro-
valence <if dark blue, the walls being cream-colour down to the dado; the border
separating the dado from the wall being black ornament on a dull orange-colour ;
and by the dado being chocolate with a black rosette upon it; the skirting boards
being bright black. The dado may or may not be varnished; the upper part
of the wall can (inly be "dead" (not varnished — dull). If the room is high a
bordering may ran round the npper portion of the wall, about three to four inches

WALL-PAPEKS.

below the cornice; such a bolder as Fig. 62 may be employed in dull orange
and chocolate.

A citrine wall comes well with a dee]) blue, or blue and white ceiling, if blue
prevails in the cornice, and this wall may have a dark blue (ultramarine and black
with a little white) dado, or a rich maroon dado (brown-lake) . If the blue dado is
employed the skirting- should be indigo, which, when varnished and seen in con-
junction with the blue, will appear as black as jet. (See the coloured examples on
Plate II., and remarks on colour on pages 45 and 46.)

Walls are usually papered in middle-class houses. I must not object to this
universal custom; but I do say, try to avoid showing the joinings of the various
strips. In all cases where possible cut the paper to the pattern, and not in straight
lines, for straight joinings are very objectionable. If you use paper for walls, use it

Fi". 62.

artistically, and not as so much paper. Let a dado be formed of one paper, the dado
bordering (dado rail) of a suitable paper bordering ; the upper part of the wall
being covered by another paper of simple and just design, and of such colour as
shall harmonise with the dado. Proceed as an artist, and not as a mere workman.
Think out an ornamental scheme, and then try to realise the desired effect. Avoid
all papers in which huge bunches of flowers and animals or the human figure are
depicted. The best for all purposes are those of a simple geometrical character, or
in which designs similar to those in Fig. 01 are "powdered" or placed at regular
intervals over a plain ground.

Just as the ceiling ornament must accord in character with the architecture of the
room in which it is placed, so must the wall decoration be of the same style as the
architecture of the room. Indeed, whatever we have said respecting the harmony of
the ceiling decoration with the architecture of the building, applies ecpially to the
ornamentation of the wall.

It has been customary to arrange walls into panels when decorating them, and

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

of this mode of treatment we give one illustration (Fig. 63) ; yet nothing can be more
absurd than such a treatment, unless the wall is architecturally (structurally) arched.
A wall ma}- be so formed that some parts are thick, so as to give the required strength,
while other portions are thin. In such a case the wall would be formed of arched

Fig. 63.

recesses and thickened piers alternately. This being flic case, the decoration should
be so applied as to emphasise, or render apparent, this arched structure; but if the
wall is of one thickness throughout, its division into arches is absurd and foolish.

We sometimes see great follies, and even gross untruths, perpetrated with the
view of brinerine about the so-called decoration of a room. Thus it is not

SHAMS IN DECORATION. 89

unfrequentlv that we meet with imitation pillars, recesses, and arches as the so-called
ornamentation of a room.

In low music halls we are not surprised by such decorations, for we do not look
for truth or any manifestation of delicacy of feeling in such places. Falsity and the
untrue appear in natural juxtaposition with the debased and the vulgar. Sham
marble pillars, a fictitious and merely imitative architecture, an assumed and unreal,
yet coarse and vulgar, gorgeousness, are the natural adjuncts of immorality and vice;
but such falsities cannot be tolerated in the abodes of those who pretend to purity
and truth, nor in the buildings which they frequent; yet even the new Albert Hall
has sham marble pillars (I say this to our shame), and but recently I visited a
church near Edgware, in which there is a display of false decoration such as I never
before saw. Here we find sham pillars, giving a false architecture ; sham niches,-
containing sham statues ; sham clouds, forming an absurd ceiling ; and almost every
falsity which a falsely constituted mind could perpetrate.

How strange it is that in a church, where purity and truth are taught, the
whole of the decorations should be a sham ! It is said that if you want to hear a
fierce quarrel, and to see true hatred, you must seek it in religious sects and among
theological discussionists. On the same principle, I suppose, we must prepare
ourselves for a display of the worst art-falsity in the sacred edifice. Perhaps the
idea is that of contrast. As the teetotal lecturer had a drunken man by him as
a frightful example of what was to be avoided, so the decorations of this church may
be intended as a warning, rather than as an example of what should be followed.
Happily such churches as this are rare, and it can be truly said that ecclesiastical
architecture and decoration has made great strides with us in recent years, and that
in very many instances it is rigidly truthful as well as beautiful.

Before leaving the consideration of wall decorations, I must object to all
imitations, as sham marbles, granites, etc., for no wall can be satisfactory which is to
any extent a display of false grandeur ; and this is curious, that in many cases it
costs more to produce an imitation marble staircase than it would to line the same
walls with the marbles imitated. I have known a case in which the imitation has
cost double what the genuine stone woidd have cost, and such a case is not
exceptional, for hand-polished work is always expensive. To imitations of marbles
and granites, as I have already said, I strongly object, and of the genuine stone I am
not fond, unless sparingly and judiciously used. My objections to its free use are
these : — 1st. Harmony of colour depends upon great exactness of tint. This
exactness is rarely attainable in the case of two marbles. One stone may, however,
be brought into direct and perfect harmony with a coloured wall, by the tint of the
wall being carefully suited to the marble. 2nd. The true artist thinks less of the
costliness of the material of which he forms his works than of the art-effect produced.
Thus the old Greeks, who were full of art-feeling and refinement, coloured the

90 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

buildings which they constructed of white marble, and they certainly thereby
improved them ; for colour, if harmoniously employed, lends to objects a new
charm — a charm which they would not without it possess. I must further say,
before leaving our present subject, that all walls, however decorated, should serve as
a background to whatever stands in front of them. Thus they must retire even
behind the furniture by their unobtrusiveness.

The order of arrangement in furnishing must be this. The living beings in a
room should be most attractive and conspicuous, and the dress of man should be of
such a character as to secure this. Ladies can now employ any amount of colour in
their attire; but poor man, however noble, cannot by his dress be distinguished
from his butler ; and, worst of all, both are dressed in an unbecoming and inartistic
manner. Next come the furniture and draperies — the one or the other having
prominence according to circumstances ; then come the wall and floor, both of which
are to serve as backgrounds to all that stands in front of them. In decorating walls,
or in judging of the merit or suitability of wall decorations, this must always be
taken into consideration, that they are but enriched backgrounds ; and it should also
be remembered that the nature of the enrichment applied is determined, to a great
extent, by the character of the architecture of the building of which the wall forms
a part.

We come now to consider wall-papers, which are hangings prepared with the
view of enabling us to decorate our walls at comparatively small cost. I may
confess that I am not very fond of wall-papers under any circumstances. I prefer a
tinted or painted wall. Yet they are largely used, and will be for a long time to
come. I have already said that if wall-jiapers are used they should not be joined
together with straight lines, and that we ought to consider them as so much
art-material which should be used artistically.

As to the nature of the pattern which a wall-paper should have, it is almost
impossible to speak, as there are endless varieties; but as a rule it may be said that
those consisting of small, simple, repeated parts, which are low-toned or neutral in
colour, are the best. Most wall-paper patterns are larger than is desirable. The
pattern can scarcely be too simple, and it should in all eases consist of flat ornament.

If the ornament is very good, and the pattern is the work of a true artist, it
may be larger, for then the parts will be balanced and harmonised in a manner that
could not be expected from a less skilful hand ; but even if by the most talented
designer, it must ever be remembered that he has designed it at random, and not as
a suitable decoration for any particular room. The man who selects the pattern for
a particular wall must choose that which is suitable to the special case.

The effect of a wall-paper is materially affected by many circumstances. Thus,
by the quantity of light admitted to the room — whether (ho room is dark or light; by
(ho aspect, whether it receives the sun's rays direct or does not; by the character

WAU.-I'APKR I'ATTKHNS.

of the light, as whether direct from the sky, or reflected fi'om a green lawn, or
red-brick wall. All these things must be considered, and what looks well in the
pattern-book ma}' look bad on a wall.

Fig. 65.

Fig. 64.

Fig. 66

Fig. 67.

As to colour, the best wall-paper patterns are those which consist of somewhat
strong colours in very small masses — masses so small that the general effect of the
paper is rich, low-toned, and neutral, and yet has a glowing colour-bloom; but these
are rarely to be met with.

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

- \Xv, : : :.

It was a fashion some time since to make wall-papers in imitation of woven
fabrics, and this fashion has not wholly disappeared yet, absurd though it be. It arose
through the accident of a designer of wall-paper patterns having- been a shawl pattern
designer, and having- a number of small shawl patterns on hand, which he disposed
of as wall-paper jwtterns. A pattern which is suitable for a woven fabric is rarely
suitable to a printed fabric, and especially when the one pattern is to be seen in folds
on a moving object, and the other flat on a fixed surface. And at all times imitation

by one material of another is
untruthful, and it becomes
specially absurd when we think
that almost every material is
capable of producing- some
good art-effect which no other
material can. We should al-
ways seek to make each material
as distinctive in its art-character
as we can, and to cause each to
appear as beautiful as possible
in that particular manner in
which it can most naturally be
worked.

A word should be said
about the particular character
which a wall-paper pattern
should have, but the remarks
which I am now about to make
will apply equally to all patterns
employed as wall decorations.
If we view trees or plants, as we see them against the sky as a background, they are
objects which point upwards and have a bilateral symmetry — their halves are alike
(Figs, til and (15) — or are more or less irregular in form, and when seen in this
view we may regard them as natural wall decorations. Our wall patterns, then,
may poinl upwards, as in Fig-. 01, and be bilateral or otherwise; but it must be
remembered that when the flowers of a primrose protrude from a bank they are
regular radiating-, or star, ornaments. I think that it is legitimate for us to use
on a wall star, or regular radiating- ornaments, as well as those having- an upward
tendency.

I have said that when seen from the side plants are bilateral, or are more or less
irregular. As I have referred to plants as furnishing- us with types of ornament, I
should not be doing- rightly were I to leave this statement in its present form; for

Fig. 69.

COLOURING OP CORNICES. 93

the tendency of the vital force of all plants is to produce structures of rigidly
symmetrical character ; hut insects, which eat buds and leaves, and blights, winds,
and frosts, so act upon plants as to destroy their normal symmetry, hence we find an
apparent w r ant of symmetry in the arrangement of the parts of plants.

Respecting the colouring of cornices, a few words should be said. 1st. Bright
colours may here be employed. 2nd. As a rule, get red in shadow or in shade, blue
on flat or hollow surfaces, especially those that recede from the eye, and yellow on
rounded advancing members. 3rd. Use for red either vermilion or carmine ; for
blue, ultramarine either pure or with white; for yellow, middle chrome much diluted
with white. 4th. Use red very sparingly, blue abundantly, the pale yellow in
medium quantity.

Besides primary colours, none others need be used on the cornice. It is a
mistake to use many, or dull, colours, here, but gold may be used instead of yellow.
With the view of explaining the principles which we have just enunciated by
diagrams, we give four illustrations (Figs. 66, 67, 68, 69), which I advise the
student to try and colour in accordance with the principles just set forth.

CHAPTER V.

CARPETS.

It is not my intention in this chapter to consider in detail the various kinds of
carpet which are common in our market, nor even to review the history of their
manufacture, interesting as it would be to do so; for we must confine ourselves more
particularly to an examination of the art-qualities which they present, and to the
particular form of pattern which may be applied to them with advantage.

Although we cannot here enter into a consideration of the manufacture of
carpets, I cannot too strongly recommend all who intend preparing designs for them
to consider minutely the powers of the carpet loom ; for the nature of the effect
produced will depend to a large extent upon the knowledge which the designer
possesses of the capabilities of the manufacture for which he designs patterns. In
the case of any manufacture it is highly desirable, if not absolutely essential, that
the designer of the patterns to be wrought should be acquainted with the process by
which his design is to be converted into the particular material for which the pattern
has been prepared ; for this knowledge, even when not absolutely essential, gives an
amount of freedom and power which nothing else can supply.

The carpets most extensively in use are " Brussels ; " but there are many other
kinds both of better and inferior qualities. " Kidderminster carpet" (a carpet not
now made by even one Kidderminster manufacturer) is a common fabric suited to the
bedrooms of middle-class houses ; but the art-capabilities of this material are very
small, as it can only have two colours in any line running throughout its length.
This carpet consists of two thicknesses, which are imperfectly united, and is not
durable. " Brussels carpeting," now made chiefly in Great Britain, is a good carpet
for general purposes. Its surface consists of loops, and it may have five, or, if made
of extra quality, six colours in any line running throughout its length. If with five
colours in the same line the carpet will, in a sense, consist of five thicknesses of
worsted ; yet these are united into one fabric. In some cases a " Brussels carpet " is
woven of very close texture, with the loops cut through ; thus we have a " velvet
pile" or "Wilton carpet" — a fabric which is very rich-looking, and durable.

Those called real " Axminster" carpets are, perhaps, the best made. They are
formed by the knotting together of threads by hand, consequently any number of
colours may be used in their formation ; but such are necessarily most costly. A

VARIETIES OF CARPETS. 95

"patent Axminster" carpet is made by a double process of hand- weaving, by which
fine results are achieved, and any number of colours used. In the first weaving a
rough "cloth" is formed, which is cut into strips called " chenille threads/' and
these are again woven into the carpet. This process is most ingenious, and the
carpets produced by it are very good ; but they are costly.

Some few years since a most ingenious process of manufacturing what are known
as " tapestry " carpets was patented — a process resembling in its nature that of the
patent Axminster manufacture, but differing in this particular, that the " warp "
threads are coloured by printing, and thus the first process of weaving is dispensed
with. These carpets are, like Brussels, made with a looped surface, and also with a
pile. They cannot be said to compare in any way with the patent Axminster carpets,
which are of a pretentious and costly character, nor even with a good " Brussels ; "
but they are low in price, and meet a want, as is proved by their enormous sale.

Besides these varieties of carpet there are a number of kinds of foreign produc-
tion, most of which are hand-made, and are very beautiful. By far the greater
number of these have a " pile," although this is sometimes rough and uneven, yet
rarely, if ever, inartistic; but a few are without pile; still these are not without that
indescribable something which renders them estimable in the eye of an artist.

Having hastily noticed the chief kinds of carpet in use in this country, and we
might say in almost all countries, we come to the question — what form of pattern,
or what character of ornament, should form the "enrichment" of such a fabric?

When speaking in a previous chapter (see page 92) of wall decorations, we
noticed that a wall-paper pattern, or, indeed, a wall pattern of any kind, might
desirably have an upward direction and a bilateral symmetry. This can never be the
case, however, with a carpet pattern, which must be equally extended all over the
surface, or have a simple radiating symmetry, as Fig. 56 ; and this rale will apply
whether the pattern be simple or complicated. It is not wrong, as we have said
before, to have a radiating pattern on a wall, but it is wrong to have a bilateral
pattern on a floor.

The reason of this is obvious. If such an object as we have indicated is placed
on a wall, from whatever point the occupants of the room may view it, it is yet right
way upwards to them; but if such an object were placed on a floor it would be wrong
way upwards, or sideways, or oblique to most of those who viewed it; and to employ
a pattern of this character in such a position is highly absurd, when a pattern can as
readily be formed which will avoid this unpleasantness. What would we think were
we asked to view a picture, or even to visit an apartment containing such, were this
work of art presented to our view in an inverted manner ? We should feel astonished
at the absurdity ; yet this would be no worse than expecting us to view a carpet
while the pattern is to us in an inverted position.

And the principle which we have just set forth is one taught by a consideration

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

of plants. If we wander over the moor, where we tread on Nature's carpet, we find
that all the little plants which nestle in the short mossy grass are " radiating orna-
ments " — that is, they are pretty objects which consist of pai-ts spreading regularly
from a centre.

I cannot too strongly advise the young ornamentist to study the principles on
which Nature works. Knowledge of the laws which govern the development of
plant-growth is very desirable ; hut it is not our place to imitate even the most
beautiful of plant-forms — this being the work of the pictorial artists. Yet it is ours

Fig. 70.

Fig. 71.

Fig. 73.

to study Nature's laws, and to observe all her beauty, even to her most subtle effects,
and then we may safely pillage from her all that we can consistently adapt to our own
purposes. But in order that we produce ornament, we must infuse mind or soul into
whatever we borrow from her. (See page 2.)

With the view of more fully impressing the manner in which Nature teaches us
principles which we may apply in art, and of aiding the student in his inquiries, we
will give one or two illustrations. Thus Fig. 04 is a drawing of a spray of the
{guelder rose (Viburnum opulns) when seen from the side, or, as I might express it,
when viewed as a wall decoration; and Fig. 70 is the same spray as seen from above,
or, to use the same manner of expression, when seen as a lloor pattern. Further,

TREATMENT OF NATURAL FORMS IN CARPET PATTERNS.

Fig. 71 represents a yotmg plant of a species of speedwell {Veronica) as a wall orna-
ment, and Fig. 72, tbe same plant when seen as a floor ornament ; and Pigs. 65 and
73 represent a portion of the goosegrass (Galium Aparine) as seen in the same two
views.

Fig. 74.

Fig. 75.

Fig. 76.

From these illustrations we see that plants furnish us with types of two
essentially different ornaments, which are adapted to the decoration of the two
positions of wall and floor, and may he introduced with truthful expression and effect
into wall-paper or carpet.

Even when the leaves appear somewhat dispersed upon the stem, a principle of

Fig. 77.

Fig. 78.

Fij;. 79.

order can yet he distinctly traced in the manner of their arrangement, as is
diagrammatieally expressed in Figs. 7-4, 75, 76 ; and here, also, the top view gives
us a regular radiating ornament.*

The same law prevails in the flower that we have traced as existing in the
arrangement of leaves upon the stem : thus Fig. 77, which represents the London
pride {Saxifraga umlrosa), affords an example of a regular radiating flower, which

* Tbe spray here represented is that of the oak, and the diagram (Fig 74) shows the orderly
spiral manner in which the leaves spring from the stem.

98 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

we find so placed, in different examples, as to appear as a floor or wall ornament; and
Figs. 78 and 79, the former being the flower of the speedwell {Veronica), and the
latter that of the common pansy (Viola tricolor), furnish us with illustrations of
bilateral flowers intended only as wall ornaments. In order to secure our seeing the
pansy only laterally, it is furnished with a bent stalk ; hence it never rests horizon-
tally upon the summit of its stem, but always hangs so that it is perfectly seen only
from the side.

There are cases, however, in which bilateral flowers are placed horizontally ; but
it is very interesting to notice that when this occurs the disposition or arrangement
of the flowers is such as to restore the radiating symmetry. Thus, if we take the
candytuft (Iberis) or the common hemlock (Conium), we find that while each flower
is bilateral in character, the flowers are yet arranged around a centre in such a manner
that the smaller portion of each flower points to the centre of the flower-head, while
the larger parts point outwards from the centre of the group. These, then, are the
teachings of plants, to which we are called irpon to hearken.

The above illustrations are not only useful examples of the suggestions of
plant-forms to the ornamentist, but form excellent material to the art-student for
the conventional treatment of leaves and sprays, buds and blossoms. They will also
serve to indicate the kind of plant-forms that should be chosen for decorative purposes.
Students of this branch of art would find it a useful practice to make a collection of
flowers and plants or parts of plants that appear to offer features similar to those
of which we have been writing, and test their capabilities for decorative purposes,
by endeavouring to arrange them for the ornamentation of wall and floor, as we
have treated the plant-forms indicated in this chapter.

We have now seen the principle on which all carpet patterns should be
constructed as distinctive from wall patterns, and in order to impress the necessity
of giving a radiating basis to the ornaments placed upon carpets, and not a bilateral
structure, we have referred to the principle of plant growth, where we noticed
that all plants, when viewed as floor ornaments (when viewed from above), are of a
radiating character; whereas if they are seen as wall or vertical ornaments, they
are either radiating or bilateral. This is a necessity of a carpet pattern, that it have
a radiating structure, or, in other words, that it point in more than two directions.

Man naturally accustomed to tread on grass, when brought into a state of
civilisation, seeks some covering for his floor which shall be softer to the tread and
richer in colour than stone or brick. And in our northern climate he seeks also
warmth ; hence he chooses not a mere matting, or lattice of reeds, but a covering
such as shall satisfy his requirements.

In early times our floors appear to have been strewn with sand — a custom still
lingering in some country districts; then eame the habit of strewing reeds over the
floor, and on the part of the opulent, sweet-scented reeds {Acorns calamus). And it

QUALITIES OF A CJOOD CARPET PATTERN. 99

is curious to notice, in connection with this subject, that one of the charges brought
by Henry VIII. against Cardinal Wolsey was that of extravagance in the use of
sweet reeds. This use of reeds was succeeded by the employment of mats of simple
appearance, formed of a kind of grass, and these by the introduction of wool mats,
tvhich, at first, were chiefly imported, but afterwards manufactured in our own
country. The wool mats were in their turn replaced by carpets, which gradually
increased in size till their proportions became such as to cover the entire floor
on which they were placed.

This brief history brings us to notice what is required of a carpet : — it shoulj
be soft in texture, rich in appearance, and of "bloomy" effect.

We may add to these requirements by saying that a carpet should also be a
suitable background to all works of furniture or other objects placed upon it, and
that in character it should accord with the objects with which it is associated
in any particular apartment.

Considering more fully these requirements, we notice that a carpet should be
soft. This is very desirable, for softness gives a sense of comfort, and with softness
is generally combined durability of the fabric ; but softness can scarcely be regarded
as an art-quality. Yet as the art which an object bears is more leniently viewed
when the fitness of the object to the purpose for which it is intended is apparent, we
may safely regard softness as a very desirable quality of a carpet.

The Eastern carpets are pre-eminent in this quality of softness, and of English-
made carpets "Brussels" and tapestry are the least satisfactory in this way; as
usually made, they have a hard "backing." A kind of Brussels carpeting with
a soft back has recently been brought out, but at pi-esent it is not general in
the trade. If the carpet employed in any apartment as a floor covering is harsh in
character, it is desirable to place soft felt under it (felt for this purpose can be got
at carpet warehouses), or evenly spread soft hay, for by so doing the wear of the
fabric will be greatly increased, and the pleasure of walking on it will also be
correspondingly greater.

The next quality of a carpet is richness. No carpet is satisfactory which
is " washy" or faded in appearance. There must be "depth" of effect, a "fulness"
of art-quality. Hangings may be delicate, wall-decorations soft in tint, but a
carpet must be rich and " full '' in effect, yet a general softness of tone is desirable.
But this richness must be of singular character, for the most desirable effect
which a carpet can present is that of a glowing neutral bloom.

I hope that my language does not appear mystical to the general reader or
young student. To the ornamentist I think it will be intelligible. What I wish
to say is that the effect should be glowing, or radiant, or bright, as opposed to
dull, quiet, or heavy; that it should be such as results from the use of a pre-
dominance of bright and warm colours, rather than of cold and neutral hues ; that it

100

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

should be neutral, inasmuch as it should not present large masses of positive colour,
but should have an equality of rich harmonious colours throughout ; that it should
be " bloomy," or have the effect of a garden full of flowei-s, or better, of the slope
of a Swiss alp, where the flowers combine to form one vast harmonious "glow" of

-a?

Fig. 80.

colour. This is the effect which a carpet should present, yet it should never present
flowers, imitatively rendered, as its ornamentation. Such imitative renderings are
not to be produced by the ornamentist ; they must come from the pictorial artist,
for they arc pictures. They cannot form suitable backgrounds to furniture and
living objects, for they are positive, and not neutral, in their general effect. A
picture, also, will not bear repetition: whoever heard of one person having two
copies of the same picture in one room ? Yet a pictorial group of flowers may

" COT.OI-R-BLOOM IN CARPETS.

101

be seen repeated many times over a floor, which is very objectionable. The effect to
be produced is that of a rich " colour-bloom ; " but the skilled oroamentisi will

achieve this without violating any laws of fitness, and will gently and delicately
hint at the beauty of a profusion

of blossom through his tenderly
formed pattern.

Yet a carpet must be neutral
in its general effect, as it is the
background on which objects
rest. Neutrality of effect is of
two kinds. Large masses of
tertiary or neutral colours will
achieve its production, so also
will the juxtaposition of the
primary colours in small quan-
tities, either alone or with the
secondary colours, and black or
white; but there will be this
difference between the two effects
— that produced by low-toned
colours will be simply neutral,
while that produced by the pri-
mary colours will be "bloomy"
as well as neutral, and if yellows
and reds slightly predominate in
the intermingling of colours, the
effect will be glowing or radiant.

The radiant, or glowing,
bloomy neutrality of effect is
that which it is most desirable
that a carpet should present.

This effect is rarely pro-
duced in English carpets, owing
either to the want of skill on
the part of the ornamentist, who
is unable to produce such works ;

Fig. Si.

the want of judgment on the part of the manufacturer, whereby he fails to produce
such patterns ; or the want of taste on the part of the consumer, owing to which he
buys works of a more vulgar character. I have designed carpets in which I have
sought to realise as much of this effect as I could with six colours — the number to

102

P1UXCIPI.ES ok design.

which I have been limited by the conditions of manufacture, and fortunately these
appear to be commanding a large sale, and to be setting a fashion in carpets ; but
those who wish to study these bloomy effects in their more perfect forms, must do so in
the carpets of India, Persia, Smyrna, and Morocco, but especially in the Indian rugs.
Some of the carpets from India are perfect marvels of colour-harmony, and of

radiant bloom. They appear to glow
as a bed of flowers in the sunshine,
and yet they are neutral in their
general effect, and when placed in
an apartment do not usurp a primary
place, as does any pictorially treated
pattern.

This " bloom " was seen to per-
fection in one or two silk rugs which
were shown at the International Ex-
hibition of 1862 in London, and it
was not much less apparent in some
of the carpets from India shown in
the Paris Exhibition of ISO 7. Most
Indian carpets have this colour-bloom
to some extent, and few are unworthy
of careful study.

Persian carpets (Fig. (SO) are
also models of what carpets should
be ; they are less radiant than many
of the Indian works, but are almost
more mingled in colour-effect. In
pattern many of the Indian and
Persian carpets are identical, being
traditional, yet in colour they differ, and both arc worthy of much consideration.

The Morocco carpets (Fig. 81) differ again from both those of India and
Persia, and even to a greater degree than the Persian carpet differs from the Indian.
In these there is often a prevalence of soft yellows and juicy yellow-greens, inter-
mingled with reds, blues, and grey-whites, in such a manner as to produce a most
harmonious and artistic effect. To the young student, and to any who may desire
to cultivate his taste in respect to such matters, 1 say, Study the carpets of the East
most carefully, especially those of India, Persia, and Morocco.

Indian carpels, such as \vc have jus! referred to, may be seen al the museum in
the building of the new India Office at "Whitehall, which museum is open free to the
public (for examples, see Figs. 82, 83, 81).

Fig. 8

"ALL-OVER AND fiEOM ETHICAL PATTEHNS.

J 03

As to the nature of the pattern which may he applied to a carpet, we have
" all-over " patterns, or patterns spreading- regularly all over the surface ; " geo-
metrical " patterns, or those which have an apparent regularity of structure ; anil
panel patterns, or those in which particular parts are, as it were, framed off from
other parts.

Firstj as to "all-over" patterns. These are what we almost always find in
both Indian and Persian carpets, and are, undouhtedly, the true form of decoration
for a woven floor covering. What is desirable is an evenly spread pattern, such as
will give richness without destroying" the unity of the entire effect. The pattern
may have parts slightly accentuated
or emphasised beyond other parts,
but not strongly so, and this em-
phasising of parts must be arranged
with the view of securing to the
pattern special interest. Thus, if a
carpet is viewed at a distance it
should not appear as devoid of all
pattern, but through the slight pre-
dominance of certain leading features
(in Indian carpets, generally of
ornamental flowers) the plan of the
design should be indicated. More
detail should be apparent when the
work is seen from a nearer point of
view, and still more upon close in-
spection ; but in no case should any
parts appear strongly pronounced,

or otherwise than refined and beautiful, and in no case should there be a want
of interest manifested by the pattern.

Carpet patterns are generally better if founded on a geometrical plan. In this
way most of the Indian and Persian patterns are constructed. A geometrical plan
secures to the design a manifestation of order and thought in its formation. Panel
patterns, unless very carefully managed, become coarse. In some Indian carpets we
find a sort of panel in which the colour of the ground is changed from that of the
general ground of the carpet, but here the panel has usually a truly ornamental
form, and is, indeed, rather a large ornament than a sort of frame enclosing a
distinct space. Whenever a panel occurs in an Indian, Persian, or Moorish carpet,
it is so managed, and its surroundings are such, as to cause it to appear as a part
natural to the general design ; but it is far otherwise with the panel patterns which
we occasionally see in our shop-windows as the produce of native industry, and it is

SiSiililKffif* 1

Fig. 83.

104

PRINCIPLES 01' DESIGN.

far otherwise with those which ai - e used in vast quantities by the Americans.
Judging from the carpets which they order, I imagine that nowhere on earth is taste
in matters of decorative art so depraved as it is in America. It is true that the
great floral patterns have ceased to be demanded by them, but they are only replaced

Fig. 84.

by coarse, raw-looking panel patterns, coloured in the most vulgar manner, and
without even a hint at refinement or harmony of colour. Let the pattern be " loud "
and inharmoniously coloured, and the chances of its sale in the American market!
are great .

But we must not forget that even in our own country bad patterns sell equally
as well as good, inartistic patterns as well as those which are of a more refined
character, and that even here in Great Britain more of the indifferent, if not of tin*

WANT OF NOVELTY IN PATTERNS. 105

very bad, sells than of the good. Let us east the beam, then, Prom our own
eye, before we try to extract it from that of another.

The ground colour of a carpet may vary much, as we all know; it may be black,
blue, red, green, or white, or any other colour. If the ground of a carpet is pure
white, it is almost impossible that it look well. When I make this assertion I am
often told that some of the Indian carpets which I so much admire have white
grounds. This is a mistake. Some of them have light grounds, but not pure
white. They have light cream-grey, or green-white grounds, but not pure white,
and this variety of tone altogether alters the case. Yet even with a light-toned
ground it is not an easy matter to make a carpet which shall appear as a suitable
background to the furniture of a room; it can be done, but it is a thing difficult to
achieve. The safest and best ground for a carpet is black or indigo blue. If on
this a closely fitting, well-studied pattern be arranged, drawn in small masses of
bright colour, a beautiful bloomy effect may be achieved, and a glance at our
best shop-windows will show that the most satisfactory carpets are coloured in
this way.

As to the size of the pattern we can say but little, as this will be determined by
the coarseness or fineness of the fabric. In a Brussels carpet each stitch is about
the one-tenth of an inch square. In some Turkey carpets each stitch is a quarter of
an inch square. It is obvious that a much smaller and finer pattern can be produced
in Brussels than in Turkey carpet.

A carpet pattern is best small, or at least small in detail if not in the extent of
the design. A pattern may repeat three or four times in the width of the fabric
(twenty-seven inches if Brussels), or but one figure may be shown, yet in this
latter case the detail of the pattern may be as great as in the former. That degree
of smallness which is compatible with tolerable distinctness of detail is desirable.
For this reason Turkey carpets are not altogether satisfactory; no fine pattern can
be worked in them, and besides this they have no colour-bloom and little colour-
harmony. In some respects they are good, but altogether they are not satisfying.

Before I close these remarks upon carpets, let me say that, as designers,
manufacturers, and consumers, we are one and all timid of new things. We want
daring — the energy to produce new things, to manufacture them, to use them.
What if the pattern is " extreme," if it is better than others ? what if Mrs. Grundy
should think us eccentric ? — better be eccentric than ever harping on one monotony.
If we could but bear calmly the derisive smiles of the ignorant, art-progress would
be easy.

With us carpets cover the entire floor. In London these carpets are nailed to
the boards, and but seldom taken up. In some parts of England we find rings sewn
around the under edge of the carpet, which rings are looped to the heads of nails.
Carpets so furnished can be more readily removed for cleaning than those which are

100 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

nailed to the floor. Square carpets, such as the Turkey, Indian, and Persian, are
spread loosely on the boards, and can he taken up and shaken without difficulty.
This is unquestionably the most healthy plan of using a carpet, and it is also an
artistic plan. If the outer portion of the room floor is formed of inlaid wood of
simple and suitable pattern, and a loose square carpet is spread in the centre, we
have an artistic effect, and the desirable knowledge that cleanliness is also attainable
with a reasonable expenditure of labour.

Before we leave the consideration of carpets we will state in axiomatic form
the conditions which govern the application of ornament to them, as reference
can more easily be made to short concise sentences than to more extended
remarks.

1st. Carpet patterns may with advantage have a geometrical formation, for this
gives to the mind an idea of order or arrangement.

2nd. When the pattern has not a geometrical basis, a general evenness of
surface should be preserved.

3rd. Carpets are better not formed into " panels," as though they were works
of wood or stone; on the contrary, they should have a general "all-over" effect
without any great accentuation of particular parts. The Indian and Persian carpets
meet this requirement.

4th. While a carpet should present a general appearance of evenness, parts may
yet be slightly "pronounced" or emphasised, so as to give to the mind the idea
of centres from which the pattern radiates.

5th. A carpet should, in some respects, resemble a bank richly covered with
flowers; thus, when seen from a distance the effect should be that of a general
"bloom" of colour; when viewed from a nearer point it should present certain
features of somewhat special interest; and when looked at closely new beauties
should make their appearance.

6th. As a floor is a flat surface, no ornamental covering placed on it should
make it appear otherwise.

7th. A carpet, having to serve as a background to furniture, should be of a
somewhat neutral character.

8th. Every carpet, however small, should have a border, which is as necessary
to it as a frame is to a picture.

Having thus summarised the principles that govern the application of ornament
lo carpets, we may proceed to notice the conditions governing the decoration of
other woven fabrics.

CHAPTER VI.

CURTAIN MATERIALS, HANGINGS, AND WOVEN FABRICS GENERALLY.

In the consideration of hangings of various kinds, we have first to notice the nature
of the cloth on which the pattern is to be worked — whether it is of open or close
texture. Fabrics of an open character should bear upon them a larger pattern
than those which are thicker or closer. The openness or closeness of the fabric
will thus determine, to an extent, the nature of the ornament which is to be placed
upon it. Muslins, being open in character, should have larger patterns than calicoes,
which are closer in texture, or the pattern will be indistinct in the one case or coarse
in the other.

But not only does texture influence the pattern when considered as to coarseness
or fineness, but also the nature of the cloth as regards material. Thus silk will bear
greater fulness of colour than muslins or calico-prints, owing to the fact that the
lustre of the material, by reflecting light to the eye of the observer, destroys a
certain portion of the intensity of the effect of colour which a less reflective material
would exhibit. Silk, as a material, also conveys to the mind an idea of costliness or
worth, and wherever the material does so the pattern may be richer in colour than it
should be in cheaper and commoner fabrics. If a pattern is in two tints of the
same colour only, as in the case of those woven silks where the pattern is formed by
the contrast of "tabby" and satin, it may be considerably larger than in those cases
where it is rendered conspicuous by colours.

This latter remark will apply also to damask table-linen, and to all similar
materials, as well as to dress fabrics, and draperies such as window hangings ; but of
these we shall say a word shortly.

The closeness or openness of a fabric should, then, be considered when we design
patterns for its enrichment, and so should the nature of the material, as this will
influence its dcadness or lustre. But there are also other considerations which must
not be lost sight of. If the pattern is to be wrought by printing, theu one class of
conditions must be complied with ; if by weaving, then another class of requirements
call for consideration.

The requirements of manufacture are much more numerous than might be
supposed, and are in some cases very restrictive. The size of the repeat, the manner
in which colour can be applied, the character of surface attainable, and many other
considerations have to be carefully complied with before a pattern cau appear as a
manufactured article.

108 PRINCIPLES OP DESIGN.

The chief fault of patterns, as applied to fabrics generally, is their want of
simplicity — want of simple structure, want of simple treatment, want of simplicity
of -effect ; and together with this we generally find largeness and coarsenesss
of parts.

These errors arise chiefly out of a want of consideration of the capabilities of
the material. What can be done with this or that particular fabric, is a question
that we should carefully ask ourselves before we think of preparing a design. Have
we colour at our disposal, or texture merely? and if colour, can it be employed freely
or only sparingly? and can any desired colours be placed in juxtaposition or only
certain tints ? These are questions of great importance, and they should be asked and
carefully considered before the first step is taken towards the formation of a pattern.
Having ascertained what can be done with the material at command, let us ever
remember that we should always endeavour to so employ the capabilities of a
material as to conceal its weakness and emphasise its more desirable effects. If this
consideration were always given by designers to the power which the material has
of yielding effects, we should see, in very many instances, effects strangely different
from those which we often encounter ; and this remark applies to no class of fabrics
more fully than to damask table-linen and coloured damask window hangings.

No satisfactory effect can be got in light and shade upon any woven or printed
fabric ; besides, to attempt such a mode of treatment is absurd. Light and shade
belong only to pictorial art. The ornamentist when enriching a fabric deals only
with a surface, and has no thought of placing pictures thereon ; he has simply to
enrich or beautify that which without his art would be plain and unornamental. A
picture will never bear repetition. "Who ever heard of a man having two copies of
one picture in a room ? Yet how much more absurd is it to repeat a little picture —
perhap ; a pictorially rendered flower — a hundred times over one surface ! Besides
this, a surface must always be treated, for decorative purposes, as a surface, and not
in a manner calculated to deceive by giving apparent relief, or thickness, to that
which is essentially without thickness. Take a common damask table-cover. This
is by custom almost always white, although it would be better if of a deep cream-
colour, or soft buff; and the pattern which it bears results from a change of surface
only (why a margin of "ingrain" colour is not added, I could never see) ; yet in
nine cases out of ten the pattern which is presented by such a fabric is a miserable
shaded attempt at a pictorial treatment, and is also a thorough failure.

Simplicity of pattern naturally accords with a simple mode of production, and
the means of producing pattern in damasks is certainly most simple. That there is
a natural harmony between simplicity of pattern and simple means of producing an
art-effect is obvious, for of all patterns that I have ever seen upon damask table-
linen (lie simple spot, or dot, is the most satisfactory. If, combined with this spot,
we have a border formed of a simple Greek " key-pattern," or of mere lines (a very

DAMASK TAUU5-I.INEN. 10!)

usual border to good cloths), the effect is perfectly satisfying, and, as far as it goes,
is highly to be commended.

It is curious that this spot is only sold in the better quality of table-linen (at
least so they tell me in the City), and this shows that the wealthy, or, in other
words, the educated, buy such patterns, as they prefer the true to the meretricious,
while tlie false and showy devices which we see on the common cloths please; only
the common people of vulgar taste. I am not sure, however, that many persons,
whose means are limited, would not buy spots and other simple, but correctly
treated, patterns, if such were to be got in common qualities of damask ; but when
the pocket must govern the purchase, it is hard to say that the false is preferred
to the true, if the true is not procurable with the means at command.

While I cannot withhold praise from this little spot, it must not be thought
that I thereby give to it a high place as an art-work. Little is here attempted, and
that little is done well. But let us analyse this pattern. First, the spots are of
one tint throughout, if I may thus express myself — a tint, shall we say, which is
the reverse of that of the ground. It is not shaded so that it may appear as a ball
or globe, and is not graduated in "colour" in any way (were it graduated or
shaded, feebleness of effect must inevitably accrue), but is a simple, honest spot,
treated as a surface ornament. Secondly, this spot is geometrically arranged, fir, in
other words, has an orderly arrangement.

If an attempt is made at rendering a pictorial, or light-and-shade effect, in
damask, an absurd failure can alone result, for depth of shade is not obtainable in
the material ; and, besides this, what appears as shade, when the cloth is seen from
one point of view, appears as light if seen from another point of view. Nothing
could be more absurd, then, than seeking to produce shaded effects with such means
as are here at our disposal. But were the fabric capable of rendering such effects,
it would still be wrong to employ them, as we deal only with the surface, and are
seeking to enhance the value of, or beautify, a fabric, and not to cover it with
pictures. In our simple spot we have those elements which may be extended into
the richest and most artistic damask patterns. We have order — as indicated by the
geometrical plan of the pattern — and an honest and simple expression, or appli-
cation, of the capabilities of the material.

All table-covers should certainly have a border. Any object which is to be
used as a whole looks unsatisfactory if it appears as though it were part of a whole.
If a cloth is without border it is impossible to avoid the impression that it is a part
of a larger cloth, and in every respect the general effect is decidedly unsatisfactory.

It is perhaps well that we notice one peculiarity of a table-cover before we
dismiss the consideration of such fabrics, which is this, that while the central
portion is seen flat, the border portion is viewed in folds; and here we come to one
of the great peculiarities of most draperies, that of their being viewed not as flat

110

I'UIXCIPLES OF DESIGN".

surfaces, hut in waves or folds. One portion of a table-cloth is, however, seen flat,
but this is almost an exception in the ease of draperies. Another exception to this

Fig. 85.

Fig 87.

Fig. 86

Fig. 88.

Fig. 89.

Fig. P0.

rule of hangings appearing in folds, and thai of a very complete character, occurs in

silk damasks which are used as a rich lining to the walls of palaces and some
mansions ; hut of table-cloths we will speak for the present.

The central part of a table-cloth, that portion which is always to he viewed as

TAIil.K-CUn'll I'ATTKKXS.

a flat surface, maybe enriched with any diaper pattern that is simply treated, and
this diaper pattern may he full of design, provided the parts are not too large <>r too
small. Jt may also he formed of gracefully curved parts, or of straight lines or
circles, or of any combination of these elements; lad, preferably, not wholly of
straight lines.

Were it not for the fact that much of this central portion of the cloth is to be
covered by articles of the dinner-table, it might well he furnished with a central
ornament, repeating only in
quarters ; hut as such an orna-
ment, in order that it he satis-
fying, requires to be seen as a
whole, it is not desirable that
such he here employed. A diaper
pattern that repeats many times
in the centre is preferable, as the
pattern can then he seen in a
satisfactory manner.

The border of a table-cloth,
like all fabrics that are to be
seen in folds, requires special
treatment, for what looks well
when seen as a flat surface may
not look well when seen on a
waved surface. Tender and
graceful curves are lost when
viewed upon folds, for they here
appear as mere wormy lines.
On the contrary, right lines,

whether horizontal or diagonal, and circles, all look well when seen upon wavec
grounds. These lines become, owing to the folds of the fabric, curves of a subtle
character. The manner in which lines become influenced by falling on a curved
surface can be readily illustrated by forming semicircles of paper, and folding them
into cones, after having drawn upon them a series of circles (Fig. 85) or straight lines
(Fig. 8(i). If these cones (Figs. 87 and 88) are now viewed from above, or in such
a manner that the eye rests over the apices, it will be seen that the circles have now
become richly varied curves, each having somewhat the form of a blunt heart or
cardioid (Fig. 89), and that the straight lines become horse-shoe-shaped (Fig. 90).
These illustrations will be sufficient to show that what is plain when seen upon a fiat
surface may be delicate and satisfying if seen upon a curved surface; and will also
lead us to understand that what may be delicate and refined when' seen upon a flat

Fig. 91.

112

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

surface may become feeble and unsatisfactory if falling upon a waved ground. I
have said that stripes or straight lines, if crossing a folded fabric, are satisfactory.
This is so in almost all cases, the only exception being in ladies' dresses.. Here lines
crossing the fabric are not satisfactory, as they become rings around the body, which

appear to divide it into
hoop-like strata. The
patterns of dresses may
consist of narrow, ver-
tical stripes, as these
are collected together
at the waist of th ■
figure, and fall into
graceful curves with
any motion of the
body, but the very op-
posite is the case with
window-hangings. All
vertical stripes are
here highly offensive,
while horizontal stripes
are thoroughly satis-
factory.

A consideration of
the window-hanging
materials made in
Spain, Algeria, and on
the Morocco coast, will
show us the beauty of
horizontal stripes; and
in some of the little

Fig. 92.

Algerian warehouses,

such as we have in
Regent Street, London, and in the Rue de Rivoli in Paris, we see some of these
fabrics of a most interesting character.

To state in a concise form the laws which should govern the application of
ornament to certain fabrics which arc to be seen in folds, I should say —

1st. Great simplicity <>f pattern is necessary.

2nd. Circles, straight lines crossing the fabric, and diagonal lines are all correct
in such a case, and are improved by the folds, which form them into subtle and
beautiful curves (Fig. 91).

OK \\\ MENTATION OK FABRICS SEEN IN lor. lis.

L13

3rd. If curves are tender and graceful, they become commonplace od a w.
or folded ground.

Itli. The size of the pattern should be considered in relation to the size of the
folds of the material.

Fig. 93.

In Germany a kind of ornament is applied to rich stiff fabrics which is almost
peculiar to the country. This ornament is rich, bold, hard or stiff in its lines, and
in every way adapted for the decoration of a costly fabric which falls in large folds,
the folds changing- the hard and stiff lines into graceful curves. This should also he
noted respecting these curious yet beautiful patterns, that they are always simple in

114-

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

plan, however rich in detail, and are invariably founded on a geometrical basis.
" German Gothic " is a name by which such ornament may he distinguished (flat
Gothic ornament has always been quite distinct from the stone and metal ornaments
of Gothic building's, which have solid and not merely superficial form), see Figs. 92

and 93. This parti-
cular class of ornament
forms the background
to many old pictures,
a most interesting col-
lection of which exists
in the museum of
Cologne, and is cer-
tainly worthy of the
most careful study.

As to flat silk-
wall -damasks, which
are used in some of
the upper-class houses
as wall-papers are used
in the middle-class
houses, all that need
be said is that they
should be treated as
wall decorations, and
not as fabrics which
are to he seen folded.
"Were I asked whether
1 approve of these
damasks as wall cover-
ings, 1 should say,
"Certainly not." A
wall is better treated as a wall, and not so covered with drapery as to leave space
for vermin between the wall and its enrichment. There is also the further objection
that the lines where the fabric is joined are visible, and these arc most certainly
objectionable.

Besides the illustrations of German ornament just given, we figure also a
specimen of Indian embroidery on cotton (Fig. ill). I cannot too strongly recom-
mend the designer of patterns for woven goods to study the native fabrics of India,
exhibited at the Indian Museum, Whitehall.

Besides the collection here brought together, there is also in most of our

Fig. 94.

INDIAN E.MISIiOIDERY ON' COTTON.

manufactnring towns a large series of specimens of these cloths deposited with the

Chamber of Commerce, and these can he consulted by all respectable members of the

Fig. 95.

Fig. 96.

community. Speaking of these Indian fabrics, Mr. Redgrave says, in his Report on
Design prepared for the Commissioners of the International Exhibition of 1S51 : —
" These are almost wholly designed on the principles here presumed to be just ones

116 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

— the ornament is always flat, and without shadow ; natural flowers are never used
imitatively or perspectively, but are conventionalised by being displayed flat and
according to a symmetrical arrangement ; and all other objects, even animals and
birds, when used as ornament, are reduced to their simplest flat form. When colour
is added, it is usually rendered by the simplest local hue, often bordered with a
darker shade of the colour, to give it a clearer expression ; but the shades of the
flowers are rarely introduced. The cloth of gold figured in the loom (Fig. 95), and
part of an Indian scarf (Fig. 96), illustrate fully these remarks. The ornament is
geometrically and symmetrically arranged, flat, in simple tints, and bordered, as
above described, with darker shades of the local colour. The principle of colour
adopted is a balance of the complementaries red and green, in both cases with white
introduced to give points of expression, and to lead the eye to the symmetrical
arrangement of the ornament. In Fig. 95 purple is introduced to harmonise with
the gold ground, a harmony very frequently used in the rich tissues of India. In
Fig. 96 variety has been obtained by introducing two reds, giving an interchange of
a lighter tint in every other flower in the border. The borders of these scarves are
beautifully illustrative of the simple and graceful flowing lines which characterise
Indian ornament; and in Fig. 96 we can observe the difference between the Eastern
and the mediaeval patterns — while the same principles are acknowledged in both, the
latter are often stiffer and more angular than the graceful sprigs of this border.
Both these works show how much beauty may be obtained by simjde means, when
regulated by just principles, and how perfectly unnecessary are the multiplied tints
by which modern designers think to give value to their works, but which increase
the difficulties of production out of all proportion to any effect resulting from them
— nay, often even to the absolute disadvantage of the fabric. If we look at the
details of the Indian patterns, we shall be surprised at their extreme simplicity, and
be led to wonder at their rich and satisfactory effect ; it will soon be evident,
however, that their beauty results entirely from adherence to the principles above
described. The parts themselves are often poor, ill-drawn, and common-place;
yet, from the knowledge of the designer, due attention to the just ornamentation
of the fabric, and the refined delicacy evident in the selection of quantity and the
choice of tints, both for the ground, where gold is not used as a ground, and for
the ornamental forms, the fabrics, individually and as a whole, are a lesson to our
designers and manufacturers, given by those from whom we least expected it."

Much that Mr. Redgrave here says is worthy of careful consideration, and I can
do no more than recommend the student to study these beautiful Indian fabrics, and
consider them in conjunction with the remarks which we have made respecting them
and fabrics in general.

CHAPTER VII.

Division I.

In this chapter I have to commence our consideration of pottery, and of hollow
vessels especially; and this I do with considerable pleasure, as works in pottery
enjoy a longer existence, though through the character of the material of which
they are made they are more fragile, than those formed of almost any other
substance. Many works of Greek pottery are known to us, and not a few such
works by the ancient Egyptians, and these are preserved not as fragments merely,
but as works in their entirety, and with the same beauty that they possessed when
first they left the hands of the workman.

Clay is a most desirable material with which to form works of utility and of
beauty, and this for many reasons. First, it is so inexpensive as to be almost valueless;
secondly, it is easily formed into vessels of almost any required shape ; thirdly,
it is capable of being " worked " into shapes of great beauty by a momentary
exercise of skill ; fourthly, clay is naturally of many beautiful colours ; fifthly, it is
capable of receiving by application to its surface any amount of colour, and of
preserving such colours as are applied to it in an unimpaired state for ages ; and
sixthly, it is susceptible of the highest art-finish, or the bold sketchy touch of the
modeller's hand. I say that clay is a very desirable material for formation into
vessels of various kinds, because of its inexpensive character. This quality of
cheapness gives to the material an advantage over many other substances of a much
more costly character, such as should not be overlooked, for the long existence which
so many works of earthenware have had is mainly due to the worthlessness of the
material of which they are composed. In my first chapter I gave an extract from the
writings of Professor George Wilson, showing that gold and silver, while beautiful in
themselves, and worthy to be fashioned into exquisite devices, are yet too tempting to
the thief, and to all who are pressed for means, to remain long in the form of art-works.
Families who have been reduced in circumstances, and have thereby been constrained
to part with their old plate, have melted it, so as to hide their shame. To illustrate
this, let me quote from the " Handbook of the Arts of the Middle Ages and
Renaissance, as applied to the Decoration of Furniture, Arms, Jewels, etc.,
translated from the French of M. Jules Labarte, 1S56." After giving the names
of many workers in the precious metals, the author says : — " We may form some
idea of what artists these Italian goldsmiths were of the fourteenth, fifteenth, and
sixteenth centuries, and what admirable works they must have produced. But,

118 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

alas ! these noble works have almost all perished ; their artistic worth proving no
safeguard against cupidity or necessity, the fear of pillage, or the love of change.
But a very few names even of those skilled artists have descended to us, and in
making known those preserved to us in the writings of Vasari, Benvenuto, Cellini,
and others, we can rarely point out any of their works as being still in existence.

" Cellini tells us that while Pope Clement VII. was besieged in the castle of St.
Angelo, he received orders to unset all the precious stones that were upon the tiaras,
the sacred vessels, and the jewels of the sovereign pontiff ; and to melt down the
gold, of which he obtained 200 pounds. How many artistic treasures must have
perished in the crucible of Cellini." We now see clearly that while clay is a much
more fragile material than either silver or gold, its very worthlessness, despite its
fragility, gives to it length of years.

We have said that clay is easily formed into vessels of almost any required
shape. This is so within certain limits. Throughout these chapters I have lost no
opportunity of insisting upon the importance of working every material in a befitting
manner, and in the most simple and easy way in which the material can be wrought.
Almost every material can be simply " worked " in some way, or while in some
particular condition.

Glass has a molten state in which it can be " blown " into the most beautiful
of shapes, and this process of blowing is the work of but a few seconds. Glass has
also a solid condition, yet as it can be formed into works of great beauty by the
exercise of momentary skill, it would be extremely foolish to take a mass of the solid
glass, and by laborious grinding form it into a bottle or a bowl. It fortunately
happens that if a material is worked in its most simple and befitting manner, the
results obtained are more beautiful and satisfying than those which are arrived at by
any roundabout method of production. Glass should be formed into hollow vessels
only when in its plastic condition, for it cannot be shaped into the form of such
vessels as we require when in its solid state without the expenditure of much
unnecessary, therefore wasteful, labour. But if a mass of crystal or marble is
required to assume the form of a bowl or font, then the laborious process of grinding
must be resorted to, for these substances have no plastic state.

The potter's wheel has been known from the earliest historic time, and this has
at all times been the instrument with which the best earthen vessels have been
formed. A mass of clay of suitable size is placed on a horizontal disc of wood, to
which a rotary motion is imparted. The operator presses his thumbs into the centre
of the clay, and then, by causing his fingers to approach his thumbs, manipulates the
clay into a cup, a bowl, a vase, an earthen bottle, or whatever form he may please ;
and if skilful, the operator can form objects of marvellous beauty with a rapidity
thai astonishes all who see for the first time his mode of working.

If potters would but content themselves, in order to the production of such

CLAY AS A MATERIAL FOE ART PURPOSES. 119

articles as we require in common life, with the "potter's wheel/' we should be
almost sure of a certain amount of beauty in domestic earthenware, but such is not
the case. They make fancy moulds of plaster of Paris and of wire gauze, and roll
out clay as the pastrycook does dough, and manipulate it as sc much pie-crust,
instead of applying to it simple skill. Neither a bowl nor a plate need have a
scalloped edge, indeed they are much better without it ; and if unnecessary, and even
undesirable, absurdities were avoided, and a simple and natural method of working
each material alone employed, a great improvement in art would speedily take
place.

It is strange but true, that the worker in one material seems rarely to be
satisfied with making his works look as well and as consistent as possible ; he desires
rather to form poor imitations of something else. We have all seen earthen jugs
made in imitation of wicker-work, although to do so is obviously foolish, as no
wicker vessel could hold water, and the thing imitated is much less beautiful than a
thousand forms which clay is capable of assuming. Men's heads without brains are, or
were at least, favourite jugs. "Well, that there are many models for this idea in Nature,
I doubt not ; yet why we should copy them by making a jug in the form of a hollow
head, I know not. I have in my possession a milk-jug, such as is common in the
district of Swansea in South Wales, in the likeness of a cow. The tail is twisted
into a handle ; by a hole in the back the milk is admitted, and through the mouth
it is ejected. A more wretched and coarse idea it is scarcely possible to conceive of,
yet the vulgar admire this jug. Let us work the material in a simple and befitting
manner, and satisfactory results are almost sure to accrue.

I have said that clay, as such, has many beautiful colours. Naturally clay is
black, grey-white, red, brown, and yellow, and it is capable of assuming many
desirable tints by the agency of chemical means. We do not use coloured clays as
we should do. We want so much white — everything to look so clean. All
ornamental ware, at least, should be artistic, and the art-effect should supersede that
cold whiteness which the Dutch and the English mistake for cleanliness. A clay of
good natural colour is not a thing to be hidden, or ashamed of.

Clay is capable, when glazed, of receiving any amount of colour, and of
preserving these colours in their beauty for almost any length of time. These
qualities are invaluable to the ornamentist. Colour is not always at his disposal.
The goldsmith has difficulty in getting it, but to the potter it is very accessible.
Colour is capable of giving to objects a charm which they could not possibly have
without it. Let us use the power thus placed at our disposal rightly and well, and '
then the enduring character of the colour-harmonies which we produce may
gladden posterity in ages yet to come.

Clay is susceptible of the highest art-finish, or of a bold sketchy treatment.
Finish is very desirable in some cases. The cup which my lady uses in her boudoir

120

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

should be delicate and fine, for what is worthy to approach the sacred lips of the
occupant of a fair apartment but such a work as is tender and refined?

As a rule, however, we over-estimate the value of finish, and under-value bold
art-effects. Excessive finish often (but by no means always) destroys art-effect. I
have before me some specimens of Japanese earthenware, which are formed of a
coarse dark brown clay, and are to a great extent without that finish which most
Europeans appear so much to value, yet these are artistic and beautiful. In the
ease of cheap goods we spend time in getting smoothness of surface, while the
Japanese devote it to the production of an art-effect. We get finish without art 5
they prefer art without finish.

Fig. 97.

Fig. 9S.

Fig. 99.

Fig. 100.

We must now devote ourselves to a special consideration of the shapes of earthen
vessels, and to the manner in which ornament should be applied to them.

In bis primitive condition man appears to have used the shells of certain fruits
as drinking vessels and bottles ; and to this day we find many tribes of uncivilised or
half-civilised men using the same class of vessels. "Monkey-pots" (the hard shells
of the Lecgthis allaria), the coverings of the Brazil nut [Bertholetia excelsa), and
especially the rinds of the calabash and many species of gourd (Figs. 97 and 98),have
been used iii this way.* The first efforts made at the production of earthen vessels
wen- mere attempts al copying in day the forms of the fruit-shells which were in
use as ill-inking vessels. After a power of forming earthen vessels, having a certain

■i nit of perfection of manufacture, was gained, we still find the origin of the

potter's art manifested Irv certain works. Thus in China, where the potter's art lias

* All who are interested in tins subject are referred to a paper published in the " Transactions
of the Edinburgh Botanical Society/' for 1859, by Professor George Wilson, on tho " Fruits of the
Cucurbitacese."

CHARACTERISTIC SHAPES. 121

so long been understood, we still find vessels made in the form of the bottle-gourd,
just as was their custom in the days of their first manufacturing efforts (Pig. 99).
Before considering the shapes of vessels from a utilitarian point of view, 1 should
tell the student that certain shapes are characteristic of different nations and of
different periods of time.

The Greek shapes, as we may call them — that is, the forms of those vessels
which the Greeks produced — are of a particular class, and the vessels produced by
the Egyptians are of a different type; while those of the Chinese, Indians, Japane e,
and Mexicans again differ from each other, and from those of both the Greeks and
the Egyptians. For grace of form the vessels of the old Greeks stand pre-eminent
(Figs. 101 and 102) ; for simple dignified severity, those of the Egyptians (Fig.
100) ; for quaintness, those of the Mexicans (Fig. 103) ; for a combination of grace
with dignity, those of the Cliinese (Figs. 104 and 105) ; and for a combination of
beauty with quaintness, those of the Japanese (Fig. 100) ; while in many respects
the Indian shapes (Figs. 107 and 108) resemble those of the Japanese. Fig. 109
is a water vessel from Ha, and Figs. 110 and 111 are jugs from Morocco.

I cannot enter into any details respecting the characteristic forms of vessels
produced by these various nations, but must content myself by giving a few illustra-
tions of the various shapes, and leaving the matter with the learner for study. The
British Museum, the South Kensington Museum, and the Indian Museum will aid
him in his researches.

It has been said that the character of a people can be told by their water-vessels.
As the consideration of this statement will lead us to see how perfectly a domestic
utensil may answer the end which it should serve, I will extract from my "Art of
Decorative Design " a few remarks on this subject.

This statement can well " be illustrated by the Egyptian and Greek water-
vessels, the former of which has sides tapering to the top and slanting- inwards, a
small orifice, and a rounded base, and the mouth of the vessel bridged by an arched
handle, the whole being constructed of bronze (Fig. 112); the latter consists of an
egg-shaped body (the broad end being above) resting upon a secure foot, which is
surmounted by a large, divergent, funnel-shaped member (Fig. 113). It has no
handle over the orifice, but has one at either side.

" Not only do these vessels differ in form, but associated circumstances differ
also ; and it is this variation in circumstances which brought about the difference in
form of the two water- vessels.

" The peculiarities of the Egyptian water-vessel are its formation of bronze, the
roundness of its base, which renders it unfitted for standing, the narrowness of its
mouth, and the handle arching the orifice ; and of the Greek, its being wrought in
clay, the secure base, the wide mouth, the contraction in the centre, and the handle
at either side. We should judge from these vessels that the Egyptians drew water
i

122

Fig. 104.

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.
Fig. 105.

Fig. 101.

Fig. 110.

Fig. 103.

Fig. 107.

Fig. 108.

from a nvcr, or some position which required thai the vessel be attached t<i a curd
and cast into the source of supply, for the roundness of the base at once points to
this, it being a provision I'or enabling- the vessel to lill by turning upon its side (were
its base Hat it would float on the water) ; it is also formed oul of metal so as to facilitate

EGYPTIAN VESSELS.

123

this end. The arched handle not only points to the attachment of the vessel to a
string in order that it be cast into the water, bu1 also to the carrying the vessel
pendent from the hand in the manner thai pails are at present carried, and the
contracted mouth restrains the splashing over of the water: and what this simple
water-vessel points to we find to have been the ease, for the Egyptians derived water

Fig. 112.

Fig. in.

Fig. 113.

from the Nile in the very manner that the vessel would indicate; but with the ( rreeks
circumstances were different, and the shape of the vessel varies accordingly. The base
is here flat, in order that the vessel may stand ; the mouth is large, in order to collect
the water which fell from above, — from the dripping-rocks and water-spouts. This
being- the manner in which water was gathered, a vessel formed of heavy metal was
unnecessary; the contraction prevented the water from splashing- over when carried,
and up to this point the vessel was tilled, and no higher; and the handles at the side

12J. PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

show that it was carried on the head. But, in conjunction with this mode of
carrying, there is another consideration of interest, which is, the centre of gravity
is high. If we attempt to balance a stick, having one enlarged end, on the finger,
it will be found necessary that the weight be at the top ; and in balancing anything,
it will be found that the object, in order that it ride steadily, have its point of
greatest weight considerably elevated above its base. In the Greek water-vessel,
which was carried balanced on the head, we find this condition fully complied with,
the centre of gravity occupying a high position, while in the Egyptian vessel the
centre of gravity was low ; but where the vessel is to be carried underhand, it is as
great an advantage to have the centre of gravity low as it is in the case of a coach,
where security is thus gamed just as the centre of gravity is lowered. The Greek
water-vessel, then, consists of a cavity for holding water, a funnel to collect and
guide the water, a base for the vessel to rest upon, and handles to enable it to be
raised to the head, and the centre of gravity is high in order that it be readily
balanced ; and we should judge from this vessel that the Greeks procured water from
dripping-rocks and water-spouts, and this is exactly what did occur. These are the
direct teachings of the Egyptian and Greek water-vessels ; yet how many circum-
stances and incidents of common life can be conceived as associated with these
different forms of vessel. There is the gossip round the well, and the lingering by
the river-side where the image of the date-palm is mirrored by the glassy surface of
the waters. The effect of the noise of the splashing water upon the mind in the one
case, combined with the comparatively loud and energetic speaking which would be
necessary in order that the voice be not drowned by the noise, and of the calm
trancpiillity of the river-bank in the other, where tie limpid water is ever flowing on
in silent majesty, must be considerable. Then we have the potter's art essential to
the production of the vessel in the one case, and the metal-worker's in the other —
the digging of clay, the mining of metal, the kilns and smelting furnaces. We will
not continue this portion of the subject further, and have brought forward this
illustration in order to show how well-considered objects reveal to us the habits and
customs of the peoples and nations in which they originated."

It will now be apparent that even a common object may result from such careful
consideration that its form will at once suggest its use; but the object will only
reveal the purpose for which it was created with definiteness of expression when it
perfectly answers the end proposed by its formation. The advice which I must give
to every designer is to study carefully exactly what is required, before he proceeds to
form his ideas of what the object proposed to be created should be like, and then to
diligently Btrive to arrange such a form for it as shall cause it to be perfectly suited
to the want which it is intended to meet.

More will be said upon the subject of form when speaking of glass vessels and
of silversmiths' work ; and when considering these subjects we shall also give the law

SHAPE AS ADAPTED TO 1 SE.

which governs the application of handles and spouts to vessels; and it is ol the

utmost importance that they be correctly placed in order that the vessel may be used

Fig. 114.

Fig. 116.

Fig. ii;

Fig. 117

with convenience (see page 140). A word must now be said respecting the decoration
of earthen vessels, but on this subject our remarks must be brief.

The object to which the decoration is applied must determine the nature of the

126

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

ornament to be employed. In the ease of a vessel which is to be in part hidden
when in use, great simplicity of treatment should be adopted, and the ornament may
with advantage consist of repeated parts. In the case of a plate, little or no
ornament should be placed in the centre ; but if there is a central ornament it should
be a small, regular, radiating figure, consisting of like parts (Figs. 114 and 115). The
border should also consist of simple members repeated, for it will then look well if
portions are covered; and these remarks will apply equally to all kinds of plates,
whether intended for use at dinner or dessert.

No plate should have a landscape painted upon it, nor a figure, nor a group of
flowers. Whatever has a right and wrong way upwards is inappropriate in such a
position, as whatever ornament a plate bears should be in all positions as fully right
way upwards to the beholder as it can be. Besides, landscapes, groups of flowers,

and figures are spoiled ii'
in part hidden, provided
they are satisfactory when
the whole is seen.

Plates may have a
white ground, for it is de-
sirable that those articles
on which food is pre-
sented should manifest
the utmost cleanliness,
yet to a cream tint there can be no objection. I should, however, prefer white
plates, witli a rather deep blue, Indian red, maroon, or brown pattern upon them,
and a pale hull' table-cloth for them to rest upon.

In the case of cups and saucers the treatment should be similar to that of the
plate. The saucer may have a simple border ornament, consisting of parts repeated,
and little or no ornament in the central portion on which the cup rests. The cup
may have an external border ornament, and a double narrow line of colour around
the upper portion of the interior, but no other ornament is here required.

Whatever ornament is placed around a cup, or vase, or any tall object must be
ench as will not suffer by perspective, for there is scarcely any portion of the
ornament that can be seen otherwise than foreshortened (Figs. 1 0:3 and 111). Let
simplicity be the ruling principle in the decoration of all rounded objects, and ever
remember that a line which is straight on a Hat surface becomes a curve on a
round surface (see page I 10).

I have given what is a correct decoration for a plate and cup and saucer, but
there are other methods of treatment than those just named. The Japanese are very
fond of placing little circular groups of flowers on plates, saucers, and bowls (Figs. IK!
and 117). The Greeks had various methods of enriching their tazzasand vases with

GLASS. 127

ornament, and the Egyptians were partial to the plan of rendering a cup as a lotus-
flower (Fig. 100). But when they formed a cup thus, they were careful to draw
the flower conventionally and ornamentally, and never produced an imitative work
(see page 24). The Chinese treat the flower of the sacred bean in the same way
(Fig. 118).

"What I have said has been addressed to the student. The remarks, however,
made respecting the form chosen being that which is most suitable to the end
proposed, and the conditions to which I shall make reference as governing the
application of handle and spout to any object, are binding upon all who would
produce satisfactory works ; but to the genius who has power to produce beautiful
and vigorous ornament, and whose taste has, by years of study and cultivation,
become refined and judicious, I can give no rules, his own taste being his best guide.

Division II.

When speaking of earthenware, I insisted upon the desirability of using every
material in the easiest and most natural manner, and I illustrated my meaning by
saying that glass has a molten condition as well as a solid state, and that while in
the molten condition it can be " blown " into forms of exquisite beauty. Glass-
blowing is an operation of skill, and an operation in which natural laws come to our
aid, and I cannot too strongly repeat my statement that every material should be
"worked" in the most simple and befitting manner; and I think that our
consideration of the formation of glass vessels will render the reasonableness of my
demand apparent.

Let a portion of molten glass be gathered upon the end of a metal pipe, and
blown into a bubble while the pipe drops vertically from the mouth of the operator,
and a flask is formed such as is used for the conveyance of olive oil (Fig. 119) ; and
what vessel could be more beautiful than such a flask ? Its grace of form is obvious;
the delicate curvature of its sides, the gentle swelling of the bulb, and the exquisitely
rounded base, all manifest beauty.

Here we get a vessel formed for us almost wholly by Nature. It is the
attraction of gravitation which converts what would be a mere bubble, or hollow
sphere of glass, into a gracefully elongated and delicately-shaped flask. This may
be taken as a principle, that whenever a material is capable of being "worked" in a
manner which will so secure the operation of natural laws as to modii'y the shapes
of the objects into which it is formed., it is very desirable that we avail ourselves of
such a means of formation, for the operation of gravitation and similar forces upon
plastic matter is calculated to give beauty of form.

When clay is worked upon the potter's wheel, it is shaped by the operator's
skill, and is sufficiently stiff to retain the shape given to it to a very considerable
extent ; yet the operation of gravitation upon it, so long as it has any plasticity

128

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

whatever, is calculated to secure delicacy of form. This rule should ever be
remembered by the art-student — that a curve is beautiful just as its origin is
difficult to detect (see Chap. I., page 23). In the formation of vases, bottles, etc.,
knowledge of this law is very important, and the operation of gravity upon hollow
plastic vessels is calculated to give to their curves subtlety (intricate beauty) of
character. Having arranged that the material shall be worked in the manner most
befitting its nature, we must next consider what purpose the object to be formed is
intended to serve.

Take a common hock-bottle (Fig. 120) and consider it. What is wanted is a

vessel such as will stand, in which wine can be stored.
It must have a strong neck, so that a cork may be
driven in without splitting it, and must be formed
of a material that is not absorbent. Glass, as a
material, admirably answers the want, and this bottle
is capable of storing wine; it will stand, and has a
rim around the neck such as gives to it strength.
But, besides serving the requirements named, it is
both easily formed and is beautiful. The designer
must be a utilitarian, but he must be an artist also.
We must have useful vessels, but the objects with
which we are to surround ourselves must likewise be
beautiful; and unless they are beautiful, our delicacy
of feeling and power to appreciate Nature, which is
full of beauties, will be impaired. A hock-bottle is a
mere elongated bubble, with the bottom portion pressed
in so that it may stand, and the neck thickened by a
rim of glass being placed around it.

Here we have a bottle shaped by natural agency;
it is formed of heavy glass, and the bubble was thick at its lower part, hence its
elongated form; but if length is required in any bubble, and the glass is even
light, it can always be given by swinging the bubble round from the centre, so that
centrifugal force may be brought into play in the direction of its length ; or if it has
to be widened, this can as easily be done by giving to it a rotatory motion, whereby
the centrifugal force is caused to act from the axis of the vessel outwards, and not
from the apex to the base, as in the former instance. In either case a certain
amount of beauty would appear in the shape produced, for Nature here works for
us. (Compare the short, dumpy, yet beautiful bottle, in which we receive curacao,
with the hock-bottle, when the two natural modes of forming bodies will be
illustrated.) Our wine-bottles are moulded, hence their ugliness. We work without
Nature's assistance, and we reap ugliness as the reward.

Fig. no.

Fig. 120.

SHAPKK OK DECANTERS.

129

Lei us now consider what a decanter should be. In mnny respects, the wants
which a decanter is intended to meet are similar to those which are met by the
bottle, as just enumerated, but here is a great difference— a bottle is only intended
to be filled once, whereas a decanter will have to he filled many tames; and a
bottle is made so that it can travel, while a decanter is not meant to he the
subject of long journeys. It is true that a bottle may he refilled many times, hut
it is not intended that it should, as the fact that we use a funnel when we wish to
till it clearly shows, and without a funnel the vessel is not complete. All objects
which are meant to be refilled many times should have a funnel-shaped mouth (see

Fig. 121.

Fig. 123

Fig. 122.

my remarks on the Greek water-vessel, page 121), but if a bottle had a distended
orifice it would not he well adapted for transport. A decanter should have capacity
for containing liquid; it should stand securely, and have a double runnel — a funnel
to collect the fluid and conduct it into the bottle, and a funnel to collect it and
conduct it out of the bottle. It must also be convenient to use and hold, and the
upper funnel should be of such a character that it will guide the liquid in a proper
direction when poured from the decanter.

If we take a flask and flatten its base, and extend the upper portion of the neck
slightly into the form of a funnel, we have all that is required of a decanter, with
the exception of a permanent cork, which is a stopper (Fig. 121).

But as most decanters are intended to hold wine, the brilliancy of which is not

130

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

readily apparent when that portion of the vessel which contains the liquid rests
immediately upon the table, it is desirable to give to the vessel a foot, or, in other
words, raise the body of the decanter so that light may surround it as fully as
possible (Figs. 122 and 12:3).

In Figs. 124 to 135 I give a number of shapes of decanters and jugs, such as
may be seen in our best shop-windows, and such as I consider desirable forms for such
vessels; and in considering the shape of such vessels, the character of the upper
portion of the neck (the lip) must be regarded, as well as that of the body and base.
Notice also whether the centre of gravity is high or low, and the position and

Fig. 124.

Fig. 126.

Fig. 127.

Fig. 12S.

Fig. 130.

Fig. 132.

Fig. 133.

Fig. 129.

Fig. 131.

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) *3L

---»»

<> K

Fig

134.

Fig. 135.

character of the handle; but respecting the application of handles to vessels I will
speak when considering silversmiths' work (see page 140).

Besides decanters and bottles, glass is formed into tumblers, wine-glasses,
flower-holders, and many other things; but the principles which we have already
laid down will apply equally to all, for if the objects formed result from the easiest
mode of working the material, and are such as perfectly answer the end proposed by
their formation, and are beautiful, nothing more can lie expected of them.

Many objects offaney shape have been produced as mere feats of glass-blowing,
ami witli some of these efforts I sympathise. Wherever the work produced is truly
adapted to use, or where an artistic effect is achieved, the glass-blower lias my warm
sympathy; hut if the effort is made at the production of novelty merely, the result
gained is sure to be unsatisfactory. Much of the Venetian glass will illustrate these
last remarks.

FORMS OF BOTTLES.

131

Pig. L36 is a very excellent and picturesque spirit-bottle ; it is easyto hold,
and quaint in appearance.* Figs. 137, 188, and L39 are Venetian glass vessels,
wrought entirely at the furnace-mouth, and neither cut nor engraved — they are
artistic, and of interesting appearance; while Fig. 1 in is a work of Roman glass, in
which the upper distension is useful if the liquid contains a sediment which it is not
desirable to pour out with the liquid.

There is one thing pertaining to table-glass that we do not now sufficiently

Fig. 137.

Fig. 136.

Fig. 139.

Fig. 140.

consider, which is its capacity for colour. Our one idea in the formation of glass
vessels is the imitation of crystal, unless we happen to produce a vessel of the
strongest tint. With the exception of hock-glasses, which are generally either ruby-
colour, dark green, or intense yellow-green, we rarely employ tinted glass on our
tallies. These three colours, which we usually employ in hock-glasses, are all too
strong in tint for ordinary purposes, and they are coarse and vulgar. It is curious
that we should confine ourselves to these colours when glass is capable of assuming
the most delicate of shades, of appearing as a soft, subtle, golden hue of the most
beautiful light tertiary green, lilac, and blue, and, indeed, of almost any colour.

* In order that the nature of this bottle be better understood, I give a section of it at a as seea
when cut through the central part.

132

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

Why, then, should we employ only two or three colours, and those of the most crude
character? If the Roman and Greek glass of the British Museum he inspected, il
mil he seen that the Romans employed various soft and delicate tints, and why we
should not do so I cannot see. For many reasons the colours of our hock-glasses
are highly ohjectionable, but especially for two. First, as already stated, the colour
is so strong- that they appear as mere dark spots on the cloth, and altogether fail in
imparting to the table a pleasant colour-effect ; and, secondly, they utterly destroy
the beauty of appearance which the wine would otherwise present.

No glass which is to contain a liquid of pleasant colour should be so strong in

il l— I

LA L* &

Fig. 141.

Fig. 142.

tint as to mar the beauty of the contained fluid, and especially is this true when the
colour <if the glass is of an opposite character to that of the liquid : thus a red liquid
placed in a strongly-coloured green glass becomes highly offensive in appearance,
and yet we often see claret served in green hock-glasses. A dinner-table requires
colour. Let the cloth be pale buff, or cream-colour, instead of white ; and the glass
water-vessels of very pale, but refined and various, tints; and the salt-cellars, if of
glass, also coloured, in a tender and befitting manner, and a most harmonious effect
will lie produced. The flowers with which the table is adorned would then har-
monise with the other things, and much beauty might he produced.

Respecting the ornamentation of ^lass, two methods of treatment are resorted
to, which are "cutting" and "engraving." Both modes deal with «»lass as a hard,
crystal-like substance ; and consist in grinding the surface, ami either leaving it
" dead " or repolishing it. [n the case of " cutting" a considerable portion of the
substance of the glass is generally removed, and the surface is repolishedj but in

ORNAMENTATION OF SLASS.

i.-;:i

the ease of "engraving" little more than the surface is generally acted upon, and the.
engraved portion remains dead.

Cutting may be employed in bringing ahoul ornamental effects in glass, Imf it
is rarely to be commended when so lavishly used as ti> be the chief means of giving
form to the vessel ; indeed, cutting should be sparingly and judiciously used. A
vessel formed of glass should never he wholly shaped by cutting, as though it wen.- a
work of stone. If the neck of a decanter can he made more convenient by being
slightly cut — if it can lie so treated that it can lie held more securely — then let it be

Fig. 143. Fig. 141.

cut ; but in all cases avoid falling into the error of too much cutting which causes
the work to appear laboured, for any work which presents the appearance of having
been the result of much labour is as unpleasant to look upon as that work is pleasing
which results from the exercise of momentary skill. There is a great art-principle
manifested in the expression " Let there be light, and there was light."

Engraving is also laborious, and while it is capable of yielding most delicate and
beautiful effects, it should yet be somewhat sparingly used, for extravagance in labour
is never desirable, and there is such a thing as extravagance of beauty.

134

PRINCIPLES OP DESIGN.

However delicate ornament may lie, and however well composed, yet if it covers
the whole of the walls of an apartment and of the objects which it contains, it fails
to please. There must be the contrast of plain surfaces with ornamented — plain for
the eye to rest upon, ornament for the mind to enjoy. In the enrichment of glass
these remarks fully apply. Let there be plain surfaces as well as ornamented parts,
and the effect will be more satisfying than if all be covered with ornament.

All that I said respecting the decoration of damask table-linen will apply equally
to glass, considering only the different way in which the effect is produced (see
Chap. VI., page 108). Thus we have ornament produced only
by a variation of surface. Such simple means of producing
an art-effect are capable of rendering in a satisfactory manner
simple treatments only, but simple patterns are capable of
yielding the highest pleasure, and such patterns can be almost
perfectly rendered by engraving, as shown in Figs. Til, 1-1:2'
1 13*

Somewhat elaborate effects can lie rendered in glass by
very laborious engraving, whereby different depths of cutting
are attained ; but such work is the result of great labour, and
rarely produces an effect proportionate to the toil expended
upon it; and if a bottle so engraved is filled with a coloured
wine, the entire beauty of its engraving is destroyed. Fig.
144 is a drawing of a must elaborately engraved bottle, which
was shown in the Exhibition of 1862. It represents, to a
great extent, wasted labour.

It must be borne in mind that any ornament placed on a
decanter, wine-glass, or tumbler, is to be seen almost wholly
in perspective; and the remarks made respecting the effects of folded or waved
surfaces on ornament (Chap. VI., page 110), and those made in reference to the
application of ornament to earthen vases (Chap. VII., page 126), apply equally here.
It is not my province to enter into the various methods of manipulating glass,
nor into all the classes of art-effect which glass is capable of yielding : I can only
call attention to general principles, and leave the art-student to think I'm- himself
what should be the treatment of any particular object. There is a sort of crackle
glass which has come into use during the last few years, and is an imitation of old
Venetian work ; this is in some respects pleasant in appearance, but it is somewhat
uncomfortable to handle, and difficult to keep clean; ils use must therefore be

Fig. 145.

* Pig. 143 represents a decantu- made for the Prince of Wales by Messrs. IVllatt and Co., which
is in good taste. Fig. 141 is a goblet from Austria; it was shown in the International Exhibition
of Faris in 1867.

SlI.VKIl.SMlTlls' WOKK.

135

Fig. 146.

limited. The Romans were in the habit of forming glass which was opaque, dark,
and of many colours. Pig. H5 is an illustration of this kind of «k" ss > <lle pattern
being formed by portions of various coloured glass being imbedded in the substance

of the vessel.

In another chapter I shall have a few remarks to make upon stained "lass ;
but as our present remarks pertain to hollow vessels chiefly, and as general principles
regulate the formation of all such, whether they are formed of earthenware, glass,
or metal, I think it better to proceed to the consideration of silversmiths' ware, and
thus continue a notice of hollow vessels, than to pass to glass windows, although
they are formed of the material now under review. "What we are specially con-
sidering at present are vessels of
capacity, or hollow wares.

Division III.
Continuing our remarks upon

hollow vessels, we have now to

notice silversmiths' work, and here

we may observe that while the

material with which we have now

to deal differs in character widely

from that of which those vessels

already noticed have been formed,

yet that many principles which

have been enunciated are equally

applicable to the objects now

under consideration. Silver ob-
jects, like those formed of clay or

glass, should perfectly serve the

end for which they have been formed ; also, the fact that ornament applied to rounded
surfaces should be adapted for being viewed in perspective remains as binding on us
as before ; but herein the works of the silversmith differ from those already dis-
cussed — they are formed of a material of intrinsic value, which is not the case with
articles of earthenware or glass. Silver and gold being materials of considerable
worth, it is necessary that the utmost economy be observed in using them, and in
order to effect this a special mode of construction must be resorted to. If we
propose to ourselves the formation of a sugar-basin of semi-circular shape, of what
thickness must the metal be in order that it may not bend when lifted? It is
obvious that the vessel must not yield its shape to ordinary pressure, nor be subject
to alterations of form when in ordinary use ; but if it is to be formed throughout of
metal of such thickness as will secure its retaining its shape, it will be costly and

Fig. 147.

136 PRINCIPLES OP DESIGN.

heavy, and an amount of metal will be used in its formation sufficient for the
manufacture of two or three such articles.

Instead of forming the vessel throughout of thick metal, we may construct it
from a thin sheet of silver ; but in order that it possess sufficient strength we must
indent one or more beads in its side (see Fig. 146) ; or we can form an angle by
having a rim projecting into the basin (Pig. 147), or extending from it, and thus
give strength ; but the two beads are the more desirable, as the one gives strength
at the top and the other at a lower portion of the vessel.

Modes of economising material, when we are forming vessels of costly substances,
are of the utmost importance, and should be carefully thought out. If the designer
forms works which are expensive, he places them beyond the reach of those who
might otherwise enjoy them, and if heavy they appear clumsy in the hands of those
accustomed to delicate and light objects.

Besides this, works in silver and in gold are always in danger of being destroyed,
owing to the intrinsic value of these metals ; for if stolen, the theft is promptly
hidden in the melting-pot. Now if we form the vessels of thin metal, we render the
money value of the material less, and thus our works are to a smaller degree tempting
to the avaricious, and their chance of long existence is greater. The precious metals
are at all times perilous materials for the formation of works of art ; but while we use
them, let us take care so to employ them as to give to our works every possible
opportunity for long existence. If a work is to be so formed that it may exist for
many years, it becomes of the highest importance that those objects which we create
be well considered as to their utility, and at the same time be beautiful in form.
Long existence is an evil in the case of an ugly object, or an ill-considered vessel ;
that which is not refining in its influence is better blotted out. Let that man who
will not seek to embody beauty in his works make them heavy with metal, so that
they may tempt the thief, and thus sooner blot out his works from existence, as they
tend only to debase and degrade; but he who loves refinement, and seeks to give
chasteness of character to the objects which he creates, may well strive to secure to
them length of duration.

There are various modes of working metal. It may be cast, hammered, cut,
engraved, and manipulated in various ways.

Little that is satisfactory can result from casting. Casting is a rough means of
producing a result, and at best achieves the formation of a mass which may be less
troublesome to cut into shape than a more solid piece of metal ; but easting without
the application of other means of working metal achieves little of an art nature.

Some of the fine iron castings of Berlin are wonderfully good in their way, and
are to an extent artistic; and certainly they contrast strangely with the cast handles
and knobs which we often see applied to vegetable-dishes, and similar silver objects
here n England ; J'et even these will not compare with works wrought by the

A11AU1A.-N METAL-WOttK.

137

hammer and the chisel.
Thin metal hammered
into form, and touched
where necessary with
(he chisel, the graver,
and the chasing-tool,
is capable of the very
finest effects which
can be achieved in
metal-work. Let the
reader consider the
beautiful vessels with
which Arabian metal-
work presents us: these
are all formed by the
hammer and chisel,
with the assistance of
the graver and chas-
ing-tool, and how mar-
vellously delicate and
beautiful are the re-
sults ! We have in
these vessels beauty
and dignity of form,
richness of design,
great intricacy and
delicacy of detail, and
altogether a refinement
of effect which may
long he considered
and repeatedly enjoyed
(Fig. lis).

Several, I may
almost say many, of
these beautiful objects
are to be found in
the South Kensington
Museum, and it should
be generally known that fac-similes of these lovely works, in the form of electrotype
lopies, have been prepared by Messrs. Elkington and Co., under the sanction of the
j

138 PRINCIPLES Of DESIGN.

authorities of the Department of Science and Art, and that these are procurable a;
small cost. For purposes of study these copies are of almost equal value with the
originals, and for the adornment of a sideboard they are hardly inferior. I strongly
advise those who can afford to purchase these beautiful copies to garnish their
sideboards with plate of this description, rather than with the meretricious electro-
plate which we often see in our shop-windows.

Having determined on the best mode of working the material, consider carefully
the requirements which the work to be produced is intended to meet, and then strive
to form the object so that it may perfectly answer the end proposed by its creation.

Let us take a sugar-basin. What form should it have? After much con-
sideration, I have arrived at the conclusion that the two shapes engraved in Figs. 1 19
and 150 are those which best fulfil the requirements of such a vessel, for in them the
sugar is always collected together, and the dust sugar separates itself from the lumps.
The handles of a sugar-basin are often so small as to be partially or wholly
useless. It not unfrequently happens that only one or two fingers can rest on the
handle, owing to its smallness, while the thumb has to be placed within the orifice
of the basin when it is desired to move it. This should not be so ; if a handle is to
exist at all, it should be so formed as to be useful, and afford a means of moving the
object with ease and comfort.

To form a handle as a mere ornament is an absurdity, for the handle is part of
the vessel structurally, while the ornamentation is an after and separate consideration.
In order to its existence a vessel must be constructed, but when formed it need not
of necessity be ornamented ; ornamentation must ever be regarded as separate from
construction.

Such a sugar-basin as I have suggested would not stand without legs : it must
therefore have them ; but I see no reason why the legs and handles should not be
combined ; hence I propose three feet so formed as to serve as handles throughout
their upper parts (Figs. 149, 150), they being convenient to hold.

Modern European silversmiths have fallen into the error (an error now pre-
vailing wherever art can be applied to any object) of making their works of a
pictorial, rather than an ornamental, character — an error which the Arabians, Indians,
and Japanese never perpetrate, whose works in metal are unsurpassed by any, and
equalled by indeed few. It is a mistake to cover an entire vase with figures in high
relief; but wherever anything of the kind is attempted, care must be exercised in
causing the groups to follow the line of the vase, and not to appear as irregular
projections from it. As to the modes of decorating works in silver and in gold,
they are many; of ornamentation by repousse work we have already spoken, and
of chasing and engraving. But besides these there are other methods, and some of
great interest, lor there is damascene work, or inlaying; and applying colour, or
enamelling; and niello work ; jewels may also be added.

SPOUTS AA'D HANDLES.

L39

Damascene work is of great interest. Metal of one colour is Inlaid into metal
of another colour. India produces, perhaps, the rarest examples of this kind of work,
the Indians being experts at this manufacture ; but the Indian work consists chiefly
of silver inlaid in iron. This mode of work seems to be capable of producing many
beautiful effects, as all who

have examined the large inlaid -r- — ^g /

hookahs of India will admit.

Having chosen a form for
a vessel, the next question with
which we have to deal is, will
it require a handle and spout ?
It is curious that while the
position of a spout and handle
in relation to a vessel is go-
verned by a simple natural

law, we yet rarely find them placed as they should be. This is the more curious,
as a vessel may become practically of great weight, owing to the handle being
misplaced.

A pound weight is easily lifted, but when applied to the shorter end of the
steel-yard it will balance a hundredweight. If this principle is applied to a tea-pot

Fig. 149.

Fig. 150.

which actually weighs but little, it may yet be very heavy to lift. In nineteen eases
out of twenty, handles are so placed on tea-pots and similar vessels that they are in
use lifted only by a force capable of raising two or three such vessels, if the principle
of the steel-yard was not acting against the person who uses the vessel. Take our
ordinary forms of tea-pot, and see how far the centre of the weight (the centre of
gravity) is from the handle in a horizontal direction, and you will be able to judge
of the leverage acting disadvantageous!}' to the person who may pour tea from such

140

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

pots. Now if the part which is grasped is to the right or left of a right line
passing- through the centre of gravity of any vessel, there is leverage acting to
the disadvantage of the person desiring to pour from that vessel, and this leverage
increases just as the point held is removed from the central line spoken of.

Fig. 151 would pour when in the position shown in Pig. 152, but see how far
the hand that holds it would be to the right of the centre of gravity (a), which distance
is of great disadvantage, as it causes the vessel to appear much heavier than it
actually is, and requires a much greater expenditure of force in order that the tea-pot
be put to its use than is necessary were it properly formed.

Fig. 153.

Tlie law governing the application of handle and spout to vessels is this, and
the same principle applies whether the vessel be formed of metal, glass, or earthen-
ware : — Find the centre of gravity of the vessel, which can easily be done by letting-
a vortical line drop over it when placed in two different positions, as in Figs. 153,
I'll, and where the two vertical lines intersect, as in a in Pig. L55, is the centre of
gravity. The position of the handle being fixed on, draw a line through the centre

of the handle, ami continue it through the centre of gravity of the vessel. The spout

must now be at right angles to this line. If this be (he case the vessel will pour
freely while the handle is just hung upon the thumb or finger of the person desiring
to pour iVom it, as ma\ be seen from Pigs. 150, 157, in which the straight line A,

SI'OUTS AND HANDLES.

Ill

passing through the centre of gravity a, is at right angles, as it should lie, with the
straight line passing through the spout.

This law, it' obeyed, will always enable liquid to be poured from a vessel without
its appearing heavier than it actually is, hut il will be seen that the shape of
the vessel must he considered so that the spout and handle can bear (his relation to
each other, as in Figs. 156, 157, 158, 159, and 100. Sonic shapes will not admit of

Fig. 156.

Fig. 159.

it, so they must be avoided, as may be seen by examining Figs. 151 and 152, which
show a tea-pot of faulty shape in this respect.

A consideration of this law shows that the handles of jugs — those formed of
silver, of glass, and of earthenware alike — are usually placed too high; but in
this respect things are much better than they were a few years hack. Now we
somewhat frequently see a jug with the handle in the right place, while some years
hack we never did. Silver jugs are now the most generally faulty hi this respect.
and such mistakes as the wrong placing of the handle or spout of a vessel result only
from ignorance, for no man knowing the law would violate it. Fig. 101 shows a

142

PRINCIPLE? OV DESIGN.

common form of jug with its handle, but the handle is too high; the position which
it should occupy is shown by the dotted line. A very excellent handle is applied to
many of the French water-pots, as shown in Fig. 162.

It is unnecessary that
I say more respecting the
shape and general construc-
tion of silver and gold ves-
sels, except to remark that
if figures or other orna-
ments are beaten up on
their surfaces, they must
not destroy or mar their
general contour.

Iron is not used with
us as it should be. Not
only is the effect produced
when it is inlaid with
silver and other metals ex-
cellent, but by this mode
of work our art-creations
are greatly preserved, for
the iron is valueless, and
the labour of remo\ ing the
small quantity of precious
metal inlaid would be so
great as to render the gain
inadequate rcinuncrat ion
for the time consumed in
collecting it.

M. Christophle, of Paris,
and also M. Barbedien in
a lesser degree, have com-
menced to inlay copper ves-
sels with silver, and some of
their works are very beauti-
ful. The Japanese have from an early time inlaid silver in bronze. This inlaying
of silver into copper is a step in the right direction, and should be encouraged by all
lovers of art. The Indians not only inlay silver in iron, but also gold in silver and
in iron ; and the Italians and other peoples have inlaid metals in a similar way; and
the fir ess and intricacy of some specimens of this inlaying are truly marvellous.

Fig. 1(52.

ENAMEL NIELLO JEWEL-WORK. 143

By the process of enamelling-, colour can be applied to metal, and of all arts
this art of enamelling- produces works which are most lovely ; at least, if the best
works of enamel do not surpass those produced by any other manufacture, they are
equal in beauty to the works of the highest excellence. Transparent enamels are
in some cases very beautiful, but they do not generally compare with the opaque
enamels, such as were largely used by the Chinese about a hundred and fifty years
back, and by the Japanese, or those now so skilfully produced by Barbedien, the
Algerian Onyx Company, and Christophle, all of Paris.

Chinese daisonnu enamel vases may be seen at the South Kensington Museum,
and here you may also find one or two small pieces of Japanese enamel, as well as
one or two grand specimens by Barbedien, of Paris.

The Chinese enamels have most frequently a light blue (sort of torquoise)
ground, but they occur with both red, white, green, and yellow grounds ; while the
ornament is of mixed colours, but generally with light yellow-green, deeper blue-
green, or dark blue prevailing in it.

The Japanese enamels have a lower tone of colour-effect than the Chinese, and
the work is finer and the colours more mingled, while the modern French enamels
are full in colour, and are yet rich and subdued in general effect — some of them,
indeed, are most beautiful works.

The Elkingtons, of Birmingham and London, have also produced some beautiful
things in this way, but not in the quantities that Barbedien has. I most strougly
advise the art-student to study these works in enamel.

Niello-work is a form of enrichment applied to metal, but is not in general use ;
it is a difficult process. Silver snuff-boxes and pendants for watch-chains with a
niello pattern upon them are not uncommon, however, in Belgium and Itussia, the
niello pattern appearing as dark lead-pencil work upon the silver. Some niello-work
is very quiet and beautiful, but much need not be said respecting it.

Jewels may be inserted in metal, but if this is done they should be somewhat
sparingly used, even in the most costly of works, for if they are abundant they
produce mere glitter, and the aim of the ornamentist must in all cases be the
production of repose.

CHAPTER VIII.

HARDWARE.

Having considered metal-work in its more costly branches, we come to the con-
sideration of hardware, and I am glad that we have now to deal with such metal-
work as results from the use of inexpensive materials, for it is such that must be
generally employed, while works formed of the precious metals can be used only by
comparatively few persons. The object of art is the giving of pleasure ; the mission
of the artist is that of giving ennobling pleasure. If as an artist I give pleasure, I
to an extent fulfil my mission ; but I do so, perfectly, only when I give the greatest
amount of the most refined pleasure by my art that it is possible for me to give. If
by producing works which can be procured by many I give pleasure, it is well that I
do so ; but if the many fail to derive pleasure from my works, then I must address
myself to the few, and be content with my lesser mission. Education appears to be
necessary to the appreciation of all art; the artist, then, is a man who appeals to the
educated. If some persons, by their superior education, are enabled to appreciate art
more fully than those who are ignorant, and can consequently derive more pleasure
from it than the less cultured person, it might then be desirable that the artist
should address himself, through costly materials, to the few, for thereby he might he
giving the greatest amount of pleasure. I always, however, like to produce works in
cheap materials, for then I know that I form what is capable of giving pleasure to
the poor man — if appreciative — who may possess it, as well as the rich.

In hardware we find two classes of work in the market which appear to have
little in common — the one class being characterised by a preponderance of excellence,
and the other by the dominance of what is coarse and inartistic. The first class of
work is that which is produced by what are termed ecclesiastical metal-workers; the
second consists of what is generally known as Birmingham ware.

It is an error to suppose that these so-called ecclesiastical — or mediaeval, as they
are sometimes called — metal-workers produce only ecclesiastical and mediaeval work.
On the contrary, some of these men — and they arc now many in number — devol e 1 hem-
selves almost exclusively to domestic work, and most of them fabricate articles in all
styles of art. If I wanted an artistic set of fire-irons, I should go 1<> one of the
ecclesiastical warehouses, for there I have seen many sets that my reason commends
and my judgment approves ; but I never saw a set produced for the general market
that I liked; and the most artistic fenders, grates, and gas-fittings, in almost any
style, are to be got at these shops. I do not mean to convey the impression that all

UTILITY THE FIRST THING TO BE CONSIDERED. 145

things made at these ecclesiastical warehouses are good, and that all things of
Birmingham (or Sheffield) manufacture are bad, for I have seen indifferent works in
these mediaeval shops, and I have seen excellent things from Birmingham — especially
I might mention as good certain gaseliers produced by two of the smaller Bir-
mingham houses — but as a rule the works found in the mediaeval warehouses are

Fig. 163.

Fig. 104.

good, and as a rule the works in hardware produced by Birmingham and Sheffield
are bad, in point of art.

It will appear a mere repetition if I insist that the materials of which works of
hardware are formed be used in the easiest manner in which they can be worked, and
that every article be so formed as perfectly to answer the end of its formation. \et
I must do so. Let us look for a common set of fire-irons, and we shall find that nine
pokers out often have a handle terminating in a pointed knob. Now, as the object
of this knob is that of enabling us to exercise force wherewith to break large pieces
of coal, the folly of terminating this knob with a point is obvious. A poker is,
essentially, an object of utility; it should therefore be useful. It is ridiculous to talk

146

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

of a poker as an ornament ; yet we find it fashionable now to have a bright poker as
an ornament, which is obtrusively displayed to the visitor, and a little black poker,
which is carefully concealed from view, reserved for use. 1 cannot imagine what

i#r~cjR-nrr»ra^wrvinTjtf('p.^nif7ifnnwi:

ifwrafiftyrrrriii'

. O'S-K'Q g+ .; o;Wh>.i t ;4:'0'

^ onr H

rtaftof*

Vm mid* ■y&wSW^ tr±%

^isiW 1

-m-

jHatj

ll?^ 8

Tjvjj^V :

D Fig. 185.

Fig. 166.

people will not do for show and fashion, but to the thinking mind such littleness as
thai which induces women to keep :i poker as an ornament must be distressing; and
until persons who desire 1" be regarded as educated learn to discriminate between an
ornament and an article of utility, little progress in art can be made. If a poker is
simplj a thing to be looked at. then it may be as inconvenient as you please, for if

ORNAMENTAL IltON-WOKK.

147

it has no purpose to fulfil by its creation it cannot be unfitted to its purpose. The
same remarks will apply to shovel and tongs. If they are intended as works of
utility, then their form must he carefully considered ; hut if they are to he mere
ornaments I have nothing to say respecting them.

Utility and beauty are not inseparable ; hut if an article of any kind is intended
to answer any particular end, it should lie fitted to answer the end proposed by its
formation; but after it is created as a work of utility, care must be exercised in

Fig. 167.

Fig. 16S.

order that it be also a work of beaut}'. With due consideration, almost every work
may be rendered both useful and beautiful, and it must ever be the aim of the
intelligent ornamentist to render them so.

Iron is capable of being- wrought in various ways; it ma}' be cast, or hammered,
or cut, or tiled. Casting' is the least artistic mode of treating- iron ; but if iron is to
be cast, the patterns formed should be so full}- adapted to this method of manu-
facture that the mode of working- may be readily apparent. It is foolish to seek to
make cast-iron appear as wrought-iron : cast-iron should appear as cast-iron, and

14-8

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

wrought-iron as wrought -iron. Cast-iron is brittle, and must not be relied upon as
of great strength ; while wrought-iron is tough, and will bend under great pressure
rather than break. Wrought-iron can be readily bent into scrolls, or the end of a
rod of metal can be hammered flat and shaped into the form of a leaf, and parts tan
either be welded together or fastened by small collars, pins, or screws. One or two
illustrations of good wrought-iron work by Skidmore, Benham, and Hart, are given
in the engravings.

As an illustration of a simple railing, is figured one shown in the International
Exhibition of 1862. (Fig. 163), which is in every respect excellent. Its strength is
very great, yet it is quaint and beautiful. As it was shown it was coloured, and the
colours were so applied as to increase its effect and beauty. If the student will
carefully devote himself to the consideration of excellent works in metal, he will

Fig. 1(59.

laarn more than by much reading. Let him procure, if possible, the illustrated
catalogues of such men as Hart of London, Hardman of Birmingham, and Dovey of
Manchester, and study the sketches which he will there see, and he will certainly
discover the principles of a true art, such as he must seek to apply in a manner
concordant with his own original feelings.

Of our illustrations, the example by Skidmore (Fig. 164) furnishes us with an
excellent mode of treatment. Iron bands are readily bent into volutes, or curves of
various descriptions, and the parts so formed can be united by welding, screws, or
bolts, llardman's gate (Fig- 105) is in every respect excellent; it is quaint,
vigorous, and illustrative of a true mode of working metal. The two foliated railings
(Figs. Hid, L67) are also very meritorious. They are simple in design, and their
parts are well fastened together. I advise very strongly that the student carefully
consider the illustrations which accompany this chapter.

In iron-work the manifestation of a true constructive principle is beyond all
things desirable. Iron, being a strong material, should not be formed into heavy

OKNAMK.VTAI. I110N-W011K.

H!»

masses unless immense weight lias in be sustained, or \ci-\ greal strength is required.
If we form lamps, candelabra, and such works of iron, it is obvious that the portions
of metal employed in their construction may be thin, as the material is of great
strength. Were we to form such works of wood, then a greatly increased thickness
of material would be necessary, in order that the same strength he secured, as wood
is not nearly so strong as iron.

My remarks will have special reference to wrought -iron, as cast-iron cannot so
fully he said to have a constructive character. The small railing (Fig. 163) is an
admirable illustration of a true constructive for-
mation, as the parts are all held together, and
strengthened to a wonderful degree, by the in-
troduction of a horseshoe-shaped member. This
railing is worthy of the most careful study, for its
strength is great. Besides strength we have also
beauty. The horseshoe form, especially when
judiciously applied, is far from being offensive.
Utility must come first, and then beauty, and so
it does in this particular railing-; hut here we
have great simplicity, and a correct structural
character has been arrived at in its production
rather than any elaboration of the principles of
beauty.

From the catalogue of J. "W. Dovey, of Man-
chester, I select an illustration of structure in the
form of a candelabrum which is highly satisfactory
in character as a simple work (Fig. 168). There
is a solidly-formed heavy base, an upright stem
terminating in a candle-holder. There is an arrangement for catching waste grease,
and extra strength is given to the stem by four slender buttress-like brackets, which
are securely and well attached to the base and to the stem above ; and these are
strengthened by two hoops, which prevent their bending under pressure.

Figs. 169 and 170, the former being a ridge or wall cresting, and the latter a
stair railing, are each illustrations of a correct treatment, inasmuch as strength (a
structural quality) and beauty (an art quality) are secured at the same time.
Fig. 109 is admirably constructed, only it is a little slender above the middle hori-
zontal line. These two illustrations are also from Mr. Dovey's catalogue.

In the catalogue just named, and in those previously named also, many good
examples maybe found illustrative of the successful combination of true structural
qualities with a considerable amount of beauty, and also acknowledging the strength
of the material by the lightness of the parts.

Fipr. 170.

150

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

Those who reside in, or visit, London, will do well to go to the South Kensington
Museum, and study a large and splendid candelabrum of Messrs. Hart, Son, and

Fig. 171.

Peard, which is well worthy of consideration. It is rather heavy, and is of enormous
strength, bul in mewl ether respects it is highly commendable. It is beautiful, well
proportioned, and illustrative of a correct treatment of metal. Besides tins, it

OTHEK METAI-S CSED WITH IKON.

151

exemplifies the manner in which stones or jewels may be applied to works in
hardware with advantage. As a further illustration oi' a correct and very beautiful
treatment of metal, we give one segment of the Hereford Cathedral Screen (Fig. 171;.
the work of that most intelligent of metal-workers, Mr. Skidmore of Coventry.
This screen was shown in the International Exhibition of 18(i;2, in London, and was
from there removed to its place in the cathedral. All who can will do well to view
this beautiful work, which is one of the finest examples of artistic metal-work with
which we are acquainted. Notice the ease with which iron may be treated if a

Fig. 172,

correct mode of working be employed. Let a bar of iron be taken which is about
half an inch in thickness, by lj broad. This can be rolled into a volute (the filigree
mode of treatment), or its end can be hammered out into stems and leaves, and to it
can be attached other leaves by rivets, screws, or ties, or it can be bent into any
structural form. To the student I say, study the shapes into which simple bars of
iron can be beaten, both mentally and by observing well-formed works.

Brass, copper, and other metals may be associated with iron in the formation of
any works. If well managed, brass and other bright metals may act as gems — that
is, they may give bright spots; but where the bright metals are used with this view T ,
care must be exercised in order that the bright spots be formed by beautiful parts, and
that their distribution be just, for that which is bright will attract first attention.

Before leaving this part of our subject, I must call attention to a hinge by

152

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

Ilardman, of Birmingham, which was shown in the International Exhibition of 18G2,
as it is both quaint and beautiful (Fig. 172). The door to which this hinge was
applied opened twice ; the first half opened and folded back on the second half, and
then the two halves opened as one door, as will be seen from the illustration. It is
very desirable that we have a little novelty of arrangement in our works. We are
too apt to repeat ourselves, heuce it is a sort of relief to meet with a new idea.

It is imrjossible that I take up each article of hardware and consider it separately.
All I can do is to point out principles, and leave the learner to consider and apply
them for himself — principles which, once understood, may result in the construction
of many excellent works, and may lead to the formation of a correct judgment
respecting such objects as may be brought forward for criticism. I will, however,
just call attention to gas-branches, as they are often wrongly constructed. A gas-
branch is a duct through which gas is to be conveyed. It must be strong if it is to
be exposed to pressure, or if it runs the chance of coming in collision with the person,
as do standard lights in public buildings. The main part of a gas-branch is the tube
or pipe which is to convey the gas, but this may be supported in many ways, as by
such buttress-like brackets as in the candelabrum shown in Fig. 168 ; and if there
are branch tubes for several lights, these may well be connected with the central
tube, not only by their own attachment, but by brackets of some sort, or with one
another by some connecting parts. Whether the gas-branch be pendent or standard,
this mode of strengthening the tube-work should be employed, for the tubes
themselves are but slig-htly held together, and by pressure being brought to bear
upon them, a dangerous and expensive escape of gas may result.

In the manufacture of gaseliers one or two of the smaller Birmingham houses
have certainly distinguished themselves by the production of works both beautiful
and true ; and these lead me to think that a better day is dawning for Birmingham,
in which its art shall be exalted rather than degraded, and shall be such as will
win to it the esteem of the world rather than call forth the execrations of art-
loving people.

As to the colouring of iron I can say little. In my judgment the best modes
of colouring metals were originated by Mr. Skidmore of Coventry, of whom I have
before spoken. His theory is this, that metals are best coloured by the tints of their
oxides. When a metal, especially brass, is seen in a furnace in a molten condition,
the flames, where the oxygen of the atmosphere is uniting with the vapour of the
metal, present the most resplendent tints. The same thing in a lessor degree occurs
in the case of iron, but here the colours arc loss brilliant, and are more tertiary in
character. Mr. Skidmore applies to a metal the colours seen in the flames of the
furnace where it melts. Without attempting to limit the colourist to any theory
whereby his ideas might be restricted, I must say that Skidmore's colouring of the
metals is very good.

CHAPTER IX.

STAINED GLASS.

From early times it has been customary to colour glass. To the ancient
Egyptians a method of forming glass of various tints was known, and by producing
a mass of glass consisting of variously coloured pieces vitreously united, and cutting
this into slices, they, in a costly and laborious manner, produced a sort of stained
glass which might have been employed for the sides of lanterns or other purposes.
The Greeks were acquainted with a similar process, and bowls formed in this manner
by them are common in our museums.

Soon after the re-discovery of glass in our own country, methods of colouring
it were sought, and cathedral windows were formed, which were of such beauty,
and were so thoroughly fitted to answer the end of their creation, that little or no
improvement upon these early works has even yet been made, and much of the
decorative glass which we now produce is far inferior to thfm as regards design,
colour, and mode of treatment.

A window must fulfil two purposes — it must keep out rain, wind, and cold, and
must admit light ; having fulfilled these ends, it may be beautiful.

If a window commands a lovely view let it, if possible, be formed of but few
sheets (if not very large, of one sheet) of plate-glass; for the works of God are
more worthy of contemplation, with their ever-changing beauty, than the works of
man ; but if the window commands only a mass of bricks and mortar inartistically
arranged, let it, if possible, be formed of coloured glass having beauty of design
manifested by the arrangement of its parts. A window should never appear as a
picture with parts treated in light and shade. The foreshortening of the parts, and
all perspective treatments, are best avoided, as far as possible. I do not say that
the human figure, the lower animals, and plants must not be delineated upon window
glass, for, on the contrary, they may be so treated as not only to be beautiful, but
also to be a consistent decoration of glass ; but this I do say, that many stained
windows are utterly spoiled through the window being treated as a picture, and not
as a protection from the weather and as a source of light.

If pictorially treated subjects are employed upon window glass, they should be
treated very simply, and drawn in bold outline without shading, and the parts should
be separated from each other by varying their colours. Thus, the flesh of a figure
may be formed of glass having a pink tone; the robe of the figure of glass which is
green, purple, or any other colour ; a flower may be formed of white glass, or of glass

104

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

of any colour; the leaves of green glass; and the sky background of blue glass.
All the parts will thus be distinguished from each other by colour, and the

Fig. 1

distinction of part from part will be further enhanced by the strong black outline
which bounds the parts and furnishes the drawing of the picture.

Strong colours should rarely be used in windows, as (bey retard the admission
of tight. Light is essential to our well-being; our health of body depends in a large

STAINED (J.ASS.

measure upon the amount, of light which falls upon the skin. Those wonderful
chemical changes, in the absence of which there can be no life, in part, al least,

depend upon the exposure of our bodies tfa light ; let our windows, then, admit these
life-giving rays. It must also be remembered that if light is not freely admitted

Fig. 175-

Fig. 17tJ.

Fig. 177.

Fig 178.

Fig 179.

to an apartment the colours of all the objects which it contains, and of its own
decorations if it has any, are sacrificed, for in the absence of light there is no colour.
It is not necessary, in order to the production of a beautiful window, that much
strong colour be used ; tints of creamy yellow, pale amber, light tints of tertiary
blue, blue-grey, olive, russet, and other sombre or delicate hues, if enlivened with

15(3

PRINCIPLES OV DESIGN.

small portions of ruby or other full colours, produce the most charming effects, and
by their use we have consistent windows. .

A good domestic window is often produced by armorial bearings in colour being
placed on geometrically arranged tessera- of slightly tinted glass. In some ease*
such an arrangement as this is highly desirable, for the room may thus get the
benefit which a bit of colour will sometimes afford, and at the same time a pleasant
view may be had through the uncoloured portion of the window. As an illustration

Fig, 181.

Fig. 182.

of this class of window', we extract one from the catalogue of those excellent artists
in stained glass, Messrs. Heaton, Butler, and Bayne, of Garrick Street (Fig. 173).
A good window may also be formed by bordering a plain window with colour,
(Kg. 17 I), or in place of the plain centre squares of glass may be used, each bearing
a diaper pattern, as Pigs. 17o to 1^:2.

\<> architectural constructive feature should be introduced into a window — thus,
an elaborate architectural canopy overshadowing a figure is not at all desirable.
If a figure is formed of a perishable material, and stands on the outside of a
building, it is well that it be protected from the rain by a canopy ; but such a

FAULTS IN STAINED GLASS DESIGNS.

167

contrivance when in-
troduced over a figure
drawn on a flat win-
dow is absurd, being
useless. Let us
always consider what
we have to do before
we commence the
formation of any
ornamental article,
and then seek to do
it in the must simple,
consistent, and beau-
tiful manner. Figs.
183 and 1st repre-
sent my views of
what stained glass
may advantageously
be.

More than once
in the course of these
chapters I have pro-
tested in strong terms
against pretence in
art and art-decora t ion
— the desire to make
things appear to be
made of better ma-
terial or more costly
substances than what
they have in reality
been wrought from —
that leads men to
paint and varnish a
plain freestone man-
telpiece in imitation
of some expensive
marble, or to make

Fi'-. 1S3.

doors and window-shutters, skirting and panelling that the carpenter has fashioned
out of red or yellow deal, assume the appearance of oak, or maple, or satinwood, by

158

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

the deceptive skill of the grainer. In no
ease can the imitation ever approach a fair
resemblance to the reality it is proposed to
imitate. The coarse, rough grain of the soft
freestone, which is incapable of receiving a
polish, or rather of being polished until it
becomes as smooth, and even, and lustrous
as good glass, can never be made by suc-
cessive coatings of paint and varnish to
afford a satisfactory resemblance to the
marble that it is supposed to represent,
however carefully the cunning hand of the
painter may have imitated the veins, and
spots, and curious diversities of colour
with which Nature has variegated the
surface of the substance that he is en-
deavouring to copy. Nor, again, can a
coarse-grained, soft wood, however skilled
may be the hand that manipulates it, be
treated so as to resemble the texture and
smoothness of hard, close-grained wood,
which from its very nature is capable of
receiving the high polish that the softer
material can never take if treated by the
same process — that is, unless the expense
of producing the imitation greatly exceeds
the cost of the thing imitated. And what
is applicable to the treatment of wood and
stone is applicable also to the treatment
of ^lass : for as a freestone mantelpiece,
or deal door, however suitable and pleasing
to the eve either may be when simply
painted in the one case and varnished in
the other to preserve the surface from
the deteriorating influences of dirt of any
kind, can never he made by the exercise
of reasonable time and skill to present the
appearance of marble or oak; so glass,
by the application of colour rendered
transparent by varnish, can inner be

Fig. 184.

PRETENCE IN ART-DEC011AT10N. 1 5 [>

brought to resemble glass stained <>r painted by the legitimate method, either
in delicacy of tint, or depth, and richness, and brilliancy of colour. The greater
part of the imitative stained glass, or " diaphanie " as it is styled, fails not only
in colour, but in design; and in this indeed it may perhaps be said to be especially
faulty. The designs, which are printed on paper, with the view of imitating glass
patterns, err principally in being too elaborate, and in representing figures and
scenery which are not in character or keeping with the designs that are usually
represented in painted glass. If confined to simple diaper work, or borderings and
heraldic emblems, as shown in Figs. 173 and 174, or patterns similar to that shown
in Fig. 188, the artistic effect produced would be more satisfactory, although it
can never equal genuine stained glass in depth of colour or purity of tone.

CHAPTER X.

CONCLUSION.

I have now treated of art as applied to our industrial manufactures, and have pointed
out principles which must be recognisable in all art-works which pretend to merit.
We have seen that material must in all cases be used in the simplest and most
natural manner; that, wherever possible, we must avail ourselves of the friendly aid
of natural forces ; * that the most convenient shape must always be selected for a
vessel or art-object of any kind ; and that beauty must then be added to that which
is useful. All art-objects must be useful and then beautiful ; they must be utili-
tarian, and yet so graceful, so comely, that they shall be loved for their beauty as
well as valued for their usefulness. While I have set forth those principles which
must ever govern the application of ornament to useful articles, I cannot show the
student any royal road to the attainment of art-knowledge. There is something in a
true art-work which is too subtle for expression by words ; there is a " quality " about
an art-work, or the expression of an amount of " feeling," which cannot be described,
yet which is so obvious as to be at once apparent to the trained eye.

The only way in which the power of appreciating art-qualities can be gained,
especially if these qualities are of a subtle nature, is by the careful study of works of
known excellence. Could the student visit our museums in company with a trained
ornamentist, who would point out what was good and what was bad in art, he would
soon learn, by studying the beautiful works, to perceive art-qualities ; but as this is
not possible to most, the learner must be content to consider each art-work with
which he comes in contact in conjunction with the principles I have set forward.

Let him take a work — say a tea-pot. He will now ask himself — has the
material of which it is formed been judiciously and simply used ? — is the shape con-
venient ? — is the handle properly applied, and does the spout bear a proper relation
to the handle? — is the form graceful or vigorous? — is the curve which bounds the
form of a subtle nature? — is the engraving applied in judicious quantities and in just
proportions ? — are the engraved forms beautiful, and such as do not suffer by being
seen in perspective on a rounded surface? By such questions the student will
inquire into the nature of whatever is presented to his consideration, and only by
constantly making such inquiries, and seeking to answer them correctly, can he gain
the knowledge which will enable him rightly to judge of the nature of art-works.

• See chapters on glass and earthenware.

INFLUENCE OF EUROPEAN AND EASTERN ART UPON EACH OTHER. 161

Some of these inquiries (he young student will readily answer, with others he will
have difficulty; for, his taste being yet uncultivated, he will not know whether a
form is beautiful or not. Nevertheless, I say to the learner, try to answer these
various inquiries as well as you can, and then note the shape of the object in a
memorandum-book, and write your opinion respecting it in brief terms, and your
reasons for your opinion. By thus noting your studies you gain many advantages ;
thus, you must frame your ideas with some degree of exactness when you have to put
them into words, and exactness of idea is essential to your success. You can also
refer to previous thoughts, and thus impress them upon the memory; and you can
observe your progress, which is important, and should be encouraging. In order
that you acquire the power of perceiving art-merit as quickly as possible, you must
study those works in which examples of bad taste are rarely met with, you must at
first consider art-objects from India, Persia, China, and Japan, as well as examples
of ancient art from Egypt and Greece. But in selecting modern works from the
East, choose those which are not altogether new if possible.

During the last ten years the art-works of Japan have deteriorated to a
lamentable extent. Contact with Europeans unfortunately brings about the deterio-
ration of Eastern art : in order that the European demand be met, quantity is
produced and quality disregarded, for we cavil respecting price, and yet by thus
creating a demand for inferior work we raise the price even of that which is
comparatively bad, and soon have to pay for the coarser wares a price for which
superior articles could at first be procured.

But this should be noted : that the commonest wares which we receive from
Japan and India are never utterly bad in art. Inharmonious colouring does not
appear to be produced by these nations, and the same may be said of Persia and
China, and, to an extent, of Morocco and Algeria, the only exceptions being where
European influence has been long continued. In selecting examples for study you
may almost rely upon the beauty of all works from China, Japan, Persia, and India,
which have not been produced under European influence.

A notable example of the deteriorating influence of European taste (perhaps
chiefly English taste) upon Eastern art is apparent if we examine old carved sandal-
wood boxes from India, and those which are now sent to us from the same country •
the quiet, unobtrusive consistency of the ornament by which it was sought only to
enrich a properly constructed box was not sufficiently attractive to suit European (or
English ?) taste. The ornament must be more pronounced and in higher relief, and
the entire work must be more attractive — more vulgarly attractive I might say,
and thus the exquisite refinement of the older works is sacrificed to the wants of a
rich but vulgar people, whose taste for art is infinitely below that of their conquered
brethren, from whom they learn the principles of a beautiful art but slowly, while they
do much to destroy the refinement of art-taste which the workmen of our Eastern

162 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

empire appear to inherit. Study the works of the Eastern nations in conjunction
with the remarks which I made in my first chapter (seepages 6, 9, and 48), and then
consider the numerous ohjects left to us hy the early Egyptians and Greeks, and bear
in mind while viewing them what we have said on Egj^ptian and Greek art (see
pages 6, 8, and 10), and after having learned to understand the merits of Persian,
Japanese, Indian, and Chinese art, and of that of the ancient Egyptians and Greeks,
you may commence to consider other styles, taking up the study of Italian and
Renaissance art in its various forms last of all ; for in these styles, or dialects of
a style if I may thus speak, there is so much that is false in structure, false
in representation, untruthful in expression, and pictorial rather than ornamental in
effect, that a very complete acquaintance with ornamental art is necessary in order
that all the defects of these styles he apparent, and in order that the student avoid
falling into the error of regarding a pictorial effect as the result of a true style of
ornamental art.

Study, when accompanied hy individual thought, is the means wherehy art-
knowledge will be gained. No mere looking at works which are beautiful and true
will make a great ornamentist. He who would attain to great knowledge must study
whatever commends itself to him as worthy of his attention, and, above all, must
think much upon the works which he contemplates; it is the evidence of mind — not
of degraded but of noble mind, of refined mind, of cultivated mind, of well-informed
mind, of mind which has knowledge, of mind which has vigour, of mind which is
fresh and new — that we find impressed upon a work and giving to it value. While
we, as art-students, have, above all things, to attain to cultivation of the mind, we
cannot give expression to refined feelings manifested in form unless we can draw, and
draw almost faultlessly; and the ability to draw with accuracy, power, and feeling
can only result from much practice.

Let every spare moment, then, find the sketch-book in your hand, and be con-
stantly trying to draw both carefully, neatly, and with exactness and finish, such
objects as you see around you, even if examples of good art-works are not at hand;
for by constant and careful practice you can alone acquire the necessary power of
expressing refined thought in refined form. Avoid making hasty sketches. When
a finished artist, you can afford to make sketch memoranda; but till you can draw
with great power, energy, truthfulness, and refinement, let your every drawing be as
careful and as finished in character, however simple the object portrayed, as though
your welfare in life depended upon its character, lor upon every sketch your future
posit ion does, to a great extent, depend. The habit of careful painstaking should
sedulously be cultivated; and with every drawing thus made an amount of power
is gained which the making of a hundred careless sketches would not afford. Let
painstaking, then, be characteristic of your working.

Ornament of some kind is applied to almost every article that we see around us.

CHARACTER SHOWN IN ORNAMENT. 163

The papers on our walls, the carpets on our floors, the hangings at our windows, the
plates from which we eat, are all covered by patterns of some kind ; yet it is rare*
even now when ornamentation has become general, to find anything original in
ornament; and if we do meet with something new in kind it is often feeble or
timid-looking, if it does not altogether fail to impress us with the idea that the
producer was a man of knowledge. Let the reader be assured that if the designer
is a man of knowledge, his ornamental conrpositions will never fail to reveal his
learning; that if he is a man of power, his works will reveal his strength ol
character; if he is a man of refined feelings, that his designs will manifest his
tenderness of perception. In like manner, if a man is ignorant he cannot withhold
from his patterns the manifestation of his ignorance. Did not the Egyptians
express their power of character in their ornaments ? did not the Greeks manifest
their refinement in the forms which they drew ? do we not even find an expression
of religious feeling strongly, yea, impressively, set forth by some art-works, as by
the illuminated manuscripts of the early Middle Ages ? and do we not every day see
the impress of the ignorant upon certain wall-papers, carpets, and other things ? It
is a fact, and it is necessary that we fully recognise it, that the knowledge of the
producer is manifested by his works; and that the ignorance of the ignorant is also
manifested in his works.

If ornament is produced having new characters, it is often feeble, and is generally
without grace ; while power is the expression of manliness, and grace of refinement.
Without claiming to have made a successful effort, I put forth, in the frontispiece
to this volume (Plate I.), four of my studies in original ornament, all of which arc
to me more or less satisfactory as studies in composition. I have endeavoured t*>
secure in each an amount of energy, vigour — the power of life, yet at the same time
to avoid coarseness, or any glaring want of refinement. I have sought to combine
right lines, which are expressive of power, with such curved shapes as shall, with
them, produce a pleasing contrast of form, and expjress a certain amount of grace.
In the light ornament on the citrine ground (that at the lower left-hand corner of
our plate) I have endeavoured especially to secure an expression of grace in com-
bination with that amount of energy which avoids any expression of feebleness.

In the border ornament I have introduced the arch form, as it hints at a
structural " setting out " which is pleasant; and I have endeavoured to cause the
composition to appear as though it rested on the lower dotted band, as this gives a
feeling of security. I do not say that it is necessary that this be so : all I assert is
that in some cases it gives a feeling of satisfaction.

So far as I know, the colouring is also original. The colours employed are
chiefly of a tertiary character, but small masses of primary or secondary colours are
employed in order to impart "life" to the composition.

I do not set these studies before my readers with the idea of showing them

164 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.

what original ornament should be : I only set them forth as examples of new
compositions, and must leave each to clothe his own thoughts with a befitting
expression of his individual original ideas.

As I am writing for the working man, as well as for others, will he pardon me
reminding him that we are called to exercise an art, yet at the same time our art
is associated with the scientific professions — a knowledge of natural sciences, of
botany, zoology, natural philosophy, and chemistry can be very fully utilised in our
ar t — and that we should, therefore, act as professional men and as artists of the
highest rank; for thereby only can we hope to place our calling in that position of
esteem in which it should be held, and must be held, by the people at large, if we
are to administer to their pleasure as we ought.

In taking leave of my reader, let me say that if I personally can aid him
in any way, I shall be glad to do so. If any who really seek knowledge of
decorative design, and are hard workers, choose to send me designs for criticism
or comment, or desire any other aid that I can give them, I shall be happy to
do what little I can for them. My address will be found at the end of the
Preface.

\ji DEX.

Alternation in Ornament, 24.

America, Depraved Artistic Taste in, 104.

Anthemion ; a Greek Decorative Device, 9.

Arabian Metal-work, 137.

Arch used in Furniture, 51, 52.

Art may be Degrading, 2 ; aims at producing
Repose, 63 ; the Object of, 144,

Art-knowledge, The Value of, 2.

Baptism, Symbol of, in Gothic Art, 12.

Beauty in Decoration, 16, 17.

Bed-room, Decoration for a, 15.

Birmingham Ware, 144, 145, 152.

Black, a Neutral in Decorative Work, 45.

Buhl-work, 64.

Buildings, Decoration of, 73, et seq.

Byzantine Ornament, 11.

Cabinet, Construction of a, 61.

Calico, Patterns on, 107.

Carpets, Art-qualities and Patterns of, 94,
etseg.; Din*erentSortsof,94,95; Foreign-
made, 102, 103 ; how they should be laid
down, 105; the Conditions which Govern
the Application of Ornament to, 106.

Carving, when to be used, 61, 62.

Casting in Metal, 136.

Casting, the least Artistic Mode of Treating
Iron, 147.

Ceilings, Decoration of, 75, et seq. ; Various,
worthy of Study, 82 ; with Painted
Pictures Objectionable, 82.

Celtic Ornament, 25.

Chair-coverings, 72.

Chairs, Construction of, 52 — 57.

Character of the Designer shown by his
Work, 163.

Chinese Enamels, 143.

„ Harmony of Colour, 48.
„ Ornament, 11.

Christian Art, 11, 12.

Clay as a Material for Art-purposes, 117,
et seq.

Colour — in Decoration, 30, .et seq. ; Contrast
in, 32, 33 ; Primary, Secondary, and
Tertiary, 32; Harmony in, 33, 39, et seq. ;
Qualities of, 33, 34; Analytical Tables
of, 34 ; Teachings of Experience in
regard to, 34, 45; Proportions in which
Colours Harmonise, 34, 35, ,°6; Pure,
and Pigments, 37, 38; Permanence of,
38, note ; Shades, Tints, and Hues, 39 ;
Works on, referred to, 49; for Stained
Windows, 154, et seq.

Colouring Metals. See Skidmore, Mr.

Colour-top, the, 48, and note.

Copper Vessels Inlaid with Silver, 142.

Cornices, Colouring of, 93.

Couches, 57, et seq.

Curtain Materials, 107, et seq.

Curves, most Beautiful when most Subtle, 23.

Damascene Work, 139.

Damask Table-linen, Patterns on, 107, 108.
109.

Damask Wall-coverings. See Silk Wall
Damasks.

Decanters, what they should be, 129.

Decoration should be in keeping with Archi-
tecture, 73, 74, 75.

Design and Ornament, Redgrave on, 50.

Dining-room, Decoration for a, 14.

Dining-tables, Mr. Eastlake on Telescopic,
66, 67.

Distemper Colours for Wall Decoration, 83.

Doric Column, The, 9.

Drawing-room, Decoration for a, 15.

Dross, Ladies' and Gentlemen's, 90. Pat-
terns for Ladies', 112.

166

INDEX.

Earthen Vessels, Decoration of, 125, 126,
127.

Eastlake, Mr., on Household Art, referred
to, 52, and note.

Ecclesiastical Metal-workers, 14-1, 1-15,

Egyptian Architecture, 8.

„ Coloured Glass, 153.

„ Drawing, Peculiarity of, 5.

„ Ornament, 4 — 8.

Embroidery on Cotton, Indian, 114.

Enamelling in Metal-work, 143.

England, Architectural Buildings in, 11 ;
House Decoration in, 30, 31.

European Influence Injurious to Eastern
Art, 161.

Excess in Upholstery, 70.

Fabrics, Patterns Suitable for Woven, 107,
et seq.

Finish, its Value Over-estimated, 120.

Folds, Ornamentation of Fabrics to be seen
in, 112, et seq.

French Errors of Taste in Furniture, 65.

Furniture, Decorative Principles applied to,
50, et seq. ; what is Required to make it
an Object of Art, 50 ; Material used for,
51 ; Truthful Construction of, 59, 65,
et seq. ; Proportion and Enrichment of,
61, 63.

Glass, as a Material for Art-purposes, 118,
127, et seq.; Vessels, Various, 130, et seq.;
Vessels, Coloured, 131, 132 ; Cutting
of, 132 ; Engraving of, 133 ; Ornamen-
tation of, 133; Stained, 153, et seq.

Gold, a Neutral in Decorative Work, 44, 45.

Gold and Silver, Works in, 136.

Gothic Architecture, Modern, 74.

,, Furniture, Falsely Constructed, 06.
„ Ornament, 12.

Granite Imitated, Objected to, 89.

Greek Coloured Glass, 153.
„ Ornament, 9, 10, 11.
„ Vessels, 121.

Grotesque. See Humour.

Handles of Vessels, 138, 139, 140.

Hardware, Art in Connection with, 144,
et tea.

Harmony of Colour. See Colour.

Historical Inquiry Necessary to the Under-
standing of Decoration, 4.
Humour in Ornament, 24—29 ; Chinese and

Japanese, 25, 27, 28.
Imitations of Marbles and Granites, 89.
Indian Art Injured by European Influence,
161.
„ Fabrics, 48, note.
„ „ Mr. Redgrave on, 115, 116

Metal-work, 142.
Work in regard to Colouring, 47.
Inlaying as a means of Enriching Works of

Furniture, 63.
Irish Crosses, Numerous Ornaments on, 2".
Iron, as an Art-material, 142.
„ how Wrought, 147.
„ Metals that may be Associated with,
151.
Iron-castings of Berlin, 136.
Iron-work, Ornamental, 147, et seq.; must
Manifest a True Constructive Principle,
148; Colouring of, 152.
Italian Metal-work, 142.
Japan, Deterioration in the Art-works of,

161.
Japanese Art, 11.

„ Colouring, 48.
„ Earthenware, 120.
Enamels, 142, 143.
Metal-work, 112.
Jewels in Metal-work, 143.
Joists in Ceilings, how they should be

Treated, 79.
Labour Necessary to Success in Art, 4, 31.
Library, Decoration for a, 15.
Lotus in Egyptian Design, 5, 6.
Marble Imitated, Objected to, 89.
Mediaeval Metal-workers, 144, 145.
Mental Effects produced by Decorative

Forms, 14.
Moorish Ornament, 11.
Muslin, Patterns on, 107.
Natural Forms in Carpet Patterns, 96, 97,

98.
Niello-work applied to Metals, 143.
Norman Architecture, 11.
Novelty Wuntcd in Carpet Patterns, 105.

INDEX.

IG7

Oil-colour " Flatted" for Wall Decoration, 83.

Order, a Principle in Ornament, 23.

Ormolu Ornaments, 64.

Ornament and Architecture Inseparable, 13.

Papered Walls. See Wall Papers.

Papyrus in Egyptian Architecture, 8.

Persian Ornament, 11.

Picture Frames, 72.

Pigments. See Colour.

Plants as Ornaments, How to Treat, 24.

Plaques of Stone or Earthenware applied
to Works of Furniture, 63, 64.

Pottery, Art in, 117, et seq.

Power an Art-principle, 17.

Precious Materials in the Form of Art-
works, 117, 118.

Preface, v., vi.

Pretence in Art-decoration, 157 — 159.

Proportion must be Subtle, 23.

Purpose, Adaptation to, Taught by Planes,
21.

Renaissance Ornament, 13.

Repetition of Parts in Ornament, 23.

Roman Ornament, 11.

Shams in Decoration, 89.

Silk, Patterns on, 107.

Silk Wall Damasks, 114.

Silversmiths' Work, 135, et seq.

Skidmore, Mr., and his Theory of Colouring
Metals, 152.

Sofa-coverings, 70, 72.

South Kensington Museum, 48, note.

Spouts of Vessels, 139, et seq.

Stools, 53 ;

Study of Art-decoration, how it should be

carried on, 14, 160, 161,162.
Styles of Architecture, 73.
Sugar-basin, its Form, 138.
Surface Decoration, 73, et seq.
Symbols in Christian Art, 12.
Table-covers, The Borders of, 109, 11 1.
Taste of the Uneducated, 15.
Trinity, Symbols of the, in Gothic Art, 12.
Truth an Art-principle, 15, 16, 89, 158, 15t>.
Utility must Govern the Production and
Application of Ornament, 17 — 22,
145.

„ in Architecture. 2< I.

„ Professor George Wilson on, 19, 20.

„ Various Writers on, 20.
Vehicles for Art, The Best, the least Costly, 3
Veneer Hg. 09.
Venetian Glass, 130, 131.
Vessels, Primitive, 120.
Wall Decorations, 8:1. et seq.
Wall Papers, 87, 90, et seq.
Walls should be Unobtrusive, 90.
Water- vessels, Egypt ianand Greek, 121 — 124.
White a Neutral in Decorative Work, 45.
Window-hangings, 69, 70, 108.
Windows, 69, 70; the Object of, 153; how

they should be Treated, 153.
Wine-bottles, Forms of, 128.
" Winged Globe," in Egyptian Design, 7.
Woods and their Relative Strength, 51.
Workmen; their Study of Decorative Law.-, 1 .

„ Advice to, 164.
Wrought-iron, its Qualities, 147, 148-

Oassell, Petter, &. Galpin, Belle Sacvage WottES, London, E.G.

MANUALS OF TECHNOLOGY.

EDITED ISY

PROFESSOR AYRTON, F.R.S.

(Finsbury Technical College, City ami Guilds of London Institute),

AND

RICHARD WORMELL, D.Sc, M.A.

■pjURING the last two years a very great impetus has been given to the advancement of Technical Education,
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As text-books for the large and increasing number of candidates at the Technological Examinations of the City
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ELECTRIC LIGHTING and TRANSMISSION of POWER . Professor Ayrton, F.R.S.

APPLIED MECHANICS ...... Professor Perry, M.E.

CUTTING TOOLS WORKED by HAND and MACHINE Professor Smith.

IRON and STEEL . . . . . . "W. H. Greenwood, Esq.

FLUID MOTORS Professor Perry, M.E.

CHEMISTRY Dr. Armstrong, F.R.S.

FLAX SPINNING D. S. Thomson, Esq.

WATCH and CLOCK MAKING . . . . D. Glasgow, Esq.

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Wherefore, instead of t eing repelled by the supposed difficulties of science.

P.T.O.

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