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 CHIMU. KINO OT MANSERICHE 
 OR TILUJILLO, PER.U. 
 
\ ANTIQUARIAN, 
 
 ETHNOLOGICAL AND OTIEK EESEAECHES 
 
 IN 
 
 ■ 
 
 ^' NEW GRANADA, 
 
 EQUADOE, PEEU AND CHILE, 
 
 WITH OBSERVATIONS ON THE 
 
 PRE-INCAEIAL, INCAEIAL, AND OTHEE MONUMENTS OF 
 
 PEEUVIAN NATIONS. 
 
 V »• f 
 
 By WILLIAM BOLLAEET, RE. O.S. 
 
 / 
 
 COBR. MEM. OF THB UNIV. OF CHILE, BXC. ETC. 
 
 WITH PLATES. 
 
 LONDON : 
 TEUBNEE & CO., PATEENOSTEE EOAY. 
 
 1860. 
 
 [The Right of translation is reserved.] 
 
/- :? ^Lj o 
 
 3^ 
 
 D. la>:e, pri:>*tei?, 43, lamb's coxduit street, wx. 
 
 
 • t t tt c c 
 
 ^ . . . . • • 
 
DEDICATION 
 
 I\) SIR EODEEICK IMPEY MURCHISON, G. C. St. S., M.A., 
 . D.C.L., V.P.E-.S., Director-Gexeeal op the Geological 
 
 Survey of Great Britain and Ireland, Trust. Brit. 
 
 Mus., CoRii. Ins. Ee., etc. etc. etc. 
 
 Dear Sir, — 
 
 The distinction to whick yon haye attained in the scientific 
 
 •'orld, and the interest you have ever evinced in all matters anv 
 
 ray appertaining to geological, geographical and kindred pursuits, 
 
 rove that I could not dedicate this volume k) one more 
 
 orthy of honor and respect than yourself. 
 
 Proud of the permission, and sincerely wishing the present 
 ork were more worthy of your iicceptance, 
 
 I remain. Dear Sir, 
 Your obliged and faithful servant, 
 W. BOLLAERT, 
 
 fC^A m *M}^ 
 
ANTIQUARIAN, ETHNOLOGrlCAL, 
 
 AND OTHEK EESEAKCHES IN 
 
 NEW GRANADA, EQUADOR, PERU, & CHILE. 
 
 NEW GEAKADA. 
 
 West Indies — New G-ranada — Santa Marta — History of Chibchas, or Muiscas — 
 Emeralds — Carthagena— Isthmus of Darien — Panama — Antiquities of New 
 Gi'anada— Chibcha Calendar— Ciiibcha language and Aocabularies. 
 
 The publication of the "Manual of Ethnological Inquiry," by the 
 British Association, in 1S52, gave me methodical instruction on the 
 subject of ethnology in particular, and was of great use to me during 
 my second visit to the New World, in 1853-4. The following passage 
 — " Any amount of knowledge, however trifling it may appear in itself, 
 may be of great value inconnexion with other knowledge, and, therefore, 
 will be welcomed " — leads me to hope that my researches and observa- 
 tions on some of the South American races, and their peculiar 
 civilization, may not prove uninterestiug.^ 
 
 At present, one gets to the West Indies from Europe by steamer, 
 in about twelve days, and to the shores of Terra Firma in three 
 or four more. 
 
 "VVe look about and inquire for the aboriginal race of the Antilles, 
 once so populous. AYe are told that none are left — that they have long 
 since been exterminated by the ruthless Spanish invader. AYe make 
 some research and find that of the millions who at the discovery of 
 Americapeopled Santo Domingo, not one pure descendant uowexists; that 
 there are only a few Carib families in the islands of St. Vincent and 
 Trinidad, — that they are an indolent and harmless race, fast verging on 
 extinction — intermai-rying with jS"egroes and producing the Zambo, or 
 with the Whites giving rise to the Mustee. 
 
 ' Abstract of these observations read at the Dublin meeting of the British Asso- 
 ciation, 1857. — Sec Transactions of sections X21. 
 
 U 2 
 

 4 
 
 !Sehomburgli thinks that some ol" the luoimments in Santo Domingo 
 are the work of an earlier race than those discovered by the Spaniards, 
 
 Having sailed over the Caribbean Sea, we alight upon the bold shores 
 of Colombia, covered with dense tropical vegetation. In the back 
 ground are seen the icy peaks of the Sierras of Santa Marta, 20,000 
 feet or more above the ocean, and, amongst other great rivers, the Mag- 
 dalena, where the magnificent Victoria liegia is found in such abund- 
 ance as to be a troublesome weed.^ 
 
 The first point 1 visited was Santa Marta, 11° 15' JN"., one of 
 the principal ports of New Granada. Near to the town are a few 
 Tanganga Indians, who are fishermen. At the period of the conquest 
 this district was called Citarme, and with the Tangangas were other 
 tribes, particularly the Gairas and Dorsinos. 
 
 Acosta^ mentions that the Indians of this district had much gold 
 and copper, also (/Hi copper — and the copper was gilt by the use of the 
 juice of a plant rubbed over it, then put into the fire, when it took 
 the gold colour. This author gives a drawing of an altar (destroyed 
 by a Komish priest) of the Arauco Indians who inhabited the mountains 
 of Santa Marta ; also a curious terra totta figure, the work of the 
 ancient inhabitants of this part of the country. 
 
 New Granada produces cocoa, tobacco, cotton, indigo, rice, and sugar, 
 in its fruitful vallies or savannas ; also timber, dye woods, and cinchonas. 
 There are pearl fisheries on its coasts. Its mountains and streams yield 
 gold, silver, platina, and other metals ; the mines of rock salt, coal, 
 and emeralds are important. 
 
 The natives of the coast of the Atlantic, from Chiriqui to Goajira 
 are of the Carib race,^ and very like the Brasilo-Guarani ; so are the 
 Mocoas, Sebondoyes, Pastuzos, and others. Those of the country 
 of Tuqueres correspond to the An do-Peruvian race. The tribes of 
 Clioco,'^ Antioquia,^ Cauca, Popayan,^ and Neiva have rather an 
 
 ^ Down the Parana drift Camilofes, or large water lilies, and in the lagoons are 
 anchored islands of the Victoria Regia, or Maiz del Agua (corn of the water); 
 for its seeds are powdered into meal, from which is made excellent and nutritious 
 bread. — La Plata, &c., by Page, U.S. Navy. 
 
 " Compendio Historico de la Nueva Granada, por J. Acosta, Paris, 1 vol. 8vo. 
 — Eesumen de la Historia de N. Granada, por C. Lopez, Bogota. 
 
 ^ Memoria de la Nueva Granada, por Mosquera, New York, 1852. 
 
 ■* Choco or Cholo, Indians of N, Granada, from the gulf of San Miguel to 
 the Bay of Chocd, and thence, with a few interruptions, to the northern parts of 
 Equador. — " Literature of the American Aboriginal Languages," by Herman E. Lude- 
 wig, Trlibner, London. 
 
 ^ Some gold ornaments from Antioquia, 6'^ 50 N., are described further on a- 
 havintj something of an Aztec or Toltec character. 
 
5 
 
 Aztec character.^ The Chibchas or iMuiscas have analogies witli tlie 
 , Ando-Periivians. --. 
 
 Some nations are still in a savage state, as the Mesayos, Caquetes, 
 Choques, Mocoas, Omaguas, Goajiras, and others. Those on the li\o 
 Kacha are stubborn, have long faces, their noses rising in the centre, 
 gives them a stern look. 
 
 Many of the wild tribes preserve their languages, but the Chibchas 
 and allied nations have nearly lost theirs and now speak Spanish. The 
 Mesayos and some others are said to be cannibals and hardly recognise 
 a Supreme Being ; good and evil they attribute to the sun and moon ; 
 their ideas as to the immortality of the soul are very imperfect, and they 
 believe in transmigration. 
 
 The Pubenanos and Coconucos were ruled, at the time of the conquest, 
 hj the chief Payan, and the Paeses and Pijaos by Calambas. In early 
 times these tribes were united with those of Pasto, 1" 15' iS"., to defend 
 themselves against the nations of Quito ; with the latter were those 
 Peruvians brouglit in by Huayna-Capac, and who, after his death 
 remained with Atahualpa. 
 
 The Coconucos cultivated maize, also other plants, including the 
 potato, (Turma)^ and patata (sweet potato). The potato grows wild 
 in the mountains of Paletera. They counted by sevens, and as well as 
 the Chibchas used and still use the Quipo or knotted coloured strings 
 ^fosquera says, there is no evidence to show that the Chibchas had the 
 Quipu-" from the Peruvians. 
 
 ^ Yelasco, His. del -/eyno de Quito III, 38. — The Indians of Popayan aro 
 descendants of the Caribs of the Antilles. J. Aeosta, 161<, speaks of the powerful 
 chief of Popayan — of a fortress capable of holding 3000 men — a city, tlie houses 
 of which were large and covered with straw — and of a temple consecrated to their 
 Bacclins. 
 
 - There is a valley in the interior once called Tnrmas, where the potato grew in 
 abundance. In the Chibcha language the potato is Yorai ; in Peru this root is known 
 as Papa. Tschudi says, there is no word in Quichua for potato, but in the Chinchay- 
 suyo it is Acsu. The patata is called camote in Peru, but its Quichua name is Apicliu. 
 
 ^ Humboldt observes : That before the introduction of hieroglyphical painting 
 the Mexicans used the Quipu (this Prescott doubts) and which is not only found 
 among the Canadians, but in remote times amongst the Chinese, a.d. 554, the rviin of 
 the Tsin dynasty occasioned great disturbances in Eastern Asia, and about this period 
 the Toltecs were coming south ; a.d. 6i8 is given as the change from the Quipu to 
 painting in Mexico. The Scyris, or kings of Quito, were between the Chibchas and 
 Peruvians, and the Quipu does not appear to have been known to the Scyris. It 
 seems to me that the Chibchas obtained the Quipu at the time of the conquest 
 of Quito by the Peruvians. The leaves of the Ki is used among the women of tlie 
 Sandwich islands as the Quipu. 
 
They had stone instruments for tilling the land ; they masticated the 
 narcotic hayo (the coca of the Peruvians) with Pic or Mambi (an . 
 alcaline ash). Inde, a word of affirmation, was similar to the English 
 word indeed. 
 
 The Coconucos still believe in evil spirits. Evil is Puil, likewise the 
 name of the moon. Pansig, another term for the devil. Good they 
 expect from Puitcher, also the name for the sun ; the stars Sil, the 
 pleiades site-silg ; the word site may come from the Spanish word siete ; 
 the planets, Silg or Sull ; the month Canapuil, or a moon. 
 
 The wild Indians are generally polygamists, and some — as the 
 Groijeros — have a wife for household affairs : another, who is the 
 superior, for hunting and war. 
 
 The fierce and unsubdued Groajiros^ inhabit the base of the mountains 
 of Santa Marta. When arms have failed against the savages, the 
 Spaniards have resorted to missionaries to subjugate them. Even these 
 have failed with the Goajiros, who would make a priest load his 
 own shoulders with the things his peons had brought, and thus conduct 
 him to their borders. 
 
 Amongst the Goajiros a maternal uncle was counted a nearer relative 
 than the father, " the child of a man's wife may be his, or it may 
 not ; but beyond a peradventure the son of the daughter of his mother 
 must be his nephew." 
 
 Eor interesting statistics^ of New Granada I refer to G. 
 MoUien,'^ who observes, that documents of every kind are scarce ; 
 the journals, the memoirs of the viceroys, in which such valuable 
 materials for American Statistics were to be found, have all been carried 
 off or burnt ; the members of the government (the Eepublican) are 
 themselves in a great degree ignorant of the details of administration. 
 In 1817,-'^ the Spanish General, Murillo, was successful against the 
 Republicans. His entry into Bogota was the signal for the most 
 sanguinary executions ; he immolated more than 600 persons, including 
 the men of talent : he caused their books and manuscripts to be brought 
 to the public square and burnt. When the botanist, Caldas, was called 
 upon to deliver up his precious papers, he exclaimed : " Take my life, 
 but leave the manuscripts, they are treasures indeed ; they have been 
 the work of my entire life ; there are things there, discoveries, never 
 to be found again if you destroy my writings. Eor the love of God, 
 save those papers ! take them — if you like — to the King of Spain, for 
 they belong to my country ; better that this treasure sliould be in the 
 
 1 Ilolton's N. Granada, 27. 
 
 2 Colombia, in 1822-3. 
 '■* La Creation et ses Mysteres Depoiles, ]iar A. Snider, iOl. — Paris, 8vo, 1858. 
 
hands of an enemy, than destroyed ; posterity will bless you." Murillo 
 ordered the execution of Caldas, and burnt twelve cart-loads of his 
 manuscripts and books ! Caldas was born in Popayan, 1771. Shot 
 in 1816.1 
 
 There was published in Bogota, the " Papal Periodico de Santa Fe de 
 Bogota,"'- and alluded toby the"Mercurio Peruano," in its lirst number, 
 of 1791. The " Mercurio" hoped, that before 1800 similar journals would 
 appear in Buenos Ayres and Chile. The " Mercurio " went on for a few 
 years, but was stopped by order of the Spanish government. However 
 such periodical works gave much information relative to the ancient 
 and modern history of the country and were important movers 
 in the revolution which caused the colonies to separate from the mother 
 country. 
 
 Before entering into details of the history of the Chibchas, I may 
 mention that the principal city of that nation was Santa Fe de Bogota, 
 then called Theusaquillo, in 4° 36' N., 74° 14' W. Its mean tempera- 
 ture is 58° Fahr., is 8650 feet above the sea. Present population, 
 50,000 souls ; and, situated on a plateau surrounded by mountains, the 
 country is subject to frequent earthquakes. 
 
 The present population of the Republic is as follows : 
 
 Whites ..... 450,000 ) Intelligent and 
 
 Whites, as Quaterones and Mestizos . 1,029.000 S active. 
 
 Indians, civilized . 310,000 . ,^^ ^^^ "^ Patient, suspi- 
 
 Tndians, uncivilized . 120,000 4wi,uuu ^ ^.^^^^ frugal. 
 
 Mulattos and Zambos . . 383,000 Strong, intelli- 
 
 gent, brave. 
 
 Negroes, Ethiopic race . . 80,000 Patient, distrustful. 
 
 In 1843. — The census gave a popiJation of 1,932,279 
 
 " 1851.— Ditto ditto 2,243,730 
 
 " 1858.— Estimated at . . 2,500,000 
 
 M. Reclus-'^ states, that before the Conquest, N. Grranada had a 
 population of eight millions.^ 
 
 1 Holton 265. Biography of Caldas, 
 
 2 See Seminario Granadino, Paris edition, 1859— was commenced in 1808 by 
 Caldas, called by Holton the G-ranadan Frankhn. 
 
 3 Bulletin de la Soc : de Geographic de Paris, Jan. et Eev., 1859. 
 ** See Chronological Table of N. Granada, Holton 593. 
 
8 
 
 HISTOET OF THE CHIBCITAS OE MUISCAS.i 
 
 The country of the Chibchas- comprehended the table-Lands of 
 Eogota and Tunja, the vallies of Fusagasuga, Pacho, Caqueza, and Tensa, 
 the territories of Ubate, Chiquinquini, Moniquira, and Leyva, and then 
 by Santa Eosa and Sogomoso to the highest jjart of the Cordillera, 
 from whence are seen the plains of Casanare. Its most extreme point 
 to the N. is about Serinza in 6° N., and in the S. Suma Paz in 4°. Its 
 length is near 45 leagues, the width from 12 to 15. 
 
 The greater portion of the population living in a cold climate without 
 cattle, had to be careful and industrious, and had such abundance, 
 that they sent to neighbouring districts gold in barter for fish and 
 fruits of the hot countries. 
 
 The Chibchas were bounded on the "W. by the Musos, Colimas, and 
 Panches, warrior and ferocious tribes, with whom they were in continual 
 hostility. On the N. were the Laches^ Agataes, and Guanes, and on 
 the E. by small tribes, who inhabited the country towards the plains, 
 or in the slopes of the eastern cordillera. 
 
 Three principal chiefs governed the Chibchas with absolute power, 
 and were blindly obeyed. The Zipa lived at Muequeta (Funza) ; the 
 country then was surrounded by lakes and arms of the river that 
 watered the beautiful plain, in the centre of which was the city. The 
 Zaque first resided at Eamiriqui,^ afterwards at Hunsa or Tunja ; lastly, 
 the chief of Iraca, who represented the theocratic element, as the 
 successor of Nemterequetaba, the first civiliser of these regions, and who 
 came to them from the East, by Pasca, and disappeared at Suamos 
 or Sogomoso ; from which point, towards the plains, the natives made 
 a broad road, which was to be seen at the end of the 17th century. 
 
 The Usaques, or chiefs of the towns of Ebaque, Guasca, Guatavita, 
 Zipiquira, Fusagasuga, and Ebate, had only, in later times, lost their 
 independence. The Zipa subjected them, but they preserved their juris- 
 diction and succession to the caciqueship, reserving to himself the power 
 of nomination when there was no heir, in which case he generally 
 chose from amongst the Guechas or military chiefs who commanded on 
 his frontiers. 
 
 1 Translated from " Compendio Historico del Descubrimiento j Colonization de 
 laNueva Granada, por el Coronel Joaquin Acosta, 8o. Paris, 1848. 
 
 - Sometimes called Muiscas, and was, after the Mexican and Peruvian nations> 
 the next or third group of aborigines, who had claims to civilization. 
 
 3 See Velez further on, for Pre^Chibcha remains. The country of the Zaque was 
 called Quimi-Zaque, E'er v as. —Stevenson I., 399. Ilunca or Hunsa may mean, Jwl^ 
 citi/.—'F\inzsi, said to have been the C apital of the Muiseas, the most powerful of the 
 Chibcha nations in N. Granada.— Holton, 202. 
 
The Zaque of Hunsa had likewise some tributary chiefs, ])iit tiie 
 Zipa continued to enlarge his dominions to the N. at the expense of liis 
 neighbour. Had the Spaniards not arrived when they did it is probable 
 that the Zipa of Bogota would have been the master of the whole 
 of the Chibcha^ territory, if we may judge from the rapid conquests he 
 had made. 
 
 The Zipa we have some notice of was Saguanmachica, who began to 
 govern about 1470. He conquered the Sutagaos, and their chief, 
 Usathama, who, assisted by the cacique Tibacui, came to defend the 
 valley of Eusagasuga near Pazca, where the open country commences. 
 
 The Sutagaos made but little resistance, and Tibacui being wounded, 
 advised Usathana to submit to the Zipa, so as to preserve his state from 
 devastation. 
 
 Saguanmachica descended with his army from the paramo or elevated 
 plains of Tusinga to Pasca, which had then a well-beaten road to 
 the valley of the Magdalena, he marched over the pleasant country 
 of the valley of Fusagasuga, and returned to the table-land of Bogota 
 by the mountains of Subya. 
 
 The Zipa then prepared to extend his dominions towards the 
 E. and N. He had many encounters with the cacique Ebaque (blood 
 
 IDf wood) now Ubaque, to w^hom all the towns of the valley of Caqueza 
 jdelded obedience. He then went towards Choconta, where Michua, the 
 Zaque of Hunza, awaited him wdth his army. The battle was fought 
 xith. such obstinacy that both chiefs fell, and the two armies retired to 
 )ury their dead and indulge in prolonged drunkenness, which was the 
 justom when celebrating joy or grief. 
 
 Saguanmachica reigned twenty years, and was succeeded by Neme- 
 [uene (bone of lion), he sent his nephew and heir, Thisquezuza^, to 
 shastise the Sutagoas, who had rebelled, and for which end he made 
 k wide road by the mountains of Subya, portions of which was seen for 
 Qany years after the conquest. 
 
 To subject the cacique Guatavita (end of the mountains), jSTemequene 
 lad recourse not only to force but to cunning, and taking advantage of 
 
 mandate of Gruatavitas, which ordained that none of his people, who 
 vere celebrated for their industry and ability in the working of gold and 
 
 ^ Chibcha may have been the name given by the Spaniards to the inhabitants, 
 'om the divinity Chibchachum, to protect or support. Muisca, means a man. Cim- 
 inimarca, from Cundi-rumarca, seems rather an imaginary name for a portion 
 ■f this country. Yelez lias but httle behef that the people of this part of IS". Granada 
 ailed themselves either Muiscas or Chibchas. Muisca comes from Mu, the body ; 
 sea, five, or body of five extremities. 
 
 - In the province of Tarapaca, South Peru, is a family named Quispe-Sugso, 
 laiming descent from the Incas, 
 
10 
 
 jewels, that they should not absent themselves to any neighbouring 
 country without two from thence taking their place to work and i 
 pay tribute : thus Nemequene filled Guatavita with his adherents ; he 
 also gained over to his side the cacique Gruasca,^ and approaching 
 cautiously one night by the neighbouring heights, and at a pre-concerted , 
 signal, by means of fires, the Bogotans surprised the unprepared chief, ' 
 killing his best soldiers, and in this way was Gruatavita added to 
 the dominions of the Zipa. 
 
 He then went against Ubaque, who ruled over the temperate valley 
 situated behind the mountains to the E. of Bogota, now known j 
 as Caqueza, in which conquest he passed some months. 
 
 Proceeding to Zipiquira he prepared to enter the territory of Ebate 
 (spilt blood). Although this cacique was the most powerful, he did 
 not rule : neither in Susa (white straw), nor in Simijaca (owl's beak). 
 The chiefs of these places joined the forces of XJbate, and prepared 
 to defend a narrow pass — the Boqueron of Tausa — a position easily 
 defended, had these three chiefs been of one mind ; but it was taken by 
 the Bogotans in consequence of the discord amongst them ; and 
 the country was soon conquered to Savoya.- 
 
 The Zipa now believed that he could revenge old quarrels, resolved to 
 march upon Tunja with more than 40,000 men. The Zaque, assisted 
 by the chief of Suamoz, went out to meet the Zipa near Choconta, and 
 proposed to settle the question by single combat with the Zipa, so 
 as to spare the blood of his people. The Zipas ofiicers would not 
 accede to this ofier, telling him that it was beneath his dignity 
 to measure arms with an inferior. A bloody battle then ensued near the 
 stream of the Yueltas. There were 100,000 combatants, and although 
 they had only macanas (a wooden weapon like a sword) darts, tiraderas 
 de carrizo (sort of arrows), and slings, the fight was a terrible one. 
 The Zipa, seriously wounded, was taken from the field, leaving Hunsa 
 victorious. Nemequene was borne on a litter to Muequeta, but five 
 
 ^ Tin's is a Quicheua word for rope ; also the name of the last Inca, and spelt 
 Guasca or Huasca. 
 
 2 There was a very ancient Aymara chief in the P. of Tarapaca, S. Peru, named 
 Taita or father Savaya ; he was the rival of Taita Jaehura for the hand of Mama 
 Huanapa. The rivals fought, and Savaya's head was taken as a trophy to Huanapa. 
 There are three high mountains in Tarapaca named after these worthies ; the 
 mountain of Taita Jaehura is 17,000 feet above the level of the sea, and was 
 ascended by Mr. Smith and myself when surveying the province, Taita Sayava is 
 20,000 feet. There is the Indian town of Sibaya to the S. of T. Jaehura. — Geogra- 
 phical Soc. Journal, 121, 1851. 
 
 I 
 
11 
 
 (lays after his arrival he died, leaving as hia successor Thisquezuza, 
 wbom the Spaniards found ruling the country.^ Thisquezuza, after 
 having re-organised his army, subjected the Caciques of Cucunuba, 
 Tibirita, and Garagoa, and was on the point of going to war with 
 the Zaque of Hunsa ; but, for the intervention of Nompaneme, of 
 Suamoz, who, in consequence of his religious influence, induced tliem to 
 conclude a, truce for twenty moons. 
 
 It would appear that at an early period the Chibcha territory was 
 subject to the Zaque of Hunsa, but to prevent civil war he nominated 
 Hunsahua, the pontif of Iraca, to be the great chief, and who 
 was succeeded by his descendants to Thomagata, a great wizard, known 
 under t]ie name of the great tailed chief, because he dragged a 
 tail under his dress, and said he had the power of changing men 
 into animals. Thomagata had no children, and his brother, Tutasua, 
 
 ucceeded him. By degrees his successors lost power in the IST. until 
 their lands were threatened under their last Zaque Quemunchatocha, 
 to be incorporated into those of the Zipa of Bogota. At the time 
 of the conquest, the jurisdiction of Hunsa or Tunja in the E. was to the 
 Cordillera ; to the W. to Sachica and Tinjaca ; in the S. to Turmeque ; 
 but in the N. was the cacique of Tundama, who was independent ; and 
 the sacred lands of Iraca or Sugamuxi (the disappeared). This last 
 ehief and priest, alternately elected from the people of the towns 
 of Tobaza and Firibitoba, by the four neighbouring chiefs, Cameza, 
 Busbanza, Pesca, and Toca, so ordained by Nemterequetaba or Idacanza, 
 the instructor of the Chibchas at his death, which he purposely hid from 
 the people, so that his words might have a holy sanction ; this law was 
 in force for centuries, when, on a certain occasion, a bold chief of 
 Firibitoba wished to usurp the sacerdotal power, he was abandoned by 
 his people, and perislied in a miserable manner. 
 
 The Heaveis" oe the Chibcuas ais^d Mythological TRAOiTioifs. 
 -At the beginning of the world the light was enclosed in a very large 
 something the Chibchas know not how to describe, but they called it 
 Chiminigagua or the Creator ; the first things that came from it were 
 ;ome black birds, which, flvino^ about the world, threw from their beaks 
 a resplendaut air, that ilkimined the earth. After Chiminigagua, the 
 
 ^ In 1538 or 9, died near Bogota, Zaqueszipa, the last Zipa of the Muiseas, 
 I'' witli extraordinary fevers ;" these fevers — burnings — are supposed to have referred 
 ;o the applications of heated horse-shoes to his feet, and other similar torments 
 y Quesada. The object was to make him tell what had become of the treasures of 
 lis cousin Tisquesusa, whose kingdom he had usurped, when Quesada murdered him- 
 -Holton, 248. 
 
 I 
 
12 
 
 objects most venerated were the suu and moon, its companion. ^ The 
 world was peopled in the following manner : Shortly after early 
 morn of the first day, there came forth from the lake of Iguaque, four 
 leagues JN". of Tunja, a beautiful female, named Bachue or Euzachogua, 
 (meaning a good woman), with a boy three years of age. They descended 
 to the plain, where they resided until the boy was grown up, when 
 Bachue became his wife ; and in them commenced the peopling of the 
 world, which went on with great rapidity. Many years having passed, 
 and seeing that the land was populated, they returned to the same lake, 
 and, turning themselves into serpents, disappeared in its waters. The 
 Chibchas venerated Bachue, and statues of gold and wood are still to be 
 seen representing her and the boy at various ages. The natives believed 
 that the souls left the bodies of the dead, went to the centre of the 
 earth by yellow and black roads and precipices ; first passing a great 
 river on floats made of cobwebs, for which reason it was not permitted 
 to kill the spider. In the future state, each nation had its particular 
 location, so that they could cultivate the ground. Bochica was adored 
 as their beneficent Deity, and Chibchacum as the particular Deity of the 
 Chibchas, and especially the one who assisted in the cultivation of the 
 soil, had care of traders and workers in silver. Bochica was the particu- 
 lar Deity of the Ubsaques, Neucatocoa was the Deity of the painters 
 of mantles and weavers, he presided over the customary drunken revels, 
 and the hauling of timber from the woods. He was represented as a 
 bear covered with a mantle and dragging his tail along. To him was not 
 made offerings of gold, beads, &c., as to the others, because they said 
 it was enough that he dra-nk his fill of chicha- with them. This Chib- 
 cha Bacchus was a slow, dull, and indecorous Deity ; he was not held in 
 veneration, and they said he danced and sang with them. They called 
 Eo or Sorro, the Deity who had charge of the boundaries of their 
 fields, and his place in the processions and feasts was called Chaquen ; to 
 liim was oftered the feathers and diadems with which they adorned them- 
 selves for battle, or for their feasts. 
 
 The goddess Bachue, mother of the human race, had charge also of 
 the fields and their produce, and they burnt moque, and other incense 
 to her honour. 
 
 ^ In the Chibcha language, Zue, Xue, Sua, Zupa, or Gagua, was the Sun, 
 or the clay ; Chia, the Moon or Za night ; these were adored as the representatives 
 
 of the Supreme Power, called Ullco, Chibia or Hibia. In the Quichua, Inti was the 
 
 Sun, QuiUa the Moon. Pacha-camae, he who gives life to the Universe, was tlie 
 
 Invisible God of the coast nations of Peru, and not that of lacas ; and Viracocha is 
 
 a later idea of God. 
 
 - Chiclia was called in N. Granada, Aba. 
 
i:-] 
 
 They adored the rainbow, under the name of Ciichavira, and was 
 he Deity in particular of those wko suffered from agues, and was invoked 
 )y women in labour. The offerings made to this Deity were small 
 
 meralds, grains of gold, of low standard, and beads, of various colours, 
 jrocured by barter from the natives of the coast. It is said that Chib- 
 ;hacum, angry at the excesses of the inhabitants of the table-land of 
 
 ogotii, resolved to punish them. He caused the waters of the Sapo 
 ind Tibito (principal affluents of the Funza, which formerly ran towards 
 )ther regions, but were transformed into a lake) to deluge the coun- 
 ry. The Chibchas fled to the mountains, and implored Bochica, who 
 ippeared at sun-set on a rainbow ; he convoked the nation, promised to 
 emedy their ills, by not damming up their rivers, so that their lands 
 night be properly watered. Then, throwing the rod of gold he had in 
 lis hands, he opened a breach at Tequendama ; the waters fell down 
 he precipice, discovering to them the plain, and more fertile than before^. 
 
 ochica did not limit his power to tliis act, and to chastise Chibchacum 
 or having thus afflicted man, he obliged him to bear the burthen of 
 arth, which was previously supported by pillars of guayacan wood.^ 
 Jnfortunately, this measure has brought with it its inconvenience, for 
 ince then, at times, there are severe earthquakes, which the Indians say 
 re caused by Chibchacum, tired of being in one position, shifts the 
 veight of earth from one shoulder to the other, and, according to the 
 are with which he does this hoisting, so is the intensity of the earth- 
 luake. 
 
 Observation leads to the belief that the Andes is one of the last 
 )rotuberances formed on our planet, and, at the same time, in few tra- 
 
 itions is it so plainly seen the geological explanation of a deluge as in 
 ;his of the Chibchas. 
 
 Temples ais^d Priests. — Their temples were not in general of 
 I sumptuous character, for the reason that they preferred making 
 heir offerings in the open air, as to lakes, cascades, and elevated rocks, 
 .n these temples, were large buildings, near to which resided the 
 jreques or priests ; there were vases of various forms to receive the 
 )fferings, or figures of clay, with a hole in the upper part, or plain jars 
 
 ^ The Indians had a tradition that Chia, Yubecayguaya, or Huitaca, a beautiful 
 ut maHcious divinity, flooded the country, driving the inhabitants to the mountains, 
 Jotschica, her husband, called also Zuhe and Is emquetaba, transformed her into the 
 noon, strack the barrier ridge with his staff, made the falls of Tequendama, drained 
 he plains, and then retired to Sogomoso, where he reigned 2000 years. — Holton, 126. 
 
 - Huayacan, or holy wood, is a large tree ; its wood does not rot under wattr, 
 mt even becomes liarder, may be a Gruayacum. This same wood was used in Peru, 
 lid preferred for their arms and idob, it resisted tools of copper. 
 
14 
 
 buried up to the mouth ; these remaiued open until filled with beads, 
 bars, or tiles of j^old, and figures of the same metal, representing 
 animals, and other valuable articles, ofiered in times of their necessities, 
 preparing themselves previously by severe fasting, the devout, as well as 
 the Geques.^ These last had a college called Cuca, where those who 
 dedicated themselves to the priesthood, entered w^hen very young; here 
 tliey submitted for ten or twelve years to a rigorous diet, eating only 
 once a day, and that food a small portion of ground maze with water, 
 and rarely fish, the quapucha. During this period they were taught 
 various ceremonies: the computation of time, the tradition of which, as ■ 
 well as all the others, were preserved by the Geques, who were the " 
 depositories of the abstract knowdedge of the Chibchas, which was lost ji 
 immediately after the conquests, because this class of men were the 
 most persecuted by the Spaniards. They had celebrated temples ; 
 such a one was that of Sumaoz, burnt by the Spaniards the night they 
 took the town. 
 
 WoESHiP OF THE SuN. — This w^as the only Deity to whom they ofiered 
 sacrifices of human blood, killing young prisoners, and sprinkling with 
 their blood the stones on which the first rays of the sun shone. These 
 sacrifices, the processions, and solemn dances they performed on the 
 sunas or roads, from the door of the habitation of the Cacique to some 
 particular spot, generally some neighbouring ridge or height ; and, lastly, 
 the care with which the Guesa-^ was educated : a victim whose heart 
 was torn from his body, every fifteen years, all had a direct and sym- 
 bolic relation with the division of time, the calendar, and the ingenious | 
 and necessary intercalations, so as to make coincide exactly the course 
 of the heavenly bodies, W'hich directed their times of sowing and j 
 harvest.^ The sanguinary and dramatic character of the sacrifices was ; 
 calculated upon by the legislator of the Chibcha's to call the attention \ 
 of the peopde, in such a w^ay, that they should never forget w^hat so much 
 interested them to know, and was a substitute for the Quipos of the 
 Peruvians. 
 
 The principal places of adoration of the Chibchas were lakes, where 
 they could make off"erings of the most precious things, without fear of ; 
 
 ^ The Muiscas had a great many idols, rudely sculptured, in gold, silver, wood, and ' 
 wax. A male idol was placed by the side of a female idol. — T. Compans, Cundina- i 
 marca, 38. 
 
 - The sacrifice of a beautiful yovith to the god Tezcatlepoca, or soul of the 
 world, is of this character. — Prescott, Con. Mex. i., 62. Here the tragic story of the 
 prisoner was expounded by the priests as the type of human destiny, which brilliant 
 in its commencement, too often closes in sorrow and disaster. 
 
 3 I have made a translation of the memoir by Duquesue on the calendar of the ; 
 Muiscas, as it stands in J. Acosta's work, which will be found further on. 
 
 i 
 
15 
 
 Mtliers profiting by them ; for ulthough they had confideiu-e in their 
 pi'iests, and knew that they carefully buried the offerings in tlie vases 
 destined to receive them, they were naturally more secure when they 
 tiirew these objects themselves into lakes and rivers. 
 
 The lake of Guatavita was the most celebrated of these sanctuaries ; 
 and each town had its path to go down to the lake and offer its sacrifices. 
 Two cords were stretched across the lake so as to form ri^ht anirles, 
 and to the intersection went the raft with the G-eques. Here the mira- 
 culous Cacica and her daughter were invoked, whom, they said, lived at 
 the bottom in a delicious i*etreat, from the period, when in a moment of 
 anger with another chief, her husband threw her into the lake ; and here 
 they made her offerings. Each lake had its tradition ; and pilgrimages 
 to these sanctuaries were common amongst the Chibchas. 
 
 At the period when the chief of Guatavita^ was an independent one, ' 
 he made, annually, a solemn sacrifice, which for its singularity contributed 
 to give celebrity to this lake, even to distant lands, and was the origin 
 of the belief in the El Dorado^ ; in search of which, so many years and 
 so much money was thrown away. On the appointed day, he anointed 
 his body with turpentine (resin), then rolled himself up in gold-dust; 
 thus gilded and resplendent, he embarked on the raft, surrounded by 
 the Xeques, and in the midst of music and singing of the crowds cover- 
 ing the declivities, arrived at the centre. The chief deposited the 
 jofterings of gold, emeralds, and other precious objects, and he, at the 
 |same time, threw himself into the waters to bathe. At this moment 
 [the neighbouring hills resounded with acclamations. This religious 
 ■eremony being over, they commenced dancing, singing, and drinking. 
 Lu their monotonous songs they repeated the ancient history of their 
 country, and what they knew of its deities, heroes, battles, and other 
 memorable events, which were thus transmitted to posterity. At the 
 loor of the chiefs dwelling, who presided at the feasts, sat two naked 
 
 ^ On the edge of the conical summit in which Lake Guatavita is situated, 
 are two tombs of chiefs, hewn in the sandstone.— Cochraue's Travels, ii., 253. La 
 Creation et ses Mysteres Devoiles, j^ar A. Snider, 395. The Lake of Guatavita 
 IS 3000 feet above the sea. At the conquest, the natives were persecuted for 
 then- treasures, when they threw their gold and precious stones into the lake. 
 The agents of Capt. Cochrane drained it partially, and found a few small golden 
 ligures. Guatavita is said to mean fire of the mountains, or volcanic fire. I 
 have it elsewhere, end of the moimtains. In 1562, gold figures were taken out of the 
 lake, consisting of an alligator, tliirteen toads or frogs, and three monkeys. In 1750, 
 another search was made. Also in 1818, by A. M. Joseph, Paris.— T. Com pans, 50. 
 
 2 Account of expeditions in search of El Dorado, supposed by some to be 
 near Lake Parima, 3° N. and 36° W. Paris.— Depons iii., 275. 
 
16 
 
 Indians, playing upon the chirimia,^ a wind instrument, sad and shrill, 
 covered only with a fishing net, which was the symbol of death, for, 
 they said, we should never lose sight of death, especially in times of 
 rejoicing. They had, besides, races and betting amongst the young men, 
 the Chief rewarding the more swift. 
 
 Civil GtOyernment. — The government of the Zipa was despotic, 
 as was that of the Zaque of Hunsa. The Zipa made the laws, adminis- 
 tered justice, and commanded the troops, and so profound was the 
 veneration in which he was held that no one dared to look him straight 
 in the face.^ All who approached the Zipa had to bring a present 
 according to his means, but he accepted nothing from those who came 
 to be judged ; he had hundreds of concubines called Thiguyes, but one 
 woman only was recognised as his wife. It was considered an honour 
 for the Zipa to ask for the daughter or sister of any one to place 
 amongst the number of his Thiguyes. Illicit aftairs with these 
 was severely punished ; moreover, the heavy fines imposed upon the 
 culpable one to save him from death, was a considerable item of the re- 
 venue of the Zipa. 
 
 The Zipa's heir was the eldest son of his sister, who, at ten 
 years of age, was sent to a dwelling at Chia, where he had to undergo a 
 series of fastings, and where he was instructed for some years. This 
 one, as well as all the other chiefs, were inducted into their offices by 
 the Zipa, and the nephew was the chief of Chia until the death 
 of the Zipa. 
 
 The cercado, or palace of the Zipa, in Muequeta, had many depart- 
 ments for habitations, and warehouses for clothing and food. He' 
 had a country residence and gardens in Tabio, where he went to batht 
 in tepid waters. He had another dwelling in Tinansuca, a temperate 
 climate, on the descent of the Cordillera, where he passed some months 
 and finally, in Theusaquillo, a place of pleasure, and where, afterwards 
 the capital of N. Granada was founded ; here he retired after the 
 harvest ceremonies were over, and when the plain was dry and burnt bj 
 the summer sun. 
 
 Crimes A.ND Punishments. — Homicide, rape, and incest werepunishec 
 by death ; the incestuous one was put into a subterranean place witb 
 venemous creatures, where he died of starvation. Those convicted o1 
 unnatural crimes were empaled. He who paid not his contributions 
 or debts, the Usaque sent a messenger with a small tiger (jagua) oi 
 similar animals, bred for this purpose, which was tied to the door of the 
 
 ^ Probably a sort of flute. The Tata was a wooden trumpet. 
 - The Ineas of Peru exacted the same observance. 
 
17 
 
 debtor, who had to feed it as well as the messenger, until the debt 
 was paid. He who showed co^rdice in war was dressed as a woman 
 and employed for a time in female occupations. Eobberies and other 
 offences were punished by flogging in men ; women had their hair cut 
 off. When a woman was suspected of inconstancy, they forced her to 
 eat a large quantity of red pepper, if she confessed, she had water 
 given to her, and then she was killed ; if she resisted this mode 
 of torment for some hours, she was declared innocent, and an apology 
 made to her. 
 
 Othee Laws. — Only the Zipa was carried on men's shoulders, 
 on a litter, by his subjects, or by such Usaques whose great services in the 
 field entitled them to this privilege. Permission was necessary to have 
 the nose and ears pierced, so as to wear ornaments, except by the 
 Xeques and Usaques who had this right when they took possession of 
 their office. The Indians generally painted themselves with achote 
 (bixia) ; also clothed themselves with new and clean mantles, but 
 the mantle with figures and lines made with a brush in black and red, 
 could only be worn by order of the Zipa. 
 
 Only by permission of the Zipa could game be eaten, except by 
 the Usaques. 
 
 Various Customs. — "When a man wished to be married lie 
 sent a mantle to the parents of his intended bride, and if after 
 eight days it was not returned, he sent another : then, con- 
 sidering himself accepted, he seated himself, at night, at the 
 3oor of his future bride, and indirectly made it known he was 
 :here. The maiden opened the door, holding a totuma^ or gourd, 
 'ull of chicha, and having sipped, she gave to her lover to drink. 
 Marriage was celebrated before the Xeque, and the couple being 
 mited by their arms, the priest asked the maiden whether she preferred 
 Bochicha to her husband, — her husband to her children — if she 
 oved her children more than herself — and if she would abstain from 
 -Ibod whilst her husband was hungry. Then directing himself to the 
 usbaud, told him to say, with a loud voice, if he wished to 
 ave the woman for his wife, and this ended the ceremony. 
 
 But a man might have as many women as he could maintain, 
 articularly if he were a Usaque, but only one was the legitimate 
 
 ife. The matrimonial rites varied in the several Chibcha tribes. 
 
 The Zipa being dead, the Xeques abstracted his entrails, filling 
 
 ' Tuluma, op the coast of Esmgraldas (Equador). 
 
18 
 
 the cavities with melted resin ■} the body was then laid in a cofEn 
 of palm-tree wood, lined inside and out with sheets of gold ; it 
 was then secretly taken and buried in a cave, made from the day he 
 commenced his reign, in a distant and secret place : these regal 
 and rich tombs have never yet been met with. "With the Usaqnes 
 and other principal Indians were buried their favourite wives and 
 a number of their retainers, who were previously made to take 
 the juice of a narcotic plant ; food was put into the tombs, jewels 
 of gold, arms, and chicha made of fermented maize, of which they were 
 very fond. Six days were allotted for mourning, and the anniversary was 
 also solemnized. At this period they repeated, in a singing tone, the life 
 and actions of the departed. 
 
 T!ie mass of the people were buried with their jewels, arms and 
 food, in the open country, without Jfny other sign than planting a tree 
 to protect the grave ; not naked, but clothed in their best robes. There 
 were also tumuli which served as cemeteries, from whence human ! 
 bones, objects of gold and deers* horns have been taken, proving that 
 the Indians were buried with trophies of the chase, or, probably, with 
 deer, as provision in the other world. The most considerable cemeteries 
 known, are those of the Hill of the Sanctuary, near the Puente Grande, 
 four leagues W. of Bogota, and the hills of Caqueza, from w^hence, on one 
 occasion, 24,000 ducats worth of gold was extracted. In the Province of 
 Tunja, in caverns, are found many mummies, well preserved : some witK | 
 fine painted mantles, such as were used by the principal Indians, all these 
 bodies are seated, the forefingers tied with cotton strings. j 
 
 AGRictrLTURE, Iis^DTJSTEY AND CoMMEEOE. — It has already been 
 observed that the Chibchas had no cattle ; neither did they know the 
 use of iron, and that their instruments for tilling the land were of wood 
 or stone. The potato, sweet potato, maize and quinua, were the< 
 principal vegetables cultivated ; indeed, they may be called essentially 
 an agricultural people, to whom the frog or toad, as an emblem! 
 of humidity, served as a base for their system of numeration, audi 
 for their calendar ; they had two harvests of potatoes and one oi' 
 maize, in the colder portions, and it was there the greater number of thei 
 people dwelt. '| 
 
 "With respect to the cultivation of the quinua, now abandoned, w(j 
 have no particulars. The seed of the plant is very nutritious, and it i: 
 probable it was eaten in the form of a porridge, such as they madij 
 with maize, seasoning it with salt, red pepper and savoury herbs. In thi| 
 hot vallies they had the yuca (jatropha) ; the arracache (oxalis cremata)j 
 in the temperate regions, and some vegetables ; but we do not know if the; 
 
 ' 
 
 lie 
 
 iiiitii 
 
 ^ Velez says black bees-wax. 
 
 1 
 
19 
 
 used the fecula of the choco bianco (lupinus) as they did in Quito. 
 We are ignorant if they, as the. Mexicans, extracted sugar from the 
 maize-cane, not having the sugar-cane, which was brought from the Old 
 World; or, if they only used honey, found abundantly amongst the 
 declivities of the Cordillera. The plantain, now so abundant in N. 
 Grranada, that it may be said to form half the food of the population, was 
 not cultivated in olden times or known, excepting in the province of 
 Choco. It is calculated that ground, yielding wheat for the sustenance 
 of one man, would grow plantains for twenty-five men.^ 
 
 The most important production, which served these Chibchas to barter 
 with, and for which they obtained gold, was the salt of Zipiquira and 
 Nemocon ; this they prepared from brine springs, by boiling in earthen 
 vessels. At present, rock salt is extracted from these localities. 
 
 They had also cotton mantles, woven by the women, when their other 
 domestic affairs were finished.- The natives of Gruatavita were 
 celebrated for their ability in working grain gold (extracted from the 
 sands of the Magdalena, or from the province of Guane, Griron, &c.), 
 into figures of animals, the inlaying of shells for cups, used at their feasts, 
 and thin plates of gold which served for belts and bracelets. The 
 painters of mantles, which article Avas taken to all the markets, were 
 jChibchas. They worked figures in relief,"^ on hard stone, (but we are 
 not informed by what means). 
 
 ^ The weather affects national character directly, by means of dress, and indirectly 
 
 lirough i>.gricultural products, the most important of them in this respect is thj 
 Watano, or plantain. The plantain saves man more labour than steam. It gives hiin 
 
 he greatest amount of food fx*om a given piece of ground, and with a labour so small 
 ^lliat that of raising it to the mouth, after roasting, is a material point of it. " ]S'ew 
 O'K-ranada would be something" says my neighbour Caldas, " if we could exterminate 
 
 16 platano and the cane : this is the parent of drunkenness and idleness." — Holton, 23. 
 2 The apparatus for spinning is a stick, with a potato or other weight stuck 
 
 t the other end.— llolton, 289. 
 
 The loom for weaving is a square frame ; threads of warp, wound aa on 
 reel, (this is for a ruana, or mantle) the colour being changed so as to 
 
 |roduce the requisite stripes. The woof simply inserted by their industry, without 
 
 hy apparatus to separate tlie threads of the warp, and, of course, without a proper 
 
 Uttle.— Holton, 533. 
 ^ J. Acosta gives a drawing of one of the symbolic stones or calendar engraved by 
 
 le Chibchas, of which a copy is given further on. It is of very hard black Lydian 
 one. I do not find any mention of instruments for cutting or boring hard stones, 
 it for boring a sort of drill must have been used ; for cutting some harder stone, 
 icli as corundum ; the smoothing and polishing would be easy. The Chibchas 
 ) not appear to have used copper, tin, lead or iron ; their working and war 
 ptruraents were of hard wood or stone : gold seems to have been the only metal 
 ed bj them. 
 
 C 2 
 
20 
 
 The Chibcha was probably the only nation of the New World who 
 used gold coin in their exchanges,^ this consisted of discs cast in a 
 mould ; they had no weights, and for measures they only had that 
 which served for measuring maize, called aba, the name also of the 
 grain. The measures of length were the hand and step. 
 
 The most important fair or market of the Chibchas was at Coyaima. 
 in the territory of the Poincas, called by the Spaniards Taporogos, the 
 name of one of its chiefs. These inhabited both sides of the Magdalena 
 from the entrance of the E;. Cuello to Neyva. There was taken salt, 
 emeralds, painted mantles, works in gold, also grain gold. The 
 Chibchas brought from the fairs of the hot countries guacamayas^ or 
 macaws and parrots, and when they had learnt a few words they were 
 sacrificed to their deities ; believing they were a better substitute than 
 human ones. There was another large fair in the country of the cacique 
 Zorocok\, where, subsequently, was founded Puente Eeal on the river, 
 then called Sarabita, to which came the Northern Chibchas, the 
 Agataes, Chipetaes and the industrious Guanes : here they obtained 
 salt for gold, mantles, and woven cotton cloth of various qualities 
 and colours. In the central point of this fair was a large isolated 
 stone, subsequently broken up, and turned out to be silver ore, 
 from which was extracted some 60 marcs,-" (8 oz. to the marc), but the 
 spot from whence this mass of silver ore came has never been known. 
 
 There was another fair in Turmeque, every three days ; and there was 
 seen, independent of other articles, a large quantity of emeralds from 
 Somondoco,* although, at the period of the conquest, the mine was 
 almost worked out (qy ?). ■" 
 
 ^ The ancient Mexicans used quills filled with gold dust, pieces of tm in the 
 form of the letter T ; also balls of cotton and bags of cacao as medium of exchange. 
 The Peruvians used extensively the pod of the capsicum or aji. — See Numismatics or 
 the New World, by W. Bollaert, Numis. Soc, 1837. 
 
 ' Jameson calls El Guacamayo the sacred river. Huaca means sacred in Quichua. 
 Geoirraphical Trans., 1859. The Poinciana Pulcherrima, the yellow and scarlet variety, 
 13 called Mahnche (the name of Cortez's Indian mistress) and Gruacamayo, in Hon- 
 duras, the latter being the name given to the large red parrot, called Ara and Lapa, in 
 other parts of South and Central America, a bird the Maya Indians of Yucatan seems 
 to have considered sacred, and dedicated to the sun. At Itzamal, there was a temple to 
 Kinich Kakme, an idol fashioned like the sun, Avith the beak of a bu'd : he is sur- 
 rounded with rays of fire, and descended to burn the offered sacrifice at mid-day, as 
 the Vacamayu — a bright-feathered parrot— descends in its flight. Froebel's Central 
 America, 181. 
 
 3 This must mean 60 mares, the cajon of 50 cwt. S 
 
 * Emeealds. — The green varieties are found at Muzo, N. of Bogota, 5° 28' N. A 
 specimen from Peru (probably Quito) silica, 68"50, alumina 15'75, glucina 12"50, red 
 
21 
 
 Neither the edifices nor the furniture of the Chibchas were in propor- 
 tion with their other conveni^ces. The dwellings were of wood and 
 day, with conical roof, covered with mats of sedge and rushes, some 
 beaches and couches, doors of cane entertwined with cords and locks 
 of wood, which form is still used in some places. The strong cercadoa 
 (enclosures) and vast court-yards flanked by those round buildings, 
 which, in the distance; looked like towers, was the origin of the name of 
 the valley of the Alcazares, given by Quesada to the plain of Bogota. 
 
 The only Chibcha chief who projected the building of a temple, was 
 Garanchaca ; he usurped the dominions of the Zaque, pretending to be 
 a child of the sun by the damsel Gracheta. She gave birth to 
 a huaca (something sacred), which was converted into a human being, 
 who was brought up with veneration until he was a man, when he killed 
 Hunsa and put himself in his place. This fabulous Graranchaea 
 pretended, as they say, to build a sumptuous temple to his father, the 
 sun ; to which effect he ordered that stones and columns should 
 be brought from the most distant parts of his dominions, but he died 
 ere the building was commenced. 
 
 The mysterious personage, who in remote ages was the legislator of 
 the Chibchas, was not venerated as a deity, but as a holy anvl 
 
 oxide iron 1, hme 0-25, oxide chrome OSO. Tantahc acid and Columbium occur iu 
 some varieties. Fine emeralds can be seen at Carthagena, extracted from the mines of 
 Muzo, by a. French company. This gem is found in attached and imbedded crystals in 
 alluvium. The finest are from veins, in a blue slate, of the age of our lower chalk 
 iu the Yalley of Muzo. One statue of the Virgin, in the Cathedral at Bogota, besides 
 1358 diamonds and other precious stones, has 12J5 emeralds. Xot far from the 
 mountain of Itoco, in the country of the Muzos, was found in 1555 two emeralds, 
 weighing 24,000 castellanos, the castellano is 1,415 grs. Three leagues from Itoco is 
 Abipi, where emeralds are found. 
 
 Tile foLlo^viug was a bi'iba oITarel to a Chiboba chief: twenty maidens, a hundred 
 loads cf cotton, a large quantity of emeralds, idols and figures of animals in gold and 
 silver. 
 
 The rainbow was worshipped by pregnant women among the Chibchas, and 
 emeralds offered. In the East Indies medicinal and tahsmanic virtues are ascribed to 
 this gem. 
 
 The heir to Chibcha power, when received as such, was placed on a throne of 
 gold and emeralds. Tlie litter of the Zipa was ornamented with emeralds. In the 
 eyes, ears, nose, mouth and navel of the dead Zipa, emeralds were placed. 
 
 The Great Exhibition of 1851 contained the finest known emerald, 2 inches lonn^. 
 weighing 8 oz. 18 dwts. It came from Muzo, supposed to have been brought to 
 England by Don Pedro, who sold it to the Duke of Devonshire. 
 
 We are not informed how the Chibchas worked emeralds and otlier hard 
 stones ; but the Mexicans, with tools made of copper and tin, fashioned emeralds into 
 flowers, fish, &c. Cortez sent an emerald to Spain, the base of which was as broad as 
 the palm of the hand. — See Quito Section, for emeralds also. 
 
22 
 
 beneficent man. He is sometimes confounded with Bochica. He is 
 known under the names of Nemterequetaba, Xue, Chuizapagua (or the 
 envoy of God). This ancient individual came, as before-mentioned, 
 from the east ; he wore a long beard, and his hair was tied witli a 
 lillet ; his dress was a tunic without a collar, and a mantle secured by the 
 ends at the shoulders, a dress used by the Cliibchas at the time of the 
 <liscovery of the country, for the poncho and the ruana are of Peruvian 
 origin, introduced after the conquest. 
 
 Xue found the people little better than savages, without other clothing 
 tlian cotton in the rough, tied with cords, and without ideas of society 
 or frovernment. He commenced his exhortations at Bosa, where 
 the Spaniards found a rib, venerated by the Indians, said to have 
 belonged to an animal brought hither by this personage.^ From Bosa 
 Xue went to Muqueta, Fontibon, and then to the town of Cota, at 
 which place he taught and instructed the people, and such was the 
 concourse that came to hear him, that it became necessary to make a 
 fosse round a hill. Not only did he teach them to spin and weave, but 
 wherever he pleased he left painted, in ochre, in various places, the figure 
 of the weaving machine, so that they should not forget its construction. 
 
 Xue then went to the N., descended to the province of Guane, 
 and in the inhabitants there, he found the best disposition for the arts. 
 He not only taught by words, but by works, and passed his long life 
 <*ivilizing the Indians. Ultimately, he disappeared in Sogomoso, leaving 
 a successor to continue the instruction and the guidance of the laws 
 and regulations he had established by general consent, solely by the 
 power of persuasion and example.- As a proof of his wisdom, the fol- 
 lowing regulation was in force at the time of the conquest, that 
 is to say, fourteen centuries after his death : that if the legitimate wife 
 of the IJsaque died first she could prohibit the husband from marrying 
 again until five years were passed. In this manner the IJsaque was 
 careful in pleasing his wife, dreading her future vengeance ; and not 
 being able to do away with polygamy, he invented this method to pro- 
 tect the weaker sex, but it must be stated that tlie Chibchas behaved 
 well to their wives, and took care of the sick and old. 
 
 The Muzos^ were noted for their continual wars with the Muiscas 
 
 ^ It is probable this was the rib of a raastodon, bones of this animal are found in 
 liicaUuvium of Suaeha, where, at present, teeth and other fossil remains are met with. 
 Holton, 273, says, this place is famous for the ^bones of carnivorous elephants 
 once exhumod here. 
 
 - 1. MolHon's Colombia, 558. 
 
of Bogota. Their country was very rich in emeralds. They had a 
 singular tradition ; that there-~was, in ancient times, on the other side 
 of the Magdalena, the shadow of a man, called Ari, which amused 
 itself with making wooden faces of men and women, casting them into 
 the stream, from whence they issued in the form of human beings ; and 
 these he taught to cultivate the earth : they then dispersed, and froui 
 this stock came the Indians who inhabit the surroundius: regions. 
 
 The Muzos had no gods, nor did they worship the sun and moon, as 
 the Bogotans did : they said these bodies were created after the 
 wooden faces, in order to give them light when they became living 
 beings. During the honey-moon, the wife beat the husband. Their 
 dead were dried before a slow fire, and not buried till a year had passed ; 
 the widow was obliged to cultivate the ground for her support until the 
 interment, v/hen her relations took her home. 
 
 Some writers say, there is no doubt that Quetzalcoatl the legis- 
 lator of Mexico,^ Bocbica of Bogota and Manco Capac of Peru, were 
 Budhist Priests;- they also observe, that there is a remarkable analogy 
 between the religion of Budha and Bramah and the Mexican worship ; 
 as Bramah, Vishnu and Siva, form the East Indian trimurti ; so does 
 Ho, Huitzilopoetl and Tlaloc of Mexico, also Con, Pacha-camac and 
 Huiracocha, of the Peruvians. This appears to me to be a mere idea, 
 and to have no foundation ; and as to Con, Pacha-camac and Viracocha, 
 a critical examination shows that such is the confusion as to the history 
 of this said to be Peruvian trimurti, that it is unsafe to follow these 
 wholesale generalisations. 
 
 Yelasco, the historian of Quito, and other writers of his time, as well 
 as some moderns, have supposed that Peru was peopled from the west, 
 making Easter Island a stepping-stone ;^ this is another ftinciful idea, 
 
 ' The Mexican deity (sometimes called the God of Air), the Pyzome of Brazil, 
 A iracocha and Bochica, are represented as white men, with flowing beards. Tez- 
 catlipoca, another Mexican god, is described as a black. — Bradford, 301. 
 
 ' Ratlier saj priest of a Budha of the Muiscas or Peruvians. 
 
 ^ Easter Island, 27'' 05' S. 109° 46' W., 1500 miles from the nearest western island 
 and 2000 from the coast of Peru. The people tatoo and paint. There are three plat- 
 forms of stonework, in ruins ; on each stood four statues, one fifteen feet high, first 
 seen by Davis, in 1686. Population then said to be 6000 to 7000. These people 
 came from the islands of the west. Cook gives a drawing of the ears of the people, 
 pierced, but unlike the Peruvian Orejon. Some of the Mongols have their ears thus 
 pierced and enlarged. Rogweggen, 1722, in Dalrymple's Voyage, mentions the wor- 
 }tj ship of the sun in Easter island; one man there quite white, pendants in his ears, 
 white and round, size of one's fist, appeared to be a priest. — See Delafield's Origin 
 of American Antiquities, 1839. Bradford, 429. Ellis, Pol. Res. iii., 325. ; iv., lul. 
 
24 
 
 and the examination of the now delapidated stone (volcanic) idols of 
 that island (not the work of the present race), will help but little this 
 conjecture. Others think that the New World was peopled from the 
 north, at a period before the existence of Behrings Straits ! 
 
 Huematziu, a Mexican author, towards the close of the seventh cen- 
 tury, gives an account of the migrations of the Tezcucans from Asia ! 
 Humboldt ^ observes, the predilection for periodical series, and the ex- 
 istence of a cycle of sixty years, which is equal to 740 sunas of the 
 Muiscas, contained in the cycle of twenty years of the priests, appear 
 to reveal the Tartarian origin of the nations of the New World ; in 
 another part of his works he modestly says, " I think, I discover in the 
 the Americans, the descendants of a race, who early separated from the 
 rest of mankind, has followed up for a series of years, a peculiar road 
 in the unfolding of its intellectual faculties, and its tendency towards 
 civilization." 
 
 " Again," our knowledge of the languages of America is still too 
 limited, considering their great variety, for us as yet entirely to relin- 
 quish the hope of some day discovering an idiom which may have been 
 spoken, at once in the interior of South America, and in that of Asia ; 
 or which may, at least, indicate an ancient affinity. Such a discovery 
 would certainly be one of the most brilliant which can be expected in 
 reference to the history of mankind." 
 
 At the Ethnological Society, in May, 1858, in a communication 
 " On the probable migrations and variations of the earlier families of 
 the human race," Admiral Eitzroy directed attention to the people of 
 South America and Van Diemen's Land, and to the probability of early 
 migrations ; for there was a striking resemblance between the Tierra 
 del Euegians and the Esquimaux ; between the inhabitants of Western 
 South America and the aborigines of Yan Diemen's Land, and between 
 the people of Eastern South America and the Hottentots of Africa. 
 Sir H. Kawlinson, commenting on the corrections of the assumed chro- 
 nology, considered the time insufficient to account for changes of lan- 
 guage and character, and that physiognomy was a more accurate test of 
 the origin of the people than philology, especially among hill tribes ; for 
 instance, in the inhabitants of the mountain districts of Mesopotamia, there 
 was the same character of face as might be seen in the Assyrian marbles. 
 
 At Carthagena, 10° 25' N. 75° 30' W., the ancient Calamari, I saw 
 numbers of half civilized Indians, some on their way to work on the 
 
 1 Views, ii., 128. 
 ' Aspects, i., 177. 
 
25 
 
 Panama railway; they were active,, strong, good-looking, and the hotter 
 and more scorching the sun the-operrier they were ; they, however, were 
 learning to drink spirits and gamble. Sailing for Colon, in 9° 25 * N., the 
 JS'avy Bay of the English, and Aspinwall of the Americans, we observed 
 the Darien Indians out at sea in their champanes, or canoes, fishing. 
 
 At Turbaco, eight miles from Carthagena, in revenging the death of 
 Cosa, at the time of the conquest, Xicuesa and his companions had for 
 their share of Indian booty £62,000 in gold. In the expedition to the 
 river Zenu, in 1531;, a Cacica or female chief is spoken of, the 
 cemetery of the surrounding country, where the dead were buried with 
 all their treasure, food and drink, Heredia sacked, finding twenty-four 
 wooden idols covered with sheets of gold ; these were in pairs, sup- 
 porting hamacs, in which were deposited precious objects, brought by 
 the devout. Suspended in the trees, which surrounded the temple, were 
 some gold bells, worth £30,000, and during eight to ten months 
 £1,200,000, in money of the present time, was plundered. J. Acosta^ 
 gives a description of the tombs of Zenu. Quesada, after the battle 
 of Bouza, returned to Bogota, when the King's fifth was 46,000 castel- 
 lanos of gold and 360 of emeralds ; a similar sum was set apart for 
 those who had most distinguished themselves. The remainder was 
 divided amongst the army, the foot soldier receiving 512 castellanos of 
 gold (of low standard, guaninj and five emeralds, the horse soldier 
 double. 
 
 Macuriz was the name of the chief of Bahaire, near Carthagena. 
 In Ojeda's voyage thither, in 1509, he found the natives to be v^ar- 
 like men, of Carib origin ; they wielded great swords of palm-wood, 
 defended themselves with osier targets, and dipped their arrows in a 
 subtle poison. The women as well as the men mingled in battle, being 
 expert with the bow, and throwing a species of lance called Azagay.- 
 
 The aborigines of the Isthmus have been hitherto known under the 
 names of Dariel,^ Urabac and Idibae. Their language was said to be 
 
 ' DO 
 
 similar to the Cunacuna (independent Indians on the S.E. side of the 
 Isthmus). Later researches have shown that four tribes, the Saveneric, 
 Manzanillo, or San Bias Indians, Cholo or Choco, and Bayano,^ inhabit 
 the Isthmus, and speak different languages.^ 
 
 ' Compendio de N. Granada, 123, 126, 
 
 - Irvmg's " Companion of Columbus," 36. 
 
 ■^ Ludewigr, 61. Hervas, i. 27. Dainen or Dariel, the people Dai*ieles, also Toca- 
 bulary of the Tale language of the Darien Indians. Dr. Cullen on the Darien ship 
 Canal, 1853. 
 
 "* Bayano. Indians of the Isthmvis of Panama, about the Eiver Chepo. Ludewig. 
 
 ^ Irviiig's " Companion of Columbus." 
 
26 
 
 Ere tlie Panama railway had encroached upon the aboriginal regions 
 of the Isthmus of Darien, the narrow barrier between the Atlantic 
 and the Pacific was traversed from the east by ascending the river 
 Chagres, in canoes, to Cruces, and then by mule to Panama, an affair, at 
 times, of many days ; at present, the journey is performed by rail in 
 three hours. 
 
 In consequence of heavy floods in the river Chagres having washed 
 away part of the railway-bridge, at Barbacoas,^ I could only get 
 as far as the bridge by rail, afterwards by canoe to Cruces, then by mule 
 to Panama, through dense tropical vegetation, and by canelones or roads 
 something like a very narrow railway cutting, caused by continual 
 traffic for the last 300 years in one track. 
 
 In vain one searched for the huts of the Indian, they have been re- 
 placed by " Yankee hotels !" where, for a glass of refreshment, a dollar 
 is demanded, but one is glad to pay this sum, and even more, for a re- 
 freshing drink when travelling in such a sweltering locality. 
 
 Captain Liot- speaks thus of the San Bias Indians : they resort to 
 Panama to find a market for the produce of the fertile country they in- 
 habit, and, to a trifling extent, cultivate ; they are short in stature, deep- 
 chested and robust, but not remarkable for symmetry ; in spite of a listless 
 stolid expression of countenance, they are not without intelligence, and 
 are accounted a jealous and warlike race. I saw some Darien Indians 
 at Panama, fine looking fellows and not very dark ; the}^ went about 
 nearly naked, and the general opinion is, that the white man is not safe 
 in their wilds. 
 
 It is said that the word Panama means a place abounding in fish. 
 Tubanama was the name of a chief who ruled about here at the time of 
 the conquest.^ The Indians of Darien called their chiefs Quevi and 
 Saco ; this last appears identical with the Saki of Hunsa, in Bogota. 
 
 I had proposed to give an account of the investigations and elaborate 
 surveys for the Panama railway, from information I obtained of the 
 
 ^ Barbacoas, or ancient suspension bridges. There are three sorts : one, the bridge 
 of bejucos (hgneous cordage), the true suspension bridge ; the second, the tarabita of 
 one rope, for shnging passengers ; the third, called tarabita also, of two ropes, for 
 slinging animals. In Chile, the swinging bridges are made of hide ropes— such as is 
 seen at Santa Eosa de los Andes.— Skinner, "Present State of Peru," 364, Barba- 
 coas, or steps like roads, are cross-poles fixed in the rock, but not fastened at 
 the extremities. Skinner's work is a translation of the more prominent articles of 
 the " Mercurio Peruano." 
 
 - Panama, &c., 1819. 
 
 3 Cotu-banama, was the name of a chief in the Island of Ilavti.— Irving, "Life of '1 
 Columbus," ii., 5. 
 
27 
 
 engineers and others who so bravely carried that operation throuMi 
 under no ordinary difficulties. ^ i must, however, content myself with 
 alluding to its traffic, and making a few observations on a report, by Mr. 
 Hoadley, president of the Panama railway company, to Mr. Cobden as 
 Chairman to the House of Commons' Contract Packet Committee. 
 
 The Panama railway is forty-seven and a half miles long. Passenger 
 trains run over it in three hours; goods trains in five. During the 
 first four years 121,820 passengers passed ; upwards of thirty-tour 
 millions sterling of gold, and of silver nearly six millions, was conveyed 
 across it. Almost all the indigo and cochineal is now sent over the 
 Panama railway, reaching England in less than thirty days ; while, if 
 sent round Cape Horn, it would take four months. Coal, timber, guano, 
 munitions of war, ores, heavy machinery, whale oil, cocoa, Peruvian 
 bark, &c., are transported over the line. It has reduced the passage 
 between England and British Colombia from six months to forty 
 days, and its advantages to the trade of the west coast of America is 
 incalculable, in conjunction with the West India Mail and Pacific Steam 
 Navigation Companies, both lines possessing most efficient steamers ; 
 indeed, they may be called floating hotels. There is also the United 
 States Mail Steam Ship Company's line, from Panama to San Bias, 
 Mazatlan and San Erancisco ; from the latter port there are steamers 
 again to British Colombia. 
 
 Although the Australian trade is chiefly in English hands, yet the 
 LTnited States ships, with a million tons of freight, sailed, in 1858, for 
 A.ustralia. 
 
 This shows the vast importance of the Panama route to the Pacific 
 md Australia. The existence of good coal at Vancouver's Islaud, for 
 ;he use of steamers, is most important. 
 
 Benzoni,- who was in the New "World, 1541-46, gives the following 
 !Vords as spoken at Sucre, near Panama, which I compare with Quichua: 
 
 Sucre .... Ischia . . . Chiarucla . . Cici. 
 
 Quichua . . . Pacha . . . Ccuri . . . Ceari and Euna. 
 
 English . . . Earth . . . Gold . . . Man/^ 
 
 1 
 
 ^ In 184<4-5, Captain Liot was commissioned by the Koyal Mail Steam Packet 
 iompany to examine the Isthmus of Darien, with a view to establisli a macadamized 
 oad or a raih'oad across it. The British government discouraged the overtures 
 vhich were made to them, and suffered the contingent prospect to be abandoned. 
 L ears afterwards, citizens of the United States performed the great work of a railway. 
 "Panama &c., communications between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans," by Captain 
 
 iot, 1819. 
 
 2 Translated by Admiral Smyth, 1857.— Hakluyt Coll. 
 
 ^ Garcilasso states that, Panama, Darien, Santa Marta, &c., were peopled by Mexi- 
 ans "terribles y crueles," but gives no particulars as to how or when they settled 
 
28 
 
 During my stay in Panama, the subject of a ship canal was much 
 debated, but the opinion of the majority was against its feasibility. 
 The scheme of a canal appears to be abandoned, although the 
 country between the Chuqunaque and Atrato rivers is said to be level ; 
 Mr. Trantwine in describing his surveys of the Atrato river, reports 
 that a ship canal is out of the question. ^ 
 
 In the Isthmus of Darien, or Grolden Castile, there have been 
 discovered ancient ruins at Gana, 7° 38' jS"., 77° 31' W. ; also at Casas 
 del Principe,2 8° 40' N., 78° 04' W. 
 
 Repeated aggressions of the buccaneers and others in this auriferous 
 district, where abundance of gold was procured by black slave labour, ; 
 after the aborigines had been diminished in numbers by oppressive 
 cruelties, induced Spain to close and abandon the mines, for a time, 
 early in the 18th century. Even those famous ones in the mountains 
 of Espiritu Santo, near Cana, from which alone more gold went through 
 Panama in a year, than from all the other mines of America put 
 together.^ 
 
 Irving^ tells us that at the conquest, Zemaco was the principal chief | 
 of Darien. Careta governed the gold district of Coyba, and gave his 
 daughter to Balboa. Ponca was the name of another chief, at war with 
 Careta. Comagre was a powerful chief, his dwelling was a hundred and 
 fifty paces in length, and eighty in breadth, founded upon great logs, sur- 
 rounded by a stone wall ; the upper part was of wood work, curiously , 
 interwoven and wrought with such beauty as to cause surprise and ad-' 
 miration. In a secret part of the building, Comagre preserved the 
 bodies of his ancestors, wrapped in mantles of cotton, richly wrought 
 and interwoven with pearls, gold and certain stones, held precious by 
 the natives. Comagre's son gave the Spaniards much gold, and informed 
 Balboa of the Pacific Ocean. Balboa went in search of the golden ^ 
 
 tliere. Berthold Seemann the aborigines of the Isthmus of Panama, in Ti'ans. of thej 
 American Ethno. ooc., III., 175 ; 1853. Same author in voyage of the Herald, I.; 
 231, " History of the Isthmus of Panama," including the more civilized Dorachos of; 
 Western Veraguas and theii' monuments. ■ 
 
 ^ Report on Isthmus and Darien, by Capt. Prevost, R.N., " G-eographical Soc' 
 Journal," 1854. I was in Panama when Capt. P. was on his way to explore the' 
 Isthmus, and bad I not been laid up by the bite in the foot of some venemous' 
 animal, I might have been tempted to have accompanied him. In the town library. Ij 
 at Nuremburg, is preserved a globe, made by John Schoner, in 1520. It is remark- ; 
 able that the passage through the Isthmus of Darien, so much sought after in late) 
 times, is, on tliis old globe, carefully delineated.— King's "Wonders of the World." 
 
 - Hellert's Yoy. a I'isthme de Darien. 
 
 3 Fitzroy on the Great Isthmus.—" Geogr. Soc. Journal," 180, 1853. 
 
 ■* Companions of Columbus. 
 
 
29 
 
 temple of Dobayba, mother of God, who created the sun and moon. 
 The temple was not found, but from an abandoned vilhige he gathered 
 jewels and pieces of gold. The chief Abibeyba reigned over a region 
 of marshes and shallow lakes. Balboa, on his journey across Darien, 
 was told by Ponca that the Pacific Ocean w^as called the great Pechry. 
 The chief, Quaraqua, and his people were sacrificed by the Spaniards, 
 and their village plundered of gold and jewels. On the 26th Sep- 
 tember, 1513, Balboa first beheld the Pacific Ocean ; he then passed 
 through the country of the chief, Chiapes, who gave him five hundred 
 pounds weight of gold. On the 29th, St. Michael's day, Balboa took 
 a banner, upon which was painted the Virgin and Child and the arms of 
 Castile and Leon, then drawing his sword, he marched into the sea, and 
 waving his banner took possession of the seas and lands from the Arctic 
 to the Antartic poles. Balboa then fell in with the chief, Tiimaco, who 
 gave him pearls and gold, and here he was again informed of Peru. 
 Teaochan conciliated the Spaniards by gifts of pearls and gold. 
 Poncra, supposed to be rich, and not yielding, was torn to pieces by 
 bloodhounds. Balboa took Tubanama prisoner, who gave as his ransom 
 armlets and jewels of gold to the value of 6000 crowns. 
 
 On Pizarro's first journey across the Isthmus, the names of the 
 Caciques, Tutibra, Chucuma, Chiruca and Biru are mentioned, and the 
 chief of Isla Eica gave him a basket filled with pearls ; one weighed 
 twenty-five carats, another three drachms, and the size of a muscadine 
 pear. 
 
 CoAL^ exists at Cienaga de Oro on the K. Sinu ; on the banks of the 
 Carare, a branch of the Magdalena ; at Conejo, below Honda ; also 
 near Bogota, and is used at Mr. "Wilson's iron works. Coal occurs in 
 Veraguas, Chiriqui and Costa E-ica, also on the I. of Muerto, near 
 David Chiriqui ; this coal " was found to burn equally as free as Eng- 
 lish coal." Coal was recently discovered at Tarraba, Costa Eica. I find 
 no geological description of the country these coals are found in, but 
 in all probability they may be classed with those of Chile which are of 
 tertiary formation," excepting, perhaps, the coal found near Bogota, 
 which may be of the carboniferous period. 
 
 Gold. — The king's fifth from a mine near Bogota, was 300,000 
 dollars. Captain Fitzroy ascertained the position of the concealed mines 
 of Cana. Between Panama and Pacora, the gold dust collected 
 was twenty-two carats fine. Near S. Bartolomeo, in the Ceno, del 
 Pilon de Oro, is the mountain of the Block of Gold, whence, it is said, a 
 
 ^ See my paper on Chile coal, " Geographical Soe. Journal," 185 
 ^ S, American Comp. Eeport, London, 1850, 
 
30 
 
 Spaniard from Lima ouce extracted a large block of gold. !Major Doss, in 
 1849, found gold in all the streams of the Chepo, each pan full of I 
 earth yielding from twenty-five to thirty cents. One person, in a day, i 
 worked out five ounces. I 
 
 The following is from Berthold Seemann.^ The aboriginal Isthmians j 
 were rude and barbarous savages, wlio, divided into many hostile tribes, | 
 waged continual warfare with each other. It is only in Western | 
 Veraguas that traces of a more civilized people are found. These parts i 
 were inhabited by a numerous tribe, the Dorachos, where still are found | 
 their remains, tombs, monuments and columns of different sizes, covered j 
 with fantastic figures, or representations of natural objects, diff'ering ( 
 entirely from either the hieroglyphics of Mexico or those of Central | 
 America. At Caldera, a few leagues from the town of David, lies a j 
 granite block, known to the country-people as the " Piedra pintal," or I 
 painted stone. It is fifteen feet high, nearly fifty feet in circumfer- j 
 ence, and flat at the top. Every part, especially the eastern side, is j 
 covered with figures. One represents a radiant sun ; it is followed by [ 
 a series of heads, all w4th some variation, scorpions and fantastic 
 figures. The top and the other sides have signs of a circular and oval 
 form, crossed by lines. The sculpture is ascribed to the Dorachos, in- 
 tended, probably, to commemorate their annals. The characters are an 
 inch deep ; on the weather side, however, they are nearly effaced. As 
 they, no doubt, were all originally of the same depth, an enormous 
 time must have elapsed before the granite could thus be worn away, and 
 a much higher antiquity must be assigned to these hieroglyphics^ than 
 to many other monuments of America.'^ Several columns are seen in the 
 town of David, where they are used for building purposes ; the cha- 
 racters in them differ from those of the " Piedra pintal," by being 
 raised and considerably smaller. The tombs of the Dorachos are nu- 
 merous ; they are of two descriptions. The better sort consist of flat 
 stones put together, resembling the coffins used in northern Europe ; 
 they are slightly covered with mould, and earthen vases are found 
 within ; the vessels are of good workmanship, and in the shape of 
 basins or of tripods, the legs being hollow, and containing several loose 
 
 1 Voy. of 'Herald,' 1848, and Trans. Aiuer. Ethno. Soc, 175, 1853. Mr. 
 Seemann has kindly allowed me to introduce into my work, the two drawings he j 
 made of this interesting monument. ! 
 
 2 Messrs. Whiting and Shuman, in their report, 1851, on the coal formation of the : 
 Island of Muerto, near David, in Chiriqui, say they found monuments and columns 
 covered with hieroglyphics, similar to those discovered in Yucatan, by Stephens. ; 
 
 "^ Something of this sort, is the old sculptured stone in the Parapa del Leon, in 
 Tarapaca, Peru. 
 
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 P4 
 
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31 
 
 balls Occasionally, round agates, with a bole in the centre, and small 
 eagles have been met with. It^^eems to have been customary among 
 tbe Doracho tribe^to wear these eagles around the neck by way of 
 ornament. Ferdinand Columbus frequently mentions them when 
 speaking of Veraguas and the adjacent Mosquito shore. Several have 
 been found in the last few years; most of them measure from wing to 
 wing, about four inches. Tombs ot the second class are more frequent, 
 they consist of a heap of large pebbles, from three to four feet in height, 
 and descending as much below the surface ; no vases or ornaments are 
 found in these graves, but always one or more stones for grinding Indian 
 corn, made like most of the vessels, with three legs. Bodies have been 
 met with, which, at the slightest touch, crumbled into dust. The in- 
 habitants of Alenje speak of other remarkable remains in the northern 
 Cordillera, one of which is said to be a rocking-stone. 
 
 Eecent Discovert of Huacas, Contai^'i:n^g Various Objects 
 IN GrOLD, IN Chiriqxji^.— Much excitement w^as lately occasioned at 
 Panama- by the accidental opening of Indian graves in the Chiriqui 
 district, 150 miles distant, and the discovery therein of large quan- 
 tities of golden images. As there are supposed to be many thousands 
 of these graves equally wealthy, hundreds of persons had gone thither, 
 and thousands of dollars worth had been taken out and sent to 
 Panama. 
 
 Description oe Gtold Images erom the Chiriqui Huacas. — 
 
 1. A bat, with outspread wings and legs, having a dragon-like head, 
 
 Isurraounted by four horns, curling inwards, of the purest gold, and 
 
 weighed six ounces. 2. A frog'^ with large protruding eyes, the 
 
 |eye-balls being enclosed in the sockets like the balls in sleigh bells ; 
 
 » See " Obs. on Cliiriqui," by J. H. Smith, " Geogr, Soc. Journal," p. 257, 1855. 
 
 [The aborigines never failed to leave valuable remains in their burial places or 
 
 ;uacalis. This region contains a great number of such old gi-aves, the burial-places 
 
 lof a once powerful tribe, not migratory. Many of these guacalis have been opened 
 
 and found to contain images of birds, beasts and trinkets of gold. I had the pleasure 
 
 to assist ]Mr. Smith and Dr. McDowall to draw up this paper, and we laid down the 
 
 district in which these recent discoveries have been made, in a line running east from 
 
 the Bay of Guanabano to the CordiUera, and call it a region abounding in Indian 
 
 [antiquities. We also place Las Breiias, old Indian gold mines, in a quartz formation, 
 
 ;16 geo. miles W. of the ancient graves. At Charco Azul, on the coast, are indications 
 
 |of gold and copper at Punta Banco. David, the capital of Chiriqui, is in about 
 
 8° 17' N., 82° 30' W. 
 
 - Times, August 11, 1859, Panama and American papers. 
 
 ^ The existence of the frog here shows an alliance to the Chibcha race of 
 X. Granada. 
 
32 
 
 this is alloved with copper.^ and weighed about two-and-a-hatf 
 ounces. 3. H^is the bodv and legs of an alligator, with the head and 
 ears of a luob,' only with an ^iottdous mouth . and dragon-Hke 
 teeth, and weighed about two ounces. 4. An idol of hideous and 
 obscene conception, with legs and arms eiitended ; the head flat, 
 having a fan-like crown at the back, a wide open mouth, and a' 
 hooked nose, under which curls something like the latest fcMin (^| 
 moustache. This weighed about two ounces, and was of pure gold. 
 
 Besides these, thoe were a fircr. sn es^le.* rerv siii!i!l twin &t3gs. an^ 
 anBadfllo. and a small bell. 
 
 *nie account we continue to receive of the weaitii of the huaeas, 
 in golden images, are every dar growing more wonderfiiL A bat has 
 be«i found of verv 5nr r : l ^. md great weight ; alao a ~ gold wcHnan,"' 
 It is the pcv?:f' :-- : - who are turning up the grave? s:ii 
 
 sdling the gc i _ irom 3 to 4 dollars the ounce. rifse 
 
 tom' - -^ of iFc^; exTciii, some of t'lr^i having contained : ;zv 
 hunoreas ot bodies. The g:M is e;j.' in earTZrz vrsse's. zj ize 
 
 side <^ the body. The jt v^i — " r:f - ne is covered ~::z 
 
 trees, and it was by rif : . _ rge rre^. g~ ~--g out of tne ropj 
 
 of a moond. that the depcts:^ r r f -ered. Ihe roots of the tree] 
 took with tb^ the r r: i - ^ : k of one of the mounds, leavmo-j 
 
 tike geld exposed, ~ _ ~ - r :\ ^^ seen by a man when 
 
 dose to it. Many of rhrs e r . : _ t ;ts reached Ixmdon, but 
 found their way into the meitmg ; : : . 
 
 In November, this vear. Messrs. PixleT i Co. allc - f : r : 
 five thin circular gold plates, irom C-i i. weighing 7 ozs. ^ _ _ f 
 had seven ::: : . .: :.. — rurs Tzesf .: . ^ -t:__ ."t^^t^ l.. 
 f^-jres that may have t-ffL ::f ~f:f : _::ed). :z^ —is 7t - 
 
 in diameter : two were 6t inc-if ? ii. _ .nifrer : rjie :Tier rwo 4^^ : 
 — vlain. The plates 1 :: :e i—j- - -^ . r. m. 
 
 . :ly used as breast plates. 
 
 Irving* — ~ Yoyag-e a:oT5ir Costa Eica and Temgua," ssys : — ** Here ; 
 for the first time on : :. the Spaniards met -^^'^ - 
 
 of pure gold: t l.e nir. es r jng large plates of i: s - t 
 their necks by eorto_i As zey had, likewise, oin: _: r _ :s : 
 
 of g::iar±rL its speofie graxiix ii_6c. 
 
 - Bitiier say: igsgr"^ r'- r ' ':. nscKC profaai^ a'deear. as t^f Tiffy 
 
 • T-- ^^- — ^ of i_ : . __; : think tbe5>e thst be rem— 
 
 r >r^ Se ToT_. i. _ 1S4S:. 
 
 ■ :_;. .: - .. IL, ITS- 
 
Eollaert's Aritig;-. S. America. 
 
 Hiiaca Mayo, or Sacred Parrot. 
 
 Idol 
 
 Idol 
 
 Thy&- focfwree half' pTie. origvruiol svi^/. 
 
 -■■^^'Oj-in/f,., 
 
 P-miLa, o£ Gnianin. ( Gold &. Copper) 
 Oij ects m Gold from. Chiriqiii . 
 
•« • 
 
 ft t 
 * 
 
 tc*^ * « 
 
 
 i 
 
3 
 
 gold of lev standard, an alloy with copper, or a natural metal, nide-lv 
 shaped like eagles. -r— 
 
 "They met with canoes of Indians, their heads decorated with garlands 
 of flowers, and coronets formed of the claws of beasts and the quills of 
 birds; most of them had plates of gold about their necks. An 
 Indian had an eagle (in gold) worth twenty-two ducats. Seeing 
 the great value which the strangers set upon the metal, they assured 
 them it was to be had in abundance within two days journey." 
 
 The eagle here spoken of may be a representation of the Guacamayo, 
 sacred macaw or parrot, so known to the Chibchas. 
 
 Thirteen leagues from the Gulf of Nicoya is Carabizi, where the 
 same language was spoken as at Chiriqui. The country on the Pacific, 
 in the same latitude with Chiriqui, was called Cabiores, and next to it 
 was the province of Durucaca.^ 
 
 Mr. Squire," in his elaborate paper on Nicaragua, says, upon the low 
 alluviums, and amongst the dense dark forests of the Atlantic coat»t, 
 there existed a few scanty and wandering tribes, generally correspond- 
 ing with the Caribs of the islands. A portion of their descendants may 
 yet be found in the wretched Moscos or Mosquitos, (little Moscos), 
 " who, by a brazen fraud, are attempted to be passed off upon the world 
 as a sovereign nation." The few ISIelchoras, in the river San Juan, are 
 of the Carib stock, and it is more than probable that the same is true 
 of the Wool was, Kamas and Poyas, and also all the other tribes on 
 the Atlantic coast, further south, towards Chiriqui, Lagoon, and col- 
 lectively denominated Bravos. 
 
 As there are Carib affinities with the Moscas or Muiscas of Bogota, 
 these, I think, may have, in early times, come to the coast of N. Granada, 
 and have been the conquerors of the nations, who built at Tunja, 
 or the more ancient Timana.^ 
 
 Some of the names of places and natural objects within the 
 Nagradan (Nicaragua) area, seem to have a relationt;hip to certaiii 
 Peruvian names. Thus Momobacho Momotombo and others, sound 
 wonderfully like Moyobamba (mud plain) in Chachapoyas, Tarabo- 
 bamba, Guambacho, &c. It would be interesting to take up the sug- 
 
 ^ Oviedo and Trans. Amer. Ethno. Soc. 106. 1853. 
 
 ' Trans. Amer. Ethno. Soc, 94, 1853. 
 
 ' The present Moscos of Central America are said by Ludewig to be a mixed tribe, 
 the issue of aboriginal Indians with Negroes, shipwrecked oa the coast, or escaped 
 from the Spanish settlements of the interior. 
 
34 
 
 gestion, and inquire whether tliere is really any relationship between 
 the languages of Peru and Central America. ^ 
 
 Herrera says, among the people of Nicaragua, those speaking Cholu- 
 tecan were the original and most ancient, they held the estates, and had 
 cocoa-nuts which were the money and wealth of the country. 
 
 The Eagle, in Chorotegan, is called Mooncayo. 
 
 ANTIQUITIES OF NEW GEANADA. 
 
 I am rather surprised that larc^er numbers of monuments, some of 
 more ancient nations than those first seen by the Spaniards, have not 
 been met w^ith. Perhaps dense tropical forests cover many such re- 
 mains, and are awaiting the footsteps of the emigrant or the enthusias- 
 tic antiquarian explorer.^ 
 
 We have to thank Humboldt for much that we know about this re- 
 f'ion of the New World, for his examination of the Muisca or Chibcha 
 calendar, to T. Compans, for his " Essai sur I'ancien Cundinimarca," also 
 to Colonel J. Acosta. 
 
 liivero and Tchudi, " Antiguedades Peruanas," (plate xli.) gives 
 representation of two animals, carved on a slab of stone, from Timana 
 (about 2° N. 75° 15* W.) w^bich, they think, may have some 
 connexion with the Muisca calendar. Plate xxxiii. is a club from 
 Tunja (5° 80' N., 73° 50' W.), in it are some marks Avhich, 1 
 think, may be hieroglyphics of the name of the owner ; the second figure 
 from the top has a slight resemblance to Cuphupqua : seven, or the 
 ears of the Muisca calendar, always listening.'^ In Brantz Mayer* the 
 sculptured stone at Mapilca, in Mexico, has something of this 
 character, 
 
 Humboldt gives a head engraved on green quartz (coloured by 
 oxide of nickel) of the Muiscas. It is perforated, and probably done 
 
 1 Squire in Trans. Amer. Ethno. Soc. 99, 1853. 
 
 - See " Les Antiquites Americaines au point de vue des progres dela Greographie," 
 par M. Jomard, in Bulletin de la Societe de Greographie, Paris, 1847. 
 
 3 Rivero and Tsehudi, Antiq. Amer., Plate xli, is an engraved stone, from Junin, 
 in Peru, seems to have analogy with the figure 7, or Cuphupqua, the ear. If such be 
 the case, it would be interesting. From what I can learn, the department of Junin, 
 in Peru, deserves careful investigation. 
 
 ' II., 198. 
 
35 
 
 by a tool of copper and tin, as iron was unknown to them ; this must 
 be looked upon as a fine specimen of work in stone. ^ 
 
 In the country of Antioquia lived the Catios : they were a su- 
 perior people, well clothed, lively and intelligent, wrote their 
 history in hieroglyphics, and painted on mantles. I have noticed 
 something of this sort on the skin mantles of the Comanches in Texas, 
 
 The following, on the antiquities of New Granada, is from the "Bulletin 
 de la Societe de Greographie," Paris, 1847. The researches were made 
 by Seiior Velez de Barrientos. Velez was informed that there existed 
 in the Canton of Leiva,^ in Tunja, ruins of a temple and palace of the 
 ancient Indians. He went in search of them in June, 1846. He got 
 to Moniquira (about 6° N, 73° 45' W)., and fir^ fell in with stone 
 columns ; one, 4 to 5 yards in length, by 3i in diameter. He 
 then found 13 large columns, arranged in a circle of 50 yards in 
 circumference, appearing to him as if designed for a temple^ or palace. 
 Some of these columns were oval, like those of Eamiriqui (see further 
 on), and had notches at the ends, showing they had been dragged from 
 a quarry. Four hundred yards from the 13 columns he found the 
 main ruins, composed of cylindrical columns, sQme 29 in number, well 
 finished, fixed in the earth, and occupying 45 yards in length E. and W., 
 by 22 broad. 
 
 The columns were 1^ yards in circumference ; their original 
 length cannot be determined, as they are so worn, the highest not being 
 . more than one yard above the ground, others are hardly visible. These 
 are, by their lightness and elegance, a great contrast with the 13 
 columns before mentioned ; some of these looked as if they had been 
 worked on their sides. 
 
 One hundred yards distant he found amongst dense underwood a 
 considerable number of stones, which appeared as if they had been^ 
 wrought ; no mortar or cement was observed. The ground on which 
 these ruins stand may be about two miles in extent, and had been the 
 site of a city, and, in all probability, of a nation much more ancient than 
 the Muiscas.* 
 
 > Vues, plate 66. 
 
 ' Probably named after Andres Venero de Leiva, who entered Bogota, 1564. 
 
 ^ See J. Acosta : The Muiscas had temples to the sun with stone columns, remains 
 of which have been discovered in the valley of Leiva. Humboldt, Aspects, 11., 309. 
 
 * Velez says he believes it to be an error to call the ancient inhabitants of the 
 
 country by the name of Muiscas. Muisca is said to mean man, and it is a compound 
 
 ; word. Mu signifies the body, isca five, or body of five points or extremities (as legs, 
 
 [arms, head). It is probable the Spaniards understood by the word Muisca, that 
 
 D 2 
 
36 
 
 The natives now call these ruins of Moniquira, whether temple, 
 palace, &c., " Little Hell," and ifc is Velez's opinion that these have 
 afforded materials in the building of the towns of Moniquira, Leiva, 
 and of a convent ; in the Church of Moniquira he thought he observed 
 columns and other stones similar to those of the ruins. 
 
 The beginning of 1846, Velez saw, at Tunja (5° 30' S, 73° 50' W.), 
 the two stones known as the " Devil's Cushions ;" they are on a hill six 
 CLiadras (the cuadra is GOO yards) from the town to the W. ; the rock 
 is wroui^ht, surmounted by two stones in the form of mill-stones, but a 
 little larger and something like cushions. At this spot the ancient 
 inhabitants may have adored the rising sun. 
 
 Our explorer then went by Boyaca to Eamiriqui to examine the 
 large columns (Boyaca is a few miles S. of Tunja) known as the 
 "Devil's Stone-beams" (Vigas del Diablo). At a short distance from 
 the river of Ramiriqui, he found three large eliptical columns laying 
 on the ground, one 7i yards in length ; at their extremities were 
 notches to aid in hauling them from the quarry. Another column was 
 4^ yards long, not cylindrical, but with several sides. The curate 
 of Ramiriqui took Velez to another part of the parish were there 
 are five or six similar columns. J. Acosta wrote to Yelez that it 
 was said the great stones, four leagues from Raquira (between Moni- 
 quira and G-achantiva) had been taken at the time of the conquest 
 to the plain of Tunja, where the Indians were constructing a 
 temple. This Velez does not believe. 
 
 The stones seen at Leiva and Ramiriqui are of Asperon, a sort of 
 whet -stone. 
 
 Velez's opinion is, that this country was anciently inhabited by a more 
 civilized people than those found by the Spaniards. As a proof, in the 
 district of San Augustin, in the elevated parts of Nieva, 3° 15 ' N"., are 
 found monuments, such as the great stone table, said to be of sacrifice, 
 supported by cariatides, statues of large dimensions, and numberless 
 other objects, artistically wrought. At the conquest the Spaniards only 
 found hereabouts the Pijados, Pantagosos and other tribes, who, al- 
 though brave, were barbarous. We cannot attribute to these the construc- 
 
 which may liave been the name of a particidar family or tribe, or the expression for a 
 body of five parts, and they concluded that all the people of the country bore 
 the name of Muisca. He observes that he does not find the country in question was 
 called by a generic name, Tunja only was known as the country of Yravaca, but in 
 the plain now called Bogota there did not exist a common name, because the Zip:is 
 who had been subjected to the chief of Tunja, had thrown off the yoke about sixly 
 vears before the conquest, during which time the Zipas had extended their dominion:^ 
 by force of arms. 
 
37 
 
 tion of the works now in riiius, such are of more ancient and civilized 
 times. 
 
 Another proof of ancient origin, and that this part of the country- 
 was well populated, in Antioquia, in the Canton of Santa Eosa, Velez's 
 parents had occasion to dig ; it was through granitic debris, and, at 
 eight yards depth, a thick bed of well preserved trees was met with, 
 particularly the oaks, and like the forest above. Under this bed of trees, 
 buried by inundations, was discovered an ancient weapon, the 
 Tnacana, of palm wood, two yards long, one end like a lance, the other 
 a narrow blade like a sword, with curious carvings : this was given to a 
 Dr. Jervis, who sent it to England. 
 
 Velez describes a cavern used as a burial place. It is situated in 
 the direction of Gachantiva, Canton of Leiva, near the copper mines of 
 Moniquira. Not long since a man belonging to the smelting works, 
 while chasing a fox with a little dog, the fox and the dog disappeared 
 through a hole. The man began to enlarge the opening to rescue his 
 dog ; some stones being cleared away, a cavern was discovered full (jf 
 mummies, clothing and other objects. At the entrance of the cavern 
 one of these mummies was sitting on a low wooden seat, with a bow 
 and arrow, in the attitude of defending the place ; it was said that 
 this mummy, when first seen, had a crown of gold on its head. The 
 cavern was explored ; many objects in gold were taken from the 
 mummies, also cloths of fine cotton, in a good state of preservation ; some 
 of these were worn by the present inhabitants, and used for their mules. 
 Velez arrived there in June, 1846 ; at the mouth of the cavern he 
 saw bones of the mummies that had been thrown outside. The 
 cavern had been dug in a calcareous rock He saw, taken from 
 this tomb, in the possession of Dr. Garcia, curate of Guateque, 
 emeralds ; one large, and in the rough, the others somewhat worked. 
 He succeeded in getting the low wooden seat, a bust in terra cotta, 
 pieces of mantles, a bone collar artistically worked, two little figures of 
 animals in gold, ear-rings of tombag,^ in good taste, the skull of a deer, 
 its horns covered with black beeswax, which led him to suppose that 
 this wax was used as a preservative, and it was possible that this wax 
 was also used to embalm the bodies.^ 
 
 The museum of Bogota has lost the rare pentagonal calendar stone 
 investigated by Humboldt. Since then was found in the ravine of 
 San Diego, near Bogota, another calendar, now in the possession of 
 Yelez ; it is small, long, squared, and of basalt, with similar signs to 
 
 ' A mixture of gold with copper, probably guanin. 
 
 - Melted resin was used as an embalming material by the Muiscas. 
 
38 
 
 those described by Humboldt. Velez mentions, that his collection eon- 
 tains five such pentagonal stones, idols, collars and other ornaments, 
 in hard stone and gold, mummy cloth, printed in colours and rich in 
 design, probably from Lieva.^ 
 
 My esteemed friend, General Jose Hilario Lopez, late President of 
 New Granada, when I had the pleasure of meeting him in Paris, in 
 1857, informed me that on one of his estates near Nieba, S. of Bogota, 
 are some very ancient monuments and promised to procure details of 
 them. General Lopez, during his presidency (1852), was most instru- 
 mental in giving freedom to the negro, also causing all religious sects 
 the public use of their rites and ceremonies. 
 
 My old fellow traveller in Texas, A. Snider, also knew General Lopez 
 in Paris. He gives the following from conversations with him.^ In New 
 Granada, near Neyba, is a cavern, at the entrance of which stood, as a 
 CTuardian, a colossal tiger (jagua). A short distance from this cavern 
 General Lopez has made excavations, and from the depth of two to 
 five metres has extracted colossal statues, of great beauty, representing 
 liorses ! (rather say of the Llama, or deer tribe), ^ monkeys, toads, and 
 of men and women. Near to this spot was discovered a large stone 
 table, which fifty men could scarcely lift : this table was well polished, 
 on four feet in the form of paws, coming from a central pillar. Upon 
 some of these monuments are still to be seen remains of inscriptions 
 (hieroglyphics). 
 
 T. Compans'^ states, that the Sutagaos, which comprehended the 
 Neybas and others, lived between the rivers Pazca and Suma Paz. 
 The Indians had idols of gold and silver. 
 
 Velasco^ says, the province of Nieva, in 3° 10' N., was only in part 
 conquered by Hospina, one of Belalcaza's officers, in 1543. It was a hot 
 and unhealthy place. He speaks of the Nieva nation, the Anatagoimas 
 and Coyamas, as principal tribes, numerous, alert, and brave ; they, 
 however, became violent enemies of the Spaniards, and even dictated 
 terms to them. 
 
 ' 111 the British Museum is the body of a female mummy, from the cavern near 
 Gaehantiva, or Gachansipa ; also a head. There are specimens of pottery, from 
 N. Granada, in the Museum of Practical Geology. 
 
 ' La Creation et ses Mysteres Devoiles, &c., 299. Paris, 1858. 
 
 •* The Cervus Peronei, similar to the C. Yirgmian, but smaller, is common in N. 
 Granada. 
 
 ^ Essai sur I'ancien Cundinamarca, 4. 
 
 ^ III. Vol., His. de Quito. 
 
39 
 
 I have lately examined, through the kindness of Mrs. Harrison 
 Smith, late of Panama, four figures in gold from Tumuli, in the vallev of 
 Antioquia, 6° 45' N. 75*^ W., near the river Cauca, found by 
 General Herrera ;^ a shark three inches long, a toad one inch, a head 
 of an animal, and a deity. The gold of these figures is of low 
 standard, containing copper, and probably some silver. Is this a natural 
 form of the gold, or has it been alloyed by the natives ? Columbus 
 procured, at Paria, plates of gold, of low standard, called guanin, or 
 gianin, which class of metal was known as far as Honduras. It was 
 assayed in Spain, and found to consist of sixty-three gold, fourteen 
 silver, nine copper.- 
 
 A recent analysis of gold from Titiribi, in Colombia, gave gold 76'41, 
 silver 23-12, copper 0*3. 
 
 My friend, Don Liboi'io Duran, of N. Granada, tells me that 
 near Nieva, 3° 10' N., (Old Nieva is in 4° 43'), there is a locality called 
 *' La Cindad de la Plata," where very rich silver mines were worked 
 by the first settlers, who enjoyed but for a short period their prize. 
 The settlement was destroyed-^ by the Paes, Pijaos, Andaquis,^ &c., 
 
 ^ Cauea, sometimes called Guaea (sacred in Quichua), this last name probably 
 given to it by the Spaniards, some of whom had been in Peru. Tliis country was 
 well peopled at the period of the conquest. The natives clothed in cotton mantles, 
 were rich and industrious, and the Chief was borne on a litter covered with gold. — 
 J. Acosta, 144. 
 
 On the Cauca, about Cali and Vijges, Holton, 569, describes huacas or graves. 
 Some are square pits, excavated in the ground, covered over first with logs and 
 then with earth. Others have side excavations, and very often small passages 
 running from one to another. Bones and relics are found in them ; but I find 
 very few of these in the hands of people liere. They are diligently hunted for 
 gold. A man who has a passion for this (and it very naturally becomes a mental 
 infirmity), is called a guaquero, or Indian grave hunter. 
 
 - Yelasco, i. 31. Tumbaga, or pucacuri (bad gold), is an alloy of gold and copper. 
 It is found in a natural state in the mines of Patia de Popayan and Tillonaco de 
 Loja. This Guanin is first mentioned bf Columbus as forming the ornament 
 of a chief, when coasting along the south side of Jamaica, in 1494. • 
 
 "Life of Columbus," by Irving, ii., 177. In 1503, Columbus, when on the Mosquito 
 coast : " there was no pure gold to be met with here, aU their ornaments were of 
 guanin ; but the natives assured the Adelantado that in proceeding along the coast, 
 the ships would soon arrive at a country where gold was in abundance," p. 178. 
 On the coast of Veragua pure gold was met with for the first time. 
 
 ^ See J. Acosta, 349. Yelasco, iii. 22. When the destruction of the Spaniards is 
 detailed. 
 
 4 I mention as one of the confederated tribes with the Cherokees, the Tnataquas, or 
 Andarcos, as existing in Texas. See my Obs. on Indians of Texas, " Ethno. Soc. Jour- 
 nal," 1850. 
 
40 
 
 and, in lapse of time, the position of the mines were forgotten, except 
 by a few Indians, who taught their children that it would be criminal 
 eyer again to impart to their sanguinary conquerors the knowledge of 
 the site, and if they did so, they would die. Duran's father became com- 
 padre, or godfather to the daughter of a chief, in whose family it was be- 
 lieved the secret was known. Tlie child was induced to become an inmate 
 of the Duran family, and on being questioned, promised, but unwillingly, 
 to lead her friends to the spot. The journey was commenced, and on 
 arriving, as it is supposed, near to the place, the child became sad and 
 deaf to further entreaties to proceed ; she refused food for several 
 days, and the party, fearing the child would be starved, returned, but 
 the little girl died not long afterwards. 
 
 1 find a " La Plata," in 2° 20' N. 75° 45' W., and to the N.E. some 
 15', a spot called " Carniceria," or the butchery. Yelasco^ gives the 
 latitude of San Sebastian de la Plata, 2° 20', and the " Asiento," pro- 
 bably the mines, in same lat. and long. 3° E. of Quito. He also says, 
 that the ancient Indians, of Nieva,^ used hieroglyphics and characters, 
 cut in relief on stone, many of which monuments are still to be seen, 
 especially at Piedra Pintada (the engraved stone), and that he himself 
 saw there large stones, full of hieroglyphics, figures of animals, branches 
 of flowers, and other strange characters of various angles, figures that 
 appeared to be numerals ; these, as well as those at Timana, are in the 
 old country of Popayan, but Velasco says nothing about the ruins of 
 Timana. 
 
 On the route from Puerto Cabello to Valencia, about 10° 15^ N. 
 68° 30'' W. (in Venezuela), is a large rock, covered with hieroglyphics,^ 
 
 In the plains of Varihas, 7° IS., are tumuli, found between Mijagual 
 and the Cano de la Hacha. 
 
 Humboldt*, informs us, that near the southern entrance of the 
 Eaudal of Atures, about 1° 30^ N. 68° "W., is the celebrated cave ceme- 
 tery of Ataruipe, the burial place of an extinct nation, the Atures, 
 pressed hard and destroyed by Cannibal Caribs. Here skeletons 
 were preserved in mapires, or baskets of palm leaves. Besides 
 the mapires were found urns of half-burnt clay, which appeared 
 to contain the bones of entire families. The larger of these urns were 
 about three feet high and nearly six feet long, of a pleasing oval fcrm 
 
 ' His. de Quito. 
 
 2 This Neiva, Nieba, or Neyva, south of Bogota, must not be confounded with 
 Leiva, which is near Tunja, and iN. of Bogota. 
 
 2 Bulletin de la Societe de Geographie. Paris, 1847. 
 * Aspects^, I., 227. 
 
' ) ■> 
 
f < < 
 
 t 
 
 r f 
 
 
41 
 
 and greenish colour, having handles shaped like snakes and crocodiles, 
 and meandering or labyrinthine ornaments round the upper margin. 
 
 These ornaments are similar to those that cover the walls of the 
 Mexican Palaces at Mitla. 
 
 Tlie following on the antiquities of N. Granada, I have trans- 
 lated from the beautiful work of K,ivero and Tschudi, '■ Antiguedades 
 Peruanas," published at Vienna, 1851. In Dr. Ila\^k's English trans- 
 lation of this work, 1854, he has omitted what appertains to N 
 (xranada. In the frontispiece of the Spanish edition are figures in 
 gold, said to be of the Muiscas, found at Timana, one represents an owl 
 with a serpent in its mouth, another a face with large canine teeth, like 
 the canine teeth in the statues of Timana, of much better workmanship 
 (though apparently of an earlier date) than those 1 have described from 
 Antioquia. 
 
 In reference to plate xxxix, they observe, as but few examples of the 
 antiquities of the Muiscas have been published, these are offered, say 
 of the times of Bochica. They have a distinct type compared with the 
 Incarial.i The stone idols are found near Timana : these monuments, 
 of which there is a large collection, are in the interior of a dense forest. 
 There is no tradition as to the history of these statues. Fig. 1 is a statue, 
 one yard eight inches in height ; the characters marked on the cap 
 have been placed by the Spaniards. Fig. 2 (A) is one and a half yards 
 high, and has a pleasing face (both these have long canine teeth). ^ 
 
 Plate xlii., two stone statues, (B) is one of them. 
 
 Plate xl., a stone statue, also form of an animal. 
 
 Plate iiil., a square table of stone, the feet composed of four columns 
 and one in the centre, which is not cylindrical as the rest; its height 
 is nearly two yards. Upon the central column are two stones. On 
 the two front columns are engraved figures of the sun and moon. 
 
 The table appears to have been used by the Muiscas for the sacrifice 
 of ofterings to their deities, and is found among the ruins of Timana. 
 
 ' M. E. Rivero wrote a small work, '' Antiguedades Peruanas," published in 
 Lima, 1841, at p. 51 of this work, and plate xxxiii. of Atlas of Rivero and Tschudi, 
 Antig. Peruv., in alluding to the hieroglyphics on the club, it is said that Dn. M. E. 
 "Rivero obtained it at Tunja. Thus I cannot but suppose that he was also at Timana, 
 and made sketches of the stone statues, as well as the sacrificial table. 
 
 At San Augustin, and in the forest of Laboyas and Timana, there are columns, 
 idols, altars, images of the sun, and other evidences of the former existence there of 
 a great nation now extinct. — S. American Go's pamphlet, London, 1859. 
 
 - The gold ornament 1 describe further on, as coming from Cuenca, in Quito, has 
 these canine teetli, of large proportion. 
 
42 
 
 I find tliat Timana, foanded by the Spaniards, in 1540, was in the 
 jurisdiction of Popayan, and in the country of the Timanaes, and ac- 
 cording to Velasco, in 2° 15' N. 3° 30' E , of Quito, but in J. Acosta's 
 map, 1° 45 ' JST. 78° 45 ' W., of Paris, a woody, mountainous and hot 
 country. Yelasco does not advert to these important remains, but 
 he does to those of Nieva. The ruins at Timana are more than 2° S. 
 of the territory of the Chibchas, and are in all probability of an 
 earlier date than Chibcha or Muisca^ remains, and of another nation. 
 Besides the Timanaes there were many other nations, who cultivated 
 the land, as the Talcones, 5000 warriors strong, the Apima, Pinaos, 
 Guanacas, Paeces, &c. 
 
 MUISCA CALENDAR. 
 
 Account of tJie Muisca Calendar^ of tlie Indians of New Granada* 
 Dedicated, in 1795, to Don Jose Celestino de Mutis, hy Don Jose 
 Domingo Duquesne, Curate of Gachancipd. 
 
 I now communicate some observations in regard to the history of 
 the Muiscas, to explain what concern their computation of time, by in- 
 terpreting certain signs which I have investigated. This interpretation 
 is founded on a knowledge of the customs, history, idolatry and language 
 of the Muiscas. The language, although it has been of use to me, has 
 given me much trouble ; for, at the present time, it is not spoken, and I 
 have been obliged to work it out from the cartapacios (small books, 
 probably MSS.), where it was reduced to the Latin form, but with 
 which it has no analogy. 
 
 The Muiscas counted witli their fingers.^ They only had names for 
 numbers up to 10, and the number 20, viz., 1, ata ; 2, bosa ; 
 3, mica ; 4, muyhica ; 5. hisca ; 6, ta ; 7, cuhupcua ; 8, sahuza ; 9, aca ; 
 10, ubchihica ; 20, gueta, concluding these, they turned their hands, 
 went to their feet, repeating the same words, putting before them the 
 
 ^ These ruins appear to have some analogy with the eai*lier ones of Tia-Hnanacu 
 as compared with Incai'ial. The monuments of N. Grranada require detailed examina- 
 tion. 
 
 - Translated from J. Acosta's " Compendio, &c., de la N. Granada," Paris, 1848. 
 
 3 The word expressing the number 5, in the Carib of Essiquibo, the Moscan of 
 Nicaragua, and some others, means one hand ; tliat expressing 10, two hands ; that 
 expressing 20, a man : i.e., both hands and feet. The Peruvians and Cunacunas had 
 a purely decimal system. Trans. Amer. Ethiio. Soc. iii., 1853. 
 
43 
 
 word quihicha, as, thus says the foot ; quihicha ata, 11 ; quihicba bosa, 
 12, &c. — 
 
 The number 20, expressed by the word gueta (house, or the time of 
 sowing), included all the property and happiness of this nation, and here 
 ended their numbers. Thus having finished with one 20, they com- 
 menced counting another 20, uniting it to the first until 20 twenties 
 were obtained. 
 
 Thus as mathematicians have given to the circle 360° to facilitate its 
 subdivision, the Muiscas divided their accounts into four parts, and 
 again subdivided each part into fives : thus their prime numbers were 
 5, 10, 15, 20, which served them in the arrangements of their affairs. 
 
 The moon was the object of their observations and religion. 
 This planet, on which they gazed with adoration, gave to them the idea 
 or model for their habitations, enclosures, temples, fields, in a word, was 
 connected with all their doings. They fixed a pole in the earth for a 
 centre, and with a cord from it described a circle ;^ this pole and the 
 cord, if we carefully examine the characters and symbols described, "will 
 be seen to be the principal elements for instructing. 
 
 The various meanings of the numbers in their language, alludes to 
 the phases of the moon, agricultural operations, and the superstitions 
 of idolatry ; and in this way we are conducted to the formation of 
 a calendar.- 
 
 The Indians had mentally in their hands these symbols, as we have 
 the notes of music ; and thus, by merely giving a turn to the fingers, 
 they knew the state of the moon, and the position of their agricultural 
 and other affairs. 
 
 The year consisted of twenty moons, and a century of twenty years ;^ 
 
 ^ The Bakwains have a curious inability to make or put things square ; like all 
 Bechuanas, their dwelHngs are made round. "Livingstone's Africa," 40. 
 
 ^ M. Duquesne has made various etymological researches on the words which de- 
 note numbers in the Chibcha language. He asserts, " that aU these words are signi- 
 ficant ; that all depend on roots which relate either to phases of the moon, in its 
 increase or wane, or to objects of agricultural worship." As no dictionary of the 
 Chibcha language exists, we cannot verify the justness of the assertion ; we cannot 
 be too mistrustful of etymological researches, and shall satisfy ourselves with here 
 presenting the significations of the numbers from one to twenty, as given in the 
 MSS. which I brought from Santa Fe. Humboldt, Views, IL, 118. The late 
 Colonel Joaquin Acosta, author of the " Compendio," &c., had a " Diccionario y 
 Grammatica de la Langua Mosca Chibcha," MSS., in 12mo., which, I think, he gave 
 to the Greographical Soc. of Paris. See Ludewig, p. 128. 
 
 ^ Among the Muiscas, the day was divided into four parts ; three days made a week, 
 and ten weeks a limation or month. The rural year was composed of twelve Sunas, 
 and, at the end of the third year, another month was added, a method similar to one 
 
44 
 
 they commenced a moiit'h iVom the full-moon in tlie sign of Ubchihica? 
 which signified brilliant moon : counting seven days on the fingers, be- 
 ginning at Ata, which follows Ubchihica, they found the quadrature in 
 Cuhupcua ; counting from this, seven, they found the next immersion 
 of the moon in Muyhica, which meant anything black ; and the following 
 day, the coujunction symbolized in Hisca, which, in their idea, was the 
 uuion of the moon with the sun, represented the nuptials of theses 
 planets, which was the capital dogma of their belief, and the object of 
 their execrable rites ; then counting eight days, they found the other 
 quadrature in Mica, which meant a changing object, thus denoting the 
 continual variation of its phases. The first aspect of the first phase was 
 signified in Cuhupcua, and as in this symbol fell the quadrature, they 
 gave it two ears, calling it deaf. * 
 
 These same symbols served to count the years, and contained a gene- 
 ral doctrine, in regard to the sowing season. Ata,^ and Aca represented 
 the waters in the sign of the toad,^ for when this animal most loudly 
 croaked it was a signal showing that the time for sowing was near. 
 
 used in China. The civil year, or zocam, consisted of twenty sunas and the ritual, 
 or sacred year of thirty- seven sunas. Five ritual years made a small cycle, and four 
 of these a great age, equal to a real solar cycle of sixty years, an astronomical period 
 of the same duration as one used in Oriental Asia. His. of China, by Davis, I., 282 
 The Mexican week was of four days, as was also that of Java. See Calendar of 
 Nicaragua and Mexico, which was of this character. Trans. Amer. Ethno. Soc, 153, 
 1853. 
 
 ' Atl, water, in Mexican. 
 
 - Frogs are very common in N. G-ranada, and very large ones are to be seen parti- 
 cularly at Baranquilla, near the mouth of the R. Magdalena. 
 
 The frogs or matlametlo of Africa are of enormous size, when cooked look like 
 chickens, and are supposed by the natives to fall fi'oni thunder clouds, because after a 
 heavy thunder storm the pools, which ai'e filled and retam water a few days, become 
 instantly alive with this loud-croaking pugnacious jrame. It would no doubt tend to 
 perpetuate the present alliance, if we made a gift of it to France. " Livingstone's 
 Africa," 42. 
 
 The Maopityans or Frog Indians are a small tribe in Gruiana, from mao, a fx'Og, and 
 pityan, people or tribe. Schomburgh on Natives of Guiana in Ethno. Journal, i. 
 p. 2G5. 
 
 On the Oronoko were Indians, who rendered lionours of divinity to toads in order 
 to obtain rain or fair weather ; but the animals were beaten if the prayers were not 
 promptly complied with. Depons, I. 198. 
 
 The Creeks and Chcrokees, indeed, amongst all the Floridian nations, had a gi'ear 
 annual festival in July or August, called Boos-ke-tau, at which they danced the Toc- 
 co-yule-gan, or Tadpole dance, by four men and four women. Trans. Amer. Ethno. 
 Soc, 1853. 
 
 The rana arunco, or land toad is called by the Araucanos of Chile, Genco, or lord 
 of the waters. Molina, I., 179. 
 
45 
 
 Eosa, an enclosure for sowing, made round their grounds to preserve 
 them from injury. r— 
 
 Mica, to look for, find, choose small things, means the care they 
 should have in choosing seeds for sowing. 
 
 Muyhica, black object, represented dark and tempestuous weather. 
 Its root signified that plants grew, for with the benefit of rains, the 
 seeds gave out plants. 
 
 Hisca, green things, as the rains made the fields look beautiful and 
 gay. It likewise meant to rejoice, make merry. The most forward 
 plants in their fields, they praised in hope of their fruitfulness. 
 
 Ta, enclosure for sowing. The sixth month of the season ; this 
 corresponded to the harvest. 
 
 Cuhupcua, theft* granaries, have a snail shape or winding like tlie ear. 
 Cuhutana, has the same root, signifies the corners of the house 
 where the grain is deposited, the harvest. 
 
 Sahuza, tail, the month, or the end of the sowings ; Has allusion to 
 the pole fixed in their (calzadas) the ground for describing the circle 
 where they had their solemnities at harvest time. 
 
 Aca, two frogs, coupled. 
 
 Ubchihica may allude to their feasts. 
 
 Grueta, house and field, marked with a toad at full length, the emblem 
 of felicity. 
 
 The Muiscas looked upon these things, as so many oracles ; thev 
 taught their children with great care the doctrine of their forefatliers, 
 and not content with these precautions, not to lose the plan for the go- 
 vernment of the year, they marked the period by the sacrifice of many 
 victims. 
 
 They did not repeat the word Zocam (the year) without its corres- 
 ponding number, as zocam ata, zocam bosa, &c. In the same way with 
 the word suna (calzada or platform), where, at sowing and harvest 
 time, their feasts and sacrifices were held, as suna ata, suna bosa, one 
 platform, two platforms, and thus it was that these places were like books 
 in which were registered their doings. 
 
 Twenty moons, then, made a year ; these ended, they counted another 
 twenty, and then successively going round a circle, continuously, until 
 concluding a twenty of twenties. To intercalate a moon, which 
 is requisite after the thirty-sixth moon, so that the lunar year shall cor- 
 respond with the solar, and to guard the regularity of the seasons, was 
 easily done. As they had in their hands the whole of the calendar : 
 they sowed two enclosures successively, with a sign between them, 
 and the third with two. Upon this principle was conducted their 
 
46 
 
 astronomy, idolatry, politics, economy and what is not less interesting, 
 their surveying. 
 
 We will now distribute these Muisea signs with the fingers, and this 
 digitated table will give us all the combinations. Let us suppose that 
 ata, which is made with the first finger, corresponds with January, the 
 proper month for sowing. Continuing with the fingers we come to the 
 second enclosure in Mica, intercepting Bos a, which is between Ata and 
 Mica. So that this enclosure is made in the thirteenth moon in respect 
 to Ata. 
 
 Proceeding with the fingers from Mica, the enclosure corresponds in 
 Hisca, intercepting Muyhica, which is between Mica and Hisca, so 
 that the enclosure is in the thirteenth moon. 
 
 Lastly, let us run the fingers from Hisca, then the enclosure will be 
 in Suhuza, intercepting two signs, Ta and Cuhupuca, which are be 
 tween Hisca and Suhuza ; this is in the fourteenth moon in respect to 
 Hisca. 
 
 This moon Cuhupcua (deaf) is that which is intercalated, because it 
 is the seventeenth of the second Muisea year, which number, added to 
 the twenty moons of the first year, produces 37, making the lunar and 
 solar years equal, and Suhuza, becomes a true year. 
 
 This intercalation, which is perpetually verified, leaving aside 37, or 
 deaf moon, leads to a belief that between the two ordinary years, of 
 twenty moons each, there is another hidden astronomical one of 37 
 moons, so that moon 38 is the true year. The Muiscas, without under- 
 standing the theory of this proposition, which has embarrassed many 
 learned nations, found it necessary to add this moon at the end of each 
 three lunar years, in consequence of the twelve anterior ones being of 
 twelve moons, and the third of thirteen. They had thus a great faci- 
 lity in the intercalation, following this method, and preserving the 
 astronomical year, so that the people noted no difference in the ordi- 
 nary years of twenty moons. 
 
 The ordinary year of twenty moons served for the period of truces 
 in their 'wars, for purchases, sales, &c. But the astronomical year 
 and the intercalated of 37 moons, which counted for three sowings, 
 served principally for agriculture and religion. The account was kept 
 by their Xeques noting the epochs by particular sacrifices and en- 
 graving them on stones, by means of symbols and figures, as is seen in 
 a pentagon in my possession, which I will presently explain. 
 
 The Muisea century consisted of twenty intercalated years of 37 
 moons each year, which correspond to 60 of our years, composed of 
 four revolutions, counting five in five, each one of which was of ten 
 
47 
 
 Muisca years, and fifteen of ours, until twenty were completed, in 
 which the sign Ata returned to where it had first commenced. The 
 first revolution was closed in Hisca, the second in Ubchihica, the third 
 in Quihicha Hisca, and the fourth in Gueta. 
 
 The week was of three days, and was signalised by a market on the 
 first day at Turmeque, a most important one, as may be seen by re- 
 ference to Father Zamora. 
 
 They divided the day Sua and the night Za thus : Sua-mena, the 
 morning, from sun-rise to noon ; Sua-meca, noon till sunset ; Zasca, time 
 for food, sunset to midnight; Cagui, midnight to sunrise, morning 
 meal. 
 
 The founder of the Muiscas did not make the working of the calendar 
 easy for the nation. He ordered that they should consult their chiefs ; 
 thus the people believed the chiefs had command over the stars, and 
 were absolute masters over good and evil. jSTothing was done without 
 the advice of the Xeques, for which they received large presents, and 
 thus it was that these calendars were highly paid for. 
 
 Care was taken to signalise the annual revolutions by notable acts. 
 Sowing time and harvest had their sacrifices. Each town had a causeway 
 (calzada), level and broad, commencing at the cercado, or house of the 
 Tithua or chief, of half a mile in length, at the end of which there was a 
 pole like a mast, to which was tied the unfortunate creature to be 
 offered to the sun or the moon, so as to obtain an abundant harvest. 
 
 The Indians came in troops, adorned with jewels, figures of moons 
 and halfmoons of gold, some disguised in the skins of bears, jaguars 
 and pumas : some with masks of gold, having tears imitated on them ; 
 others followed whooping and laughing, dancing and jumping wdldly ; 
 others w^ore long tails, and arriving at the end of the causeway, sent a 
 shower of arrows at the victim, causing a lingering death, the blood 
 was received in various vessels, and the barbarous proceeding termi- 
 nated with the accustomed scenes of drunkenness. 
 
 It appears that this procession was symbolic of the calendar, and 
 had it been depicted, it would have aided inquiry or a better knowledge 
 of the signs and the characters attributed to them. 
 
 But the victim destined to solemnize the four intercalated moons at 
 the commencement of the century, underwent a peculiar induction. 
 He was a youth taken from a particular town, situated in the plains, 
 now known as those of San Juan. 
 
 His ears were pierced, and he was brought up in the Temple of the 
 Sun ; at the age of ten years (our) he was led out to walk, in memory of 
 the perigrinations of Bochica, the founder, who, they believed, resided 
 
48 
 
 ill the sun, living tliere, in an eternal happy state of marriage with the 
 moon, and having a brilliant family. 
 
 The youth was bought at a high price, and deposited in the Temple 
 of the Sun until he was fifteen, at which age he was sacrificed, when 
 his heart and entrails were torn out, and offered to that deity. 
 
 The youth was called Guesa,^ this means without home. Again, he 
 was named Quihica, or door, as was Janus, or the beginning of the 
 year, among the Romans. Guesa signifies also month, because he in- 
 terceded for the nation with the intercalated and deaf moon, which 
 heard his lamentations from the earth. The people believed that the 
 victims implored for them from within their habitations, so they sa- 
 crificed many parrots and macaws, sometimes as many as two hundred 
 of these birds were offered up at a time on the altars, but not before 
 they could repeat their Muisca language. Notwithstanding all the 
 sacrifices, the intercalated and deaf moon went on its way without any 
 alteration in the calendar. 
 
 The many precautions taken by the Muisca legislator for the govern- 
 ment of the year, made the people very attentive in its observance. It was 
 looked upon as a divine invention, and its author as a god, who dwelt 
 amongst the stars. Thus Bochica was placed in the sun, and his wife, 
 Chia, in the moon, that they might protect their descendants. 
 
 To Bochica was given two companions or brothers, symbolised by one 
 body and three heads, and one heart and one soul. Bochica, from the 
 sun, directed their agricultural operations. 
 
 The toad or frog had its place in the heavens, as a companion to tlie 
 scorpion and the rest of the Egyptian animals. 
 
 Not content with having deified their first legislator, they worshipped 
 another of their heroes in the same calendar. This was the powerful 
 Tomagata, one of the oldest Zaques. He had only one eye, but four 
 ears, and a long tail, like a lion. The sun had taken from him all pro- 
 creative power the night before his marriage, so that his brother, 
 Tutasua should succeed him. He was, however, so light of foot 
 that every night he made ten journeys to Scgomosa from Tunja, visi- 
 ting his hermits. He lived a hundred years, but the Muiscas say he 
 lived much longer. The sun gave him the power to turn those who 
 offended him into snakes, tii^ers, lizards. &c. The Indians called iiim 
 the cacique rabon (great tailf^d). His luune, Tomagata, means fire that 
 boils. They passed this strange creature into their astrological heaven, 
 
 ' See Prescott Conq. Mex. I. 62. On the Sacriiice of a beautiful youllito Tezcat- 
 lepoca, the soul of the world. 
 
1)11 
 > 1 • 1 
 
 
 ) > 
 
( ° 
 
 pq 
 
 <^ 
 
 o 
 
 \r-- 
 
 
 
 N^: 
 
 •\c> 
 
 
 ^-V--'<^i^ , 
 
 
 ci-r 
 
 v" 
 
 'r-\ 
 
 "■-. /'' <'l"9[\"'^') 
 
 <\ 
 
 ;^ 
 
 ■^-^-^ 
 
 */-. 
 
 "i^~'-^r-^' 
 
 .-'% 
 
 .-\ 
 
 ,--i--^ 
 
49 
 
 and, I think, he may be considered rather as the eunuch to tlie virgin 
 gleaner, than as the compauiaii to Sagittarius. 
 
 Such was the heaven of the Muiscas, full of animals, like that of the 
 Egyptians. AVe see introduced into it Bochica and Cliia, like Osiris 
 and Isis, the transformation of these into the ram, the bull and other 
 animals, and imitated in the transformation of Tomagata, &c. 
 
 Ata is a toad in the position of springing, which well characterises 
 the beginning of the year. Aca is a toad from whose tail another is 
 forming, symbol of that moon in which these animals begun existence, and 
 their croaking announced the rainy season, and was the sign that sowing 
 must commence. Here is an allusion to the sign Pisces. Gueta is the 
 toad, laying at full length, meaning abundance and felicity. To other 
 signs they gave human characters, as we ourselves sometimes picture 
 the sun and moon with eyes and nose. Bosa represented a nose ; 
 mica, two open eyes ; muyhica, two closed eyes ; cuhupcua, two ears ; 
 ubchihica, one ear. They probably wished here to give an idea of the 
 moon's phases. Cuhupcua looks like a basket, to signify the harvest. Ta 
 and Suhuzaare figured by the pole and cord, by which they made the circle 
 for the plan and foundation of their houses and fields. Hisca, the union 
 of two figures, was the symbol of fecundity, as Gemini. They had 
 various other significations. 
 
 AYe have seen the Muisca calendar by means of the fingers, also en- 
 graved on stones, by means of symbolic figures. In this country (New 
 Granada), up to the present time no one has occupied himself in 
 working on the iconography of the Muiscas, and these few observations 
 are the first elements of this study. 
 
 The toad is, without doubt, the symbol of the first moon of the year 
 and century. The Indians put it amongst their divinities, and repre- 
 sented it in various ways. When springing it corresponded to the first 
 sign, Ati, and is thus engraved on many stones. 1 have observed it 
 on the other stones engraved with a tail, which, I suppose, represents 
 quihicha ata, or the number 12 ; for, continuing the springs or jumps, 
 so as to denote future months, he designates, with his tail, those he 
 leaves behind. On some stones, the toad is seen without feet, which 
 appears to me to represent Gueta, a sign of quietude or rest, not in- 
 fluencing agricultural operations. Sometimes the head of the toad is 
 united to the head of a man ; at others the body without feet, turned 
 into an idol, with a tunic, also the tailed toad without feet. 
 
 The figure I am now about to describe is a pentagon (a)} 
 
 (a) is a toad on a plain surface, in the act of jumping. 
 
 1 Of Petro-Silex, of a green colour. 
 
 E 
 
 ^ 
 
50 
 
 (b) is a sort of finger, having three lines. 
 
 (c) is the same, but is outside the centre of the line, followed by the 
 others. 
 
 (d) is the same, preserving its (neutral position. 
 
 (e) is the body of the toad, without feet. 
 
 (f) is a snake. 
 
 (g) is a circle on the plain part of the stone, in the segment of which 
 is the figure (h). 
 
 (b) is the reverse of the same stone. 
 
 (i) is a circle with two segments formed by a cord and a radius. 
 
 (h) is a snake, &c. 
 
 Interpret ATiOiSr. — On this stone^ (at a) is symbolised the revolution 
 of the first Muisca year, commencing in ata and ending in hisca ; this 
 includes nine years and five Muisca moons. 
 
 The Indians, who for all things used the circle, here preferred the 
 pentagon to signify that they spoke of five intercalated years. 
 
 (a) The toad in the act of springing begins the year and centnry. 
 (b) This species of finger" signalises by the three thick lines, three 
 years. Omitting, then, the finger (c) which is on one side, they count 
 on the finger (d) another three years, which, together with those of 
 finger (b) produce six. This denotes the intercalation of quihicha 
 ata, which succeeds the six Muisca years, as is seen in the table ; and 
 is of much moment among the Indians, as belonging to the toad, which 
 regulates the whole of the calendar. 
 
 (e) is the body of a toad without tail and feet : symbol of quihicha ata, 
 and wanting the feet, properly expresses its intercalation. The inter- 
 calary month is not computed for the sowing, and thus they imagined 
 it without action or movements. There is seen, on the plain part, the 
 toad ata, which appears to signify that in both places the toad is meant. 
 
 (f) this serpent represents the sign suhuza, which is intercalated after 
 
 ^ Refee, Also to this poe, Further Explanation. — (a) Toad or frog without 
 head, sign of ata, emblem of water. 
 
 (b c d). — Three small pieces of wood, each marked by tbree transverse lines. 
 
 (e). — Tadpole, with long tail, and without feet ; frog in repose ; useless. 
 
 (f ) indicates by eight transverse lines, divided into five and three, that at the 8th 
 Muisca year, the moon governed by Suhuza is intercalated ; this is represented at (i) 
 by a circle, traced by means of a cord round a column. 
 
 (f h) represent serpents — emblems of time. 
 
 (g). — The sign hisca, alludes to the nuptials of Bochica and Chia. 
 
 (b c d). — The nine strokes are the nine Muisca years. 
 
 (h) the lock which closes the temple. 
 
 " Humboldt calls these figures pieces of wood, marked by transverse lines. 
 
 I 
 
51 
 
 quihicha ata, at the two Muisca years, represented by tlie two thick 
 lines on the back, corresponding to the eighth year, as is seen on the 
 table. 
 
 We now go to the plain or flat part (b). The serpent (h) is a repro- 
 duction of suhuza, and as it is laying on a sort of triangle, is the symbol 
 of hisca, signifying that it is intercalated immediately after suhuza, in 
 the second year, which is also figured by the two thick lines it has on 
 the back. 
 
 As the principal end of this chronological stone is to signalise the 
 intercalation of the sign hisca, as being the end of the first revolution 
 of the Muisca century. For greater clearness, these years are counted 
 in the three fingers (b c d), together producing nine years, which give, 
 punctually, this notable intercalation, happening at nine years and five 
 months, as is seen in the table. 
 
 (g) at (a) is a closed temple, (h) is a wooden lock of the same form as 
 used by the Indians of the present day. The holes of the two ears 
 serve for the stakes they use, and the two interior hooks to fasten the 
 door, signifies the first revolution of the century, closed in hisca. To 
 continue the time it was necessary to imagine that Guesa opened the 
 door with the sacrifice already alluded to, the circumstances of which 
 were symbolical, and related to these revolutions of the century. 
 
 The serpent has been the symbol of time with all nations. This first 
 revolution of the century was consecrated principally to the nuptials 
 of the sun and moon, symbolised in the triangle, not only by the In- 
 dians but by other nations. 
 
 Explanation of the diagram of circles of tlie Muisca year (c) : The 
 first or interior circle represents the twenty moons of the vulgar 
 Muisca year, all of which signs are intercalated in the space of a cen- 
 tury. The second circle expresses the Muisca years corresponding to 
 the intercalation of each sign. The third circle expresses the order of 
 this intercalation. Example : I wish to know in which Muisca year the 
 sign mica (the third year of twenty moons) is intercalated. I see in the 
 diagram the number 3 (which represents mica) in the inner circle ; 
 I find that in the second circle it corresponds to number 3G^, this 
 is the year sought for ; I see in the third circle that it corresponds to 
 
 ^ Duquesne gave the arrangement of the numbers in tables as at p. 55, and in tliree 
 circles, one inside the other. See J. Acosta and Humboldt. 
 
 In the diagram of circles, given by Humboldt and by J. Acosta, by some error the 
 number 30 is given instead of 36. The numbers in the diagram stand thus : 
 3, 36, 19. 
 
 E 2 
 
52 
 
 number 19 ; aud thus the intercalation of mica is in order or the 19th 
 of tlie century. 
 
 The intercalation of Gueta 20, is the last of the Muisca year 37. This 
 is after the vulgar Muisca century of twenty moons, aud seventeen 
 years more, so that, the century ending with the astronomical revolutions 
 of twenty intercalated years of thirty-seven moons each, three vulgar 
 years are required to complete two vulgar centuries. 
 
 A.rriving at this point, they took no account of those three vulgar 
 years ; they did not require, for agriculture, religion, or history, begin- 
 ning again in ata (which had been arrived at in its turn), a vulgar year, 
 the beginning of a fresh century, like the last already described.^ 
 
 Note by J. Acosta : I have wished to preserve this document without 
 addition or correction. 
 
 Note by W. B. I have omitted such observations as have but little 
 to do with the document. 
 
 In a note, J. Acosta^ says : That this calendar of Duquesne is lost. 
 
 (d). Is the representation of another stone calendar, showing all its 
 sides, of the original size, procured by Dr. E.oulin, in IS". Granada. 
 It is larger and more perfect than that of Duquesne, not of petro-silex, 
 but of Lydian Stone. 
 
 J. Acosta gives no explanation of this engraved stone calendar. 
 "What I call the upper surface has a pointed figure with male human 
 head : it may represent gueta, 20, quietude or rest, or zue, the sun. 
 The upper side has an oblong figure with seven angular marks : may 
 be the tail of a serpent, emblem of time. The lower side is a toad or 
 frog, probably the symbol of the first moon of the year and century. 
 The right hand side has a half female figure, may be za, the moon : 
 under the figure an oblong with six straight lines, may be tail of ser- 
 pent. The left hand side has two complex oblong figures, both alike, 
 each having six straight lines, two sets (six each) of angular marks, a 
 circle with three lines drawn from top to bottom, and two very small 
 circles, I cannot ofler any explanation to this last, but it has to do with 
 computation of time. 
 
 The underneath part (e) has three figures of toads or frogs, one has 
 two sets of six angular lines, may be the first sign, ata. In another i 
 is traced nine large angular lines and two smaller, may mean gueta 
 or 20. 
 
 • J. Acosta says of this green stone calendar, " supposed to be of the Chibchas." 
 2 418. 
 
 J 
 
53 
 
 NoTE.^ — On some Muisca stones bv M. Jomard. The ool- 
 lection I purchased in 184iQ, which came Irom the table-laml an- 
 ciently known as Cundinamarca, contains six stones analogous to that 
 published by Humboldt as tlie Muisca calendar, in his " A'iews of tlie 
 Cordilleras," &c. There appear always the same figures, viz. — the 
 human head, the frog, instruments, a fish or a part of one, insects, 
 crustacfi?, the carcaj or arrows, the rencunjo (spawn of frogs or }oung 
 frogs), Dot the perfect animal, a sort of rectangular tambor, witli a 
 Grecian border (Grra^caJ, which has always one of these figures, alone 
 or repeated, seen scul])tured in relief on the upper and lower portions, 
 and on the facets of the ancient stones alluded to. 
 
 Humboldt, founding his opinion on the numeration of the Muiscas, 
 subject to the number five and its multiples, as well as the Muisca 
 calendar, and observing that the pentagonal stones had 10 sculptured 
 figures on its facets, considers that it is a calendar, thereby adopting the 
 opinion of Duquesne. 
 
 The particulars of the six stones in my cabinet are as follows : 
 
 1. Stone irregular pentagon, "with nineteen figures. It is possible 
 that the twentieth has been rubbed out. 
 
 2. Another pentagon rather regular, ten figures, two facets empty, 
 or only marked, with two cross lines. 
 
 3. Another trapezoidal, regular, has five figures. 
 
 4. Another stone (esqusito verde) is bro'cen ; appears to have 
 been a pentagon ; seven figures remain, but adding the three facets 
 there would be ten. 
 
 5 — 6. Two stones much worn ; their original form cannot be made 
 out ; in these are seen some figures like those on the first described. 
 
 This examination confirms the conjecture of Humboldt, but only in 
 ]'eiation to the jN^o. 5 and its multiples ; but if these stones are calen- 
 dars, how is it that similar figures represent difterent days of the 
 week ? Then the Muisca week of three days does not agree with the 
 numbers 5 or 10, and it would only be from the number 15 and its 
 multiples, where the divisions in 3 or in 5 could be considered. In 
 regard to 20, we should have to go to 60 to have at one time a multiple 
 
 ^ M. Jomard has prepared this note : it contains the description of the objects in 
 his cabinet connected with the Chibchas. This collection is the most complete I have 
 seen in Knrope or America ; for, indepciident of tlie stone calendar I post^ess, which 
 is the most perfect known (tlio drawing D in plate) I only know of one other in N. 
 Granada, very much used, belongnig to Dr. M. M. Quijano, of Bogota. 
 
54 
 
 of 20 and 3, then 60 days do not correspond to any of the divisions 
 of the solar or lunar year, although on the other side, according to 
 Duquesne, the Muiscas had a division or period of 60 rural years, or 
 20 great years of the xeques or priests, each of which embraced 37 
 moons but the civil year had only 20 (signed) — Jomard. 
 
 Besides these stones, the cabinet of M. Jomard contains various 
 drawings of idols and ornaments, vases and other utensils of the 
 nations of N. Granada, especially from Antioquia (some 200), which 
 being of gold and heavy were drawn before they were melted down. 
 (Signed) J. Acosta. 
 
 (f) from 1 to 20 are the only hieroglyphics I have found of the 
 Muiscas. 
 
 ^1 
 
 I 
 
 'Jf 
 
 
LUNAR DAYS OF THE SUNA OF THE MUISCA INDIANS, DIVIDED INTO TEN SMALL 
 
 PERIODS OF THREE DAYS.l 
 
 Ata 
 
 Bosa 
 
 Mica 
 
 Ata 
 
 Bosa 
 
 Mica 
 
 FIEST SEIilES. 
 
 Muyliica Cuhupqim* last Aca 
 
 Hisca — quarter L'bchihica 
 
 Ta Suhuza 
 
 SECOND SERIES. 
 
 Muyhica Ta Aca 
 
 Eisca* conjunc- Cuhupqua Ubchihica 
 
 tion SaJtuza 
 
 TFIED SERIES. 
 
 Mvyhica Cuhupqua 
 
 Hisca Sahuza 
 
 Ta Aca 
 
 Ubchihica* full 
 moon 
 
 yita 
 
 Eosa 
 
 Mica* 1st quarter, 
 
 THREE FORMS OF ZOCAMS OF THE CALENDAR OF THE CHIBCHAS OF MUI8CAS 
 
 EUKAL YE^R OF TWELVE 
 AND THIRTEEN MONTHS. 
 
 1. Ata 
 
 r 
 
 Common year 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 YEARS OF THE PRIESTS OF 
 THIRTY-SEVEN MOONS. 
 
 L 
 
 II. Mica. 
 
 Common year 
 
 1 
 2 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 III. Hisca. 
 
 Embolismic year <} 
 
 Deaf month. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 IV. Suhuza 
 
 Humbolt' 
 
 Suhuza 
 Aca 
 Ubchi 
 Ata 
 
 '' Views," 126, 130. 
 
 Ata. . . 
 
 Bosca 
 
 Mica 
 
 Muyhica 
 
 Hisca 
 
 Ta . . . 
 
 Cuhupqua 
 
 Suhuza 
 
 Aca 
 
 Cbchihica 
 
 Ata 
 
 Bosa 
 
 Mica 
 
 Muyhica 
 
 Hisca 
 
 Ta 
 
 Cuhupqua 
 
 Suhuza 
 
 Aca 
 
 Ubchica 
 
 Ata 
 
 Bosa 
 
 Misca 
 
 Muyhica 
 
 Hisca 
 
 Ta 
 
 Cuhupqua 
 
 Suhuza 
 
 Aca 
 
 Ubchihica 
 
 Ata 
 
 Bosa 
 
 Mica 
 
 Muyhica 
 
 Hisca 
 
 Ta 
 
 Cuhupqua 
 
 II. 
 
 1 
 2 
 3 
 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 7 
 8 
 9 
 10 
 11 
 12 
 13 
 14 
 15 
 16 
 17 
 18 
 19 
 20 
 21 
 22 
 23 
 24 
 25 
 26 
 27 
 28 
 29 
 30 
 31 
 32 
 33 
 34 
 35 
 36 
 37 
 
 VULGAR YEARS OF TWENTY 
 MOONS. 
 
 I. Ala 
 
 Harvest 
 
 Harvest 
 
 1 
 2 
 3 
 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 
 7 
 8 
 9 
 10 
 11 
 12 
 13 
 11 
 15 
 16 
 17 
 18 
 19 
 20 
 21 
 
 11. Ata 
 
 Harvest 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 ]3 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 ill. Ata 1 
 
56 
 
 Panama. — The approach to this city from the Atlantic is by tracks 
 
 .through the most dense tropical forests ; here and there the scorching 
 
 sun's rays dart through openings, and teach one how to appreciate the 
 
 shade. As Panama is neared and the low mountains of the Isthmus 
 
 left behind, a pleasant grassy savanna is entered. 
 
 "Who can help musing in such a locality on the discovery of the New 
 World by Columbus, his sorrows and sufferings ; the proud feelings of 
 Balboa, his melancholy fate ; and the history of the bold but cruel 
 Pizarro, the conqueror of Peru ? 
 
 I was still north of the equator in 8° 56', it was the winter month of 
 this region, the sultry atmosphere of the woods was somewhat tem- 
 pered by the sea breeze, and a good bit of road presented itself ; on 
 either side were the huts of the half-Indian people, some swinging in 
 their hammocks and very lightly clad. Their cabins were shaded by 
 bauanas and palms, orange and pomegranate groves, and the beautiful 
 maize waved gracefully in the plantations. 
 
 On entering Panama, black clouds rose from the horizon spreading 
 themselves rapidly. A thunder-storm succeeded with torrents of rain, 
 when the weary traveller drenched to the skin found shelter in the 
 " Louisiana Hotel." After such a soaking, it is customary to rub the 
 body w^ith brandy, comforting also the inner man with a portion : this is 
 said oftimes to prevent an attack of fever. 
 
 I had a letter of introduction from Mrs. Harrison Smith (then in 
 England) to her brother-in-law, who located me in, perhaps, the best 
 house in the city, for which I was most thankful. 
 
 I did not find any ancient ruins here ; there are, however, some 
 interesting modern ones ; the Jesuits' college, destroyed by fire, mo- 
 nasteries, convents, and churches, the walls of which are covered with 
 trees and shrubs, their descending roots breaking out the masonry. 
 Worthy of note also is the cathedral and some of the churches, the 
 upper portions are studded w4th pearl shells, giving them a quaint and 
 sparkling appearance. 
 
 Since the discovery of the gold regions of California, from a lifeless 
 place, Panama has sprung into activity and opulence, added to which is 
 the circumstance of its being the point of transit to the w^est coast of 
 South America. 
 
 There are here many interesting views, amongst which may be men- 
 tioned, that of a portion of the city from the ramparts, on which 
 there were some brass guns off" their carriages, and it was said that a 
 couple of stout lads Mith sticks would have no difficulty in taking the 
 arsenal ; another good view is that of Playa Prieta, with its luxuriant 
 
57 
 
 vegetation rising from the shores of the Pacific ; a third is from oppo- 
 site the cathedral, witli the Caiiildo and busy Calle de la Merced to the 
 left, and a group of buildings to the right. 
 
 Although Panama is a New Granadian city, Brother Jonathan really 
 rules here ; it is a lively commercial place, and its residents most 
 obliging and hospitable, with a population of 20,000 souls. 
 
 I saw the arrival of a large party of diggers from California and 
 their departure for the Atlantic side ; they enjoyed themselves much 
 after a sojourn in the gold regions. 
 
 The " difficulties" that occasionally arise are amongst gamblers, row- 
 dies, and loafers, when the revolver and bowie knife comes into phiy 
 oftimes with fatal consequences. Panama ought to be kept cleaner, 
 for there is abundance of rain to wash it. 
 
 After the white population, principally foreigners, the negro element 
 preponderates amongst the work-people and servants, who are a gay 
 and saucy set ; they are very fond of dancing, and on moonlight nights 
 they assemble and dance till morning, accompanied by singing, their 
 music being on a drum made of the hollow trunk of a tree, and an 
 instrument of bamboo filled with pebbles. 
 
 This is an expensive place, washing is charged from twelve to sixteen 
 shillings a dozen. 
 
 Formerly, when in the tropics, I wore linen clothing, but I found it 
 more pleasant to dress in a very thin woollen shirt, trousers, and blouse 
 of same material. If a Panama straw hat and white leather boots be 
 added to the above, these form a most enjoyable costume, being more 
 conducive to health than either linen or cotton, particularly if there be 
 much rain. 
 
 As I was lame in the foot from the bite of some venemous reptile,^ 
 the night I slept at Cruces, I could not conveniently go abroad. INIy 
 kind host, Mr. Gr. 8mith, invited an evening party to meet me, consist- 
 ing of the principal merchants, consuls, gentlemen connected with the 
 railway, editors of eight newspapers, and other notables, including 
 Mr. Joy, well known for his energy and activity in affairs connected 
 with the Isthmus ; he has now steamers on the river Magdalena, and a 
 great boon they must be to the country. 
 
 I visited El Sefior Piece, the Panama pearl merchant. His pretty 
 treasures were kept in little bags ; one beautiful pearl he showed me, 
 pear-shaped, nearly an inch and a half long, by an inch broad in the 
 thickest part ; he hoped, in time, to fall in with another to match, when 
 his price would be £4000 ; he intended to ofler the pair for purchase or 
 refusal to the Queen of England. 
 
 ! The blood-sucking vampire bat is common in the Isthmus. 
 
58 
 
 Mother-of-pearl shell was selling at £7 per ton. 
 
 One of the interesting sights of Panama is the patio or court-yard of 
 the British consulate, piled up with bars of silver from Peru and Chile, 
 on their way across the Isthmus. 
 
 From January 1st, to September 30th, 1853, specie, gold-dust, and 
 silver in bars from California, Mexico, Peru, and Chile, amounting to 
 nearly 43,000,000 of dollars crossed the Isthmus. Of passengers 
 there arrived 7,041, and sailed 7,447. 
 
 My friends made a party on horseback to show me something of the 
 surrounding country. Having trotted over the grassy plain, we reached 
 the hills, from the tops of which we enjoyed exquisite views of moun- 
 tain scenery, particularly at the Losaria, where there are many country 
 seats ; forming, with the Pacific on the west, an interesting panorama. 
 
 One mile from Panama is the Cerro de Ancon, 500 feet high : from 
 its summit is seen the city, the islands in the bay, the neighbouring 
 plantations, the range between Panama and Porto-Bello, the Rio 
 Grande, the low lands towards Old Panama, and the Chepo and 
 Pecora rivers^ 
 
 20th of December. As I was to be at sea on the 25th, my good 
 friends Mr. and Mrs. Jones kept this as Christmas-day. I had passed 
 a Tery happy time of it, and when retiring to bed, I heard bitter 
 lamentations in an adjoining room. I enquired the cause, and found that 
 a young lady had just died of fever, after a very short illness. I could 
 not rest, so sallied forth, lit my cigar, found a billiard-room open, 
 sipped some iced drinks, and, at 3, a.m., the temperature being 86°, I 
 went home. 
 
 Col. Lloyd, in his observations on the Isthmus of Darien,^ says, 
 Porto-Bello is one of the hottest and most unhealthy places in the 
 world. It is a beautiful locality, but so fatal to human life as to be 
 called the white man's grave ; at Panama, on the contrary, it is healthy, 
 the thermometer in the rainy season does not rise higher at night than 
 82° to 87°, in summer 90° to 93°. 
 
 Water. — The supply is limited for the city, and it is slightly saline, 
 2d. to 3d. per gallon is paid for drinking water. It was pro- 
 posed in 1850, by a company that required a capital of a million dollars, to 
 bring good water, by pipes, from the river Pecora, but as yet this has 
 not been effected ; 15 to 20 per cent, dividend was promised. 
 
 Panama, its environs, and Taboga expend for water of indifferent 
 quality nearly £56,000 annually. 
 
 Old Paijtama is distant five miles by water from the present city ; it 
 
 ^ Greogr. Soc. Journal, i., 69. 
 
59 
 
 was destroyed by ISforgan, the Buccaneer, in 1673. It had once 20,000 
 inhabitants. The Spaniards say they had been weary of the place, and 
 determined to leave it on account of its having no harbour. The spot 
 is now deserted, and it requires a practico or guide to find it. 
 
 Some watch-towers, solidly built, an arch, two or three piers of a 
 bridge, fragments of church and convent walls are now the only 
 remains to be found. On the top of the convent walls trees and shrubs 
 grow from thirty to forty feet high, their roots running like wedges 
 into the walls, and starting the masonry. A few" negroes live in the 
 vicinity. Seemann, the naturalist, describes Old Panama as sur- 
 rounded by flat hills, copses of wood, savannas ; grassy slopes lose 
 themselves in wild thickets or wooded glens, and the trees stand as in 
 a park. Eoads are wanting, and in the wet season, which comprises 
 nearly three-fourths of the year, the country is almost impassable. 
 
 December the 22nd, got on board the " Bogota" steamer, commanded 
 by that excellent skipper, Captain Bloomfield, on my way south. We 
 ran over to the island of Taboga, twelve miles distant, in search of a 
 ship's cook, we got a black boy, for whose services we paid six pounds 
 a month. This densely wooded island is two miles long, its 
 highest parts 935 feet. It is an interesting bustling place, with its 
 habitations, hotels, cafes and huts picturesquely scattered about. Sup- 
 plies of beef, pigs, fowls, eggs, yams, bananas, pine-apples, sweet 
 potatoes, &c. are daily taken from hence to Panama. Here the Pacific 
 Steam Navigation Company have a gridiron and depot. 
 
 At Taboga has resided, for forty years, a most benevolent individual 
 well known as Dona Ana, and called the Queen of the Island ; she is a 
 Jamaica Creole of tall and commanding appearance, and reputed to be the 
 daughter of an English nobleman. Her attendance on sick sailors and 
 others is above all praise, and from her knowledge of the medicinal 
 herbs of the country she effects many a cure. She resides with her 
 black husband in a small hut like any other on the island. 
 
 By dint of industry she had saved rather a considerable sum of 
 money, which she enti'usted to an Englishman at Panama to invest for 
 her, but he like a scoundrel ran off" with her hard earnings ; she has, 
 however, the blessings of many a sailor who, having been prostrated with 
 fever, but for her care would perhaps have found a grave in Taboga. 
 
 A story is told of the land crabs of Taboga, who, about the latter part of 
 Lent, are observed descending the hills in great numbers, they even climb 
 over any huts that may be in their way " and join the religious procession 
 on Grood-Eriday." 
 
60 
 
 BAROMETRICAL AND THERMOMETRICAL OBSERVATION'S FROM THE AMERICAN 
 HOSPITAL'S REGISTER FOR 1853. THE BAROMETER WAS FIFTY FEET 
 ABOVE LOW WATER. 
 
 WINDS. 
 
 MONTHS . 
 
 DATE 
 
 1 
 
 6, A.M. 
 
 NOON. 
 
 30.00 
 
 6, P.M. 
 
 30.00 
 
 6a.m. 
 
 78 
 
 NOON 
 
 78 
 
 6 p.m. 
 
 77 
 
 January. . 
 
 30.00 
 
 <t 
 
 15 
 
 29.91 
 
 29.93 
 
 29.86 
 
 75 
 
 84 
 
 86 
 
 February . 
 
 1 
 
 30.02 
 
 30.03 
 
 30.00 
 
 75 
 
 85 
 
 80 
 
 C( 
 
 15 
 
 29.92 
 
 29.93 
 
 29.92 
 
 76 
 
 86 
 
 79 
 
 March . . 
 
 1 
 
 29.87 
 
 29.90 
 
 29.86 
 
 77 
 
 87 
 
 83 
 
 c< 
 
 
 15 
 
 29.90 
 
 29.77 
 
 29.90 
 
 75 
 
 87 
 
 80 
 
 April. 
 
 
 1 
 
 29.90 
 
 29.99 
 
 29.90 
 
 75 
 
 87 
 
 83 
 
 c< 
 
 
 15 
 
 29.92 
 
 29.98 
 
 29.92 
 
 77 
 
 87 
 
 83 
 
 July . 
 
 
 1 
 
 29.90 
 
 29.99 
 
 29.90 
 
 77 
 
 82 
 
 81 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 29.91 
 
 29.92 
 
 29.90 
 
 79 
 
 87 
 
 84 
 
 August 
 
 
 1 
 
 30.02 
 
 30.01 
 
 30.00 
 
 74 
 
 85 
 
 75 
 
 <( 
 
 
 15 
 
 29.96 
 
 29.97 
 
 29.91 
 
 75 
 
 84 
 
 76 
 
 September . 
 
 1 
 
 29.96 
 
 29.96 
 
 29.95 
 
 80 
 
 87 
 
 76 
 
 cc 
 
 15 
 
 30.00 
 
 29.98 
 
 29.98 
 
 76 
 
 83 
 
 74 
 
 October 
 
 1 
 
 29.94 
 
 29.93 
 
 29.92 
 
 77 
 
 80 
 
 77 
 
 cc 
 
 • • 
 
 15 
 
 29.98 
 
 29.93 
 
 29.96 
 
 78 
 
 87 
 
 82 
 
 November . 
 
 1 
 
 29.94 
 
 29.93 
 
 29.91 
 
 74 
 
 79 
 
 74 
 
 cc 
 
 
 15 
 
 29.92 
 
 29.98 
 
 29.90 
 
 79 
 
 86 
 
 79 
 
 N. and N.W. 
 
 W. 
 
 K.W. 
 
 K.W. 
 
 and N.W. 
 Do. 
 N.W. 
 N.W. 
 and N.W. 
 and S.W. 
 and N.W. 
 N.W. and S.S.W. 
 N.W. and S.E. 
 N.E. and S.W. 
 N.W. and N.E. 
 S.W. and W. 
 W. and N.W. 
 S. 
 
 Calm 
 
 W. 
 
 N.E. 
 W. 
 
 Rainy weather predominates, with sultry periods and much lightning 
 and thunder, also heavy thunder storms. I found no record of earth- 
 quakes.^ 
 
 On the 16th of June, 1854, in Panama from 4.30, p.m. until dark, 
 the atmosphere was darkened by a flight of large black-striped yellow 
 butterflies ; such an occurrence had not been seen before by my 
 informant during a four years' residenc3. 
 
 ON THE CHIBCHA, MTJI3CA OE MOSCA LANGUAGE. 
 
 In Ludewig's useful work on the literature of the American aboriginal 
 languages, he refers to collections of words, vocabularies and grammars ; 
 some of these, however, are still in M.S.S. 1 give first a list of w ords, the 
 result of my own reading on the subject ; other lists are irom T. 
 Compans, Duquesne, Holton, Seemann, &c. 
 
 Humboldt says, the Chibchas w^ere unacquainted with the b and d, and 
 characterised by the frequent repetition of the syllables cha, che, 
 chu ; as, for instance, chu, chi, we; hycha chamiqui, myself ; chigua 
 chiguitynynga, we ought to fight ; muisca cha chro guy, a worthy man ; 
 the particle cha added, Muisca, denoting the male sex. It would appear 
 that the Spaniards gave the name of Chibchas to the natives of the 
 Plateau of Bogota, in consequence of the very frequent repetition 
 of the word chi ; and as muisca means man, we are left rather in 
 
 \ A long-continued earthquake was felt at 10, p.m., on the 27th June, 1859. 
 
61 
 
 ignorance as to the real name of the nation, or of their country ; for 
 Baeatji or Bogota, means limit-of the cultivated land ; Cundi-runiarca or 
 Cundinimarca, apparently an imaginary term for the country. i 
 
 Colonel J. Acosta gave liis M.S. dictionary and grauiniar ot the 
 Lengua Mosco Chibchatothe Paris Geographical Society, 12ino, of 29G 
 p.p. His dictionary is the only one existing ; the grammar is dillerent 
 from that of Fray B. de Lugo : this last is very rare, printed in 
 Madrid, 1613.3 
 
 Hervas"^ says, the Muisca language was spoken in the country of the 
 Zippa (Bogota). The language is lost, but tliere are some M.S. voca- 
 bularies. 
 
 The Tunja language was different from that of Bogota. 
 
 Bacata, Bogota 
 
 limit of cultivated 
 
 Sugamuai 
 
 , Sogo- 
 
 mysterious one, or 
 
 
 land, probably from 
 
 moso 
 
 
 disappeared coun- 
 
 
 proximity to the 
 
 
 
 try. 
 
 
 mountain wall. 
 
 Chiminigagua 
 
 the Ci-eator. 
 
 
 Also from a chief 
 
 Bochica, 
 
 Bots- 
 
 
 
 of that name. 
 
 chica 
 
 
 beneficent deity. 
 
 Zomi, Turma 
 
 potato, yam. 
 
 Bachue, 
 
 Fuza- 
 
 
 Batata 
 
 sweet potato. 
 
 chogua 
 
 
 good woman. 
 
 Zipa 
 
 principal chief, resi- 
 
 Zue, Sua, 
 
 Zupa, 
 
 
 
 ding at Bogota. 
 
 Gacua 
 
 
 sun or day. 
 
 Zaque 
 
 another great chief. 
 
 Chia,'Za 
 
 
 moon or night. 
 
 Usaques 
 
 lesser chiefs. 
 
 Ullco, Chibia, or 
 
 
 Gruechas 
 
 military chiefs. 
 
 Hibia 
 
 
 supreme power. 
 
 Ebaque 
 
 blood of wood, name 
 of a cliief. 
 
 Aba 
 
 
 strong drink, made 
 from maize. 
 
 Nemequene 
 
 bone of lion, a chief 
 
 Neucatocoa 
 
 Chibcha Bacchus. 
 
 
 of Bogota. 
 
 Fo, Sorra 
 
 
 deity of boundaries of 
 
 Guatavita 
 
 end of mou.ntains, 
 
 
 
 fields. 
 
 
 lake of. 
 
 Chaquen 
 
 
 feast of Fo. 
 
 Ebate 
 
 spilt blood, a chief. 
 
 Cuchavira 
 
 
 rainbow. 
 
 Susa 
 
 white straw country. 
 
 Huayacan 
 
 
 holy wood, very hard. 
 
 Simijaca 
 
 owl's beak country. 
 
 Gueques^, 
 
 1 
 
 priests. 
 
 Macana* 
 
 a wooden sword. 
 
 Chuque 
 
 Tomagata^ 
 
 great tailed wizard, 
 and fire that boils. 
 
 Sunas 
 
 
 sacred paths. 
 
 ^ I suppose it was called Theusaquiilo . 
 
 2 Ludewig, 128. 
 
 3 Catalogo, &c., i. 229. 
 
 "* Maqualiintle, in aztec. 
 
 5 Famagostad of the Nicaraguas, was their uncreated first man— appears to have 
 affinity to Tomagata. 
 
 6 Squire says the councils of old men, called guegues, in Nicaragua, appointed the 
 war-chief. Guegue he takes to be a Mexican word, formed by the reduplication of 
 hue or gue, old ; huehue or guegue, literally old-old. Trans. Amer. Ethno. Soc. 
 125, 1853. 
 
 ' On the Amazons this plant is called uruca ; Valley of Amazons, Ilakluyt. Soc. 
 1859. Called achiote and tile in Nicaragua. 
 
62 
 
 Guesa 
 
 Chirimia 
 Tata 
 Thiguyes 
 Bija or Achote 
 
 Totuma 
 
 the name given to the 
 beautiful youth, sa- 
 crificed every 15 
 years. He is some- 
 times called Q,uihi- 
 ca, or the door. 
 
 wind instrument. 
 
 wooden trumpet. 
 
 the Zipa's concubines. 
 
 vegetable colours (bija 
 orellana) . 
 
 a calabash vase (cre- 
 centia cujete). 
 
 Yuca 
 Arracache^ 
 
 Aba 
 
 Gruacamayo 
 
 Barbacoa 
 Gruanin, Gianin 
 
 Capisuyo 
 
 jatropha manhiot. 
 
 a valuable esculent 
 
 tuber. 
 maize,2 and a measure 
 
 for. 
 the macaw, sacred 
 
 bird, 
 suspension bridge, 
 gold of low standard, 
 
 by this name it was 
 
 known on the coast. 
 Indian tunic. 
 
 FROM T. COMPANS, WHO QUOTES FROM PIEDRAHITA, SIMON, &c. 
 
 Chibchacum 
 
 Nompanim 
 
 Huacata 
 
 Muequeta 
 
 Gueta 
 Fo 
 
 Chunsna 
 Moque, Mocoba 
 Huan 
 
 Zaga 
 
 Chuncho, Tunjo 
 
 Jana 
 
 Ypguagua 
 
 Jagua 
 
 special protector of- 
 the natives, who 
 either called them- 
 selves Chibchas, or 
 were so named by 
 the Spaniards. 
 
 Cum means a stick 
 or support. 
 
 the lion's vase, a chief. 
 
 the emerald. 
 
 a country in the plain, 
 or Bogota. 
 
 house. 
 
 a fox, deity of the 
 goldsmiths and 
 weavers. 
 
 grand sanctuary. 
 
 a resin, incense. 
 
 feast of the sun, in 
 December. 
 
 fasting. 
 
 sacred place. 
 
 a measure, palm. 
 
 a fathom. 
 
 the Jaguar, also a 
 
 , fruit. 
 
 Chircate 
 
 mantles for females. 
 
 Chumbi, Mauri 
 
 girdle. 
 
 Liquira 
 
 female mantle, for 
 
 
 upper part of body, 
 fastened by a large 
 
 Thyhuas 
 
 Nigua 
 
 pin. 
 palaces, houses, 
 insect, the chigoe. 
 
 Sua-mena 
 
 from sun-rise to mid- 
 
 Sua-meca 
 
 day, 
 from mid-day to sun- 
 
 
 set. 
 
 Zasca 
 
 from sunset to mid- 
 
 
 niglit 
 
 Cagui 
 
 from midnight to sun- 
 
 
 rise. 
 
 Zocam 
 
 the civil year of 20 
 
 
 moons ; the week of 
 
 
 3 days and 10 weeks 
 
 
 made a lunar 
 
 
 month. The sacred 
 
 
 year was of 37 
 moons, and 20 of 
 
 
 these formed the 
 
 
 Muisca cycle. 
 
 Suna 
 
 new moon. 
 
 Tighi 
 
 Ramza 
 
 Zuha 
 
 FROM HERVAS. 
 
 woman, 
 tribute, 
 son of the sun. 
 
 Zaga 
 Quimi-Zaque 
 
 fasting. 
 
 country of the Zaquc. 
 
 1 Seemann's Voy. of Herald, I. 200. Arracachia esculenta of Holton. 
 
 2 Called " Mamaix in Mexico and West Indies." Hakluyt Coll., 1859. 
 
63 
 
 
 FROM HERRERA. 
 
 
 Chiqnachi 
 
 a district in ~?^. 
 
 Tunja 
 
 name of a chief. 
 
 X 
 
 Granada, means 
 
 Tyrona 
 
 a forgo or furnace. 
 
 
 caracoles or shells, 
 
 Tamalamcquc 
 
 town of the palms. 
 
 
 many found there. 
 
 
 
 
 FROM 
 
 HOLTON. 
 
 
 Acliira 
 
 species of cane.^ 
 
 Jipetera 
 
 disease from eating 
 
 Bejuco 
 
 climber, affords ligne- 
 
 
 earth. 
 
 
 ous cordage. 
 
 Moro 
 
 fustic, morus tine- 
 
 Cacao 
 
 chocolate tree. 
 
 
 toria. 
 
 Caiman 
 
 alligator. 
 
 Moya 
 
 cake of salt. 
 
 Coc6 
 
 cocoanut. 
 
 Miicura 
 
 an earthen vessel. 
 
 Coto 
 
 goitre. 
 
 Nemc 
 
 bitumen. 
 
 Galapag(5 
 
 terrapin. 
 
 Name 
 
 yam, dioscorea. 
 
 Guacamayo 
 
 macaw, ara glauca, a 
 
 Oca 
 
 oxalis tuberosa. 
 
 
 sacred bird. 
 
 Paica 
 
 worm-seed, chenopo- 
 
 Guacharo 
 
 the mysterious bird 
 
 
 dium. 
 
 
 (steatornis caripen- 
 
 Paramo 
 
 frozen regions of the 
 
 
 sis). 
 
 
 Andes. 
 
 Guadua 
 
 large bamboo. 
 
 Poyo 
 
 a bench 
 
 Guambia 
 
 a bag. 
 
 Quina-Quina 
 
 Peruvian bark tree.^ 
 
 Guaricha 
 
 a low girl, from this 
 
 Quingo 
 
 zig-zag. 
 
 
 class wet nurses 
 
 Sagu 
 
 ari*ow-root. 
 
 
 are at present pro- 
 
 Tutuma 
 
 a fruit, vessel of cala- 
 
 
 cured. 
 
 
 bash. 
 
 Iraca 
 
 carloduvica palmata. 
 
 Tulpas 
 
 three stones, forming 
 
 
 also called jipijape, 
 
 
 a fine place. 
 
 
 from which the so- 
 
 Yuca 
 
 manihot utilissima. 
 
 
 called Panama hats 
 
 
 
 
 are made. 
 
 
 
 
 FROM 
 
 ULLOA. 
 
 
 Caobo or acajou 
 
 mahogany 
 
 Chacara 
 
 farm, from wliicli 
 
 Tulcan 
 
 toucan or preacher. 
 
 
 chacra. 
 
 ^ Achira (canna discolor) has tuberose roots, and looks like the sweet potatoe. 
 Seemann's voy. of Herald, i., 180. 
 
 - CiNcnoN'A. — Near to Bogota Holton passed a cinchona bush in flower; he says 
 it was a useless species. N. Granada, 125. 
 
 Near Pandi the ground rises steadily to the E. covered with huge trees, that must 
 include an unknown quantity of cinchona, 308. 
 
 Quinine. — At the Hacienda of Tequendama, M. Louis Godin has a quinine fac- 
 tory. The quinine made here is not esteemed at Bogota, but I am satisfied that it 
 is skilfully made and of pure white : there may be worse — there can be none better. 
 The bark is pulverised entirely by hand, and comes from places on the mountains south 
 of here, as nearly as I could ascertain. Every man keeps his own quina secrets. 286. 
 From Markham's notes on the culture of cinchona ; the varieties are C. Con. 
 (var. Pitayensis and Lancifolia), C. Cordifolia. Found in the warm regions of the 
 Andes of Bogota, at the margins of the forests, altitude 5000 to 9000 feet above the 
 level of the sea ; grows in thickets, in sunny exposed places. 
 
64^ 
 
 
 
 FEOM SEEMANN. 
 
 Aracacha 
 
 
 oxalis crenata 
 
 Chupa 
 
 Baco 
 
 
 Gustavia Augusta. 
 
 Corinso 
 
 Bejuco de Guaco 
 
 mikania guaeo. 
 
 Cucua 
 
 Bleo 
 Candia 
 
 
 peirescia bleo. 
 abelmoschus escu- 
 
 Guajavo de Au- 
 selmo 
 
 
 
 leiitus. 
 
 Quereme de Call 
 
 Caspi de pasto 
 Caucliuc (Po- 
 
 payan) 
 Cedron 
 
 rhus glandulifolia. 
 sipliocamphylus ca- 
 
 outs-chovic. 
 siraaba cedron. 
 
 Ruda 
 Sarzileja 
 
 Tagua 
 
 Chigua 
 Choco 
 
 
 zamia chigua. 
 erjthriua rubinervia 
 
 
 gustavia speciosa. 
 godoya antioquiensis. 
 brosimum namagua. 
 campomanescia corni- 
 
 folia. 
 Thibaudia quereme. 
 dysodia chrys. M 
 
 chaetogastra canes- 
 
 cens. 
 phyteleplias, macro- 
 
 carpa. 
 
 FROM DUQUESNE'S ACCOUNT 
 
 1. Ata, also a toad or frog ; vraters ; and 6. 
 that the time of sowing was near ; cor- 
 responds vvitli January. 7. 
 
 2. Bosa, nose with extended nostrils ; 
 
 part of moon, figured with face ; round 8. 
 enclosure for sowing. 
 
 3. Mica, two eyes open of moon ; care in 9. 
 
 choosing seeds for sowing, etc. 
 
 4. Muyhica^ two eyes closed ; black ob- 10. 
 ject ; darkness ; tempestuous weather. 
 
 5. Hisca,'^ two figures united ; hope of 20. 
 fruitfulness ; nuptials of sun and 
 moon ; conjunction ; green things ; 
 plants. 
 
 IN THE CALENDAR. 
 
 Ta,2 a stake with a cord ; enclosure ; 
 harvest. 
 
 Cuhupqua,** two ears, a snail shape 
 
 or winding of the ear ; granaries. 
 
 Sahuza, tail ; the end of sowmgs 
 
 (this reading doubtful). 
 
 Aca, two frogs coupled ; toad on 
 waters. 
 Ubchihica, an ear ; may allude to 
 
 feasts ; full moon ; harvest. 
 
 Gueta, probably a sign of quietude 
 
 or rest ; frog extended ; house and 
 
 field ; felicity. 
 
 FROM JOMARD'S OBSERVATIONS.—" Bulletin de Geographic," 1847, p. 88, 
 
 part II. 
 
 11. Quicha.ata. 40. Gue-bosa. 
 
 12. Quicha-bosa, &c. 60. Gue-mica. 
 
 20. Quihcha-ubchihica or gueta. 80. Gue-muyhica. 
 
 21. Gueta-sasaqui, ata, &c. 100. Gue-hisca. 
 30. Guetas-asaqui, Ubchihica. Quihicha, or qhicha foot. 
 
 
 COCONUCO AND PUBENANO 
 
 WORDS. 
 
 Manche 
 
 supreme power, spirit 
 
 Inde 
 
 a word of affirmation, 
 
 Palash 
 
 heaven. 
 
 
 indeed. 
 
 Cuai, pansig 
 
 devil. 
 
 Puil 
 
 evil, the moon. 
 
 Cashu 
 
 chief. 
 
 Puitcher 
 
 author of good, the 
 
 Carabics 
 
 inferior chiefs. 
 
 
 sun. 
 
 Bura 
 
 maize. 
 
 Sil 
 
 stars. 
 
 Hayo 
 
 the coca of the Peru- 
 
 site-silg 
 
 ploeides. 
 
 
 vians. 
 
 silg or siill 
 
 planets. 
 
 Pic or Mambl 
 
 alkaline ash, chewed 
 with hayo. 
 
 Cauapuil 
 
 a month or moon. 
 
 Other ways of spelling — ^ Mlmyzca. - Hiesca or hysca. Taa * Qliupca. 
 
65 
 
 WORDS IN THE LANGUAGE OF THE INDIANS OF CHOCO 
 
 MoHten's Coluinbia, 450. 
 
 Copdour 
 
 chief. 
 
 Carpemara 
 
 how much. 
 
 Oueumehor 
 
 man-eater. 
 
 Amba 
 
 one. 
 
 Decoupera 
 
 woman. 
 
 Noumi 
 
 two. 
 
 Ileiueora 
 
 man. 
 
 Conoupa 
 
 three. 
 
 Babkoukena 
 
 wliite. 
 
 Aiapa 
 
 four. 
 
 Gaouna 
 
 Indian. 
 
 Conambo 
 
 five. 
 
 Ninf!;our 
 
 Wack. 
 
 Audkinanamba 
 
 six. 
 
 Ouriiua capun 
 
 come here. 
 
 
 
 CHIRIQUI 
 
 WORDS, from J. Harrison Smith. Geogr. 
 
 Soc. Journal, 1854. 
 
 Caraiia 
 
 Chiriqui incense. 
 
 Amotto 
 
 bixia, dye wood. 
 
 Tacamalmca 
 
 dye wood. 
 
 Paraguatan 
 
 dye wood. 
 
 Aguacate 
 
 Iauru3 persica, dye 
 
 Angoli 
 
 sesamum orientale, 
 
 
 wood. 
 
 
 dye wood. 
 
 Cupana 
 
 dye wood. 
 
 Guacalis 
 
 ancient Indian grave 
 
 CHIRIQUI WORDS from Panama, "Star and Herald," 
 Esq., F.R.G.S., who went to the Chiriqui Guacalis, and 
 journal, August to October, 1859. 
 
 Tuyra or 
 
 Tavira 
 
 devil. 
 
 
 Doracho 
 
 Tequina 
 Cauques 
 Sacos 
 
 
 priest, master, 
 chiefs, 
 inferior chiefs. 
 
 
 
 Cabras 
 
 
 dependent on chiefs, 
 and who had slaves. 
 
 Bugaba 
 Mamudo 
 
 Espavee 
 Ira 
 
 
 wives of chiefs. 
 women. 
 
 
 Boquete 
 Guacalis 
 
 Chui 
 
 
 men. 
 
 
 
 Xangui 
 
 
 black dye. 
 
 
 
 Boxa (bixia) 
 
 red ditto. 
 
 
 
 Buio 
 
 
 house of canes. 
 
 
 
 Areytos 
 
 
 songs. 
 
 
 
 edited by John Power, 
 reported on them in hi» 
 
 extinct nation of 
 Chiriqui, or " mar- 
 tial tribes" of Ve- 
 raguas. 
 
 Chiriqui tombs. 
 
 ditto. 
 
 ditto. 
 
 objects found in the 
 tombsjthose of gold 
 s. g., 17-44 ; those 
 alloyed with copper 
 known as guanin 
 andtumbaga, 8. g., 
 11-55. 
 
 See my paper to Antiq. Soc., read December 8, 1859, " On Discovery of Gold 
 Objects, &c., in the Tombs of Chiriqui." 
 
 WORDS from Suere, near Panama. See Benzoni, in Hakluyt Coll., 1859, which I 
 
 compare with Quichua. 
 
 Suere 
 
 ischia 
 
 Quichua 
 
 pacha 
 
 English 
 
 eai'th. 
 
 Chiarucla 
 
 CICL 
 
 Ccuri 
 
 ceari and nuia 
 
 Gold 
 
 man. 
 
66 
 
 J. Acosta, p. 31, gives the following as the numerals of Careta (Coyba), on the 
 Isthmus of Darien : 1, quencheco ; 2, pogua ; 3, pagua ; 4, paquegua ; 5, atale ; 6 
 nergua ; 7, anvege ; 8, cugule. 
 
 Paravey, Paris, 1853, published a memoir on the origin of the Japanese, Arab, and 
 Biscayan, with the people of Bogota ! 
 
 FROM TRANS. AMER. ETHNO. SOC. 134, 1853. 
 
 T here compare the Muisca of Bogota, with the Waikna or Mosca, Woolwa, and 
 Nagradan. 
 
 English. tj Woolwa. Muisca. Nagradan. 
 
 Man waikna all muisca, body 
 
 of 5 parts 
 
 Woman mairen yall tighi 
 
 Foot mena calni quihicha 
 
 Water lia wass^ ata^ 
 
 House watla u thyhuas 
 
 Maize aya . . . aba 
 
 One kumi alaslaj ata imba 
 
 Two wal muyebu bosa apu 
 
 Three niupa muyebas mica asu 
 
 Four wal-wal muyerunca muyhica acu 
 
 matasip muyesinca? hisca huisu 
 
 Six . . . dija or muy- 
 
 dijca ta mahu 
 
 Seven .... bajca or muy- 
 
 bajca cuhupqua niquinu 
 
 Eight .... muyacca sahuza nuha 
 
 Nine .... yaccabavo aca melnu 
 
 Ten .... muyhasluy ubchihica guha 
 
 Chief wati .... saki 
 
 Moon kati .... chia, za 
 
 Sun lapta . . . . sua 
 
 Old man, chief gueque gueque 
 
 Male, un- 
 created, who 
 created the 
 
 world tomagata famagostad 
 
 Female, ditto zipa-ltonal 
 
 Priest of the 
 
 temple, chief sogomoso tamagoz 
 
 Rainbow cuchavira^ 
 
 ^ Probably from water. 
 
 2 Atl (Mexican) ; oka (Choctaw). 
 
 3 Ccuichi, in Quichua. 
 
«7 
 
 FROM ULLOA. 
 
 Serpo 
 
 toad, Portobello 
 
 Yabira 
 
 a virgin, Daricn 
 
 Chacara^ 
 
 farm-house, do. 
 
 Capeti 
 
 the sleepy, do. 
 
 Hato 
 
 do. do. Lloyd 
 
 Pucro 
 
 light wood, at Guay- 
 
 Guana 
 
 lizard like animal, 
 
 
 aquil, called balna- 
 
 
 taten, Portobello. 
 
 
 wod, do. 
 
 Guazau 
 
 name of chief near 
 
 Zeti-gaati 
 
 species of w illow 
 
 
 Panama 
 
 
 do. 
 
 Chepo, chepauri 
 
 chief, do. 
 
 Paparos 
 
 peasants, do. 
 
 Pononomi 
 
 chief, do. 
 
 Bejucos 
 
 bridge of six ropes 
 
 Escolia 
 
 chief, do. 
 
 
 ligneous cordage, do 
 
 Parita 
 
 chief, do. 
 
 Tarabita 
 
 of one and tworopes, 
 
 TJrraca 
 
 chief of Veraguas 
 
 
 do. 
 
 
 DARIEN— FROM SEE MANN. 
 
 
 Anta 
 
 phytolephus sp. 
 
 Cucua 
 
 brosimura namagua 
 
 Chigua 
 
 zamia chigua 
 
 
 * 
 
 From aborigines of the Isthmus of Panama by Berthold Seemann. Trans. Amer. 
 Ethno. Soc. 175, 1853. 
 
 VOCABULARIES OF SAVANERIC, CHOLO AND BAYANO. 
 
 JEnglish. Savaneric. 
 
 Man 
 Boy 
 
 Woman au-ich 
 
 Girl 
 
 Child 
 
 Friend 
 
 Thief 
 
 ilair chugags 
 
 Face 
 
 Nose vas'e 
 
 Mouth ca 
 
 Teeth daju 
 
 Tongue cavira 
 
 Ears old 
 
 Breast jusole 
 
 Arm 
 
 Hand covare 
 
 Finger 
 
 Body, perhaps belly 
 
 Leg 
 
 Thigh 
 
 suaguet 
 
 Cholo. 
 
 ^ Chacra, in Quichua, means estates, farms, plantations. 
 
 Hayano. 
 
 chumaquira 
 
 - 
 
 guarra 
 huena, huera 
 
 purra 
 
 huenajauna 
 quarchaque 
 
 • > • 
 
 . nugiiete 
 
 • • • 
 
 . trusaso, transolico, 
 
 puda 
 
 campanucho 
 saglaga 
 
 quiru 
 quejunbue, juu 
 
 asagua 
 
 itai, ji 
 tida 
 
 caguig 
 nugula 
 
 quirame 
 quevati, jur^ 
 ju, bi 
 
 ou a 
 
 jupatu 
 
 
 jiqua,jua 
 jevachaque 
 
 arcana 
 
 cacua 
 
 
 jeremumuli 
 macartl 
 
 
 F 1' 
 
c.^ 
 
 Sacaucric. 
 sera 
 jivita 
 chi 
 lavi 
 
 es-que 
 bla 
 
 chugapa 
 
 Jb'iiQliiih. 
 Foot 
 Fire 
 Water 
 Earth 
 Silver 
 Sugar-cawe 
 Plaintain 
 Tree 
 
 Pine-apple 
 Calabash' tree 
 Maize 
 Guayavo 
 Another plant 
 Vegetable ivory 
 Wood 
 Cock 
 Hen 
 
 Egg 
 Turkey 
 Parrot 
 Dog 
 
 Pig 
 Hour 
 
 Ladder 
 
 Pot 
 
 Knife 
 
 Canoe 
 
 Flask 
 
 Shut 
 
 Sun 
 
 Moon 
 
 Stars 
 
 I have 
 
 I had 
 
 You (instead; 
 
 Good-day 
 
 Yes 
 
 No 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 100 
 
 See Dr. Cullen's vocabulary of the 
 Journal. The Bajano or the Yule 
 Darien, from the Atrato to the coast 
 
 antana 
 
 cog 
 
 cojquigiia 
 
 t6 
 chunchi' 
 
 uu 
 
 singoni 
 
 chuhi 
 
 datu 
 
 behugupa 
 
 chacri 
 
 baguiche 
 
 Cholo. 
 jeru 
 quebuejiue 
 
 qiicbue, itro 
 paito 
 c'haso 
 pat a 
 panijo 
 chijo 
 giatahu 
 nepe, near a 
 pamiso 
 bija (bixia?) 
 ant a 
 pajnra tupa 
 
 necomu 
 
 charau 
 
 iari 
 
 china 
 tee 
 
 dum^ 
 
 ecohuru 
 
 neco 
 
 jampa 
 
 mamasand- 
 
 becia, bichia 
 
 jedec6 
 
 chintahu, eocohi 
 
 iru vuma 
 
 yuru ira basima 
 
 confero 
 
 nano 
 
 seva 
 
 ab^ 
 
 ume 
 
 umpea 
 
 quiramani 
 
 guasoma 
 
 guaquiranamba 
 
 Hc,JJ(fU.O. 
 
 naca 
 
 manila 
 
 noc» 
 
 quenchique 
 
 povuar 
 
 pavuar 
 
 paqueyuar 
 
 state 
 
 nercua 
 
 cugle 
 
 pavaque 
 I^aquerae 
 ambuc 
 ambuc-ambuc 
 
 Bayano language, in the Geographical Society's 
 
 or Tule is sj^read along the northern shore of 
 
 of San Bias. 
 
 ^ Chancho, Spanish. 
 - Mama-Juana, Spanish. 
 
 m 
 
(59 
 
 PANAMA. From Berthoid Seemann's Popular Noui«nclat ura of the Ameriuau 
 
 Flor; 
 
 Acabii 
 
 Achote 
 Agalla' 
 Aji 
 
 Amaosifr 
 
 Aniistay 
 
 Anamu 
 
 Anona 
 
 Anil 
 
 Aqui 
 
 Bala 
 
 Balsa 
 
 Bejuco de estrolla 
 
 Bejueo de sajino 
 
 Cabuga 
 
 Cacique 
 
 Cadilla 
 
 Catfo 
 
 Caimitillo 
 Cairn it o 
 
 Cainillo 
 
 Calabazu 
 Calahuala 
 
 Camaron 
 
 Caoba 
 
 Caracuoha 
 
 Caucbuc 
 
 Ceiba 
 
 Chamico 
 
 Chiriqui 
 
 Chonta 
 
 Cliuiiiico 
 
 Chunga 
 
 Ciqua 
 
 Cocla 
 
 Coco 
 
 Cocobolo 
 
 Cope 
 
 Corozo 
 
 Corotii 
 
 Corpache 
 Cubit a 
 Cuipo 
 Culautra 
 
 zanthoxylum spino- 
 
 sum. 
 bixia orcllana. 
 caesilpina coriacea 
 capsicum, Chile pep- 
 per, 
 busera gunimifera. 
 impatiens balsauiiua. 
 petiveria alliacea. 
 anona laurifolia. 
 indigofera anil, 
 cupaniasapida. 
 gliricidia mcaulata. 
 achroma lagopus. 
 arstolochia. 
 dioscorea. 
 agave tuberosa. 
 diphysa carthag. 
 amaranthacea. 
 colFea arabica 
 
 " racemosa. 
 miconia myriantha. 
 chrysophyllum cari- 
 
 niito. 
 cremanium comprea- 
 
 sum. 
 creceutia cunefolia. 
 goniophlebium atte- 
 
 nautum. 
 hirtclla racemosa. 
 swietenia mah. 
 pluiveria. 
 india rubber, 
 eriodendron saumau- 
 
 ma. 
 chamico D. stram. 
 composita. 
 palma. 
 
 curatella amer. 
 palma 
 
 cauela, lauriuea. 
 bauhinia uiultinervia. 
 cocus nucitera. 
 
 olusia. 
 
 bactris. 
 
 enterolobium tin- 
 
 bova. 
 croton pseudo-cliina. 
 carloduviea palmata. 
 sterculiacea. 
 erviigium foptidum. 
 
 Guanabano 
 
 blanca 
 Guanabano de 
 
 terete 
 Guandu 
 Guaruma 
 Guatatuca 
 Guateguate 
 Guava real 
 Guayacan 
 
 " (Mox.) 
 Guazuma 
 Giicpero 
 Guineo 
 Icaco 
 
 Ichu (Peru.) 
 Iguana 
 Jagua 
 Jercaeo 
 Jipejapa 
 Jobito 
 Jobo 
 Macano 
 Maguey 
 Mammey 
 Mangle 
 ]\[ango 
 Mani 
 
 Maquenque 
 Maronon 
 Marfiiyeg.(rog. 
 
 ivory.) 
 Matapalo 
 Malamba 
 Monca 
 xSanco 
 
 Naju de c.lcbra 
 
 Or Usui 
 
 Otd 
 
 Pa cay 
 
 Paica 
 
 Panama. 
 
 Papayo 
 
 Pava 
 
 Pijibaya 
 
 Pitajaya 
 Pialano 
 Pot'opopo 
 
 Quira 
 Sajino 
 
 annona muricata. 
 " obstrusifolia. 
 
 cajanus bircolor. 
 cecropia peltata. 
 gesneriu. 
 passiflora fetida. 
 inga spectabilis. 
 Teeoma ilavesecn*. 
 gUHJacum off. 
 guazuma. 
 
 bro^innlm namagua. 
 musa sapientum. 
 clu'vi^obalims icaco. 
 etipa icliu. 
 maclia.jrdim triste. 
 genipa caruto. 
 ocimum basilicum. 
 carloduviea paiiniata. 
 spondias. 
 
 dipliysa Carthag. 
 
 agave. 
 
 niammea, mangrove. 
 
 rhizophora M. 
 
 majiirifcra indica. 
 
 aracliiri hypo^aea. 
 
 palma. 
 
 anacardium off. 
 
 pliytolephus. 
 
 fieus sp. 
 desmoncus. 
 cypliomandra betai-'-a 
 brisonima coiuinuiu- 
 
 lia 
 peire.-icia bleo. 
 lippia dulcis. 
 arum esculent um. 
 palma. 
 
 sterculia Carthag. 
 carica papaya, 
 pan ax. 
 l)nlma 
 
 cerens pitay.i. 
 musa paradisica. 
 cochlospenm:m hibis 
 
 coides. 
 iriachiierium pchomb. 
 rhopala diver 
 
 1 Looks as if of African origin. 
 
70 
 
 Culen 
 
 psoraralea glandulosa 
 
 Sandilla 
 
 citrullus vulg. 
 
 Cutarro 
 
 suartzia pinnata. 
 
 Sapallo 
 
 curcubita melopepo 
 
 Dividivi 
 
 caesalpina coriacea. 
 
 Sumbo' 
 
 cucm-bitacea. 
 
 Espave 
 
 anacardium rhin. 
 
 Te2 
 
 corchorus mom- 
 
 Guachapali 
 
 sehizolobium excel- 
 
 
 poxensig. 
 
 
 sum. 
 
 Tula graiide 
 
 cucurbitacea. 
 
 Guaco tree 
 
 cratevia tapioides. 
 
 Yerba de Chiva 
 
 hydrolea spinosa. 
 
 Guagra de Pu- 
 
 aroslichum aureiini. 
 
 Zanora 
 
 Iriartea exhoriza. 
 
 erco 
 
 
 Zaneo 
 
 sambucis Mex. 
 
 FROM LLOYD'S NOTES ON THE ISTHMUS OF DARIEN 
 Trans. Geogr. Soc. I., 69, and Dr. CuUen. 
 
 Bongo' 
 
 cork-wood tree, " no- 
 
 
 ble Bongo tree," 
 canoes made from 
 
 Carraesa 
 Corutu 
 
 species of bamboo, 
 like elm. 
 
 Carati 
 
 hard wood. 
 
 Ciquarri 
 Cucuma 
 Guacliapali 
 
 bastard mahogany, 
 for making mats, &c. 
 like walnut. 
 
 Guayavite asey- 
 
 white wood. 
 
 jan 
 
 
 Guallavo 
 Juasimo 
 Majagu 
 Siti 
 
 Tangare 
 Totumo 
 Yalla 
 Caucbuc 
 de Vaca) 
 
 (Palo 
 
 infested by ants, 
 hard wood, 
 for making ropes, 
 hard wood, 
 like mahogany, 
 calabash tree, 
 like box. 
 
 milk or Indian rubbe.i 
 tree. 
 
 Lloyd gives the following Indian names of places in the district of Panama, 
 Pecora, Chepo, Cheman, Gorgona, Taboga, Areyjan, Capira, Chame, Pere, Pocri, 
 Macoiacas, Ocu, Penonome, Ola, Chagres, Palenque, Fichichi, Pinogana, Fucuti, 
 Cana, Chipigana, Punaga, Colobre, Sona, Alange, Gualaca, Biyaba, Dolega. 
 
 ^ Looks as if of African origin. 
 
 * Spanish for tea, 
 
 2 Looks as if of African origin. 
 
EQUADOK OK QUITO. 
 
 Pizarro. — Ouayaquil. — Puna. — Coal. — The Historian Velasco. 
 
 Villavicencio. — The Patriotic Bishop CaJama. — Description of JEguador. 
 
 — Canelo- Cinchona. — Cedron. — Roads to Quito. — Quito. — Chimhorazo. 
 
 Quitus. — Invadiiig Caras. — Manta. — Fossil Bones. — Malabas. — Torto- 
 las. — Negroes. — Conquest of Quito by the Caras. — Emeralds. — Conquest 
 of Quito by the Incas. — Antiquities. — Gold Mash from Cuenca. — Chrono- 
 logical Table. — Population. — Ethnology. — Popayan. — Ecuador Land 
 Company. — Vocabularies. 
 
 After leaving Panama, many classic spots were passed, one in par- 
 ticular, the island of Grallo, in 2° N., where Pizarro, when about to be 
 forced back to Panama, drew his sword, and traced a line with it on 
 the sand from east to west. Then turning towards the south, " Friends 
 and comrades," he said, " on that side are toil, hunger, nakedness, the 
 drenching storm, desertion, and death ; on this side, ease and pleasure. 
 There lies Peru, with riches : here Panama and its poverty. Choose 
 each man, what best becomes a brave Castillian. Por my part, I ^o 
 south." So saying, he stepped across the line.^ 
 
 Eunning along the steep coast, with high mountains in the rear, we 
 steamed between the island of La Plata and the main. This island was 
 so called by Pizarro, on seeing silver in the hands of its inhabitants. 
 The bucaniers of old used this spot as a rendezvous to share their 
 booty. We now entered the bay of Gruayaquil. The island of Puna, 
 twenty-four miles in length by twelve broad, is of recent sandstone, and 
 thickly woodp.rl . The sky was cloudy, so we could not see the colossal 
 mountains to the east, including Chimhorazo which shows itself from 
 February to June. 
 
 The river Gruayaquil is thickly lined with mangroves, other trees, and 
 canes. The anchorage is before the city, which is built at the base of 
 some hills, and has a population of 20,000 souls. 
 
 The great business part of the city is the Malecon in front of the 
 river, and, as evening draws on, the population makes for that spot to 
 
 Prescott, Conq. Peru, I., 172. 
 
72 
 
 walk or trade, where, among other objects offered for sale, is th@ 
 famed Panamd hat. When the lamps are lighted on the Maleeon, 
 in the streets and houses the effect is very good. Some of the streets 
 and buildings would delight the artist. 
 
 There are many fine looking men and women, but the majority of 
 the population is a mixed race of White, Negro, and Indian. 
 
 Gruayaquil, formerly known as Culanta, is in 2° 12^ S., on the river 
 G-uayas, fifty miles from its mouth, and the principal port of Equador. 
 It takes its name from G-uayas, a chief, who was feudatory to Atahualpa 
 (Oviedo spells it Atabaliva) ; he was accidentally killed by one of the 
 Spanish conquerors. The natives of this district were called Guan- 
 cavilcas or Guayaquiles. 
 
 The island of Puna, when first visited by the Spaniards, had a temple, 
 dedicated to the god of war, Tumbal, a frightful figure ; at its feet 
 were military arms bathed in the blood of prisoners who had been 
 sacrificed on an altar in the centre of the temple, which was dark, and 
 its walls covered with horrible looking paintings and sculptures. The > 
 islanders were nearly all destroyed in the defence they made against the 
 Incas and the Spaniards. When first visited by Pizarro, in 1530, it is 
 said there were 20,000 inhabitants ; in 1734, only 96 remained. Val- 
 verBB,~the priest and co-murderer with Pizarro of Atahualpa, was killed 
 with forty-two Spaniards, by the Indians of Puna, flying from the 
 partizans of Almagro, after the latter had assassinated Pizarro.^ 
 
 The first account we have of the nations south of Panama, is by Pizarro. 
 The Indians abandoned their dwellings, leaving food and ornaments 
 of gold; and human flesh was found roasting. At Point Quemada,i 
 7° N., the natives ^re described as warlike, armed with bows and 
 arrows and other weapons. Near the equator, in the open sea, was dis- 
 I ^-covered a balsa or raft (huampu), with two masts and square cotter 
 fjails,^ with men and women ; two of the persons were from Tumbez 
 At Tacames or Tacumez, 1° N., a toT\Ti was visited containing 200( 
 habitations ; the people were warlike and had canoes ; one of which hac 
 a gold mask as a flag. The island of Santa Clara^ was uninhabited, bui 
 
 Benzoni, 246, translated by Admiral Smyth, Hakluyt, Soc. 
 
 2 Cotton grew in abundance on the coast of Quito, white, brown and dark violet 
 I do not find that the seal- skin balsa was known to the natives before the conquest 
 only those of light- wood, reeds and calabashes. 
 
 ■■' Coal. — On the island of Amortajado, Mr. Peacock noticed, in 1841, the exist! 
 ence of coal, but no geological description is given, and it is supposed that a simiia j 
 coal is to be found on the islands of Puna and Santa Clai'a, at S. Elena and the coas 
 of Choc(5. Mr. P. also found orchilla weed and guano on these coasts. Official coi 
 yespondence, testimonials, &c., of Mi*. Geo. Peacock, 1859. 
 
73 
 
 ►ccasionaliy visited by the people of Puna for purposes of sacrifice 
 md worship. The Spaniards fenind in this spot some pieces of ^old, 
 udely wrought into various shapes, and probably designed as offerings 
 ;o the Indian deity .^ At Carapoto, in O^M' S., Benzoni saw one of 
 heir temples containing an idol made of clay shaped like a tiger ( jagua), 
 Iso two peacocks with other birds intended for sacrifice. I may 
 emark that the peacock is an eastern bird, and was not then knowTi in 
 he New AYorld, those seen were turkeys. 
 
 The turkey was introduced into Europe from Mexico, called by the 
 Spaniards gallopavo, from its resemblance to the peacock. 
 
 Tumbez, 3° 30' S., was first visited by the Spaniards in 152G. Ulloa 
 nentions that this toAvn was built of stone. It is likely that adobe or sun- 
 Lried brick was also used, for he adds, when he passed through the 
 dace, about 1736, no vestiges were remaining. Prescott- says, the 
 own was built of stone and plaster, and a Curaca ruled the district. 
 iLere Pizarro met with an Inca noble or orejon. The fortress was built 
 )f rough stone, surrounded by a triple wall. The Temple of the Sun 
 vas blazing with gold and silver. The convent appropriated to the 
 !nea's destined brides, the garden of which glowed with imitations of 
 i'uit and vegetables in gold and silver. 
 
 Tupac-Tupanqui had built the fortress, and peopled the place with 
 aitimaes, colonists forced by the Inca to settle there. The Temple^ and 
 he House of the Virgins of the Sun had been erected by Huayna-Capac. 
 •n less than half a century Tumbez was to be traced only by the mass 
 ■f ruins that encumbered the ground. 
 
 Much that I have to say about ancient Quito, I am indebted to 
 he interesting work of the Jesuit, Juan de Yelasco, a native of 
 ^uito. He retired to Italy after the expulsion of his order from the 
 panish colonies, and composed his " Historia del Eeino de Quito." A 
 IS. copy, written in 1789, was taken from Europe by Don M. Larrea, 
 nd printed in Quito 1841-4. The first volume contains the Natural 
 [istory ; second. Ancient History ; third, Modern History. A portion 
 this work has been translated by Ternaux-Compans, vol. 19, 
 *aris, 1840. 
 
 I have also freely used the " G-eografia de la Eepublica del Ecuador." 
 or Manuel Yillavicencio, New York, 1858 ; wlio says that Yelasco's 
 
 1 Conq. of Peru, I., 178. 
 
 2 Prescott Conq. Peru, i., 178. 
 
 •'' Accordiug to Beuzoni, at the gate of the temple of the Sun were tame animals 
 £6 lions (pumas), and two tigers (jaguars). 
 
i 
 
 work is the richest touutain from which can be di'awn materials for th@ 
 history of Quito. Villavicencio's volume is a standard authority for 
 the geography of Equador, and deserves to be translated. 
 
 Quito, ^ in consequence of the productiveness of its commerce, was : 
 formerly one of the most opulent provinces of S. America. At the 
 commencement of the 18th century, it fell into so sensible a decay, 
 that its plantations, manufactories, &c., were reduced to a fifth part of 
 what it had heretofore been. 
 
 To give it new vigour, Count Casa-Griron, after having, at great 
 expense, procured from Europe skilful artists to re-establish manu- 
 factures, set on foot a patriotic society in 1789 — "the School ofi 
 Concord," consisting of twenty-six associates and twenty-two cor- 
 responding members. In 1791, the patriotic Bishop of Quito, Calama, 
 undertook the direction of this society. In 1792, its secretary, Xavier, 
 commenced the publication of a periodical, " The Eirst Fruits of the 
 Culture of Quito." 
 
 Bishop Calama, in his pastoral edicts, which are utterly divested of 
 bigotry, displays the most benevolent views. Being at Ambato, inj 
 his edict he says, " Seeing that in this department there is abundance ' 
 of flour, we offer a premium of fifty dollars to the baker who shall 
 make and present to us a specimen of wheaten bread well fermented, 
 well kneaded, and well baked." ,^M 
 
 An interesting project of this prelate, was to establish a communi- 
 cation between Ibarra and Otabalo, also with the provinces of 
 Asquande, Choco, and Barbacoas, the want of which prevented the 
 exportation of the productions and manufactures, reducing the in- 
 habitants to a state of extreme misery. One of the beneficent results 
 was the discovery of several gold mines. I 
 
 Bishop Calama's discourse at the opening of the Economical Society, 
 displayed sound policy and masterly eloquence. It finishes with this 
 sentence : — " We are all poor, but we shall all be rich, if we propose to 
 ourselves, as our guide, to be loving friends of our country. I amfi 
 aware of the superior obligation which the character of bishop imposes 
 on me ; and it is full in my remembrance, that one of the five vo^^s 1 
 made was, that all my income, all my books, and all my voice and pen. 
 although weak, should be employed for the benefit and succour of my, 
 beloved diocess." 
 I The Republic of Equador^ is divided into three natural parts by twc 
 
 1 ( 
 
 ' Mercuric Peniaiio." and Skinner's " Present State of Peru," J 805. 
 Explorations in Equador, bv G. J. Pritchett, Grcogr. Soc. Proc, 1859. 
 
 I" 
 
 V 
 
V5 
 
 parallel chains of the Andes. The centre division being on an avera'^e 
 level, much more elevated than: the others, from 5000 to 11,000 teet, 
 possesses an equal and agreeable climate, a clear bright atmosphere, 
 and is the seat of the chief cities. 
 
 The eastern and western slopes of the Cordilleras are densely covered 
 with every species of timber, including a large mahogany, out of 
 which the Indian scoops his canoe. The cotton and india-rubber plants 
 grow wild, as also cocoa, canelo^ (called by some cinnamon), coft'ee, 
 the guav'usa or tea plant, vanilla, tobacco, indigo, orchilla, wax palms, 
 copal, storax, spices, dyes, sugar-cane, rice, maize, quina or cinchona 
 bark,- cedron,^ &c. — indeed, a paradise for the botanist. In the more 
 temperate parts, there are large grazing and arable firms. 
 
 As to mineral productions, they are in abundance ; the entire range 
 
 * Canelo, translated, is the cinnamon tree, but is a very diiferent plant to the 
 oriental. The native name was annawon. Fine cinnamon is C. verum, class ix., order 1 
 flourishing in Ceylon. Canelo or canella. is canela alba, laurifolia, and other varieties 
 growing in Equador in particular ; class ii., order 1. Pritchett says, " Cinnamon 
 (canelo), the bark of a species of laurel ; and ishpingo is the calyx of the flower : three 
 to four thousand pounds are annually gathered of it." The canelo of N. Granada is 
 called bvHolton drymis winteri or winters bark. Seemann mentions canela de Cliile, 
 drymis Chilensis — (this is the boighe of the araucanos, a sacred tree) C. de Chiero 
 Brazil), Oredaphne opifera ; C. de Ermi (Brazil). See expedition of Gonzalo. 
 ■Pizarro, A.D., 1539-42, to the land of Cinnamon, by Markham, Hakluyt Coll., 1859. 
 Prescott Conq., Peru ii., 97. 
 
 2 Cinchona. — See UUoa's " Koticias Secretas," and " Narrative" on the destruction 
 of this tree. The bark known as quina- quina was used in the time of the Incas ; 
 lit takes its present name from Chinchon, a viceroy of Peru. 
 
 I The following is from Markham's Notes on the Culture of Cinchonas. The mean 
 temperature of the Cinchona region is about 62° F ; from 4000 to 10,000 feet above 
 jthe level of the sea ; and the region extends from 10° N. to 19° S. lat. 
 I Cinchonas of Equadoe. — C. Condaminea, is found in the forests near Loxa and 
 jCuenca, growing to the height of thirty to forty feet, in a formation composed of gneiss 
 or micaceons shists, on the declivities of mountains, between 3° 42' and 4° 40' S. 
 lat. ; 5000 to 9000 feet above the level of the sea. Mean temperature 64° to 68° F. 
 it flowers in May, June, and July. 
 
 C. Cond. (var. lancifolia) a variety, growing as high as 10,000 feet, on the declivities 
 3f the Andes, and is sometimes exposed to frost at night. C. Succirubra, " the red 
 Ibark," growing near Huaranda, between Quito and Guayaquil, in a formation of mi- 
 jaceous shists, 2° 16' S. lat. — a very valuable species, as yet little known. 
 
 B. Seemann calls the C, cond : Cascarilla, fma ; C, humb : Cascarilla, peluda. 
 
 ' Cedron.— Seemann, Voy. of " Herald," II. 74, mentions that the kernel of the 
 ?imaba Cedron is intensely bitter. It is used in fevers aud snake bites. May not its 
 lotive principle be as important as the alcaloidcs of the Cinchonas ? 
 
76^ 
 
 of the Cordilleras abound with gold, silver, and copper. Gold is also 
 found on the banks and in the channel of every river which has its 
 source in the high lands. 
 
 The mountain range of Llanganate (beautiful mountain), S. S. E. of 
 Quito, in Canelos, is known as the mother of the gold found in the 
 streams that run from it. Quicksilver is seen to ooze out of the ground 
 in Cuenca ; and the district of Esmeraldas only requires searching in 
 its streams and rocks for the beautiful gem that gives name to that part 
 of the country. 
 
 The Caras, on their way from the coast of the Pacific to the conquest 
 of the capital of the Quitu (Quito), ascended the river Esmeraldas. 
 The port of Tacamez is at its mouth, and to the river Silanche, 
 thirty-five leagues, is navigable for small vessels, then by land 
 to Mguas, Mindo, and Cotocallo. There is another and a much 
 shorter route to Quito fr^om the port of Pailon, 1°21']N'., crossing 
 numberless ravines and streams that flow into the Mira, then along its 
 banks to Ibarra,^ a distance of only forty-five leagues to Quito, whereas, 
 from Gruayaquil it is nearly ninety. 
 
 The route to Quito from G-uayquil is, first, twenty leagues by the 
 river to Bodegas, but in the rainy season seven leagues further to 
 Sabanetta. 
 
 To arrive at the vicinity of Chimborazo, a series of lower mountains 
 are traversed, presenting the most beautiful variety of undulation and 
 colour, and of ?^n extent that gives boundless room for every kind of 
 atmospheric eftect. At Huaranda,^ the mules of the traveller are 
 changed for others of harder hoofs and surer tread, to climb the rough 
 incline of the mountain. From Huaranda, after a steep ascent of four 
 hours, the highest point of the road is reached, which traverses round 
 Chimborazo. Passing the tambo of Chuquipoyo, a few leagues further 
 is Mocha. Eive leagues more is the large town of Hambato. Here 
 
 ^ Near this is Salinas, where there is much salt and some nitrate of potash. 
 A few miles jS". E. of Ibarra is Yaguarcocha or Lake of Blood. The Oanares having 
 been traitorous or rebellious, the Inca, Iluayna-Capac, ordered the execution; 
 of 30,000 of them. Their bodies were thrown into the lake, the water of which be-, 
 came reddened with blood. 
 
 2 A beautiful oil-painting, by F. E. Church, was exhibited in London, in July, .. 
 1859, called " The Heart of the Andes." The view is taken from near Huaranda, 
 when the sun is descending in the west, and under the shadow of Chimborazo. " Here! 
 is a picture of the grandest design, singularly original, simple and perspicuous, of J 
 quiet purpose and intention, fully carried out. One beholds Italian landscape in morjBij 
 than Italian perfection, and in grandeur cannot bei^urpassed." 
 
' > 1 1 
 
 I 
 
 ' > I , 
 
 111, 
 
 » t 
 
 ' 1 > » 
 > > « , 
 
O 
 
 cm 
 
 </3 
 
77 
 
 Atahualpa gained his first victory over the Incarial forces, after which 
 he punished severely the Cailaris for taking side with Huasca. And seven 
 more the city of Latacunga, at 10,285 feet above the sea, in the valley 
 out of which rises the active volcano of Cotopaxi. Five leagues more 
 is Tiopuyo, and then thirteen to the city of Quito, which is on tlie cast 
 side of the volcano of Pichincha.^ 
 
 The city of Quito was taken by Belalcazar from the Indians in 1583. 
 It is in 0° 15' S., 81° 5' W. of Paris; 10,2341 Spanish feet above 
 the sea. Its mean temperature is 60° E. The winds in summer are N.E., 
 in winter S.W., and its population 80,000. 
 
 On the south of the city of Quito is the hill Panecillo, called by the 
 Incas Tavira, which word, in one of the dialects of Darien, means 
 virgin ; but ere the Peruvians worshipped the sun from its summit, the 
 Quitus and Caras had their temple there. The ground on which Quito 
 is built is very uneven ; most of the houses are of two stories, many are 
 built of brick ; the principal edifices are of stone, the rest of adobe, 
 covered with tiles ; these last resist the frequent earthquakes pretty 
 well. In the university is placed a marble slab to commemorate the 
 labours of the academicians in 1736. There are many churches, con- 
 vents, monasteries, two hospitals, two colleges, and several plazas or 
 squares. The city is situated in the centre of many hills. From their 
 mmmits there is a beautiful panorama of the Andes, with the icy cones 
 if Cayambi, Antisana, Cotopaxi, Sinchiolagua, Corazon, Ilinisa,^ 
 Pichincha, and Cotocachi ; to the south of Quito, is the lovely valley of 
 Chillo, full of gardens. 
 
 I am indebted to my old friend, Mr. Q-eorge Pritchett, for the draw- 
 ng of the city of Quito, taken not long before the late severe earth- 
 iuake of the 22nd of March, 1859. It occurred at half-past eight, a.m., 
 aid almost destroyed Quito. The churches, convents, and government 
 )uildings, were most of them thrown down, besides many of the private 
 •esidences. The damagfe was estimated at three millions of doUars. 
 Many deaths were reported. A number of towns north of the capital 
 lave been destroyed, and in Gruayaquil the shock was severely felt, 
 Icing some damage. 
 
 This is the land of the mighty Chimborazo ( Chimp u-razu— snow of 
 
 1 At certain periods of the year the journey from Quayaquil to Quito, some 270 
 niles, most of it very bad road, takes many days ; under favourable circumstances 
 
 can be done in a few days, Lord Stanley performed the journey in three-and-half 
 lays. 
 
 ^ Balbi, Geo. says : There are ancient remains about this mountain. 
 
 ■ I 
 
I 
 
 78 
 
 Chimpu), rearing itself above the chain of the Andes, like that majestic :j 
 dome, the work of the genius of Michael Angelo, upon the ancient 
 monuments which surround the capitol ; and as having been the seat of ;, 
 a very old civilization, long before it was conquered by the Caras, or i 
 by the Incas of Peru. 
 
 Quito, or the country of the old Quito nation was composed of forty 
 districts, governed by chiefs called Quitus, having nations allied with 
 them, as the Tambaya, Latacunga, Puruha Caiiar, &c., under their 
 Curacas or despotic Chiefs. In Canar was a temple dedicated to Supay 
 Urcu, or the devil, on the hill of Gruagual-Suma,^ here children were 
 sacrificed to ensure a good harvest ; neither the ScjtIs or the Incas 
 could prevent this barbarous custom. 
 
 Quito was conquered by the Cara nation who came from the coast of 
 the Pacific about 1000 A.D. G-arcilasso says the Indians of the 
 coast of Peru, came from Mexico by the way of Panama, and that they 
 were cruel and terrible Caribs. The Caribs often are alluded to in this 
 direction, as connected with the Muiscas, Indians of Darien, Popayan, 
 &c. Again, they are mentioned by Prescott^ — " an immense army, it 
 was reported, was mustering at Quito, and 30,000 Caribs were on their 
 way to support it." This army was coming to Cajamarca to rescue 
 Atahualpa from the hands of Pizarro. Morton and others sup- 
 pose there was a Toltec emigration to the coast of Peru about 
 1050 A.D. retreating from before the Aztecs. Prescott, when speak- 
 ing of the dispersion of the Toltecs, says they spread over Central , 
 America and the surrounding isles in the eleventh century. 
 
 This invading nation, the Caras, had taken possession of the coast 
 now known as that of Cara some two hundred years before, say 
 800 A.D., and had had eight or ten chiefs called Scyris, Shyris, Sciras, 
 Schyris, or lords of Caran. After these first Caras left the coast for 
 Quito, other Indians took possession of their country, calling themselves , 
 Caras ; these last had the custom of compressing the heads of their 
 children. 
 
 Bravo Saraiva,^ after having examined traditions and proofs, assures f 
 us that the Peruvians and Caras came from beyond sea, or from the,, 
 west ; however, we have only his word for this.* 
 
 ^ Suna, is sacred path in the Muisca. 
 2 Conq. Peru, i., 310. 
 2 Chron. Peru. e. 52. 
 
 ■* The present Bay of Cara-ques takes its name from the ancient city of Cara, in O'lf 
 43' S. 
 
79 
 
 The Cara nation came, most probably, from the north coast of Peru,' 
 for it seems they knew that coas^ and navigated on rafts with sails. As 
 to their abandonment of the coast of Cara, two reasons are given, one 
 fcp escape from the said to be giants of Manta, who, we are told, came 
 to the coast on floats of rushes ; the other that Cara was unhealthy. 
 
 Tradition adverts to the giants who lived near Manta, 0° 57' S., and 
 Punta Santa Elena, 2° 11' S. ; these killed the men of Cara to obtain 
 )Ossession of their women. Pizarro saw ruins attributed to the giants, 
 llso deep wells sunk through rock, and stone statues, eight feet high, 
 jome naked, others with mitres and priestly insignia. Montesinos- (not 
 ihe best of authorities), says that, under the twelfth Inca, according to 
 lis list, giants entered Peru, settling at Punta Santa Elena and other 
 )laces ; they became very wicked, when the divine wrath annihilated 
 learly the whole of them. Some fled towards Cuzco, but were met by 
 ihe Inca and dispersed at Lima-tambo. 
 
 When Manta was subdued by Huayna-Capac, there was a temple 
 ledicated to TJmina,^ the goddess of health, which contained an idol : 
 
 Near Ibarra was the city of the Caran-quin. These were probably the descendants 
 if the Caras ; and in the vacinity of Angel, at the mouth of the R. Mira, are ruins 
 f a fortress. 
 
 On the road to the coast from Ibarra, is the valley of Pala-cara ; also the mountain 
 f Cara ; the River Caran, near to the Pailon. 
 
 Can Cara-ibes, or Caribs, have any relation to these Caras ? 
 
 Pu-cara means a fortress in Quichua. 
 
 Cara-pongo is the name of a ravine, near Lima. 
 
 Cara-manta, is on the R. Cauca, in N. Granada. 
 
 Caras, the name of a village in Huaraz, Peru. 
 
 Cara-pucho and cara-macho, are points on the coast of S. Peru. 
 
 Cara, in Auraeano, is city; Pu-cara, cities ; Cara is a Japano-Chinese word, for the 
 orth of China or Tartary. According to P. Martyr, the word carib means ' ' stronger 
 lan the rest." The other Indians call them caribs or cannibals. 
 
 1 gave this list seeing that we do not know from whence the Caras came. 
 Cari-bana, east of the Bay of Uraba, on the main, supposed country of the Caribs. 
 Karaba and Carabalis, a nation of Africa. 
 ' Yelasco I. 92. The language of the Caras, or Scyris, was a dialect of the Incas 
 
 nguage, or of the Quichua ; and more than one author has said that the Incas were 
 irprised when, on their conquest of Quito, to be able to understand the nation they 
 ere invading. Hervas " Catalogo de las Languas Conocidas," I., 276, he follows 
 elaeco in this subject. We know little or nothing of the ancient Quito language ; 
 le Scyri, which introduced the letter o, is often called a dialect of the Quichua : I 
 ould rather say that it had affinities only. See Hervas's Catalogo, Vol, I. 
 
 2 Montesinos, memorias antiguas del Peru, in T. Compani, also in Rivero and 
 flchudi. 
 
 Pmina, in Quicliua, means emerald. 
 
80 I 
 
 the face was half human and made of an emerald;^ and Grarcilasso 
 describes the heads of the natives here as deformed by artificial pressure ; 
 other Peruvian nations did the same, and four varieties of deformed ] 
 crania have been observed. 
 
 Villavicencio- says, two leagues N. of Monte Christo, in the district 
 of Manta, on the flat summit of a low mountain, is a circle of thirty 
 stone seats, with arms, and that they, in all probability, were used on 
 solemn occasions by the chiefs of Cara ere they conquered Quito. Two 
 of these chairs are to be seen in the museum at Gruayaquil. Benzoni 
 states, that the chiefs of Manta had an emerald the size of a hen's egg, 
 which they worshipped. At Puerto Yiejo, 1° 5 ' S., the natives painted 
 their faces, made holes in their nostrils, lips, ears and cheeks ; and 
 they put jewels into them on feast days. Their usual dress was a shirt 
 without sleeves : some went naked, and occasionally dyed the body ■ 
 black : they used balsas or rafts. At Colonchi they sometimes drew 
 five or six of their upper teeth for beauty's sake. 
 
 At Punta Santa Elena, as well as at Manta, large bones have been' 
 met with. In a paper of mine read at the Geological Society, on the^ 
 fossil bones of Mastodon in Chile, I have adverted to the bones foundj 
 at the above places.^ Plumboldt states, from the information of others,' 
 that these bones " are enormous remains of unknown cetaceous; 
 animals." A friend of mine was offered a specimen when there, but,; 
 unfortunately, did not become its purchaser. Stevenson saw a grindeii 
 from this spot, which weighed 5 lbs. 3 ozs. ; the enamel spotted like thej 
 female tortoise shell. j 
 
 The pearl fishers at Panama are said sometimes to be squeezed td 
 death by a fish called manta ; it is broad like a mantle. "Was th(! 
 country of Manta so called from finding this fish about here ? The; 
 Turbines or Caracolillo,* a shell fish, is found in this district, gro\\dnj 
 on rocks, larger than a nut, and full of juice, which becomes purple 
 dyeing silk, cotton, &c., by merely drawing the things to be dyec, 
 
 ^ Manta has an emerald mine. The emeralds are found in crystals in the roelc, am 
 something of a vein-like character. Some are half white, others half green, but the 
 get ripe and come to perfection. Herrera II., 37 Des. | 
 
 At Tezcuco, in the " Tribunal of God," there was a skull crowned with an emeralcji 
 
 2 Q-eografia del Equador, 448. Manta is the seaport to Monte Christo. 
 
 3 See my obs. on Texas, Geographical Soc. Journal, xx., 1850. The elephan< 
 bones found here are fossil, and well silicified. I have deposited a grinder in th 
 British Museum, which appears to be of a new species, see my paper on Mastodo 
 bones in Chile. Geological Soc. Journal, 1857. 
 
 •* A murex. ij 
 
 I 
 
81 
 
 through the liquor, which is at first milky, then green, and then 
 purple- 
 Before proceeding with the- history of the Caras, I will advert to 
 ^ome Indians of the coast. 
 
 Stevenson^ gives an account of the still wild INIalabas. They live on 
 the river San Miguel (in Esmeraldas), which joins tlie Cayapas. They 
 imderstand Quichua. He visited them about 1815 : the name of tlie 
 chief was Cushi-cagua, and his tribe consisted of 200 Ischcay-huarango 
 families. According to the tradition of the Malabas, they and other 
 tribes, are descendants of the Puncays, or chiefs of Riobamba ; and, 
 although the Conchocando of Lican, the chief of lliobamba became the 
 vassal of the Inca Tupac- Yupanqui, the jMalabas were never conquered. 
 The men wear an ornamented piece of leather round their heads — the 
 wincha. On seeing a watch, they exclaimed, " nianan, manan ! chy 
 trapichote,' which in quichua means, no, no : it is a sugar mill. 
 
 Yelasco^ speaks of San Miguel as having once been a considerable 
 Spanish settlement, where mines of very fine gold were worked. The 
 wild Tortola Indians, fearing they would be enslaved by the Spaniards, 
 attacked and destroyed San Miguel. 
 
 The Cayapas Indians are faithful, brave, and rich ; they have mines 
 of fine gold. 
 
 The mouth of the river Esmeraldas is in about 1° N., 79° 45 ' W. 
 The "city," San Mateo, not containing one hundi'ed houses, is two 
 leagues from the mouth of the river. Here there is much of the negro 
 element. Stevenson^ says the natives of Esmeraldas, E,io Yerde, and 
 Atacamez (Tucamez) are Zambos, or a mixture of negro and Indian. 
 The tradition is, that a ship having negroes on board arrived on the 
 coast (for soon after the conquest, great numbers of negroes* were 
 taken from Africa to the "VYest Indies and shores of the Isthmus of 
 Darien, across it to Panama, and from thence to the various Spanish 
 
 ' II. 411. 2 III. 108. 3 II. 388. 
 
 "• Ferdinand, the Catholic, sent negro slaves on his oasti account to America in 1510. 
 In 1516 the privilege was granted to Seuor Chevres, who ceded it to some Genoese 
 merchants for 23,000 ducats, and who sent their first shipment of 500 African negroes 
 (men) and 500 (women) in 1517. "Mercurio de Lima," I. 216. ; Lima, 1791. 
 
 About 1555, Ursua fought against the cimmarones (wild) or rebellious negroes, on 
 the Isthmus of Panama,. " Yalley of the Amazons," Hakluyt Soc, 1859. In later 
 times there were so many negroes in Lima, that they constituted ten diiferent classes ; 
 they had two head-men or captains, and appear to have been pleased with churcli 
 
 o 
 
82 
 
 settlements on the Pacific), and having landed, killed the male Indiana, 
 kept their widows and daughters, and thus laid the foundation of the 
 present race. Their language is different from the Quichua, which, 
 mixed with Quitu, is the general one of the Indians, being rather nasal, 
 and appears scanty of words. 
 
 A woman is teona ; a man, qual teona ; a bitch, shang-teona ; these 
 words are of African origin. It is harmonious, and some of their 
 songs are not devoid of melody. They have the chambo and marimba^ 
 as musical instruments. 
 
 Herrera^ mentions about Quatro Hios (Esmeraldas), some negroes 
 saved themselves from a wreck, they mixed with the Indians, and 
 live here. 
 
 1 am indebted to M. Bourcier, late Consul- General from Erance to 
 the Republic of Equador, for the following observations on the 
 Indians of Esmeraldas. They live retired from the Spaniards ; 
 grow tobacco, coffee, cacao, rice, &c ; collect caucho or Indian rubber, 
 gums and resins ; they make straw hats, nets, hammocks, and weave 
 cloth ; they cut timber, fish and hunt. 
 
 They speak Spanish, but their own idiom is a mixture of the old 
 languages of Quito and Quichna ; they are slow and inoffensive, honour- 
 able and truthful, but fond of drink. 
 
 In the district of La Tola are the Cayapas, who speak a different 
 language ; they profess Romanism, and, although subject to the govern- 
 ment, have preserved their old customs, and do not marry with other 
 tribes. All they require of the whites is salt and iron. They are 
 robust, well made, face oval, roman nose, eyes and hair black and 
 copper coloured. Their dress is a white tunic, without sleeves, and 
 short trousers. The hair is combed back and tied. Male and female 
 wear round the neck large collars of shells, small fruit, eggs, jaguar, 
 caiman and snake's teeth ; also talismans, composed of a mass of huaco 
 (probably the mikania guaco), to preserve and cure them from the 
 bite of poisonous reptiles.^ 
 
 They despise gold, but like silver, and on their collars have five or six 
 
 ceremonies. They did much of the laborious work, but when dancing and singing to 
 the sound of their marimba (thin tablets suspended over the mouths of calabashes), 
 they had at least that short period of joy allowed to them by their masters. Skinner 
 " Present State of Peru," 291. 
 
 ^ This is an African musical instrument. 
 
 2 II. J 38, Descripcion. 
 
 3 Stevenson, ii., 243, says, the leaves of the huaco are bruised and pressed together 
 in the form of a cake, which they eat for snake bites 
 
83 
 
 dollars, preferring those with the head of the King of Spain to the 
 Eepublican coin. 
 
 The inhabitants of the settlements, and who consider themselves de- 
 scendants of the Spaniards, are in part Zamboes (from nep^ro and 
 Indian), mulattos (from white and black), or Guasos (from white and 
 Indian). These are without education or manners ; their only occupa- 
 tion is to make money and cheat the Indians. 
 
 This district derives its name from the famed emerald mine said to 
 exist not many leagues from the city of Esmeraldas. Since the period 
 of the conquest its position has not been known. If the present Indiana 
 know the spot (of which there is a doubt), they carefully conceal it 
 from the whites. That it exists is a fact, for the ancient rulers of 
 Quito di'ew from it those large emeralds, emblematic of their 
 sovereignty, and so much valued by the Conquistadores, some of which 
 are among the crown jewels of Spain. 
 
 M. Bourcier purchased a drilled emerald, such as the Incas wore, 
 suspended from the neck, from a Cacique, who had a small plantation 
 on the banks of the river Esmeraldas ; it weighed sixty-four quilates 
 (the quilate or carat is four grains), equal to 256 grains. The Cacique 
 told him he had inherited it from his ancestors; and M. Bourcier 
 believes it came out of the mine in question. 
 
 Nine leagues from the village of La Tola, in a distance of five leagues, 
 are annually found, after the heavy rains, gold ornaments of crowns, 
 stars, spoons, birds and animals. About six pounds weight of these 
 gold figiu-es are found per year. Eough pottery is also met with. 
 
 The ancient Indians had stone and bronze hatchets. Large earthen 
 vessels, containing chicba, have been disinterred, also a male skeleton, 
 which had false teeth, secured to the cheek-bone by a wire of gold. 
 
 To return to the Caras, they, bent on conquest, moved north of Tu- 
 
 camez, 50' S., and by the river Esmeraldas, which has a course of 
 
 more than 500 miles, rising near the volcano of Cotopaxi, they found 
 
 their way to Quito about 1000 A. D. The Caras were more civilised 
 
 than the Quitus. They adored the sun and moon : the temple to the 
 
 sun, on the hill of Panecillo, was of stone and square, and had a 
 
 pyramidal roof, with its door to the east, so that the first rays of the sun 
 
 fell upon a gold image of the same ; the temple to the moon and stars 
 
 was on an opposite hill — it was round, and had openings, so as 
 
 to admit the moon's rays to fall upon a silver image of one imitated 
 
 thereon, the ceiling was blue, with stars of silver. Their idiom, which 
 
 G 2 
 
84 
 
 introduced into the Quitu the letter o, is generally stated to have had 
 affinities with Quichua.^ Their clothing was of skins and vroven 
 cloth of cotton and wool. Tlieir year was regulated by the solstices ; 
 they had on each side of the door of their great temple to the 
 sun, two "most ancient" columns to observe the solstices; they 
 had also twelve pillars round the temple which served as gnomons 
 to show the first day of the month. Quito, which lay under the 
 equator where the rays of the sun threw no shadow at noon, was held 
 in especial veneration as the favoured abode of the great deity. They 
 adored Pacha^ and Eacha, who were gods or Cara heroes, and they 
 preserved the idols of conquered nations. 
 
 Although the Scyris adored the sun, they did not, as the Incas, call 
 themselves children of the sun. The government was monarchic and 
 aristocratic, the regal emerald descending to sons, not to brothers, but 
 to nephews.^ The Quitus buried their dead in graves, but the Caras 
 placed theirs on the earth with arms and objects of value, buildijig a 
 tomb (tola) of rough stone over the body. 
 
 The Scyri had one legitimate wife, but many concubines. Their 
 principal arms were the lance and club. A plain wreath of feathers 
 was worn by all who bore arms ; two by chiefs, and the Scyri added to 
 his wreath or crown of feathers, a large emerald.* Their architecture 
 
 1 UUoa II., B. At Piura, 5° 12' S., the natives use a different language to those of 
 Quito and Peru ; and this is the case in many of the valHes. Their accent is also 
 different, having a melancholy singing tone, contracting half of their last words as if 
 they vranted breath. The original Quito w is retained in many v^'ords, although the 
 o was introduced by the Caras. The Poechos are placed about here. 
 
 2 Pacha is earth, in Quichua. Pacha-camac, creator of earth, or God. 
 
 3 A similar custom was observed among the Zipas of N. Granada. 
 
 '* EMEEALDS. I was surprised not to see emeralds at Guayaquil, when, at the 
 conquest, they were so abimdantly found in Equador. This gem cannot have disap- 
 peared, but awaits intelliirent searchers, particularly as we now know their geological 
 position. Emeralds were obtained in considerable quantities from the district of 
 Tucamez, and the River Esmeraldas is said to be so called from the ancient quarries of 
 this stone. It is also mentioned that the name of Esmeraldas was given to this part 
 of the country, seeing that it was so green witli vegetation, by some of the conqvii- 
 stadores who had been on the desert coasts of Peru. Stevenson (il., 406), 
 says : he did not visit the mines owing to dread of the natives, who as- 
 sured him it was enchanted, and guarded by a dragon, which poured forth 
 thunder and lightning. The locality of the emeralds may be arrived at by the 
 rirer Bichele, the alcalde of which place gave Stevenson three emeralds found in the 
 sands at the mouth of that river. These mines were worked by the Jesuits. An 
 emerald, as large as a pigeon's egg, fell into the hands of Pizarro's followers, at 
 
S5 
 
 was not so far advanced as that of the Tncas, but Yelasco says tliey 
 knew how to construct arches and vaulted roofs : their fortresses were 
 square earthworks. The cutting and polisliiug emeralds appears to 
 have been known to them ere they conquered the Quitus. 
 
 Instead of the Peruvian quipu, they had small pieces of wood, clay 
 and stones of various sizes, colours and forms, by which they ex- 
 pressed principal occurrences ; these were kept in compartments in 
 their temples, tombs and dwellings. 
 
 Coaque ; but not knowing their value, broke many into pieces. Velasco I. 29, says : 
 the Beryl, sky blue and green emeralds, is found in the Cordillera of Cubillan ; also 
 when Alvarado landed on the coast of Esmeraldas with five hundred men, they 
 collected many loads of gold and emeralds, but found their booty so burdensome on 
 theii' march to Quito, that they threw it away. 
 
 It is often stated that Peru is rich in emeralds, it should rather be said the coast of 
 Equador. I have never heard of this gem having been found in Peru. The XI. Inca, 
 who died about 1475, A.D., commenced inroads on Quito, his son Iluayna Capac, 
 conquering the country. About this period, I conceive the Peruvians became 
 acquainted with the emerald. Eivero and Tschudi say : the image of the sun, at 
 Cuzco, was made of a plate of gold, with a human face and many rays, with emeralds 
 and otlier precious stones, the robes of the Incas were garnished with emeralds ; 
 may not these emeralds have come from Quito ? However, I cannot but think 
 that the emerald -bearing rocks are to be met with in Peru. Molina His. Chile, i. 
 63, mentions that a beautiful emerald was found in Coquimbo. The pyx, in a church 
 at one of the missions in Paraguay, was set round with emeralds and other precious 
 gtones. 
 
 At the Museum of Practical Geology, in London there is an instructive collection 
 of emeralds, and the rocks in which tiiey are found. They are arranged as follows : 
 Beryl, a silicate of alumina and glucina. 1. G-neiss, containing crystals of gi*een 
 beryl from the United States. 2. Coarse grained granite, ditto ditto. 3. Beryl in 
 quartz. 4. Precious beryl from Siberia. 5. Ditto from granite, near Dublin. 6 
 Emeralds associated with calcareous spar and iron pyrites, in a vein of black car- 
 bonaceous limestone from Muzo, Xew Granada. 
 
 Parisite, a brownish-yellow crystal, composed of carbonate of lanthanium and 
 didymium with flouride of calcium, is also found in the emerald mines of Muzo. 
 
 We know nothing as to the process the natives of Quito, or Peru, had for cutting, 
 boring or poHshing precious stones ; they may have had hardened copper or brass 
 instruments, and something approaching the drill, for the regal emerald had holes 
 drilled through it to keep it fast on the head. 
 
 When Gonzalo Pizarro built his %)rigantine, and started from the junction of the 
 Coca and Napo, he put on board more than 100,000 dollars in gold, and many fine 
 emeralds. 
 
 Wallace, Travels on the Amazon, 1853, 278, Ornaments of tlie Uaupcs 
 Indians. " I now saw several men witii their most peculiar and valued ornament — a 
 cylindi'ical, opaque, white stone, which is quartz imperfectly crystallized. These 
 
86 
 
 According to the reading of the coloured stones by some, 700 years is 
 given for the reigns of eighteen or nineteen Scyris ; other readers give 
 fifteen Scyris and 500 years up to the death of Cacha Duchicela in 
 1487, A. D. 
 
 The eighth Scyri conquered towards the south, making inroads upon 
 the Puruhas, whose capital was at E-iobamba, 1° 38' S., 5', W. of Quito. 
 The temple of the Puruhas was oblong. Neither the sun or moon was 
 adored, but an idol of clay, their deity of war and vengeance ; it had a 
 human head, and was in the form of a vase ; the mouth was at the top 
 of the head, and it was by this orifice that the blood of the sacrificed 
 was poured : the Scyris abolished these sanguinary rites. 
 
 By the death of the eleventh Scyri, about 1300, A.D., the male line 
 of the Scyris became extinct, when Toa, his daughter, was declared his 
 
 stones are from four to eight inches long, and about an inch in diameter. They are 
 ground round, and flat at the ends — a work of great labour, — and are each pierced 
 with a hole at one end, through which a string is placed to suspend it round the 
 neck. It appears almost incredible that they should make this hole in so hard a 
 substance without any iron instrument for the purpose. What they are said to use 
 is the pointed flexible leaf-shoot of the large wild plantain, triturating (twirl with the 
 hands) with fine sand and a little water ; and thus no doubt it is, as it is said to be, 
 a labour of years. Yet it must take a much longer time to pierce that which the 
 Tushua (chief) wears as the symbol of his authority, for it is generally of the 
 largest size, and is worn transversely across the breast, for which purpose the hole is 
 bored length ways from one end to the other, an operation which, I am informed, 
 sometimes occupies two lives. The stones themselves are procured from a great 
 distance up the river, probably from near its source at the base of the Andes ; they 
 are therefore highly valued, and it is seldom the owners can be induced to part with 
 them, the chiefs scarcely ever." 
 
 Orellana, in his descent of the Eiver Amazon mentions, that in an Indian village 
 below the junction of the Putumayo, in a country house, they found "good jars of 
 earthenware, vases, goblets of glass enameled tvitk many hright colours, resemhling 
 drawings and paintings. The Indians of this 2)lace said these things came from the 
 interior together with much gold and silver." This requires investigation. I do not 
 find that glass was known to the people of the New World. 
 
 See " Valley of the Amazon," Hakluyt Collection, 1859. One hundred leagues 
 farther down the river, in the territory of Pajguana, they saw tlie sheep of Peru 
 (llamas). 
 
 See Wilke's American Exploring Expedition, v. 17. On Bowditch Island, 
 in the Pacific, the hand drill used, pointed with hard stone, for drilling 
 shell. Could such an adaptation have been employed by the Emerald drillers of 
 Mexico, Bogota and Quito ? 
 
87 
 
 successor ; she became wife of Duchicela, the eldest son of Condorazo^ 
 chief of the Puruha.^ 
 
 Duchicela reigned seventy years ; he was succeeded by his son 
 Autachi Duchicela; he reigned sixty years. Guallca, his eldest son, 
 would have succeeded him, but being of a bad disposition, his brother 
 Hualcopo was put in his place, w^io died in 1463. In this reign Tupac 
 Yupanqui, Inca of Peru, commenced his inroad upon Quito, and having 
 taken the fortress of Tiocajas, 1° 58' S., 14' W. of Quito, the 
 Quitenos, after a loss of 1G,000 men, were routed, and the Inca 
 returned in triumph to Cuzco in IIGO, A,D.-^ The following 
 was a favourite maxim of this Inca : — " Science was not intended 
 for the people. Persons of low degree are only puffed up by it, 
 and rendered vain and arrogant : neither should such meddle with 
 the affairs of government, for this would bring high offices into disre- 
 pute and cause detriment to the state." 
 
 Hualcopo, who died mainly of grief, was succeeded by his son Cacha, 
 the fifteenth Scyri ; he reigned twenty-four years. He annihilated an 
 Incarial army and demolished the fortress at Mocha, 1° 26' S., 14' "W. 
 of Quito : his only daughter, Paccha,* succeeded him. 
 
 1 Yillavicencio, 207. A son of the Scyri married a daughter of the Puruah cliief. 
 
 2 The Inca or Quichua language had not been introduced into Quito long prior to 
 the Spanish invasion, where the now wholly extinct Puray (Puruha) had been previ- 
 ously used. Humboldt, Views, 235 
 
 The Q,uiteno, at the period of the Spanish conquest, appears to me to have been a 
 } mixture of Quitu, Cara, Puruha, some others, and Quichua. There is a grammar of 
 j it, published in Lima, 1753. 
 
 I 2 Humboldt says, at this period Quito was governed by the Conchocando of Lican 
 
 (about 1° 24' S.) and Guastays, or tributary princes; but, in another part of his 
 writings, states that Lican was the residence of the Conchocando, chief of the Puruays. 
 Subsequently there was an Apu, lord or chief of Lican, who was descended from the 
 CoDchocandos ; speaks also of a river Lican. 
 
 Yillavicencio states that Lican is a short distance N.W. of Riobamba ; that the 
 latter had Incarial buildings. Velasco, ii., Liribamba was the ancient name of the 
 capital of the Puruha, in a plain now called Gatazo. On another, the centre plains 
 was Cajabamba, and the southern one, w'hich was the coldest, Ricbamba (Riobamba) 
 
 It would appear that under the Scyris, these three narrow plains in the mountain 
 were joined and had a population of 60,000. 
 
 Stevenson, ii., 269, passed an evening with the Cacique of Riobamba, the only 
 person he ever saw who could knot and interpret the Quipus. He boasted of the 
 Huasta-Puncay, the ancient lord of the surrounding country. 
 
 ■* She is sometimes called Paccha-chire. Paccha is waterfall in Quiteno ; in Quichua 
 fountain ; and in the same language pacha the earth. 
 
88 
 
 Huayna-Capac went against Quito in 1475, to revenge the Incarial 
 loss at Moclia, and in the last fight at Hatun-taqui, 20' N., Cacha^ was 
 pierced by a lance, which proved mortal ; and the victory was for the 
 Inca. About this period, the kingdom of Quito extended north and 
 south some six degrees, or from Paste to Paita. 
 
 The Inca gave orders that Cacha should be buried with all pomp at 
 Quito. 
 
 The Scyris were buried in a large sepulchre of stone, of a pyramidal 
 form, so covered with pebbles and sand as to look like a hill. The door 
 was to the east. The embalmed bodies, arranged in order, with their 
 insignia and the treasures the Scyri had commanded, should be interred 
 with him. Over each was a niche, in which was found a hollow figure 
 of clav, stone or metal : within were small stones of divers colours and 
 shapes, which denoted his age, years, months of his reign, &c. 
 
 Huayna-Capac deemed it politic to make overtures of marriage to 
 Paccha : she was then twenty years of age, and by the law of Quito, 
 whosoever she married could reign with her. Paccha consented, and 
 on the day of marriage Huayna-Capac added to his Incarial Uautu 
 (fillet) or crown, that of Quito with its large emerald. 
 
 Before the conquest of Quito by the Peruvians, the Cara-Quitus built 
 their temples and habitations of stone and adobes ; aqueducts, foun- 
 tains and baths were known to them. Hualcopo, about 1430, A.D., 
 erected palaces, particularly that in the plain of Collo in Llactacunga, 
 now used as a farm-house. It is entered through a passage leading to 
 a court, round which are three spacious halls, each having several com- 
 partments ; there are other smaller rooms, and one supposed to have 
 been a menagerie. The whole is built of black stone and cyclopean. 
 These ruins are sometimes called the Aposentos de Mulalo, 50 ' S., and 
 are 9,480 Spanish feet above the sea. 
 
 The fortresses in Quito were of earth ; that of Hatun-Taqui would 
 hold 6000 men : these must not be confounded with subsequent Incarial 
 works. 
 
 Humboldt speaks of walls of unburnt brick which owed their origin 
 to the more ancient inhabitants. 
 
 The Peruvians at least knew how to make a mortar for cementing, 
 calling it sanguaga. Lime or iscu they burnt, mixing it with bitumen, 
 
 1 Hatuii-taqui or tontaqui, said to be a Quiclma word, means the large war-drum 
 or gong of hard wood. Here the Scyris had a fortress. Many tolas or conical tombs 
 are met with at this spot. 
 
89 
 
 which made a most adliesive cemeut. Burnt sulphate of lime, pachachi 
 also was employed. Eor bricks the clay was called tica ; for pottery a 
 finer sort was used, known as^anca. The adobe or sun-dried brick^ 
 was one of the ordinary building materials for the dryer parts, and the 
 walls or tapias were of much larger size. 
 
 In Quito there are many sorts of clay, especially for the manufacture 
 of pottery. In Latacunga there are two localities, Pugilli and 
 Saquisili, the red pottery from whence, as jars, pans, pitchers, &c. has 
 a most delicate fragrance. There is another place in Collas where fine 
 pottery is made, such as is called majolica in Europe. 
 
 Majolica, Raffaelle or rather Moorish ware, was first introduced into 
 Mayorca, and from thence spread over Italy. 
 
 Huayna-Capac reigned thirty-eight years over Quito ; at his death 
 the kingdom of Quito was given to Atahualpa- his son by Quito's 
 queen, the empire of Peru to his half-brother Huasca. Atahualpa is 
 said to have married his sister, Cori (Coya or queen) Duchicela. 
 
 In 1529,^ three years after the death of Huayna-Capac, the chief 
 of Canar, (Cuenca) raised the standard of revolt against Atahualpa, 
 sought and obtained the protection of Huascar. Then the fratracidal 
 war ensued, and many severe battles were fought, when, in 1532, 
 Huascar was made prisoner. 
 
 The Incas having conquered to the south, east and west, turned 
 their arms towards the north, having Quito for the prize, and, to faci- 
 litate their movements, constructed roads of great length, many of 
 them lined with stone, which have been compared to the best Eoman 
 roads. The Incas erected on their route palaces, temples, houses for 
 ; the virgin of the sun, tambos or resting places, fortresses and other 
 ' buildings. The city of Quito having become the residence of Huayna- 
 Capac, it partook of the Incarial architecture, religion, customs and 
 language. This Inca added to and beautified Hualcapo's palace at 
 LlactaguDga or Tacunga, calling it after his bride Pachasula. 
 
 ^ Adoub was the Egyptian word for this kind of brick, and it is still used by the 
 Copts, &c. Doubtless the Saracens derived it from the Egyptians, and carried it to 
 'Spain ; thence it went to America, and from America to the Hawayan Islands ; con- 
 tinuing westward, it may arrive at the land of its birth. 
 
 It will be observed, that adobe or unburnt bricks was known to the more ancient 
 'races in Quito and Peru. 
 
 " The hen, hatuallpa; the cock, arca-huallpa. Osculati spells the above, atu- 
 uialpa and orco-hualpa. 
 
 ^ General Miller's Peru, Frazev's Mag., 181.4. 
 
 !i 
 
 il 
 
90 
 
 Many Incarial ruins are met with in Quito ; Tupac-Tupanqui built 
 the palace, fortress and a sort of labyrinth at Canar, known as the 
 Paradones del Inca in 2° 30' S., 13,258 feet above the sea. To the S.W. 
 is the Inga-pirca or fortress of Gran Canar, 10,640 feet above the sea, 
 near which is the Inti-huaicu or ravine of the sun. In this solitary 
 spot, shaded by luxuriant vegetation, rises an insulated mass of sand- 
 stone. On the surface of the rock are concentric circles representing 
 the image of the sun. The foot of the rock is cut into steps which lead 
 to a seat hollowed out, and so placed that from the bottom of a hollow 
 the image of the sun may be seen. 
 
 To the JN", of Caiiar is the Inga-Chungana, the play or sport of the 
 Inca ; at a distance it resembles a sofa, the back of which is decorated 
 with a sort of arabesque ; here the Inca could repose and enjoy a de- 
 lightful prospect over the valley of Grulan. 
 
 La Condamine saw in an old building in this district, ornaments of 
 porphyry (Velasco says granite) representing the muzzles of animals, 
 in the perforated nostrils of which were moveable I'ings of stone. ^ 
 
 Huayna-Capac built the bridge of Rumichaca (stone bridge) over the 
 Augasmayu in Paste. 
 
 Mocha, once the seat of the Mucha, a warlike tribe, was celebrated 
 for its Incarial palace, temple and fortress ; here the Indians defended 
 themselves successfully against Alvarado. 
 
 "• We know that the Peruvians used tools of brass. Velasco II., p, 70, states 
 that when Huasoa was taken prisoner by his brother, as he was being incarcerated, a 
 woman gave him secretly a bar of metal — silver with bronze, brass, or an alloy of 
 silver, copper and tin — that during the night the Inca, by help of the bar, broke 
 through tlie wall of his prison and escaped. I allude to this as showing that silver 
 was also alloyed with copper so as to give hardness to metal bars or tools for quarrying, 
 there is no account of iron being employed. There was some quillay, or iron ore, 
 particularly at Cuenca ; but it was not smelted by the Indians, being too 
 serious an operation for them. Gold and silver was merely melted, but the clilo- 
 ride and sulphuret of silver by aid of fire and air could be reduced by them. 
 
 In Yol. I., Mercurio Peruano, p. 201, 1791, the following mines are mentioned aaj 
 having been worked by the Incas : — Escamera, Chilleo and Abatanis, of gold ; Cho- 
 quipiiia and Porco, of silver ; Curahuato, of copper ; Carabuco, of lead (probably the] 
 vicinity of Oruro yielded tin) ; and the magnificent iron works ! of Ancoriames 16° 
 25'. S., on the east margin of Lake Titicaca, are particularised. Tools of copperjl 
 brass, and brass and silver have been met with ; but I find no account of iron tools, oij 
 manufacture of iron. Don M. E. de Rivero on the analysis of ancient copper chisels 
 hatchets, &c., found fi-om five to ten per cent of silex ; it is difficult to say if this siles 
 was introduced, or was an impurity. (R. and T., p. 215, Enghsh Edition.) 
 
91 
 
 Cayambe, about 6''N., is celebrated for its ruins and tombs, some as 
 old probably as the time of the Quitus or Scyris. Iluayna-Capac built 
 here a palace and fortress, alsu a tambo or resting place. Near the 
 tambo was a small temple to the sun (now a church), behind which are 
 warm baths (of marble). One of these baths had the figure of a puma, 
 the other that of a lizard, with water issuing from their tongues. 
 The snowy mountain of Cayambe, through which the Equator 
 passes, is reputed to be rich in silver. Ulloa^ mentions that near the 
 to\vii of Cayambe is a circular temple of adobes or unbaked bricks. 
 Tiquizambi, now Tijan, 2° 10 ' S., 6' W. of Quito, had its tambo and 
 fortress : Yelasco^ says ruins of these were seen in his time, but 
 Villavicencio states that they A^ere buried and lost in the earthquake of 
 1G99. In a S.AY. direction from Tijan are portions of the Incarial road, 
 also ruins, and a rivulet, the Culebrillas, which has three hundred 
 bends, and then runs into a lake. 
 
 At Palta-pamba (plain of the palta, a fruit), in the district of Nanegal, 
 N.AV. of Quito, are the remains of a causeway, stone buttresses and 
 cope, a mineral pitch used as cement^ for the building a bridge. In 
 the vicinity are ruins of a temple, a conical tower, and many tombs 
 [containing mummies with objects in silver. Villavicencio^ supposes 
 i these remains to have been the work of the Caras, when on their wav 
 jto the conquest of Quito. 
 
 I In the canton of Molletura, 2° 38' S., 54^ W. of Quito, the momi- 
 'tain of Caushin has a spiral road up it of six to eight yards broad : 
 here there seems to have been a fortress, and part of the Inca's road 
 passed this spot : many tombs have been met with. At the foot of 
 the mountain of Curitaqui is a cavern, and from the number of bones 
 of children and animals met with, was probably a place of sacrifice. 
 Gold ornaments are often found in this locality, having been washed 
 3ut of the old tombs bv rains. 
 
 At Tambo-blanco, 3° 46'' S., 45' W. of Quito, in Loja, are Incarial 
 :'emains of a palace, other buildings and tombs; and at the quarries 
 )f Cariamanga, 4° 17^ S. 1° 22' W. of Quito, are hewn stones seven 
 ards long, probably intended for Incarial buildings. 
 
 Walls, ruins and roads are seen in many parts of Equador ; in the 
 )lains, sides of mountains and on their summits ; the more irregular 
 
 2 I., 467. 
 
 ^ Cope, a mineral pitch, is found near Point St. Elena, and Amotape, near Piura. It 
 bounds in Eealejo, and at Chumpi, near Guamanga in Peru. 
 * Geo. Ecuador, 294. 
 
92 
 
 are thought to be the work of people long before the conquest of the 
 country by the Incas. 
 
 One league from Gouzonama 4f 15' S. near the deserted Spanish 
 city of Zamora,^ are the ruins of a village built by the Incas. There 
 is one large house, two hundred and fifty feet long and fifty feet in 
 breadth, standing east and west. The walls are three feet thick, 
 and built of stoue ; the doorways six feet broad. Nothing is stand- 
 ing save the walls, and these are very low and decayed. The art of 
 building arches was unknown to the ancient Peruvians ; the roofs of 
 the houses and those of the temples were thatched with straw. 
 
 1 have already alluded to the mode of burial of the Quitus and 
 Caras in their tolas, which is difterent from that practiced by the 
 Peruvians in Quito : the graves of the latter were called huacas.^ 
 The embalmed (?) or dessicated body, wrapped in cotton or woollen 
 cloths, was laid in a grave of stone or bricks ; curiously fashioned 
 earthen vessels, some containing chicha and food, were deposited 
 with the body. From these huacas many interesting objects 
 have been taken, including small copper and brass axes, mirrors of 
 polished stone and metal, known as the Inca-stone or Ingarirpo. 
 Yelasco says it was composed of silver, gold and other metals. Molina 
 calls it auriferous pyrites ; and Ulloa adds, it was not transparent, but 
 of a lead colour, and smooth as glass. The mirrors of the GallinazO' 
 stone were hard, brittle and black, probably obsidian. Stone spear 
 heads, gold nose jewels, collars, bracelets, ear pendants, hollow idols 
 of gold and silver, copper nippers for pulling hair out, from the face in 
 particular, large metal pins, &c. 
 
 Gold Mask from Indian Tomb at Cuenca. — In January, 1859 
 Mr. Gerstenberg, chairman of the Ecuador Land Company, at my 
 request, exhibited to the Hoyal Society of Antiquaries, a gold mask, 
 with tusks and rings, found in the Indian tombs of Cuenca. 
 
 DESCniPTioisr. — The centre or face is embossed, more than half ar 
 inch high ; the rim is flat ; a small circular raised plate and wire 
 attaches the mask to three hollow rings. There are twelve small gloj 
 bular bodies, joined six and six, moveable on a wire. There is tht 
 appearance of soldering about the large hollow rings. The embossin« 
 over the face looks like an hieroglyph. This ornament was worn by :| 
 chief or priest, and may be the head of a war-deity. There is attache<j 
 a flat pear-sliaped piece of gold. 
 
 ^ Seemaiin's Voy. of Herald I., IVO. 
 
 2 An okl Indian grave is generally (tailed a liuaca, but maehay is a tonit). Tlie deal 
 body mallqui or manoa. Anything found in a touib is liuaca or sacred. 
 
♦t 
 
< < 
 c f t ( 
 
 Pr-oba-bly an Htirogtyph. 
 
 y^^ Gr-iguuxl Svw. 
 
 
 G-OLD MASK, 
 
03 
 
 It weighs four ounces, niueteeu pennyweights ; its specific gravity is 
 14.07 (pure gold is 19 Sj. It is of a light colour, owing to alloy with 
 silver ; but whether alloyed bythe natives or found in this state is a 
 question : if the latter, then we may look upon it as an aururet or 
 electrum, and w^ould contain about 39.50 per cent, of silver. (Gold 
 from Titiribi, in Columbia, gave— gold. 7G.41 ; silver, 23.12 ; 
 copper, 0.3.) 
 
 Between Cuenca and Guayaquil, the Equador Land Company have 
 acquired a district of land, the Molletura, where similar remains are 
 found. 
 
 At the Pailon, another district obtained by the Company, in one of 
 the valleys there are often found such ornaments after the rainy season ; 
 they are washed from the ridges of the mountains, w^here the chiefs and 
 others were buried. The gold articles are mostly broken up and melted 
 by the finders or purchasers. 
 
 Cuenca is in 2° 57' S., 29' W. of Quito, the beautiful country of the 
 Canaris, a nation contemporary with the Cara dynasty of Quito.i 
 
 The face of this gold object from Cuenca may be compared with that 
 3f the stone statues of Timana in 2° jST. 
 
 Table of the Chiefs of Quito, of Caea or of the Sctris, 
 
 AND their alliance WITH THE PuRUHAS AND PERUVIANS. 
 
 FIRST EPOCH. 
 
 The rulers of Quito or the Quitus, how long they were masters of 
 ihe country, or the number of them, is unknown ; the last was called 
 :he Quitu, who was conquered by the Caras, about 900 or 1000, A.D. 
 
 SECOND EPOCH. 
 
 The Scvris settled at Cara came on the coast of the Pacific, about GOO 
 r 800, A.D. ; conquered Quito, about 1000, A.D. 
 
 THIRD EPOCH. 
 
 YEABS 
 
 Eleven Scyris reign in Quito . . . 320 from 980 to 1,300 
 
 ^ Indians of Cuenca. — Seemann Yoy. of Herald, says, they are, perhaps, in many 
 stances, sincerely attached to the Romish church, but at heart many of them still 
 nerate the mti (sun). They are strong and hardy, and are very numerous in places, 
 >\en they have avoided connections with Whites and Xegroes ; for this, after all, ap- 
 ars to be the great secret to preserve them from destruction. 
 
70 „ 
 
 1,300 to 1,370 
 
 60 „ 
 
 1,370 to 1,430 
 
 33 „ 
 
 1,430 to 1,463 
 
 24 „ 
 
 1,463 to 1,487 
 
 38 „ 
 
 1,487 to 1,525 
 
 8 „ 
 
 1,525 to 1,533 
 
 0.2mo 
 
 1533 
 
 94 
 
 rOUKTH EPOCH. 
 
 TEAES 
 
 12tli Scyri, Toatlie Caran, aud Duchicela tlie 
 Purulia ...... 
 
 13t]i Scvri, Autachi Duchicela 
 14th Scyri, Hiialcopo Duchicela . 
 15th Scyri, Cacha Duchicela 
 
 FIFTH EPOCH. 
 
 16th Scyri, Paccha and Huayna-Capac, 13th 
 Inca of Peru ..... 
 17th Atahualpa, son of the above 
 18th Hualpa-Capac, his son . 
 19th Euminahui, the Usurper, from December, 1533 to May 1,533 
 
 SIXTH EPOCH. 
 
 The Spanish Conquest, about 300 years. j 
 
 SEVENTH EPOCH. ■ 
 
 The present Eepublican form of Grovernment. • l| 
 
 The coast of Equador was discovered by Pizarro, in 1526. I| 
 
 In 1812, the country declared against Spain, and the battle of || 
 
 Ayacucho, 9th of December, 1824, closed the war of Independence. m^^ 
 
 Population" of Equador. — "Whites, descendants of m 
 
 Europeans . * 601,21911 
 
 Indians, descendants of the Conquerors . . . 462,40011 
 
 Negroes . . 7,831 1 
 
 Mixture of Negroes with "Whites and Indians, as Mulattos, l| 
 
 Zambos, Mestizos or Cholos . . . . 36,592 ftj,' 
 
 1,108,042 1 ^ 
 Eastern savages from Chinchipe to the Putamayo . . 200,000l> , 
 
 1,308,0421'' 
 
 According to an official report, the population in January, 1858, was! ,. 
 
 1,010,371, having augmented, since the previous year, 19,919 ; bornMi 
 
 41,008, deaths, 21,089. Ij 
 
 The revenue of Equador in 1856 was 1,372.000 dollars ; expenditure.Jj , 
 
 1,358,498. ' 1* 
 
 Ethnology of Equadoe.^ — The races are, the European, NegrcJ^j, 
 
 ' Translated principally from Greogralia de la Eepublica del Ecuador, por Yillavi 
 ceneio, New York, 1858. 
 
 % 
 
95 
 
 and American. The mixture of these three, form sub-races, distin- 
 guished by the names of mulatos, zambos, mestizos or cholos. The 
 first are from the union of the ^egro and Indian ; the second, the Negro 
 and White ; and the third of the White and Indian. 
 The American race is subdivided into families. 
 
 QuiTU Family.^ — These Indians constitute the greater portion of 
 the native population, and have been improperly called Peruvians. 
 The Quitus were powerful and organised, when they were conquered 
 by Huayna-Capac, Inca of Peru, who governed them thirty-eight 
 years. The language of the Quitus (Cara-Quitus) had affinities with 
 the Quichua. Thus Huayna-Capac said, " These kingdoms must have 
 been established by two brothers ;" but he had little foundation for thia 
 opinion. 
 
 I have said, at p. 79, that it was probable the Caras came originally 
 from the coast of Peru; if so, they may have brought a language 
 having some connexion with Quichua, and would account for the Cara — 
 Quitu being understood by the Incarial invaders. Now this Cara 
 language introduced the o, which was a prominent vowel in the Quichua, 
 into the Quitu. The Puruha's and other nations south of Quito 
 j became allied to the Scyris of Quito, but of their languages we knew 
 I very little. Yelasco,^ says, at the period of the Conquest of Quito 
 'by the Incas, in the intermediate country the Quichua was not spoken ; 
 thus I suppose that the Quichua, which formed a part of the Cara- 
 Quitu, was brought by the Caras from the coast of Peru in early 
 times. Still, as the Incas had been advancing north for a long period, 
 the Quichua of Cuzco, which was rigorously imposed on the conquered 
 nations, crept onwards and also communicated by them to the Cara- 
 Quitus, who had been extending their dominions towards the south. 
 
 The general character of the Quitu family is, that of having the 
 
 ^heek-bones large, narrow forehead, large ears, hair straight and thick, 
 
 )f a copper colour, and but little beard. Those Indians who are free 
 
 Tom consecutive labour are better made than the gananes, conciertos, 
 
 )r hired persons, such are nearly black ; they include shepherds, &c., 
 
 rho are exposed to the burning sun of the tropics, or to the frozen 
 
 emperature of the Paramos or Andean regions, and who go about 
 
 aked. It is generally said that the Indian is astute aud suspicious ; 
 
 ut, if so, let us do him the justice to say, that we have, in many 
 
 ases, abused his confidence. 
 
 * See Ludewig 159. 
 Mr., 52. 
 
96 
 
 The Lojanos are as bronzed as the Canazea, but the latter are 
 more intrepid, robust and taller, and generally have large cheek- 
 bones, and bent (roman) nose ; the Puruhas or Chimborazos 
 are somewhat whiter than the preceding, more robust, and the 
 American type is strongly marked in them ; the Tacungas are 
 rather white, active, and their physiognomy approaches the Caucasian ; 
 the Quitus proper, are distinguished from the Tacungas by their acti- 
 vity and liveliness ; they are generally enterprising and brave : the 
 Imbaburenos are as white as the Europeans, their females, particu- 
 larly those of the Cotacaches, have expressive and beautiful features. 
 
 The Napos, Canelos, Santo Domingo, Intags, JSTanegales and G-ualeas 
 speak the same language as the Quitu, which we will add to this 
 family ; specifying that these tribes are distinguished from the Quitus, 
 in being taller, more agile and muscular, of agreeable countenance, 
 bent nosed, and the cheek-bone not much developed. These Indians 
 are generally known as Tumbos, adding to this the name of the province 
 they live in, as those of the Napo ; they are called Tumbos of the 
 Napo. 
 
 Capata Eamilt. — These differ but little from the Tumbos ; they 
 are not so tall, but have the cheek-bones somewhat larger. They pre- 
 serve their primitive idiom, which is guttural, but they all speak the \ 
 general language or Quitu ; they live in a state of liberty and indepen- 
 dence, and only allow the Romish priests and whites to be amongst 
 them during their feasts, and for trade. 
 
 CoLOEADOS Family, are to be found in the forests to the east of j 
 Quito ; their language is nasal, but the greater portion speak the Quitu. Mu 
 These three had settlements, but they have begun to disperse and formjjf 
 others, as Palenque-alto, &c. 
 
 JiVAEO Eamilt. — This great nation is found between the rivers J J"' 
 Chinchipe and Pastassa ; composed of numerous and large tribes, taking 
 the names of the rivers on the shores of which they live, as Moronas, 
 Pautes, Zamoras, Grualaquisas, Upanos, Pindos, Pastassas, Agapicos,i" ° 
 Achuales, Cotapasas, &e. All these speak the Jivaro language, which) 
 is clear and harmonious ; easy to learn and energetic. This last quality J* 
 emanates from the warlike and proud character of the Jivaros. TheJ 
 Incas of Peru tried in vain to conquer tliem ; the Spaniards succeededij 
 in reducing them, founding cities in their country ; but a rising in one 
 day destroyed the work of many years. Since then, some attempts have 
 been made to subdue them, but without success. 
 
97 
 
 They are active and muscular, have black eyes, small aud very 
 animated ; they show a bold front, are bent nosed, thin lips, and have 
 teeth as white as ivory. — 
 
 Many of them are whitish and bearded : it is believed this comes 
 from the Spanish women they stole when they rebelled in 1599. 
 
 They use the lance with great dexterity and manage the shield well. 
 Although the Jivaros are of so unbending a character, some of the 
 tribes approach the conquered settlements, entering into relations with 
 them, as has occurred in Canelos, with some of the Jivaros of the Pas- 
 tassa, and they have even learnt the Quitu language. Other tribes 
 have crossed the Cordillera, and have entered the towns, seeking peace 
 and trade, inviting them to open roads. 
 
 Zapara Family.^ — This is less numerous than the Jivara, and in- 
 habit the upper waters of the Pastassa and Xapo ; they are divided into 
 many independent tribes, taking their names from the rivers near to 
 which they live, as the Mueganos, Curarayes, Tupitinis, Matagenes, 
 Yasunies, Mautas, Shiri-punos, Nushinos, Andoas, Eotunos, &c. 
 All speak the same language, which is simple in its grammatical con- 
 struction — nasal, guttural, and abundant in burlesque phrases. 
 
 This family is more pacific than the Jivara, less cunning in war, but 
 more skilful with the lance. They are particularly active, attached to 
 the whij^e man, and hospitable to him. Their civilization would 
 be easy. 
 
 Between the Zaparo and the Jivaro, there is a great difference in 
 their customs. The Zaparo is generally indolent ; thus only a few of 
 ! the tribes have small plantations of maize and yuca; the majority sup- 
 I porting themselves by the chase, fish and wild fruits, their only dress 
 , being the bark of trees. The Jivaro, on the contrary, has a fixed resi- 
 i dence, cultivating with care large portions of land with plantains, 
 I yuca, maize, mani, mandi, potatoes, beans, vegetables, &c. ; they also 
 , breed large numbers of swine, trading them in Canelos, Macas, and with 
 I tribes on the Amazon ; they weave cotton clothing, which they dye 
 with pleasing colours. 
 
 The Zaparo live in well-constructed assemblages of ranches, where 
 
 only are found hammocks, serving them for beds and seats, whilst the 
 
 ! Jivaro build strong houses with doors, closed inside at night by an 
 
 1 upright bar on an angle ; he sleeps on a bedstead, and his principal 
 
 i apartment has wooden chairs around it. 
 
 
 ' See Ludewig, 207. 
 
98 
 
 In appearance the Zaparo is somewhat like the Chinese : of middle 
 stature, robust, round face, small eyes placed angularly, and very 
 knowing ; nose flat and broad at the end, lips rather thick, and slightly 
 bearded. Those who live on the margins of the rivers maintain them- 
 selves by fishing : they are copper coloured ; but those who reside in 
 the interior and in the shades of the forest, are lighter coloured, and 
 the women have an agreeable and expressive countenance 
 
 Angutera Family. — Inhabits the central and lower portions of the 
 Napo. They appear to be a branch of the Putumayo Indians, with 
 whom they have identity in language, customs and appearance, and 
 live in friendship with them. The Anguteros have fixed residences, 
 cultivate the plantain and yuca, also the yuca-brava, a poisonous root, 
 this property it loses by fermentation, into which they put it to 
 make bread, their principal food, as well as chicha, from the same root : 
 both are pleasant and nntritious. 
 
 The countenance of the Angutero is not an agreeable one, being 
 rather ferocious ; he has black eyes and large eye-brows, his nose bent 
 and broad, hair thick and long, of dark copper colour, and many have 
 a blueish complexion. Their arm is the lance. These Putumayos 
 are those Indians dreaded by travellers, who, when coming up stream, 
 attack them at night, robbing them of their tools of iron ; but their 
 most frequent frays are with the collectors of sarsaparilla -iJChey are 
 beginning to sell provisions, hammocks and sarsaparilla. 
 
 EisrcABELLADA Familt. — This is a small one, and is found on the 
 lower part of the river Aguarico. Their numbers are much reduced, 
 and, although wild, have lost their former ferocity. They are in ap- 
 pearance somewhat like the Anguteros, but difierent in their customs, 
 and much given to fishing for the manati (sea-cow), charapas or tor- 
 toises, with which their river and lakes abound. They supply travellers flj| 
 with meat and fat. 
 
 Oeejon Pamilt^. These join the Anguteros, and inhabit the 
 country at the mouth of the JSTapo. The name of Orejones (big-eared) 
 comes from the custom they have, after having bored their ears, to in- 
 troduce daily pieces of wood, one larger than the other, until thej 
 size of a foot in diameter is attained, the size of the wheel that is;] 
 within the lobe of the ear.^ 
 
 ' See Ludewig, 139. 
 
 2 This was a form of an order of chivalry of the Incas, or, perhaps, the custom „ 
 existed even before their time. fl , 
 
99 
 
 Their language is guttural and nasal, somewhat confused by its pre- 
 cipitate utterance ; it differs from that of the Anguteros, as these 
 latter, independently of theirs being very nasal, accent the last syllable 
 with a peculiar and unpleasant sound. 
 
 The Orejones have broad faces, which are almost square, large cheek- 
 bones and thick lips ; they are in communication with the Ticunas, aud 
 prepare the Orejou poison for their arrow^s. They are not so wild as the 
 Ticunas, and trade in poisons, hammocks and provisious, bartering 
 for iron implements, &c. 
 
 Atijera Family. — This family inhabits the southern shores of the 
 Napo, at its mouth, and in front of the Orejones or Payaguas.^ They 
 appear to be allied to the Tquitos and Mazanes, for their language and 
 customs are the same ; they consist of many tribes, speaking the same 
 language, but with different accentuation. 
 
 They are like the Anguteros in feature, but are darker, the nose 
 wider, very large faces, and the cheek-bone well developed. These 
 tribes live by fishing and the chase ; they have some plantations, and 
 supply provisions to the traveller. 
 
 Next to the Avijeros, and in front of the Anguteros, are the Santa 
 Marias, formerly a branch of the Anguteros. These are pacific and 
 more industrious than the Anguteros ; they cultivate large portions of 
 land with maize and yuca-brava, collect sarsaparilla, and make ham- 
 mocks for sale. The Santa Marias di-ess as the Anguteros, in a long 
 narrow tunic, very clean, painted with various colours and fanciful 
 figures. 
 
 CoFANES Family. — These tribes live on the head waters of the river 
 Aguarico, between it and the Azuela, and near to the foot of Cayambe. 
 This family, once so dreaded by the Spaniards for the blood they 
 shed of the missionaries, have much diminished, and are losing their 
 wildness ; they now leave their forests and visit the neighbouring settle- 
 ments. The Cofaues speak a guttural rough language ; they are very 
 united amongst themselves, and occupy an advantageous position for 
 defence, in case of being attacked. 
 
 Independently of the families already described, each one speaking a 
 different language, there are small tribes of savages living between 
 the Amazons and the territory of the Jivaros, each having a par- 
 ticular dialect. There are also other inhabitants, as the Mulattos^ of 
 
 ^ See Ludewig, 78. 
 
 - These have their origin from ruu-away negroes, who appear to have killed the 
 male Indians of tliis district, taking possession of their women. 
 
 n 2 
 
100 
 
 Esmeraldas, and the Mangaches of Palenque-alto, who, although they 
 speak Spanish badly, have a particular language, which appears to 
 be a dialect of the Colorados de Santo Domingo. 
 
 The wild nations of Equador, as the Jivaros, Zaparos, Angu- 
 teros, &c., believe in a good and evil principle : this faith somewhat 
 governs them. They suppose that the good principle is more powerful 
 than the evil, the former being shared in by the virtuous. All the 
 savages of the eastern districts believe in the metempsychosis, and sup- 
 pose that the brave are transformed into the most beautiful birds ; 
 cowards and traitors, into unclean reptiles. 
 
 PoPATAiS", now a portion of New Granada, was so called from a 
 great chief of that name, and who ruled over many large tribes. 
 
 The first Spaniards, in a very short period, founded twenty-one 
 cities, seven towns, villages and settlements. These were furiously 
 attacked by the natives. Yelasco^ thinks that nearly all these na- 
 tions of Popayan were descendants of Caribs of the Antilles, on 
 account of their barbarous proceedings and analogous vices, particularly 
 that of eating human flesh. There were, however, some tribes who 
 appear to have had other and more noble origin. If there were ferocious 
 and inhuman ones, as the Pachanchicas, Masteles and Abades, there 
 were others kind, sociable and humane, as the Tancales and San- 
 quampiies : if there were stolid, brutal and rude, as the Guanacas and 
 Paes, there were others clever and of noble ideas, as the Antagaimas 
 and Coyaimas. If there were weak, cowardly and unwarlike, as the 
 Timanaes and Nievas, there were others formidable for their valour and 
 military spirit, as the Noannamaes, Chocoes, Andaquies, Pijaos, and 
 particularly the Barbacoas. 
 
 The continuous and sanguinary wars of the Spaniards, destroyed, in 
 a short space of time, so large a portion of the native population, 
 that, for working the gold mines, Negro slaves had to be imported. 
 
 It is difficult to give a correct list of the various nations that 
 inhabited Popayan. In the N.W. there were fourteen, including the 
 Chocoes ; in the N.E. there were twenty-three, including the Anata- 
 gaimas and Pijaos ; in the W. there were five, including the Barbacoas ; 
 in the E. there were eight, including the Andaquies, Coconucos, 
 Nievas, and Timanaes ; in the S. W. there were eighteen. 
 
 in., 37. 
 
101 
 
 lu the S. and S.E. there were twenty-six, including the Mocods. 
 Quito. — This great kingdom^ comprised the following nations, said to 
 have had each a different langi±age, with the number of dependent tribes 
 who spoke dialects. The Alausi, eight ; Angamarca, two ; Canar, twenty- 
 five ; Canelo, one ; Cara, seven ; Caran-quin, eight ; Cayambe, two 
 Chacayungo or Jaen, ten ; Chimbo, five ; Cofan, five ; Esmeralda 
 (Tacamez), twenty ; Guancavelica, sixteen ; Hambato, four ; Huaca. 
 three ; Hamboya, two ; Lapuna, two ; Latacunga, sixteen ; Maca, 
 eight ; Manta, ten ; Mocha, five ; Mocoa, five ; Otavolo, nine ; Paca- 
 mores, twelve ; Palta, four ; Pimampiros, five ; Poritaco, two ; Pnru- 
 hay or Eiobamba, thirty ; Quitu, twenty-nine ; Quijo or Canela, twelve ; 
 Lucumbio, five ; Tiquizambiz, one ; Tijanes, one ; Jibar.o, thirteen ; 
 Yaguarzongo, twelve ; Tumbos, Zarza or Lonja, eighteen ; besides others 
 the names of which are not known. 
 
 Thus we see that there were about forty nations who spoke distinct 
 languages, and more than 300 tribes who had dialects. Of the tribes 
 more than forty were extinct before 1789. The greater portion of the 
 forty mother tongues are lost, and the dominant ones are Peru- 
 Quiteiio and Spanish. 
 
 The Huancavilca, Jibaro and Pacamoro nations, for their indomitable 
 valour, may be classed with the Araucanos of Chile. Tlie Huancavilca 
 and Cofan nations had a well-regulated government, the more so that 
 of the monarchial Pacomores. The Chimbos and Mocoas were weak 
 and cowardly. Some were well inclined, pacific and friendly to the 
 Spaniards, as the jMocoas, Tumbos, Macos, Huamboyas and Canelos ; 
 and others indomitable, as the Tortolas, Jivaros and Lapunas, 
 
 Some 100 nations are spoken of as having inhabited the Maranon, 
 and 110 more on its tributaries ; many of these nations and tribes are 
 extinct. 2 
 
 Equadoe La^^d Company. — Being anxious to support every under- 
 taking calculated to develop the inexhaustible resources of S. America, 
 I readily co-operated in the formation of the Equadc.r Land Company, 
 being invited thereto by the Chairman, Mr. Gerstenberg. 
 . The Equador government had issued land warrants to the amount of 
 £560,000 to British creditors in part payment of arrears of interest at 
 the conversion of their debt in 1855. The committee of bondholders 
 commissioned Mr. Greorge Pritchett to proceed to that country, to 
 
 ^ Yelasco, iii., 175. 
 
 2 See Yalley of the Amazons by Markham, Ilakluyt Soc, 1859, for principal tribes 
 of the Amazons. 
 
102 
 
 choose lands suited to European immigrants and for commercial pur- 
 poses. He selected five districts : the Pailon, Atacames, Molletura, 
 Gualaquiza, and Canelos, in all about four and a half millions of acres, 
 at the average price of 2s. 5d. per acre. The laud warrant of £100 
 being however only worth £5, the marketable value of the acre is little 
 more than one penny. 
 
 The holders resolved, upon Mr. Pritchett's favourable report, to form 
 a company under limited liability, subscribing one share of £2 in re- 
 spect of every laud warrant they hold, thus furnishing the means of 
 sending out a first expedition to the port of Pailon. The promoters 
 agree to surrender £1000 land warrants each to the company, to enable 
 the same to take immediate possession of the Pailon. 
 
 The amount required for that purpose is £60,000, but it has been 
 considerably exceeded, and the subscriptions now amount to nearly 
 £100,000. 
 
 On the 25th of March of 1859, the company was duly incorpo- 
 rated, under limited liability, after a unanimous resolution of support 
 and co-operation on the part of the land warrant holders, passed by a 
 public meeting at the London Tavern on the preceding day. 
 
 The allotment of the two eastern districts, the Canelos and Gua- 
 laquiza, being made the pretext for hostilities on the part of Peru, the 
 Equador Land Company took a warm interest in the unprovoked 
 quarrel, pleading the just cause of Equador, not only by the press, but 
 also in a memorial presented by a deputation to Lord John Eussell. 
 The Secretary of State for Eoreign Affairs at that interview made the 
 important statement that the blockade was irregular and should be en- 
 quired into. Shortly afterwards Lord John Russell sent a reply to the 
 directors conveying the gratifying announcement that his lordship was 
 fully alive to the great importance of the question involved, and had 
 requested the naval officers stationed on the west coast of S. America 
 to obtain the fullest information on the subject ; meanwhile a British 
 man-of-war being ordered to the coast of Equador to watch British 
 interests. 
 
 The Equador Land Company have proceeded vigorously with their 
 preparations. Being possessed not only of a large amount of land war- 
 rants but also of sufficient funds, they purchased the yacht "Kittiwake" 
 of 250 tons, to convey to Equador, as pioneers, a commercial repre- 
 sentative and his staft' ; the important post of geologist and engineer, 
 has been confided to the well-known Australian and Californian 
 
103 
 
 explorer, Mr. J. S. "Wilson, whilst the offices of surgeon, botanist, 
 agriculturalist, &c., are filled up by practical individuals. 
 
 The immediate objects of the expedition will be to establish a small 
 colony at the Pailon, and make arrangements for future immigrants. 
 Erom the paucity of serviceable ports on the west coast, the new port 
 of Pailon will be useful to navigation generally. 
 
 The next step will be to construct a road to Ibarra and Quito, as 
 the landholders on the line and the government of Equador have 
 offered their assistance and co-operation, volunteering labourers and a 
 pecuniary guarantee of 10 to 15 per cent, on the outlay of capital. 
 Along the road, the most favourable spots on the rising ground and 
 table-lands will be selected for settlement^f European immigrants and 
 the cultivation of the various products best adapted to the different 
 zones, such as cocoa, cinchona, caoutchouc, coffee, sugar, cotton, maize, 
 wheat, &c., and for the exploration of the varied mineral riches of the 
 country. 
 
 This road will enable the rich provinces of Esmeraldas, Imbabura, 
 and Quito to send their abundant supplies of valuable produce to 
 the Pailon for shipment, whilst they are at present almost entirely lost, 
 owing to the difficulty and great expense of transporting them first to 
 Quito, and thence round Chimborazo to Guyaquil. 
 
 Afterwards the road from Ibarra is to be continued to the Canelos, 
 thus reaching, by the river Napo, the Amazons, and establishing a prac- 
 ticable and inexpensive route for merchandize from the Atlantic to the 
 Pacific.^ 
 
 Not only colonization and commercial establishments are the objects 
 of the company, but also scientific researches, and they will represent 
 various scientific societies in England and on the Continent. 
 
 In September, 1859, Peru declared war against Equador ; one com- 
 plaint is, that Equador has given up lands to the British bond-holders, 
 belonging to Peru. A few words on the boundary question may 
 not be uninteresting. 
 
 ^ It is stated by a Belgian paper, that M. T. Lois has accepted the invitation of the 
 Brazilian government to navigate the whole of the Amazon river with sixtj-four com- 
 panions. 
 
104 
 
 BOrNDAEY QUESTION. 
 
 Yillavicencio^ says " Equador is bounded on the N. by New Granada, 
 on the S. by Peru ; on the E. by Brazil ; and on the "W. by the Pacific. 
 The exact limits with neighbouring nations are not yet determined. 
 Those I have given on my map appear to me to be the most natural 
 ones, although Equador has rights over the province of Mainas, situated 
 S. of the Maranon, and the space between the rivers Putumayo and 
 Caqueta, and where foreign maps generally run the boundaries." 
 
 Herrera states that the old coast line was from Buenaventura 
 (3° 45' N.) to Paita (5° 10' S.), or about 200 leagues. 
 
 Seemann,^ in his route fnpm Piura north, came to the B.. Ana-cara, 
 in about 4° 30' S, 80^00' W., which, he says, is the south boundary line of 
 the two Bepublics, and that the Biver Mira is the north boundary with 
 N. Grranada ; but which of the mouths to take is the question. Those 
 who wish fco join N. Grauada say the channel flowing south of Point 
 Mangles is the one intended ; while the Equadorians maintain the 
 Tumaco branch, about twenty miles to the northward, is the true one. 
 In a late map, the boundary line is moved to the Biver Patia, sixty miles 
 north of Tumaco, falling into the sea, just north of Point Guascamo. 
 
 The latter end of 1859, Castilla, the president of Peru, sailed from 
 Callao with a large force, making himself master of Guayaquil ; and, as 
 civil war was raging in Equador, this precluded any opposition. 
 
 Castilla, od taking possession of Guayaquil, placed General Pranco 
 in power there. However, the disturbed state of Peru, coupled with 
 the approach of the rainy season, obliged Castilla to make his way 
 back to Lima to watch the movements of the Eclienique party, which 
 he had turned out, and the chance of a difiiculty with Bolivia. 
 
 Castilla concluded a treaty of peace with Franco, who only commands 
 in Guayaquil* Peru not to be identified for cost of Castilla's expe- 
 dition, estimated at seven millions of dollars. Two years from date of 
 treaty allowed for Equador to prove her right to the provinces of 
 Quijos and Canelas, and, failing this, to surrender them at the expira- 
 tion of that time to Peru. British bond-holders to have lands assigned 
 to them in exchange for lands in the above mentioned provinces. 
 
 The head government in Quito refused to ratify this treaty, and 
 Eranco, aided by Castilla, proposed to march against Quito to compel 
 its recognition. 
 
 ^ Geografia de la Republica del Ecuador, 27. 
 2 Voy. of Herald 1., 60, 72. 
 
 ■H 
 
 M 
 
105 
 
 Translation of Names in the Work and Map of " Geogrofa de la 
 Hejyuhlica del Ecuador^'' hy Villavicencio. 
 
 The names of plains, monntains, rivers, lakes, &c., some of which 
 have their origin in the ancient idiom of the Quitus — of these we are 
 ignorant of their etymology — others are of the times of the Schyris and 
 the Incas ; of these some have been preserved in their purity, as Allapaca, 
 caqui-bamba, chuqui-pata ; others have been altered, as cajas-bamba 
 (cajabamba), chimbu-razu (chimborazo) ; others have been trans- 
 lated, half in Spanish, half in Quichua, or Yerde-cocha, Limpio-pungu, 
 Frances-nrcu ; and others into Spanish, as Kioblanco, Laguna- 
 grande, Monte-negros ; but the Indians still call these Turac-yacu, 
 Hutun-cocha, Yana-urcu. 
 
 "We give a list of some of the words met with in our work and map, 
 so as to facilitate a knowledge of places, inasmuch as the names given to 
 localities by the Indians, signify the relation as to figure, colour, the 
 abundance of animals or fruits in the mountains or forests, rivers, lakes, 
 and places. 
 
 Allcu-chaca 
 
 Allcu-chupa 
 
 Allcu-cocha 
 
 Allcu-quiro 
 
 Allpa-chaca 
 
 Allpa-rupahsca 
 
 Augas-cocha 
 
 Angas-quingrai 
 
 Anango-yacu 
 
 Ata-hualpa 
 
 Balsa-yacu 
 
 Balsa-urcu 
 
 Caballo-guanusca 
 
 Cachi-loma 
 
 Cachi-llacta 
 
 Cachi-yacu 
 
 Cajas-bamba 
 
 Cajas-cocha 
 
 Cajas-nan 
 
 Cajas-urcu 
 
 Calla: 
 
 na- 
 
 yacu 
 
 bridge of the dog 
 tail of the dog 
 lake of the dog 
 tooth of the dog 
 bridge of earth 
 earth, burnt 
 lake of An con 
 vuelta (turns) of Ancon 
 river of ants 
 chicken, handsome 
 river of the balsa (float) 
 mountain or forest of 
 
 the balsa 
 dead horse 
 hill of salt 
 land of salt 
 river of salt 
 elevated plain 
 lake on elevated plain 
 road on elevated plain 
 mountain or forest on 
 
 elevated plain 
 river of Callana (also 
 
 earthen vase) 
 
 Caniro-cocha 
 
 Casha-yacu^ 
 
 Casha-urcu 
 
 Caspi-cocha^ 
 
 Chaca-yacu 
 
 Chaca-yungas 
 
 Chalhua-cccha 
 Chalhua-bamba 
 Chahuar-urcu 
 Chambira-jacu 
 
 Chaqui-bamba 
 Chaqui-maillana 
 
 yacu 
 Chaqui-nan 
 Charapa-cocha 
 
 Chonta-yacu 
 
 Chonta-cocha 
 Chonta-urcu 
 
 river of the Canero (a 
 little dog, very car- 
 nivorous 
 river of thorns 
 mountain of thorns 
 lake of poles or sticks 
 river of the bridge 
 bridge of the warm 
 
 country 
 lake of fish 
 plain of the fish 
 mountain of the cabuyos 
 river of the chambira 
 
 (palm) 
 plain of the feet 
 river to wash the feet 
 
 footpath 
 
 lake of the charapas, 
 
 (tortuguilla) 
 river of the chonta 
 
 (palm) 
 lake of the chonta 
 forest of the chonta 
 
 ' Caparurar (or snow mount.), the mountain of El Altar. — Stevenson. 
 - Caspi-cara was the name of an Indian sculptor in Stevenson's time. 
 
106 
 
 cold river 
 
 cold mountain 
 
 river in front 
 
 foot of the lake 
 
 foot of the hill of the 
 
 chuquis (dancers) 
 snovr of Chimbo (the 
 
 province of Chini- 
 
 borazo) 
 river of the lake 
 springs of chuqui 
 mountain of the shells 
 shore (or dry sides of a 
 
 river) of Ortiga 
 meeting of the cundures 
 
 (condor) 
 Cundur-huachana the condor's nest 
 
 Chiri-yacu 
 
 Chiri-urcu 
 
 Chimba-yacu 
 
 Cocha-pata 
 
 Chuqui-pata 
 
 Chimbu-razu 
 
 Cocha-yacu 
 Chuqui- poyo 
 Churu-urcu 
 Chini-playa 
 
 Cundur-hatu 
 
 Cunchi-bamba 
 
 Cunuc-pata 
 
 Cunuc-yacu 
 
 Curi-urcu 
 
 Curi-yacu^ 
 
 Cusni-tambu 
 
 Cusu-bamba 
 
 Cuy-cocha 
 
 Danta-yacu 
 
 Huacamayo-urcu 
 
 Huachi-yucu 
 
 Huachi-cocha 
 Huaicu-huasi 
 Huaicu-yacu 
 Huahua-lluma 
 
 plain of the swine 
 
 foot of the hot hill 
 
 hot river 
 
 gold mountain 
 
 gold river 
 
 cottage of smoke 
 
 plain of the cusu (larva 
 of the beetle) 
 
 lake of the cuy (a spe- 
 cies of hare) 
 
 river of the danta (the 
 great beast) 
 
 torrent of the parrots 
 (a species) 
 
 river of the huachi 
 (flower of the cane) 
 
 lake of the huachis 
 
 house of the ravine 
 
 river of the ravine[name 
 
 bald-headed boy, a nick- 
 
 Huahua.Pichincha young Pichincha 
 
 Huahua-yacu 
 
 Huagra-uma 
 
 Huagra-urcu 
 
 Huagra-yacu 
 
 Huaira-pungo 
 
 Huaira-urcu 
 
 Hatim-cocha 
 
 Hatun-taqui 
 
 Hatun-yacu 
 
 river of the boy 
 head (herd) of cattle 
 mountain of the cattle 
 river of the cattle 
 door of the wind 
 mountain of the wind 
 large lake 
 largre drum or tambor 
 
 large river 
 Hatun,chalpi-yacu large river of chalpi 
 Huarmi apac- river that takes the wo- 
 yacu men 
 
 Huama-urcu 
 
 Huama-yacu 
 
 Huasca-yacu'^ 
 
 Jahua-urcu 
 
 Llusca-loma 
 
 Lulun-bamba 
 
 Imba-bura 
 
 Maillana-yacu 
 
 Manduro-3^acu 
 
 Mapa-yacu 
 
 Mapa-cocha 
 
 Mauca llacta 
 
 Mulli-pungu 
 
 Limpio-pungu 
 
 Libro-urcu 
 
 Morete-urcu 
 
 Nina-caspi 
 Nina-yacu 
 
 Paccha 
 Paccha-yacu 
 Pacha-maraa 
 Pacay-yacu 
 
 Palanda-yacu 
 
 Palu-uruu 
 
 Palta-urcu 
 
 Paiia-cocha 
 
 Paushy-yacu 
 Papa-urcu 
 Papa-Uacta^ 
 Pasu-urcu 
 
 Pindu-urcu 
 
 Pindu-yacu 
 Piscu-urcu 
 Puca-allpa 
 Puca-cocha 
 
 forest of the huama 
 
 (lai'ge cane) 
 river of the huama 
 river of cords or ropes 
 forest of the jahua (fruit 
 
 of a palm) 
 a slippery mountain 
 plain of eggs 
 the fish prenadilla, 
 
 breediug-place (a spe- 
 cies of small vagre) 
 river to wash in 
 river of achiote 
 dirty river 
 dirty lake 
 ancient country 
 easy narrow pass 
 clean narrow pass 
 mountain like a book 
 mountain or forest of 
 
 morete (fruit of a 
 
 palm) 
 wood used as a candle, fix*e 
 river of the candle or 
 
 fire 
 cascade 
 
 river of the cascade 
 cobija madre"^ 
 river of the huaba 
 
 (fruit of the mimosa 
 
 indica) 
 river of the plantain 
 forest of serpents 
 forest of the paltas or 
 
 ahuaeates (a fruit) 
 lake of the paiias (a 
 
 little fish with strong 
 
 teeUi) 
 river of the pauji 
 mountain of the potatoes 
 country of tlie potato 
 forest of the pasos 
 
 (fruit) 
 forest of the pindos 
 
 (flower of the wild 
 
 cane) 
 river of the pindos 
 forest of the birds 
 red earth 
 red lake 
 
 ^ Curi-urcu, golden male. — Jameson. 
 
 2 Cimpu-chaca, bi'idge of ropes, or rather tresses (cimpu). — Stevenson T. 421. 
 
 3 Mundiyacu (water). — Jameson. 
 ^ Probably Head- waters. 
 
 5 Papa-llacta, papa, potatoe; llacta, village. — Jameson. 
 
107 
 
 Puca-liuaico 
 
 Puca-loma 
 
 Puca-rumi 
 
 Puca-urcu 
 
 Puca-yacu 
 
 Pucara 
 
 Pucara-coclia 
 
 Puma-cliaca 
 
 Puma-cocha 
 
 Puma-llacta 
 
 Puma-yacu 
 
 Pungu-cocha 
 
 Quinua-loma 
 
 Quingrai-iian 
 Rio-bamba, Eic- 
 
 baraba 
 Kucvi-pichincha 
 ]Rumi-chaca 
 Rumi-iiagui 
 Sara-yacu 
 Sara-urcu 
 Sigse-yacu 
 
 Sigsi-bamba 
 
 Supai-urcu 
 
 Supai-cocha 
 
 Supai-yacu 
 
 Suru-bamba 
 
 Tiu-cajas 
 Tiu-bamba 
 Tiu-cocha 
 Tiu-loDia ' 
 
 red ravine 
 
 red hill 
 
 red stone 
 
 red mountain 
 
 red river 
 
 fortress 
 
 lake of the fortress 
 
 bridge of the lion 
 
 lake of the lion 
 
 country of the lion 
 
 river of lions 
 
 ravine of the lake 
 
 hill of the Quinua 
 
 (chenopodium) 
 zig-zag road 
 plain on the journey 
 
 old pichincha 
 stone bridge 
 face of stone 
 river of maize 
 mountain of maize 
 river of the sigsi (flower 
 
 of a grass) 
 plain of the sigsi 
 mountain of the devil 
 lake of the devil 
 devil's river 
 plain of the Suru (canes 
 
 that entwine with 
 
 each other) 
 sandy heights 
 sandy plain 
 sandy lake 
 sandy hill ^ 
 
 Tiu-pullu 
 
 Timi-curi 
 
 Turu-bamba 
 
 Turu-yacu 
 
 Tuta-pishco-yacu 
 
 Uchuc-cocha 
 
 Ucsha-tambu 
 
 Ucsha-huasi 
 
 Uma-urcu 
 
 Uma-cocha 
 
 Uma-yacu 
 
 Upia-yacu 
 
 Urcu-siqui-yacu 
 
 Urpi-urcu 
 
 Inga-chaca 
 
 Inga-nan 
 
 Inga-pirca 
 
 Inga-chungana 
 
 Yahuar-cocha 
 
 Yana-cocha 
 
 Yana-urcu 
 
 Yana-yacu 
 
 Ichu-bamba 
 
 Yahuar-Zongo, 
 
 Yunta-pungu 
 
 Yurac-yacu 
 
 Yurac-campania 
 
 Yerde-yacu 
 
 Verde-cocha 
 
 Zapota-yacu 
 
 sand, fine as mist 
 
 nugget gold 
 
 plain of mud 
 
 river of mud 
 
 river of the bat 
 
 small lake 
 
 thatched resting place 
 
 thatched house 
 
 mountain of head 
 
 waters 
 lake of the head waters 
 river of the head waters 
 river, or water to drink 
 river at footof mountain 
 forest of pigeons (pa- 
 
 lomas) 
 bridge of the Tnca 
 road of the Inca 
 walls of the Inca 
 play of the Inca 
 lake of blood 
 black lake 
 black mountain 
 black river 
 or Uchuc-bamba, little 
 
 lake 
 a heart of blood 
 ravine of the Yuntas 
 white river 
 white country 
 green river 
 green lake 
 river of the Zapota (a 
 
 fruit) 
 
 "When Quito was conquered by the Incas their language, the Quichua, became the 
 general only in those provinces subjected by them. A mixed language was spoken in 
 Quito of Quitu, Cara, or that of the Scyris and Puruhua. When the Incas took 
 Quito more Quichua was introduced, changing in that of Quito the g for the c ; b 
 for p ; u for o ; and sometimes o for u. 
 
 In Pastes, to the N. Quitu is not spoken, neither in Guayaquil, excepting a few 
 words of old Schyri. 
 
 The pure Cuzco Quichua was introduced into Maynas by the missionaries 
 
 COLLECTED FROM YELASCO. 
 Here we have a mixture of Quitu, Cara, Puruah, &c., and Quichua. 
 
 Rumi-nahui 
 
 Colta-cocha 
 
 Colay-cocha 
 
 Pugilii 
 
 Quispi 
 
 face of stone 
 lake of wild ducks 
 lake of punishment 
 red potter's earth 
 rock crystal 
 
 Lamina 
 
 Inga-x'irpo 
 
 Quillay 
 
 the emerald, goddess of 
 
 healtli, a deity 
 looking glass stone of 
 
 the Inca 
 
 iron ore 
 
 Tiu-puyo, springs in the sandy deserts. 
 
108 
 
 Titi lead 
 
 Chuya-cullqui mercury 
 
 Cullqui silver 
 
 Tumbaga, puca- alloy of gold and copper 
 
 curi 
 Curl gold 
 
 Llambo-cullqui tin 
 Cope mineral pitch, used as 
 
 building cement 
 Cui, chuncliulli intestines of the cui or 
 
 guinea pig 
 Huayacan holy wood 
 
 Machacui-huasca rope of the serpent 
 
 bejuco 
 Saire tobacco 
 
 Supai-huasca, devil's rope 
 
 shilento 
 Sinchi-caspi, wood that gives 
 ehinvilto strength, or its infu- 
 
 sion 
 Uttcu or ucuiba cotton 
 Macnu cochineal insect, the 
 
 grain 
 Indaco, anil indigo 
 
 Maguaei, cabuyo yelds, the pidqui 
 Mate,vingos, pil- calabash 
 
 dies 
 Ruini saffron 
 
 Cauchuc India rubber : in the 
 
 Esmeraldas it is 
 
 called jebe 
 Cungi gum arable tree 
 
 Alquintara dragon's blood tree 
 
 Ispingo flower of the Canelo 
 
 tree (cinamon) 
 Lulam ( Quito ), cocos of the palms 
 
 Ruru (Peru) 
 Chonta, ruro^ palm tree (Euterpe, 
 
 Spruce) 
 Angas, chonta date tree 
 Anana pine apple 
 
 Cacao chocolate tree 
 
 Chirimuyu, chir- fruit of the cold pips 
 
 imoya 
 Inchic mani 
 
 Palta ahuacate 
 
 Tanda plantain 
 
 Tanda-asua plantain cliicha 
 
 Tocte Quito almond 
 
 Batata camote, or sweet potato 
 
 Papa potatoe 
 
 Sara maize 
 
 Caspi caracha itch tree^ 
 
 Ahuara, vagra danta, a great beast, 
 
 tapir 
 Llama (Quichua), animal, beast, is tame 
 
 Llausa (Quito) 
 Paco alpaca, is tame 
 
 Guanaco is wild 
 
 Vicuiia is wild 
 
 Puma, pagi lion 
 
 Puca-puma leopard 
 
 Yana oryacu-puma water lion 
 Otorongo tiger 
 
 Vinchinche large tiger 
 
 Ucumari, izuache bear 
 Atuc wolf 
 
 Yuca-atuc red wolf 
 
 Yana-atuc black wolf 
 
 Yacu-atuc sea wolf or seal 
 
 Allcu dog 
 
 Yuray-taruga deer, white 
 Puzuc-taruga deer, coloured 
 Rucu (old), Uui- deer with small horns 
 oho This yields the Bez- 
 
 oar stone 
 TJcuhuc-lluicho small deer 
 Zoche, chita wild goat 
 
 Tumla hares, rabbits 
 
 Cushillo monkey 
 
 Aiiango fox 
 
 Quiriqui armadillo 
 
 Quillac the sloth, lazy 
 
 Ucucha rat 
 
 Mashu bat 
 
 Cuntur condor 
 
 Llecaraa royal eagle 
 
 Huanga common eagle 
 
 Huaman falcon 
 
 Ullahuanga Gallinazo 
 
 Curi-quingui thelnca's bird, spotted 
 
 with gold 
 Rinavi crow 
 
 Atallpa peacock 
 
 Urpi pigeon 
 
 Cullcu-urpai dove 
 Mama-yuta large partridge 
 
 Tucan the preacher 
 
 Shicunga, guaca- parrot^ 
 mayo 
 
 H^ 
 
 ^ Chonta, 'pnlp or fruit of a palm. Jameson. 
 2 Mandi, root of arum. Jameson. 
 
 ^ Iluaca-mayu (El Guacamayo), the sacred river. There is a mountain ealled El 
 GuacamayOj covered by an impenetrable forest, aud clothed in mist. Jameson. 
 
109 
 
 Tuyuya 
 
 pelican 
 
 
 Coniapuyara 
 
 amazons or good women 
 
 Cay ma 
 
 cayman, crocodile 
 
 
 Quitu 
 
 chief of tlie Quitus 
 
 Apashiru 
 
 iguana 
 
 
 Caran Scyri 
 
 chief of the Caras 
 
 Uculhicuy 
 
 lizard 
 
 
 Iluai'acu 
 
 sling 
 
 Hambatu 
 
 frog 
 
 
 Condorazo 
 
 chief of Puruha 
 
 Picupicu 
 
 toad 
 
 
 Tumbala 
 
 chief of Puni\ 
 
 TucUiu 
 
 small frog, spawn 
 frog 
 
 of 
 
 Iluanca-liatun, 
 taqui' 
 
 war drum, gong 
 
 Machac, amatu 
 
 serpent 
 
 
 Tola 
 
 a tomb 
 
 Huancoyru 
 
 bee 
 
 
 Taravita 
 
 a swinging bridge 
 
 Cucuyos 
 
 firefly 
 
 
 Barbacoa 
 
 ditto ditto 
 
 Inti-inama 
 
 motherof the sun,fii'e 
 
 fly 
 
 Larcas 
 
 aqueducts 
 
 Pilluntu, taparoco butterfly 
 
 
 Vircus 
 
 secret aqueduct 
 
 Clmspi 
 
 % 
 
 
 Inti-cusi 
 
 joy of the sun 
 
 Tan cay Uu 
 
 horse fly 
 
 
 HuaUpa 
 
 young turkey cock 
 
 SuUacura 
 
 species of horse fly 
 
 
 Atahuallpa 
 
 turkey cock 
 
 Uru, paccha 
 
 spider family: cochineal 
 
 Eumi-iuhahui 
 
 face of stone 
 
 names 
 
 
 insect belongs to this 
 
 Quisquis 
 
 barbarian 
 
 ► of 
 
 
 family 
 
 
 
 
 chiefs 
 
 Anall 
 
 ant 
 
 
 Popayan 
 
 name of chief 
 
 Isnli 
 
 large ant 
 
 
 Calarca 
 
 chief of the pijaos 
 
 Pilis 
 
 head lice 
 
 
 Imbabura 
 
 from the fish, imba, or 
 
 Usa 
 
 body lice 
 
 
 
 prenadillas 
 
 Nina-euros 
 
 glow worms 
 
 
 Ina- Quito 
 
 plain north of Quito 
 
 Manati, lamatin 
 
 manati, sea cow 
 
 
 Cara-huiraso 
 
 volcano of 
 
 Cuchi, chalhua 
 
 pig fish 
 
 
 Cuspi-pamba 
 
 beautiful plain 
 
 Harmi-machacuy the serpent's mother 
 
 ,a 
 
 Chandui 
 
 S.W. wind, name of a 
 
 
 river fish 
 
 
 
 mountain ; tliis may 
 
 Punuy-sigui 
 
 sleeping fish 
 
 
 
 be an old Quitu word 
 
 Eumi- chalhua 
 
 stone fish 
 
 
 Yaguar zongo 
 
 heart of blood 
 
 Toa 
 
 black fish 
 
 
 Paititi, or Yurac 
 
 . 
 
 Char a pa 
 
 small tortoise 
 
 
 guasi 
 
 palace, or white house. 
 
 Churu 
 
 shell or shell fish 
 
 
 
 Paitite, a fabulous 
 
 Galapagd 
 
 land turtle, terrapin 
 
 
 
 kingdom in Peru 
 
 Tumba 
 
 fresh water shell 
 
 
 Tio-puyo (Tiu) 
 
 springs in the sand or 
 
 i Tumba-Uimpi 
 
 mother of pearl 
 
 
 
 desert 
 
 Tumba-maru 
 
 pearl 
 
 
 Huampu 
 
 balsa, or raft 
 
 Cui 
 
 guinea pig species 
 
 rabbit 
 one inthree, three ino 
 
 of 
 
 Paccha- chire 
 
 waterfalls 
 
 Tarigatanga 
 
 ne 
 
 Curi,mulhnvinc 
 
 >- 
 
 Chambo 
 
 small copper axe 
 
 
 maca 
 
 snake, shining, spotted 
 
 Jungada balsa, float or raft 
 NAMES OF ANIMALS INTE( 
 
 
 
 like a tiger 
 
 DDU 
 
 CED BY THE SPANIAEDS INTO 
 
 
 QUITO, 
 
 FEC 
 
 ►M VELASCO. 
 
 
 Horse 
 
 huihua, or domestic 
 
 Goat 
 
 chita, as being like a 
 
 
 animal 
 
 
 
 native animal 
 
 Ass 
 
 huihua 
 
 
 Pig 
 
 chuchi 
 
 BuU 
 
 Uagra.as having hor 
 
 ns 
 
 Dog 
 
 Allcu 
 
 Sheep 
 
 Uama 
 
 
 Cat 
 
 Misi 
 
 L, . 
 
 
 
 Perecote, Eat 
 
 Uchuca 
 
 
 ^ The warriors of the Incas were armed with estoUcas ; these are flattened poles, a 
 yard long and three fingers broad. In the upper end a bone is fixed, to which an 
 arrow is fastened. At fifty paces they never miss. " "Valley of the Amazons," 80. 
 Hakluyt, Soc, 1859. 
 
no 
 
 WOBDS USED BY THE COCAMAS ON THE UCAYLI, from Yelasco. 
 
 Caquire tanu Papa, caquere ura Dios ica, totonare. God be with courageous 
 man, God protect thee and give thee long hfe. 
 
 FEOM JAMESON. 
 
 The Indians of Archidona call Agami . Pauxi (crax alector) do. associated with 
 (psophia crepitans) a bird domesticated | the poultry 
 by them 1 
 
 The Zaparos call the blowpipe Bodaquera, made of chonta, five yards in length, 
 and three quarters of an inch in diameter. 
 
 
 FROM STEYENSON. Words used about the coast. 
 
 Achote 
 
 small tree (bixa orella- 
 
 PHcay 
 
 cochineal insects, from 
 
 
 na) gives a red dye, 
 
 
 cochinilla or old sow 
 
 
 used as a spice or 
 
 Kiebla 
 
 the fermented liquor of 
 
 
 colouring matter for 
 
 
 the yuca 
 
 
 food 
 
 Puichin 
 
 the spirits of this 
 
 Ceibo 
 
 balsa wood 
 
 
 liquor 
 
 Huachapeii 
 
 cedar (?) 
 
 
 
 Caoba 
 
 mahogany 
 
 Sorbetana, 
 
 bode- 
 
 Ahi 
 
 sloth, ahi from the 
 
 jera 
 
 thehollow tube through 
 
 
 noise it makes 
 
 
 which is blown the 
 
 AlluUas 
 
 cakes 
 
 
 poisoned pva or dart 
 
 Capulies 
 
 wild cherries 
 
 Chautisa 
 
 small fish, resembling 
 
 Huasi-cama 
 
 house servant 
 
 
 a shrimp 
 
 Huadhuas 
 
 bamboo, contains be- 
 
 Moracumba Avild cocoa 
 
 
 tween the notches 
 
 Jebe 
 
 Indian rubber, caout- 
 
 
 sometimes as much 
 
 
 chouc 
 
 
 astwoquarts of water 
 
 
 
 
 ADELITNG III, I 
 
 322. From 
 
 Hervas. 
 
 
 Quiteuo. Quichua. 
 
 
 Quiteuo. Quichua. 
 
 Hair 
 
 accha chuccha 
 
 Leg 
 
 changa chaki 
 
 Soul 
 
 aya sougo 
 
 Below 
 
 urae urapi 
 
 Animal 
 
 uausa Dama 
 
 Eye 
 
 amsa tulayasca 
 
 Light 
 
 ancha illan 
 
 
 
 G. Osculati, Explorazione delle Hegioni Equatoriale, &c., MUano, 1850, gives 
 lists of the Quichua of the Incas and Quiteno, but not the date of the vocabulary 
 from which he extracts, as — 
 
 The Banana, gives the Palandra, ayii, or chicha 
 The yuca, do. Lumo, ayu do. 
 
 The yuca, do. Tziaspha do., blanca or white 
 
 Wito, gives a black colour 
 
 Eoucou, red dye of the bixia orellaua. Gives Zapara grammar and 
 vocabulary 
 
Ill 
 
 FROM SEEMANN. 
 
 Achira 
 
 Arcihtecta 
 
 Canclialagua 
 
 Capuli 
 
 Chuqui-ragua 
 
 Cliussalonga 
 
 Contra de vivora rauuolfia 
 
 Cuichunchuilla jonidiun 
 
 Joyapa maclenia 
 
 canna discolor 
 
 composita 
 
 gentianea 
 prunus capulin 
 cliuquiraguer 
 eupatorium glutinosum 
 
 Matapolo loranthus destvucta 
 
 Matico piper 
 
 " (riobamba)eupatorium glutinosum 
 Melloea idlcus tubcrosus 
 
 Pigonil festuca quadrientata 
 
 Quinquina de loja cinchona cond. 
 Seraja sonchus 
 
 Ullco ullcus tuberosus 
 
 Zauco cestrum 
 
 PEEU AND BOLIVIA. 
 
 War between Atahualpa and Suasca — Conquest of Peru hy JPizarro — 
 Fate of tlie Oonquisi adores — Viceroys and present rulers — Origin of 
 name of Peru— Geography of Peru and Bolivia — Cinchona — Tradi- 
 tions of the Ineas — lacarial history — Lima — Population — Pizarro — 
 General Castilla — Literature — " Mercurio Pe?^uano^' — " Litna por 
 dentro y fuera^^ — Zodiac of the Incas — Chincha Islands — Guano — 
 Arica, tombs, cave in the Morro — Pintados — Pisagua — Province of 
 Tarapacd — Iquique — Nitrate of Soda — Huacas — Journey into the 
 interior — Pintados — La Noria, Nitrate of Soda ivorJcs — Discovery of 
 Porate — Matilla — Engraved roclcs — Condors — Andes, and Volcano 
 of Isluga — Mamina, Aymara town — Quichua — Aymara — Indian 
 revel, Sfc. 
 
 We left Francisco Pizarro at Tumbez, where he became impressed 
 with the certainty that his conquest of the country was not far distant. 
 He marched south in 1532, and erected the fort of San Miguel at 
 Piura. The fratricidal war then raging between Atahualpa, the Scyri 
 or King of Quito and his brother, Huasca, Inca or Emperor of Peru, 
 was most favourable for the invaders. 
 
 In 1531, the armies of Atahualpa and Huasca met at Huamachuco, 
 7° 40' S., 78° 10' W. The battle was against Huasca. In 1532, Huasca 
 was made prisoner near Cuzco, and was killed, it is said, when attempt- 
 ing his escape. Pizarro marched upon Cajamarca, 7°5'S., 78°30' AY., 
 seized Atahualpa and executed him. 
 
 Cuzco, the capital of Peru, was far away in the interior to the S.E. ; 
 the city of Quito, next in importance, was in the N., and the coast 
 region to the S. w^as densely populated, particularly at Pacha-camac, 
 near to which Lima was founded. 
 
112 
 
 Peru, the long looked-for prize, being attained, dissensions com- 
 menced amongst the conquerors. The first dispute was in consequence 
 of Pizarro dealing ungenerously with Ahnagro, who, however, went to 
 the conquest of Chile, but returned abruptly to Cuzco, where he met 
 with his death by order of Pizarro. In 1541, the conqueror of Peru 
 was assassinated in Lima by the Almagro party, on Sunday, the 26th of 
 June ; he was sixty-five years old. Touug Almagro was declared 
 governor, but his power was of short duration : he was beheaded in 
 Cuzco. Gonzalo Pizarro elected himself to supreme power, when 
 Spain appointed, as viceroy of Peru, Nunez Vela. Gonzalo Pizarro 
 gave him battle in Quito in 1546, where Yela was slain. 
 
 Gonzalo Pizarro was now absolute master of Peru, but considered by 
 the king of Spain as a rebel. The politic La Gasca was now sent from 
 Spain to arrange matters in Peru as he thought best ; he fought Gon- 
 zalo Pizarro at Huariiia, on the eastern shores of Lake Titicaca, which 
 was fatal to the rebel, who was beheaded and buried in the convent of 
 La Merced, at Cuzco, where lay the bodies of the two Almagros. 
 
 Perdinand Pizarro was imprisoned in Spain for twenty-three years ; 
 and, when released, was completely broken down by advanced age and 
 suffering. 
 
 Prom Francisco Pizarro, the conqueror of Peru and first viceroy in 
 1530, to La Serna, the last, in 1821, there were forty-four viceroys. 
 
 Prom 1821 to 1860, there have been twenty-one rulers of the 
 [Republic, the present one being General Castilla. These have taken the 
 following titles : — Protectors, Presidents, Supreme Delegates, Dictators, 
 Supreme Chiefs, &c. 
 
 Peru was formerly divided into Upper and Lower : the former is now 
 known as Bolivia. 
 
 The origin of the name of Peru is involved in obscurity.^ On 
 Pizarro's first journey across the Isthmus of Darien, the name of Biru, 
 a chief, is mentioned. 
 
 Andagoya, one of the Conquistadores, on asking an Indian the name 
 of a spot not far from Panama, received the word Biru as the answer. 
 
 Garcilasso says pelu means a river ; this is denied by Montesinos : 
 mayu and yacu is river in Quichua. 
 
 The capital of the Puru-hua nation was, where now stands Eio- 
 bamba, 1°40'S. 
 
 ^ Yucatan comes from tectetan, oi* I do not understand you, the answer given to | 
 the Spaniards, when asking the name of the country. 
 
113 
 
 There is a Yiru, Birii or Biriic, in 8° 35' S. on the coast, and the 
 district is sometimes called Biruquete, which in ancient times was ruled 
 over by the chief Bird, 1 UnTIer the lucas, however, Cuzco was their 
 capital and called Tiuhaati-ntin Siiyu, or th feoiir parts of the empire — 
 that to the South Colla-suyu, colla south ; suyu, district ; that to the 
 north, Chincha-suyu, from the great Chincha nations of the coast — this 
 is sometimes called Tahua, four, suyu ; that to the east Anti-suyu, anti 
 from a nation of that name on the eastern slopes of the Andes, and not 
 from anta, copper — neither from Andes, which comes from tlie Spanish 
 word andenes, steps. The first Spaniards called the terraced gardens 
 and plantations in the mountainous regions Andenes; to the west, 
 Cunti-suyu — cunti may mean west. Cuzco, or Ccuzco, probably means 
 centre or navel, or from Coscos heaps of earth which had to be levelled 
 before the capital could be built. 
 
 G-EOGEArsr of Peru.- — Under the Incas the line of coast was from 
 about 2° JN". to theriver Maule, 35° 30' S., in Chile. During the Spanish 
 domination, several territorial changes were made, but at present the 
 former possessions of the Incas are divided into the I'epublics of Peru, 
 Equador, Bolivia, Chile and a porlion of the Argentine Provinces. 
 
 A sandy desert runs along the whole extent of coast from Tumbez to 
 Loa. Although generally barren, this desert is crossed by valleys 
 watered by streams that rise in the western cordillera. The sandy 
 waste on the coast is from thirty to sixty miles in width, forming 
 extensive plains and arid ranges. The Andine portion, or Sierra, suc- 
 ceeds the western Cordillera. 
 
 The western Cordillera is ascended by rugged paths to an elevation 
 where the frozen Andean plains or paramos are found, out of which rise 
 the colossal peaks of the Andes, many covered with eternal glaciers. 
 
 The territory between the western and eastern Cordilleras is varied 
 in aspect, climate and productions. It contains considerable ranges of 
 the Andes, many paramos, the table lands of Titicaca and Bombon, 
 ravines and valleys, some hot, others temperate. 
 
 Prom the eastern Cordillera extends the transandine country, or 
 Montana, where run innumerable rivers, some of the largest in the 
 world. A^egetation is most prolific in the impenetrable forests. These 
 and the extensive grassy plains are inhabited by wild Indians. 
 
 The mighty Cordillera of the Andes traverses Peru and Bolivia with 
 
 ^ Yelasco, His. Quito, ii., 73, the river Biru origin of name. 
 
 ^ See Ledesma's Geografia del Peru, translated by nie, Geogr. Soc. Journal, 1856, 
 Mercurio Peruano, i. 1, 290, iv. 9, 19, Lima 1791. Skinner's "Present State of Pern,'' 
 London, is a translation of the more important papers of the " Mercurio Peruano." 
 
 I 
 
114 
 
 its mountain knots. There are many lakes, that of Titicaca being the 
 principal one. The rivers belong to three hydrographical regions — the 
 Pacific, that of Titicaca, and the Amazons. There is every gradation of 
 climate, from the burning beat of Egypt to the icy cold of Siberia. 
 Earthquakes are disastrous, particularly on the coast. As to natural 
 productions, it is one of the richest countries' in the world. In the 
 valleys of the coast, and those of the interior, all the species of quadi'u- 
 peds and domestic birds known in Europe are now bred. The plains 
 and mountains of the interior are covered with herds of oxen, sheep, 
 llamas and alpacas. In the Cordilleras are large herds of vicunas and 
 guanacos. 
 
 The transandine territory is distinguished by the great variety and 
 number of its birds, many of beautiful plumage ; also of animals, rep- 
 tiles, and curious insects ; the rivers afford many species of fish. 
 
 Peru produces, in its various climates, all the fruits, grain and 
 vegetables cultivated in different countries, independently of those 
 which are indigenous ; the latter including many of exquisite flavour, 
 such as the chirimoya pine and falta. 
 
 The transandine region is most interesting for the abundance of its 
 productions. In its immense forests are ornamental woods in great 
 variety, also the Peruvian-bark tree,^ cocoa, coffee of fine flavour, coca, 
 sarsaparilla, vainilla, &c. 
 
 The mineral kingdom of Peru is celebrated for placeres and mines of 
 
 1 Cinchona. — From Markham's Notes on the Culture of Cinchonas. — I have 
 ah-eady alluded to the species found in New Grranada and Equador. i 
 
 From Caeavata. — 1, C. Calisaya (var. Vera), the most Taluable and richest in 
 quinine. It grows on declivities and steep rugged places of the forest-covered moun- 
 tains, 5000 to 6000 feet above the level of the sea. The tree grows best where there 
 are heaps of fallen trees, forming layers of manure, one to three feet thick, and 
 between 13° to 16° 30' S. It flowes in April and May. 
 
 2. C. Calisaya (var. Josephina), a shrub six. and a half to ten feet high, with a 
 slender branched trunk, from one to two inches thick. It grows in the warm 
 pajonales, or open spaces at the edge of the forests, and at a greater height than the 
 tree calisaya. Weddell is of opinion that, under favourable circumstances, the shrub 
 might grow equally well with the tree, as its appearance varies very much according 
 to the situation in which it grows . 
 
 3. C. Ovata (var. Yulgaris), foimd between 9° to 11° S., from 6000 to 7000 feet 
 above the sea. It grows in warm forests, and is often found at the outer margins of 
 the woods. It flowers in May and June. 
 
 4. C. Ovata (var. Ruflnervis), a valuable species; found with the above. Flowers 
 later than calisaya. 
 
 5. C. Micrantha ; grows in the moist forests of Caravaya, not unfrequently near 
 the banks pf torrents. Flowers in May and June. 
 
 The other cinchonas of Caravaya are the scrobiculata, pubescens, amygdalifolia, 
 Boliviana and caravayensis : but they are of inferior quality. 
 
115 
 
 gold, mines silver, mercury and copper : some lead, sulphur and coal is 
 met with, as well as quarries of various marbles. Important are the 
 gold washings of Carabaya, the silver mines of Pasco, Puno, Gualgayoc 
 and Gruautajaya ;^ the mercury mines of Guancavelica and Chonta ; the 
 salt, nitrate of soda and borax beds of Tarapaca ;- the salt pits of 
 Huacho and Sechura. The guano deposits on the coast is a source of 
 considerable revenue. 
 
 The population of the republic is about 2,200,000. Lima, its capital, 
 is one of the most opulent and beautiful cities in Spanish America, 
 containing more than 80,000 souls. Lima is in 12° 3^ S. ; but from the 
 recent observations of Moesta, of the Chilian observatory, Lima is 
 6h. 8. 8. 6, and Callao 5h. 8. 37. 3 of Greenwich.^ 
 
 Amongst the other cities, besides Lima, remarkable for population 
 and importance, are Cuzco, Cajamarca and Arequipa. Its principal 
 ports are Callao, Payta, Trujillo, Cailete, Pisco, Camana, Islay, Ilo, 
 Arica and Iquique. 
 
 The population is a mixed one, including the descendants of the old 
 Spaniards. The aborigines are numerous ; the Mestizos also, who are 
 a mixed race, unitiug the aboriginal with more or less Spanish blood. 
 There are Negroes also, their descendants mixed with the other races. 
 
 The number of each class is thus estimated : Whites, 240,000 ; Mes- 
 tizos and dark, 300,000 ; Indians. 1,620,000 ; Negroes, 40,000, includ- 
 ing 12,000 Negroes who have lately been given their freedom.* 
 
 The Spanish language is principally spoken : the Quichua and 
 Aymara in the mountains. The Indians of the transandine territory 
 speak various dialects.^ 
 
 From HUANUCO. — C. Nitida, found in about 10° S. It grows in exposed situations. 
 
 C Glandulifera, one of the finest kinds of cinchonas. Flowers in March. 
 
 C. Uritusinga, found at Chicoplaya ; another valuable species, known as hoja de 
 oliva ; probably the C. Nitida of Pavon. Flowers in May. 
 
 Mr. Hni, in his " Peru and Mexico," i. 301, when on his way from Cuzco to Puno, 
 gives some account of the Chvmchos Indians and the cinchona bark country of the 
 Macapata mountains. Tery little is known of these Indians ; they were neither con- 
 quered by the Incas or by the Spaniards. They were formerly the terror of the 
 Peruvian bark collectors, and used to shoot them down witli poisoned arrows. Friendly 
 relations have at last been entered into with them, and they now assist to discover 
 the position of the bark trees. 
 
 ^ Proceedings of Greological Soc, ii., 1838, on these mines, by me. 
 
 ^ W. Bollaert's papers, Geographical Soc, on Southern Peru (first series), 1851. 
 Essay Soc. Arts, 1853. British Association, Aberdeen, 1859, (second series). Geogra- 
 phy, &c., of Peru. 
 
 ^ Geographical Soc. Journal, 1858, for Moesta's paper, Avhich I translated. 
 
 * A new element is being introduced — viz., Chinese as labourers. 
 
 ^ W, Bollaert's Obs. on the His. of the Incas and Indians of Peru, Ethnological 
 Soc, III., 1854. 
 
 i2 
 
116 
 
 The republic is divided into thirteen depjirtments : Piara, Amazons, 
 Libertad, Ancas, Lima, Junin, Gruaneayelica, Ajacuclio, Cuzco, Are- 
 quipa, Puno, Moquegua. 
 
 Tlie religion of the State is Poman Catholic. The government of 
 Peru is republican, founded on the principle that the sovereignty 
 resides in the people, its power delegated to the legislative, executive, 
 and judicial bodies. 
 
 Geography of Bolivia. — This Eepublic^, anciently Charcas, known 
 formerly as Upper Peru, lies between 6° 46' E. and 6° 16' AV. of 
 Chuiquisaca, La Plata, or Sucre, is in 19° 14' 50^'' S., 6Q° 46^ 30^' W. 
 of Paris. Pentland makes it 19° 3' S., 64° 47' W. of G-reenwich. Of 
 this vast territory, seven hundred miles in length by five hundred 
 broad, three-fourths of a most fertile land, is still a wilderness. 
 
 Bolivia is bounded by Chile on the S.W., on the S. by the Argentine 
 provinces ; S. E., by Paraguay ; E. and N., by Brazil ; N., by Peru ; 
 and on the W., by the Pacific. 
 
 The divisional line, between Bolivia and Chile, is said to begin at 
 the 'Rio Salado, in 25° 39' S. Dalence says the line was formerly more 
 to the S. The Chilians are encroaching on Bolivia.^ f 
 
 The divisional line with Peru begins at the river Loa, then by the 
 
 Cordillera, and in a N. direction across the Lake Titicaca, then by a 
 
 curved line to the E. of the snowy range of Apolobamba, up to 9° 30' S. 
 
 The Government is republican, the religion of the State is Eoman 
 
 Catholic. 
 
 The Cordillera enters Bolivia on the "W., in 25° 89' S. ; in the interior 
 in 27° 38'. Between 21° and 22° it divides into two great systems: 
 the Avestern approaching the Pacific, the eastern declining towards the 
 E. The elevated peaks begin between 17° and 19° S., where arise, 
 including Tata-Sabaya, Cancoso, and Choja, about 20,000 feet (on the 
 boundary with Peru), and Sajama, 22,350 feet. The eastern, or Cor- 
 dillera real, is composed of five parallel chains. E.S.E. of La Paz, 16° I 
 37' S., is seen the peak of Ilimani, forty leagues round ; the S. peak I 
 21,149 feet above the sea. The great table land is 180 leagues in length, j 
 and thirty to thirty-five broad, and about 13,000 feet above the sea. J 
 Bolivia has every modification of climate ; as Puna-brava, the region 
 
 ' See Geografia de Bohyia, de Jose Maria Dalence, Chuquisaca, 1851. Delence 
 died 1851. 
 
 2 It is not easy to discover the course of this river Salado, of Dalence, or where it 
 enters the sea, for 25° 39' S. is ahout Lavata, Bay of Fitzroy ; and, when I came 
 along the coast, I saw no stream or valley in that latitude. Hueso Parado, in 25° 
 39', was shown me as the boundary. Moesta makes the river Salado enter the' 
 Pacific in 26° 2' S. at Chanaral. 
 
117 
 
 of perpetual snow, about 17,000 feet. Here are found plants, as the 
 resinous yareta, valerians, and gentians ; the vicuna, huanaco, llama, 
 and alpaca, the viscacha, chinchilla, and condor. Puna region, here 
 potatoes, ocas, quinua, caiiagua, barley, and pastures grow, between 
 11,000 and 13,000 feet. Cabezera de valle, from 9,000 to 11,000, 
 wheat, and some maize, also European vegetables. Medio Yunga or 
 Valley, between 6,000 and 9,000 feet, maize, wheat, and European fruits 
 yield in abundance. Yunga, commencing at sea-level to 6,000 feet, 
 where the coca, cocoa, sugar cane, plantain, and pine apple grow. 
 
 Bolivia is divided into nine departments : 1. Atacama, having Cobija 
 as its port, in 22° 23' S. The Cordilleras are not difficult to pass, and 
 contain many Potreros or farms, where cattle are reared. The country 
 to the west forms the great desert of Atacama. The valley of San 
 Pedro yields maize, wheat, and fruit. The rich copper mines (barilla, 
 or native copper) of San Bartolo are to the north of San Pedro. Tliere 
 are also the villages of Chiuchiu, Calama, Tocanao. In the desert of 
 Atacama, at Imilac, in 23° 49' S., 69° 14' W., Dr. Philippi places the 
 position of the Meteoric Iron of Atacama.^ Near E-osario, are ancient 
 gold mines ; at Olarios, nuggets have been found of eighteen to thirty- 
 seven ounces. Copper and gold is worked at Conche ; silver, iron, alum, 
 sulphur, salt, some borate of lime, and probably some nitrate of soda, 
 Gruano is found particularly at Angamos, Port San Eranscisco, 21° 51' 
 S., on the coast. 
 
 D'Orbigny says : the natives of Atacama were called Olipes or Llipes. 
 Philippi estimated the population of San Pedro de Atacama from 5,000 
 to 6,000. The greater number are Indians, who speak a peculiar lan- 
 guage, very harsh and gutteral. 
 
 Don Vicente Pasos, in his letters on Euenos Ayres and Peru, in 1819, 
 observes that the higher portion of Atacama is cold, and its productions 
 peculiar to such a climate, as farinaceous grains and roots. The pro- 
 vince had nine small towns, the population being 30,000. 
 
 The mines of Conche supplied Potosi with copper hammers for the 
 miners. 
 
 2. Potosi: the city is in 19° 35' S., 13,330 feet above the sea. The 
 summit of the Silver mountain is 15,200 feet ; its population, as early 
 as 1611, was 170,000 souls. Up to 1816, the quantity of silver 
 extracted from its mines was £330,511 311.^ Lipes is a cold climate, 
 has rich silver mines ; gold and copper veins are numerous ; also large 
 
 ^ See my " Southern Peru :" Geogr. Jouvn"al, 1851-5 ; also my paper to Meteor. 
 See. 1859. 
 
 2 See my translations from M.S.S. " Anales de Potosi, ' Belle Assemblee, Oct., 
 1851. 
 
118 
 
 salt plains and lakes. It is said that the emerald, topaz, opal, lapis- 
 lazuli, jaspers, and marbles are also found. Chichas is also a mineral 
 region, but a more fertile soil than Lipes. Porco : from its mines the 
 Incas drew much silver, and wines are produced in this province. 
 Chayanta, or Charcas, has abundance of timber and pastures. Gold, 
 silver and tin mines are scattered about. The silver mines of Aullagas, 
 after having been abandoned sixty years, are again being profitably 
 worked. 
 
 3. Tarija : is divided into the provinces of the Cercado, Concepcoin, 
 and Salinas. The territory is fertile and climate fine. The Coca and 
 Paraguay tea tree grows here. Possil bones of Mastodon and Mam- 
 moth are found in various places. Gold and silver is said to be met 
 with in the mountain of PoUa, which district has not been explored on 
 account of the wild Chirihuano Indians. It would seem that 
 the Jesuits, in former times, extracted much gold from this part of the 
 country. 
 
 4. Chuquisaca : Dalence says, is from Chuqui-caca — bridge of gold. 
 It was called La Plata by Pizzaro. However, in Qaichua, ccuri, is 
 gold, cullqui is silver, bridge is chaca, and chuqui is a lance. This 
 place is celebrated for its universities, colleges, and the nimiber of 
 persons enriched by the neighbouring mines. 
 
 Yampara has a fruitful soil. There are silver mines at Huallas ; 
 copper and tin exists ; Cinti, wines are produced ; also rum from sugar 
 cane. The gold lavaderos on the river San Juan, it is supposed, if 
 worked properly, would yield equal to those of Tipuani. 
 
 5. Cochabamba : this department was formerly called the granary of 
 Peru. Its mineral and vegetable productions are in great variety. 
 Choquecamata yielded much gold. 
 
 6. Santa- Cruz : in 20° S.; rice, cotton, honey, indigo, cochineal, sugar, 
 coffee, cocoa, and tobacco are produced. The precious metals are said 
 to exist. Chiquitos is a tropical country, but little inhabited. Gold, 
 mercury, and iron, have been met with, Guarayos, in the mountain of 
 Caparrus, there are veins of fine gold. 
 
 7. Beni : an extensive and fertile district ; its three provinces are 
 Oaupolican or Apolobamba, Turacare, and Mojos. In olden times this 
 region was called Gran Paititi, Gran Mojo, and Empire of Enin. It 
 has every sort of climate and production. In the warm portions 
 varieties of cinchonas grow. 
 
 Twenty-six leagues north of the confluence of the Itenes commence 
 the cachuelas or falls ; they are seventeen in number, five in the 
 Mamore, the remainder in the Madera. The last fall is in 8° 48' S., 
 distant from Tamandua thirty leagues. Prom this point to the Atlantic 
 there is no obstruction for navigation. 
 
119 
 
 8. La Paz :^ In 16° 35', is in a deep ravine. TVTien the Indians rose, 
 in 1780, fourteen thousand strong, the city suffered a siege of 140 days. 
 The Cercado has every variety of climate, and in short distances. 
 Chuquiaguillo is famed for gold washings, a nugget of 172 ounces was 
 once found. In 1681, lightning struck and dismembered a portion of 
 the summit of Ilimani, when large quantities of gold was collected. 
 
 Yungus de Chulimani : Of this province, D'Orbigny says "the mag- 
 nificent vegetation of Eio Janeiro is reproduced here, but in greater 
 luxuriance and splendour," including the calisaya cinchona. In the 
 sands of the rivers gold is found ; but the climate is prejudicial to 
 human life. In the province of Larecaja, are the famous gold washings 
 of Tipuani. In Munecas, at Curba and Charansis, live the Indian 
 herbalists, or travelling doctors of Peru.- Omasuyos,^ in this province, 
 tradition makes Manco-Capac first appear. Its climate is cold. How- 
 ever it produces some potatoes, ocas, beans, quinua, canagua, barley, 
 vegetables, and a few flowers. There is mountain pasture for sheep and 
 the llama family. There we have great Lake Titicaca. Gold and silver 
 mines were formerly worked in this district ; and at Gruarina or Carbiza, 
 one of mercury. In the province of Pacajes, many silver mines were 
 worked, in Berenguela alone 700 ; these are now abandoned, on account 
 of their being in water. Much native copper (barilla) occurs at Coro- 
 coro. In the mountain of Ancora, green stones, like emeralds, are said 
 to be found. The mines of Sicasica have produced much silver, as have 
 those of Inquisivi of gold and silver. 
 
 9. Oruro : has a cold climate, its capital, of samename, is in 17*^ 57' 
 S. So opulent was this place, that it competed with Potosi. In 1678, 
 it had a population of 76,000. It has ten districts of mines, princi- 
 pally of gold, silver and tin ; copper, iron, lead, bismuth, antimony, 
 &c., are met with. Carangas has silver mines ; Paria also, including one 
 of gold, another of bismuth. 
 
 The population of Bolivia is estimated as follows : whites and others, 
 1,373,896 ; wHd Indians, 760,000. 
 
 The races inhabiting Bolivia are the Spanish, Indian, some few 
 African, and many Gruarani,^ who have come from the other side of the 
 Paraguay and settled in the Cordilleras of Caiza. 
 
 1 La Paz. I have deposited in the British Museum what I suppose to be a very 
 ancient Aymara stone idol, from this district ; it is about ten inches long, much like 
 one figured at p. 197, Trans. Amer. Ethno. Soc. III., part 1., from the West Indies. 
 
 " See my account of these in Medico-Botanical Soc. Journal, 1831, 
 
 ^ Uma, or water, in Quichua, country of waters, or Lake Titicaca. The province 
 is on the east shores of the lake. Markham says, water is pronounced Unu iu 
 Cuzco, Yacu in Ayacucho. 
 
 * Ludewig 75. The most extended nation of Southern Brazil, Argentine Kepublic, 
 Paraguay, and L^rnguay. 
 
120 
 
 Dalence observes : it appears to him that America has been peopled 
 from various sources, and at several periods ; the ancient monuments 
 the variety of human figures, represented in stone, and the difference 
 in architecture seems to justify this opinion. Indeed, those who knew 
 the Chirihuanos^ or Guaranis, cannot believe them to belong to the 
 Quichua or Aymara races, or to class the latter with the North American 
 tribes. The Guarani family are comparatively w^hite, robust and intel- 
 ligent. 
 
 The Guarayos^ and Sirones'^ are descendants of those Spaniards who, 
 deserting from their chiefs, went in search of the kingdoms of Patiti 
 and Mojo ; some are dark, others white and bearded ; the former hos- 
 pitable and kind, the latter wild and ferocious. 
 
 The Quichua and Aymara races preponderate, and are in about equal 
 numbers. Then follow the Guaranis, Mojos,* Chiquitos ;^ Turacares,^ 
 the latter say they are the only men in the world, the rest are men-lice. 
 
 Turaccari is a quichua word, said to mean white man. 
 
 Their imports, in 1846, of foreign goods, amounted to 2,457,781 
 dollars; articles from Peru, Chile, and the Argentine provinces, 1,315, 
 030. 
 
 The exports were Peruvian bark, copper, tin, wool, chinchilla, viciuia 
 skins, &c., 491,767 dollars ; the difference, 3,281,114, was paid in gold 
 and silver, the produce of the Bolivian mines. 
 
 The roads from the interior to the coast of the Pacific are very bad, 
 and over deserts. Advantage might easily be taken of two great out- 
 lets, one by the Pilcomayo, Paraguay, and thus to the river Plate also 
 by the Mam ore, Madera, and Amazons. 
 
 TuADiTioisrs AS TO THE Oeigijs" OF THE Incas. — 1. A man appeared 
 at Tia-Huanacu ; the mention of this most ancient spot induces me to 
 think that the Incarial race may have sprung from one of the old 
 Aymara nations. I have sometimes thought that the first Inca 
 may have come from one of the great nations to the east of Bolivia : 
 perhaps there is as much foundation for the opinion that the first 
 
 1 Ludewig 75, 162, 418. Bollaert's Incas of Peru. Ethno. Soc. Journal, 161, 1854. 
 
 2 Ludewig 75, 77. 
 
 3 Ludewig 77. T have deposited in the British Museum an idol of the wandering 
 Siriones, found to the north of Santa Cruz. It is merely an upright pillar about 
 ten inches long and nearly three inches at the base. The label I had with it was as 
 follows: — "This object is composed of the dung of fish, and a particidar sort of 
 eai'th." It appears to me to be of stone, 
 
 ^ Ludewig 126. Moxa, Mossa, their language allied to the Maipure Indians of the 
 Upper Orinoco. 
 
 ^ Ludewig, tribes on the Upper Paraguay. 
 
 ^ Ludewig, inhabit the eastern slopes of the Andes. 
 
121 
 
 Inca may have come from some of the nations of the coast of the 
 Pacific. Tschudi, in Eivero and Tschudi,^ says it would appear 
 that three distinct races d\N'^t in Peru before the foundation of 
 the empire of the Incas, as the Chinchas of the coast, those of the vast 
 Peru-Bolivian elevations, which D'Orbigny distinguishes by the name 
 of Aymaraes; and the Iluaucas, who inhabited the country between 
 the Cordillera and the Andes, 9° and 14° S. This man divided the land 
 into four parts amongst the chiefs, Manco, Colla, Tocay and Pinuah : 
 this name of Manco appears early on the threshold of Incarial history, 
 but its meaning is very obscure. Manco went to the north and founded 
 Cuzco. Colla may have gone south. Of the other two we know 
 nothing. 
 
 2. In the beginning of the world, four men and four women, brothers 
 and sisters, appeared at Paucartambo, 13° 25 S., 70° 35 W. : they came 
 out of openings in some rocks. The men were Manco, Ayar Cachi, 
 Ayar Uchu, and Ayar Sauca. Manco founded Cuzco. Paucar signifies 
 beauty, Ayar a corpse, Cachi anything white or resplendent, Uchu the 
 andean pastures. 
 
 3. At Pavec-tampu, shining dormitory or house of veneration, eight 
 leagues south of Cuzco, appeared three men — Ayarache, Ayaranca and 
 Ayramanco, — and three women — Mama-coya, Mama-cuna and Mama- 
 
 i jraiia. Mama I believe to be the Spanish word for mother; for woman 
 I in Qtiichua is Huarmi, old woman paya. Coya is queen or empress. 
 These persons were clothed so beautifully that they w^ere called tocabo, 
 or royal. They had a golden sling, which was endowed with peculiar 
 virtues. They had abundance of wrought silver, assumed the govern- 
 ment of the country, and built Pavec-tempu. Ayarache having got 
 possession of the sling, overturned by its power mountains and gained 
 such a superiority that his brothers became jealous and sought to destroy 
 bim. They persuaded him to enter a cave for a precious vessel which 
 fchey had left there and pray to their father, the sun, to assist them in 
 blie conquest of the country. Ayarache entered the cave, when his 
 brothers blocked up the mouth wdth stones ; upon which a violent 
 sarthquake was felt, overturning mountains, entombing hills, woods and 
 "ocks in the bowels of the earth. Ayarache was then seen flying in the 
 lir with painted wings, and a voice was heard telling the two brothers 
 lot to be afraid, for Ayarache was going to found the empire of the 
 [ucas. Ayarache then discovered himself to his brothers, desiring them 
 build a temple where Cuzco now stands, in which the sun should be 
 vorshipped. Ayra-maneo was chosen Inca or emperor, from Inti, the 
 am ; Intip-churi, child of the sun ; the sun is also called Ppunchau. 
 • Antiguedades Peruanas, 26. 
 
122 
 
 After which Ayarache and Ayranca were converted into stone statues. 
 Ayra-mano and the women founded Cuzco, the man taking the name of 
 Manco-Capac. Capac or supreme chief — Capac-apu, master, lord, ruler. 
 4. The following is a clumsy and modern piece of invention, first 
 found in Stevenson,^ also in Miller's Memoires. E-ivero and Tschudi,^ 
 however, observe that the traditions of the Indians and the opinions of 
 historians relative to the origin of the Incas differ much ; some there are 
 which by their simplicity and verisimilitude, cannot fail to satisfy, 
 while there are others, which, by their silliness, arbitrary assertions and 
 historical improbability, do not deserve the slightest credit. Such as, for 
 instance, the one which makes an English sailor the legislator of Peru. 
 A Peruvian prince, Cocapac, who chanced to be on the sea-coast, met a 
 white sailor. On asking him who he was, he replied " an Englishman," 
 a word the prince repeated Ingasman. Cocapac took the white man 
 to his home, where he had a daughter, and she became the wife of the 
 stranger. They had two children, a boy and a girl, and then the 
 Englishman died. The boy was called Ingasman- Cocopac, the girl 
 Ocllo^. From accounts given by the stranger of the manner in which 
 other people lived, and how they were governed, Cocopac determined 
 on exalting his family. He took the boy and girl to Cuzco (some 4° 
 from the coast ! through sandy deserts and over the Cordillera !) where 
 one of the largest tribes of Indians resided, and informed them that 
 their god, the Sun, had sent them two children to make them happy, 
 and to govern them. He requested them to go to a certain mountain on 
 the following morning at sunrise and search for the children. He 
 moreover told them that the Huiracochas children of the sun (sometimes 
 spelt Viracocha ; Montesinos says, this means on account of extraordin- 
 ary actions, but Yira or Huira is fat or scum, or such like matter that 
 floats on water, also sacrificial oil, cocha is a lake or sea, or that these 
 children came from the sea) had hair like the rays of the sun. In the 
 morning the Indians went to the mountain Condor-urcu and found the 
 young man and woman, but, surprised at their colour and features, 
 they declared the couple were a wizard and a witch. They sent them to | 
 Eimac-Malca, the plain oi^'which Lima stands, (only 6° of distance !) 
 but the old man followed them, and next took them to the vicinity of 
 Lake Titicaca, or among the Aymaras, (8° back again !) where another 
 powerful tribe resided ; Cocopac told these Indians the same tale, and 
 requested them to search for the Yiracochas at the edge of the lake at 
 Sunrise; they did so, and found them there, and immediatly declared j 
 
 1 I. 394. mk 
 
 2 Antiguedades Peruanas, 6S. 'H'lt 
 ^ Mav be from AcUa, a maiden. 
 
123 
 
 them to be children of their god, and their supreme governors. Cocopac 
 to be revenged on the Indians of Cuzco (probably Quichuas,) privately 
 instructed his grand- chiidren~Sn what he intended to do, and then 
 informed the tribe that the Viracocha Ingasman Cocopac had deter- 
 mined to search for the place, where he was to reside ; he requested they 
 would take their arms and follow him, saying that wherever he struck his 
 golden rod or sceptre into the ground, that was the spot he chose to remain 
 at. The young man and woman directed their course to the plain of Cuzco, 
 and the Indians surprised by the re-appearance of the Viracocha and 
 overawed by the number of Indians that accompanied them 
 acknowledged them as their lords and the children of their God. 
 
 Stevenson thinks there is an analogy between this and a story he 
 heard in Brazils, in 1828, that before the discovery of that country by 
 the Portuguese, an Englishman who had been shipwrecked fell into the 
 hands of the Coboculo Indians. He had preserved from the wreck 
 a musket and some amunition, with which he both terrified and pleased 
 the Indians, who called him Camaruru, the man of fire. He was alive 
 I at the conquest of the country, and was carried to Portugal, when King 
 Emanuel granted him a valley near Bahia. 
 
 I He then alludes to the white man with a beard, who appeared in the 
 i plains of Cundinamarca, called Bochica, with his wife, Chia. This has 
 as little foundation as Quatzalcoatl, of Mexico, having been a bearded 
 white man. Of the same negative value is the reported tradition that 
 Manco Capac, Bochica and Quatzalcoatl having predicted the arrival of 
 bearded men, and the conquest of the different countries by them. 
 
 5. The " Memoiras Peruanas " of Montesinos^ is worth referring to 
 by the student of ancient Peruvian history. He visited Peru a hundred 
 years after the conquest, travelling fifteen years through the viceroyalty. 
 His favourite idea was that Peru was the Ophir of Solomon, and that 
 America was peopled from Armenia. 
 
 Eive hundred years after the Deluge (4004 B.C.) begins the catalogue 
 Df the monarchs, whose names are quoted by Montesinos, amounting to 
 101, previous to the conquest of the country by the Spaniards. I have 
 3een unable to learn how or in what manner he obtained his materials 
 
 ^ Rivero and Tschucli, 51. Also T. Compans, translation of Montesino's Ancient 
 lis. of Peru. The Anales Peruanas, by Montesinos, are in MSS. and devoted to the 
 onquest. Dalence, in his Greografia de Bolivia, says — " Bolivia formerly Charcas, 
 v&a a populoiis country existing before the empire of the Incas." According to 
 lontesinos, the historian of the Gran Colla, was equal in civilization to Tlascala 
 Mexico). At present Charcas, the capital of that ancient state, is only a miserable 
 illage annexed to the parish of Chayanta. 
 
 
124 
 
 for the " Memorias."^ With the learned reviewer of Eawlinson'a 
 " Herodotus," (in the January volume, 1S60, of the " Edinburgh 
 E-eview,") as applicable to the Montesinos Memoirs, I think that we 
 ouijht to be curious to learn how much truth is hidden under romantic 
 disguise. But for this the student in Peruvian history has no hierogly- 
 phics or written language. There were the Quipos, but the Quipo- 
 camayos, or readers of the knotted strings, have passed away and left 
 but a very small key to their wonderful art. It would be worth while 
 to ascertain, if possible, the real meauings of the names of the Incas as 
 given by Montesinos, as also of the names of the months given in 
 brackets by Rivero and Tschudi ; for instance, Raymi. in Quichua, 
 stands for December — also, a solemn dance. But we have also Sassip- 
 punchau, not very clear ; sassi may have some relation to huasi, a house 
 and the sun is sometimes called Ppunchau — thus it may mean the sun's 
 place or house in December. A critical examination and comparison of 
 the first Quichua, Aymara, Chincha-suyo, Quitu, Gruarani, and other 
 vocabularies and grammars would be of service. 
 
 I give a few extracts which may be found useful as far as some of the 
 names of Incas, things and places are concerned : 
 
 His 1st Peruvian ruler was Pishua-Manca. Pishu is a bird in 
 Quichua ; macana is a sort of sword, also the morning star. 
 
 2. Mauco-Capac. Capac is lord, ruler, emperor. People came 
 from the side of Arica and Colla (probably Aymaraes) to beg land from 
 this chief, which he gave them in the north. 
 
 3. Huaina-evi-Pishua (huayna, handsome youth). During this 
 reign the use of letters was known and the art of writing on plantain 
 leaves. 
 
 5. Inti- Capac- Yupanqui (ynpanqui, capable of great deeds.) He 
 gave them the institution of the year of 365 daye. 
 
 6. Manco-Capac II. caused the priests of the sun to live in 
 cloisters, and edifices to be constructed for the virgins of the sun. 
 During his reign appeared two comets and two eclipses of the sun. 
 Can this be verified ? 
 
 12. Ayartaco-Cupo. Giants entered Peru settling at Iluaytara 
 Quinoa, Punta de Santa Helena and Puerto Viejo, and built a 
 sumptuous temple at Pachacamac, near Lima. These places are princi-; 
 pally on the coast of Equador, thus they came by sea. As to their being; 
 giants, that is fabulous ; but doubtless there came, invading nations by^ 
 sea from the north, others retreating from their enemies. Here we see! 
 that the temple of Pacha-camac (maker of the earth, sometimes j 
 
 1 Prescott, Conq. Peru, for observations on Montesinos, ii. 50. 
 
125 
 
 called the unseen god, is not of Incarial origin, and appears very early 
 in Peruvian history.) 
 
 13. Huascar-Titu (Iluasca, a rope or chain; Titu, liberal) died at 
 the period when it was proposed to make war upon the Chimus (Kings) 
 of Trujillo, on the coast. 
 
 21. Manco-Capac-Amauta (amauta, learned) was addicted to 
 astronomy. He convened a scientific meeting, when it was agreed to 
 that the sun was at a greater distance from the earth than the moon, 
 and that both followed different courses. He fixed the beginning of the 
 year at the summer equinox.^ 
 
 31. Manco-Avito-Pacha-cuti, (Pacha, earth or the world ; cuti 
 to change or " change -world,") began the rear with the winter 
 equinox. 
 
 32, Sinchi-Apusqui, (Sinchi, valiant; Apu, lord; died 2070 aft tr 
 the Deluge. He ordered that the Piruha (tlie Parulia was one of the 
 southern nations of Quito) gods should be called, lUatici-Huiracocha; 
 
 34. Ayar-manco, divided the month into thirty days, and the week 
 into ten days, calling the five days at the end of the year, a small 
 week. He collected the years into decades, or of one hundred years, 
 which formed one sun or century. 
 
 38. Capac-Raymi- Amauta. (Raymi, a solemn dance ; December 
 the first month.) He knew which was the longest and the shortest day 
 of the year, and when the sun reached the tropics His people, in 
 honor of him, gave the month of December the name of Capac Eaymi. 
 
 42. Toca-Corca-Apu-Capac, founded the university of Cuzco. 
 (Toca may mean regal.) 
 
 44. Hina-ChiuUa-Amauta-Pachacuti, the 5th year of his reign 
 corresponds with the year 2500 of the deluge. (Nina, fire.) 
 
 It is observed by the authors of the " Indigenous Races" (p. 197) 
 that the rock-caves with their fantastic relief are of Buddhust origin, 
 more chaste a style than the idols of the pi-esent worshippers of Shiva ; 
 and belong to a period of Indian history classical for art and poetry, 
 from 500 B.C. to about 300 A.D. By a strange coincidence, it is the 
 same period in which Phidias Praxiteles and Lysippus, and the Eoman 
 artists of Agustus and Trajan, flourished in Europe. If we follow 
 Montesinos, this was about the period of Peruvian history. 
 
 51. Tahuar-Huiquiz, (Tahuar, blood ; Huiquiz, to weep.) he 
 intercalated a year at the end of four centuries. 
 
 55. Huillca-Nota-Amauta. He gained a victory at Huilca-Xota 
 (Vilcanota) over hordes from Tucuman, who had invaded his country. 
 
 ' See further on for Peruvian Zodiac. 
 
126 
 
 (The eighth Inca Yiracocha, according to Garcilasso went to Charcas, 
 where he received an embassy from the King of Tucma or Tucuman^.) 
 
 60. Manco-Capac III.^ reigned in the year 2950 after the Deluge, 
 consequently at the time of the birth of Christ. 
 
 64. Titu-Tupanqui-Pachacuti V. Irruptions of hordes from Brazil 
 and the Andes. He was killed in battle. Ludewig says, the Brazilians, 
 or rather Tupis, were once a numerous and mighty people. Eight 
 different dialects are enumerated by Yater. Martins divides the Tupis 
 into north, south-east, west, and central, naming, besides these, 245 
 different tribes as living within the Brazilian Empire. 
 
 65. Titu. Civil wars caused the loss of letters. 
 77. Topa-Cauri-Pachacuti VI., the ninth of his reign, corresponds 
 
 with the year 3,500 after the Deluge. He prohibited the use of the 
 quellca, a species of parchment of plantain leaves to write upon, but i 
 introduced the use of the quippos. 
 
 79. Arantial-Cassi. He commanded that in the tomb of his father I 
 should be buried his wife and favourite concubines. j 
 
 82. Tocosque- During his reign the country was invaded by savage ' 
 hordes from Panama, some from the Andes, and some from the port of 1 
 Buena Esperauza. These nations were cannibals and lived like brutes. : 
 (were these of the widely-diffused Carib race ?) f 
 
 86. Chinchirocca. They began to make golden idols (Sinchi, valiant ; 
 rucu, aged. In Garcilasso's list, this, his second Inca, is said to have 
 been the first to be served in vessels of gold and silver). 
 
 90. Inti-Capac-Maita-Pachacuti YII. During his reign, was com- ; 
 pleted the fourth millenary cycle since the Deluge. Mama Ciboca, by 
 artifice, raised to the throne her son, Hocca, so handsome and brave, 
 that he was called Inca, which means cid or lord. This title of Inca j 
 was adopted by the successors to the throne of Peru. i 
 
 91. Inca Kocca, came from the ridge of Chingana, near Cuzco, and 
 presented himself as a child of the sun. He married his sister, Mama : 
 Cora (coya, empress). On the day after his marriage, more than 6000 ' 
 were married. He declared war against neighbouring princes, who 
 refused him obedience and would not acknowledge him as a child of the 
 sun. He conquered the king of Huillcas. He commanded that the sun 
 should be the principal god. 
 
 94. Inca-Capac-Tupanqui. His brother, Putano-Uman, formed a 
 conspiracy against him, but the Inca, forewarned of it, caused the 
 
 ^ Ludewig, 243 for Catecismos, Gramaticas, &c,, of the various languages of !^i 
 Tueuman. 
 
 ' The first luca, Manco-Capac, according to Garcilasso, begar to reign A.D. 1021. 
 
127 
 
 traitor to be interred alive, and threw the other conspirators into a 
 ditch filled with serpents, jaguas and pumas. 
 
 97. Inca-Huiracocha. He~made a campaign to Chile, conquered the 
 Canar Indians, those of Quito, the Chonos of Guayaquil, the chiefs of 
 Puna, and those of Chimu. He repaired the temple of Pachacamac. 
 During his reign there were two great earthquakes, and two irruptions 
 of the volcanos of Quito. 
 
 98. Inca-Topa-Yupanqni II, He reduced the Chimus to obedience, 
 who had rebelled anew, forbidding the use of water for the irrigation of 
 their fields. 
 
 99. Inca-Inticusi-Huallpa, called also Huayna-Capac, on account of 
 his beauty and prudence. He almost annihilated the nation of Palcas. 
 He reduced to obedience the Indians of the river Quispe, commanded 
 by a woman called Quilago. After a severe battle, he routed the Prince 
 Coyamba CCayambe) on the banks of Lake Tahuarcocha. 
 
 100. Inca-Inticusi-Huallpa-Huasca. Montesinos says, that the name 
 of Huasca was given to this Inca by his foster-mother, and declares to 
 be apocryphal the story of Garcilasso and other historians, touching the 
 chain of gold, made in honour of his birth. 
 
 101. Inca-Huaypar-Titu-Tupanqui-Atahuallpa. Montesinos deduces 
 the surname from atahu, virtue or strength ; and alpa, good, gentle. 
 
 It has always appeared to me, that the small number of twelve to 
 fourteen Incas, given by Grarcilasso and some others, were too few in 
 number to have built the edifices attributed to them ; at the same time, 
 the list of 101 rulers and Incas, according to Montesinos, is most 
 questionable. I offer the following as the least defective or the more 
 probable history of the Incas who commenced their dynasty at Cuzco. 
 I 1. Inca-Manco-Capac (capac, emperor), the ninety-first Inca-Eocca, 
 according to Montesinos, reigned forty years, died 1062, a.d.. His 
 wife was Oclo, Ocallo (virgin), Huaca (sacred), Capac- Coya (royal lady, 
 '3mpress). He is said to have appeared on the shores of Lake Titicaca. 
 ;[ have supposed that the Incas may have been of Aymara origin ; if so, 
 :he said to be secret language of the first Incas was probably a dialect 
 i)f the Aymara, and not known to the early Quichuas. 
 
 Cuzco then, it is said, was commenced by Manco ; his dominions 
 jjxtending on the north to the river Paucartambo, on the east eight 
 eagues, on the west to the river Apurimac, and nine leagues on the 
 outh to Quequesama. Manco was called Huac-chacuyac, the friend and 
 )rotector of the poor; Tntip-churni, child of the sun. He gave to his 
 people laws, brought them into communities, and then ascended to his 
 iiather, the sun. 
 2. Inca-Siuchi-Eoca, son of Manco, reigned thirty years, died 
 
128 
 
 1091, A.D. Herrera says, Chinche : can this have an}^ relation with the 
 Chinche nations of the north ? His wife was Oello Coya. He was the 
 first to be served in vessels of gold and silver. 
 
 3 luca-Lloqui-Tnpanqui. (Lloqui, left-handed ; Tnpanqui, capable 
 of great deeds ) He was the son of E-oca ; reigned thirty-five years, died 
 1126, A.D. Coya Cava or Anavarqui was his queen. He subjected the 
 Canas and Ayaviri, and built fortresses. The Collas (mountaineers), 
 a nation composed of many tribes, were conquered by him, as well as the 
 Chucuytua ; then towards the Lake Titicaca, the Hillari, Challu, 
 Pamata and Cipita nations were joined to his kingdom. He was the 
 first Inca who invaded the coast territory belongiug to the Chimu or 
 Chincu, whose capital was at Trujillo ; but it was only under the ninth 
 Inca, Pachacutec, that the Chimu of his day was induced to yield alle- 
 giance to him, at the Chimus palace and fortress of Paramonga, five 
 miles from Patavilca, 10° 50' S. He conquered the populous country of 
 Hurin-Pacaca (this may be about Pachacamac; Lurin is there also). 
 
 4. Mayta-Capac, son of the preceding, reigned thirty years, died 
 1156, A.D. His wife was Coya-Cuca or Coca, the name of a graceful 
 plant, the leaves of which are still chewed by the Peruvians. He w^ent 
 to the south of Lake Titicaca, and subjected the people of Tia-Hua- 
 nacu. In the village of Tia-Huanacu are the ruins of a palace of 
 Mayta-Capac ; also walls built by the Incas thirty miles long, reaching 
 from the top of the Cordillera to the Lake of Titicaca. 
 
 These ruins must not be confounded with the very ancient ones i 
 there. The name of Tia-Huanacu is comparatively modern (the original 
 name of the sj)ot is lost, and we are ignorant as to who were the build- ! 
 ers of these wonderful remains), and was so called in consequence of I 
 one of the Incas being there and receiving important news brought by 
 a messenger who had travelled with great speed, when the Inca said to 
 him, in praise of his exertion, "Tia-Huanacu; rest thou, Huanacu ;" 
 thus comparing his celerity to the fleetness of that animal. 
 
 Mayta conquered the Cacyaviri, Mallanca, and Huarina, 16° 45' S. 
 69° 30' W., on the eastern shore of Lake Titicaca. In the west his 
 army w^as victorious, particularly over the Cuchuna. Having made 
 himself master of the districts of Llaricassa, Sancavan, Sella, and all 
 the tribes from Huaycha to Callamarca, 17° 48' S., 68° 35' W., Mayta 
 went twenty-four leagues further to Caracollo and the lake of Parca 
 (Paria 19° 20' S.), through the country of the Chaccas ; thence, turn- 
 ing east, entered the lands of the Antis, a nation remarkable for 
 cruelty to their prisoners. Yalera says : they were cannibals, and never 
 
 \ 
 
129 
 
 conquered by the Iiicas. Ludewig^ calls the Antis, " Brazilian Indians 
 on the eastern slopes of the Andes." Some nations in this direction 
 submitted to the Tnca, even to the valley of Chuquiapa. He threw a 
 swinging bridge over the Apurimac to the west of Cuzco, and having 
 traversed the desert of Conti-suyu, he subjected the peaceful people 
 of Tanima, Grotahuaci, Parihuana-cocha, Puma-tampa, Arum-Callahua, 
 unto the valley of Arcypa or Arequipa-, 16^ 17' S., 72° "W. Mayta 
 was succeeded by his son. 
 
 5. Inca-Capac-Tupanqui, reigned 41 years, died 1197, a.d. His 
 wife was Curyllpay. His first conquests were over the Yanahuara. 
 The extended country of the Aymara nations about Lake Titicaca fell 
 under his sway, where eighty tribes in vain assembled to oppose him. 
 The Aymara country was called by the Incas Uma-Suyo, land of 
 waters, that is, of Lake Titicaca and its rivers. 
 
 He sent an army, under his brother Auqui-(prince)-Titu, to Cola- 
 tampa and Colana, south-west of Cuzco, inhabited by a portion of the 
 Quichua nation, which was conquered. This same army entered the 
 country of the Huamanpalpa, and the lands of these tribes on both 
 sides of the river Amancay, also of Quichua origin, and conquered 
 them. 
 
 The valleys of Huacari, Uvina^, Camana, 16'^ 12' S., Cariville, Pieta- 
 quellca, as well as the valleys of the Pacific, submitted to his arms. 
 
 The Inca went himself against the people of Lake Paria. He tra- 
 versed the districts of Tapac-ric and Cocha-pampa, 18° 20' S., and 
 entered the country of Chayanta, 18° 55' S., 67° 30' W., where the 
 curacas, or chiefs, hastened to do homage. Covered with glory, the 
 I Inca returned to Cuzco, whilst his son, Eoca, conquered the countries 
 of Curahuari, Amancay, Sura, Apucara, Runcana, and Hatunrucasca ; 
 from whence he descended to the coast, subjecting the valley of Man- 
 saca, as well as the country between it and Arequipa. Capac Yupanqui 
 [made a statue of gold, and called it Inti-lapi. 
 
 6. Inca Eoca, reigned fifty-one years, died 1249, a.d. His wife was 
 iCoya Micay. He went against Chinchasuya, Tacmara, QuinuUai, 
 [Cochacaca, and Curumpa. He was also successful in Anta-hualla, 
 
 ihabited by the Chancas. He went to the east of Cuzco, reducing 
 
 ^ Langue des Antis (Echoratos), vocab. 16, pp. 290, 291, of Castelnau, vol. v. 
 Lppendice. 
 
 ^ Arequipa is at the foot of its volcanic mountain. Earthquakes are severe and 
 requent. 
 
 ^ In 1600, occurred the very great irruption of the volcano of Guaynaputina, in 
 i;he curacy of Ornate (probably the Uvinas of Pentlaud) ; ashes fell more than ninety 
 liles distant. The earthquakes were very severe. 
 
 E 
 
130 
 
 the small nation of Challapampa, and took possession of Havisca and 
 Tuna. His last expedition was into Charcas, where he reduced the 
 Picunca, Muyamaya, Misqni, <fec., to Chuquisaca. 
 
 7. His son, luca Yuhuar-Huacac succeeded him. He reigned forty 
 years, and died 1297, a.d. His wife was the Coya Chiehia. His 
 brother Mayta conquered Colla-suyu, which is between Arequipa and 
 Atacama. Tlie Inca's eldest son, afterwards known as Viracocha, gave 
 him much trouble, when he was exiled to Chita, where he remained 
 three years. About this time, the Chancas, Uramarcas, and others, 
 rebelled against the Inca, and marched npon Cuzco. The Inca 
 retreated to Colla-suyu, and the people of Cuzco fled from the city ; 
 when some of them met Viracocha, informing him of the revolt, as 
 well as the flight of his father, whom he succeeded in joining, and 
 persuaded all the Incas of royal blood, amounting to four thousand, to 
 return with him to Cuzco, where he formed an army of ten thousand 
 men. The Quichuas, Aymaras, Catacampas, Cotanecas, and others, 
 twenty thousand strong, joined the standard of Viracocha ; battle was 
 given to the Chancas, who were defeated at Tahuac-pampa, or field of 
 blood. Viracocha now took the government of the empire into his 
 own hands, and sent his father to a place of retirement at Muyna. It 
 would appear that Viracocha had some share in this rebellion against 
 his father. 
 
 8. Inca Viracocha, from the phantom king he said had appeared to 
 him when in exile. He reigned sixty-three years, and died in 1338, 
 His Queen, was Coya Eunta, fair or as white as an egg. The Inca 
 Hipac is sometimes alluded to, who may be the same as Viracocha, and 
 that he conquered Tucuman. The Inca Urco, son of Viracocha, was 
 deposed after eleven days, being incapable of governing. Viracocha 
 built a palace in the valley of Muyna. He resolved to subject the 
 country of Carama, Unllaca, Chica, and Llipi (Lipes), 21° 40' S., 68 
 45' AV,, giving the command to his brother Palmac- Mayta, or, he who 
 flies. The Inca proceeded to the north of Cuzco, making himself 
 master of Huaytara, POcra, and Huamanca (Gruamanga), 13° S., 74o W. 
 He cut a canal from the mountains of Parcas to Rucanes. He then 
 went to Charcas, where he received an embassy from the King of 
 Tucma (Tucuman), 27° S., C5° W., who became subject to him. Hualla, 
 a chief, not contented with the government of Viracocha, persuaded 
 many to emigrate with him, which they did, and probably went in anBfim 
 eastern direction. The chief of Charcas also retired two himdred 
 leagues from his own country ; and Viracocha ordered other nations to 
 take possession of the vacated lands. 
 
 The tomb of Viracocha was in the valley of Xaxahuma, six leagu^Uniii 
 
181 
 
 from Clizco ; it was opened by Gonzalo Pizarro, wlio plundered it of 
 its riches. Gareilasso, who saw the bodies of Viracocha, Yupanqui, 
 and Huayna-Capac, says thartlie first must have been very old when 
 he died, for his hair was as white as snow. 
 
 9. Pacha-cutec (change world) succeeded his father, Viracocha. 
 He reigned sixty years, and died 1400, a.d. His wife was Coya Ana- 
 varqui. His first conquests were over the Iluama, and the country of 
 Sansa or Jauja, 11° 50' S., 75° 10' W.; also over the wandering tribes 
 Churcupu, Amaraa, and Huaylhis, 9° S., Pisco-pampa, Chuncuca 
 Huamachaca (Guamachuco) 7° 45' S., 78° 10' W. The victor- 
 ious army then entered the country of Cassa-marca, 7° 10' S., 78° 
 30' W., and Tauyu. In the third war, the people of lea, 14° 
 10' S., and Pisco, 13° 45* S., on the coast, submitted without oppo- 
 sition. The Chinchas, about 13° 25' S,, also, after some resistance. 
 The Inca's army marched into the valleys of Eunahuac, Huarca, INlalla, 
 and Chilca, 12° 30' S., where the chief, Chuqui-Manca, after a siege of 
 eight months, was conquered. 
 
 The valleys of Pachacamac, Himac-Malca, Chanca}^, and Huaman, 
 composed a State under Quis-manca, who became the ally of the Inca. 
 
 Quis-manca had a temple at Pacha-camac, and another in honour of 
 the oracle Eincac of Eimac. 
 
 This Inca's army entered the country of an old enemy, that of the 
 powerful Chincu or Chimu, who possessed the valleys of Pumunca, 
 Huallmi, and Huarapa (Trujillo), 8^ 10' S., near Guambacho, the Inca 
 defeated the last Chimu of Trujillo. 
 
 The Quichua language was now becoming pretty generally known 
 among the conquered nations ; but the Chinchasuyo of the coast, and 
 the Aymara of the Collas, Paiquinas, &c., were still spoken by large 
 numbers; indeed, the Aymaras held the Quichua language, of Cuzco, 
 in contempt. It is said by some writers that the Incas had a secret 
 language of their own, which is supposed to be lost ; as I have supposed 
 the first Inca may have been of Aymara origin, his language is what 
 has been called a secret one, was probably one of the Aymara dialects. 
 
 10. Yupanqui, son of Pacha-cutec, reigned thirty-nine years, died 
 1439. His queen was Chimpu Ocallo. (Chimpu is a coloured thread or 
 
 I fringe, the redness of the sky, the halo round the sun or moon.) The 
 
 Musas became his allies, he marched against the Chirihuauos (of the 
 
 Guarani family), but was not successful. He then projected an inroad 
 
 into Chile, about 1440, giving the command of the army to Sinchi- 
 
 cura, who marched over a portion of the desert of Atacama, and 
 
 ubjected the Copayapenicas (Capiapo), the Cuquimpu (Coquimbo) ; 
 
 [End his army went as far as the river IMauUi (Maule), where the Puni- 
 
 R 2 
 
132 
 
 macuas, Antalli, Pienca, and Canquis (Araucanos) formed a coalition, 
 and, after much figlitiog, forced the Peruvian monarch to fix his some- 
 what problematical boundary at the river Maule. He was succeeded 
 by his son 
 
 11. Inca Tupac-Tupanqui (the brilliant). He reigned thirty-nine 
 years, and died 1439. His wdfe was Coya Ocllo. He sent expeditions 
 against the Huacrachuca, Chuchapuya (Chachapoyas) 6° 15' S., 77° 10' 
 AY., and other places in that direction ; also against Huanucu 10° S., 
 75° 40' W.; the Cannaris, their capital, was in 2° 57' S., where Cuenca 
 now stands, and Tumipampa. He gave the command of an army, for 
 the conquest of Quito, to his son, Huayna Capac. 
 
 12. Inca Hnayna Capac (the youthful). It is said that he had four 
 wives — 1. Pileu (a wreath of flowers) ; 2. Huaca (sacred) ; 3. Rava 
 Ocallo, the mother of Huasca ; 4. Paccha, the daughter of the con- 
 quered Scyri of Quito, and mother of Atahualpa. He reigned fifty 
 years, and died in 1525, a,i>. 
 
 This Inca added to his empire Quito, and lands to the north ; the 
 country between the Chimus and Tmpris (Tumbez) ; the neighbouring 
 tribes of Chunana, Chintuy, Collonche and others, became his vassals, 
 as well as those of the island of Puna, Avhose chief was Tumpalla. 
 Lastly, he turned his arms against the country of Manta, inhabited by 
 the Apechique, Pichusi, Sava, Pampahuaci, Saramisa, and Passau. 
 
 In the Equador section, I have noticed some of the more salient 
 points of the history of this Inca, as connected with his conquest of 
 Quito. Huayna-Capac, being at Tumipampa, in Quito, the news was 
 brought to him of the appearance of the Spaniards on his coasts. He 
 died shortly afterwards. The kingdom of Quito was given to Ata- 
 hualpa; the empire of Peru to Huasca. 
 
 13. Inca Inti-Cusi-Huallpa, or Huasca, — this last word means a 
 chain or rope. Tradition relates that to commemorate his coming of 
 age, a golden chain was made long enough to go round the great square 
 Cuzco. He reigned eight years, when he became the prisoner of his 
 brother Atahualpa, by whose order, it is supposed, he was killed, in 
 1533, at Andamarca. 
 
 14. Inca Atahualpa. He reigned eight years, including one year 
 and four months over the empire of Peru ; and was strangled by order 
 of Pizarro, the 29th of August, 1533. Like most of the incarial 
 famil}', he is said to have been handsome. His manners were elegant, 
 and his perception remarkably quick and clear. Brave and active in 
 war ; he was also sagacious in politics. 
 
 15. Manco Capac II., brother of Huasca, killed by some of Alma- 
 gro's followers, about 1544. 
 
133 
 
 16. Inca Toparpa, brother of Atahualpa, died on bis way from 
 Cuzco to Cajamarca. 
 
 Manco-Capac II. was succeeded by his three sons, Sayri-Tupac, Cusi- 
 Titu-Yupanqui, and Tupac- Amaru, who reigned with a slight sliadow 
 of royal dignity. The last was beheaded, in 1571, by order of Toledo, 
 fifth viceroy of Peru. 
 
 The most eminent period of the dynasty of the Incas is the reign of 
 Huayna-Capac.^ The warlike and civil works of so noted a sovereign 
 deserves to be recorded by an eloquent pen ; and his biography,- com- 
 piled with the necessary circumspection, would throw more light upon 
 the ancient Peruvian history, than all the memorials, relations, and 
 commentaries, w^iich embrace so many indigestible folios tilled with 
 contradictions, errors, and fables. 
 
 Under the dominion of Huayna-Capac, the empire attained its 
 greatest height and prosperity ; extending from the river Andasmayo, 
 north of Quito, to the river Maule, in Chile, embracing a distance of 
 eight hundred leagues (which surpassed by some degrees the greatest 
 extent of Europe), and, bounded in all its western extent by the 
 Pacific Ocean, extended to the pampas of Tucuman, on the south-east, 
 and to the rivers Ucayali and Maranon on the north-east. This vast 
 empire contained ten or eleven millions of inhabitants, a number which 
 rapidly diminished after the conquest, as, in the year 1580, the census, 
 made by order of Philip II., by the Archbishop Loaiza, does not show 
 more than 8,280,000 souls. 
 
 The population diminished in the course of time to less than one 
 half; and, in the main, we may admit, that the valleys of the Peruvian 
 coast contain positively but the tenth part, or even less, of what they 
 contained in tlie time of the Incas. The valley of Santa, for instance, 
 held 700,000 souls ; and, at the present day, the number of its inha- 
 bitants does not amount to 1,200. 
 
 According to Father Melendez, there were found, shortly after the 
 conquest, in the parish of Ancullama, of the province of Chancay, 
 30,000 individuals paying tribute, that is, men of more than eighteen 
 or twenty years. At present they number 425 inhabitants, and among 
 them 320 negroes. 
 
 For a period of three centuries Spain received hoards of gold and 
 silver from her American possessions, produced principally by forced 
 Indian labour. During suchalapse of time, some progress, we might expect, 
 would have been made in the position of the native inhabitants of the 
 
 ^ Eivero and Tschudi. 
 
 ' Some good materials for this history of Huayna-Capac will be found in Yelasco's 
 His. de Quito. 
 
13 i 
 
 soil, if only in tlie more useful arts ; but no such change occurred ; all 
 was stultified by the tyrannous, cruel, and exacting character of the 
 Spanish rulers, the gloom of the cloister, and the wickedness of the 
 Inquisition. 
 
 With the distracted political position of Spain at the commencement 
 of the present century, the South Americans, aided by the Indians, also 
 assisted from England principally with loans of money and men, threw 
 off the yoke of the Spanish tyranny, erecting the vice-royalties into 
 republics. 
 
 There have been occasional risings of the Indians in Peru. That of 
 Tupac-amaru, in 1780 ; he wrote from Tinta a long letter to the Yisi- 
 tador Areche, in which the sufferings of the Indians are stated in a 
 calm, manly way, and remedies suggested ; but no ear was given to the 
 appeal of humanity. Tupac-amaru was betrayed and cruelly butchered 
 with his family, and the greater part of his followers. There was 
 another rising under Puma-cagua, in 1814 ; the Indians were beaten, 
 and their chief shot, 11th March, 1815. 
 
 If the origin of the Incas is involved in fables and traditions, still more 
 
 difficult is it to give an idea of the Pre-Incarial, and of contemporary 
 
 nations with the Incas, The Inca Peruvians, or those of Cuzco, were 
 
 taught by their regal and theocratic rulers, that the first Inca and his 
 
 ' sister wife, had been sent from the sun to govern them. We are 
 
 told that, before the arrival of these children of the sun, Peru was 
 
 divided among several nations, wandering and fixed, rude and ferocious, 
 
 ignorant of all industry and culture, more resembling brutes than the 
 
 human race. This character may have been that of some of the nations ; 
 
 bnt there were others who lived in large cities, and had a civilisation, 
 
 religion, and language different from that of the Incas. I will only 
 
 instance here tliat there must have been a very ancient nation, the 
 
 builders of Tia-Huanacu, of whom we know nothing. There are ruins 
 
 on the shores and islands of Lake Titicaca as old perhaps as those of 
 
 Tia-Huanacu ; and the lucaiial city of Cuzco may have been built on the 
 
 ruins of a nation passed away ere the Incas appeared. There is another 
 
 gpot in this direction, that which holds the considerable ruins of Ollantay- 
 
 tambo ; by some it is supposed that a chief who ruled here, was con- 
 
 tempory with the Inca Pachacutec who reigned in Cuzco in 1400, a.d., 
 
 but the date goes farther back than this, not for the builders, but for 
 
 the last independent occupiers. 
 
 Tradition has preserved the circumstances connected with a precious 
 dramatic composition, said to have been performed before the court of 
 Huayna-Capac, of the play of " Apu Ollanta," the lord of Ollantay, 
 whose ancestors, probably, built Ollantay-tambo. The story of 
 
 M 
 
135 
 
 Ollauiay's love for Cusi-Collur (joyful star), the daughter of tlie Inca, 
 Pachacutec, bears the title of " Ollanta, or the severity of a Father and 
 the generosity of a King." ""A portion has been elegantly translated 
 from the Quichua by Mr. Markham,^ in his interesting work, the pages 
 of which shed fresh charms over the history of the worsliippers of the 
 brilliant Inti. Allied to OUantay is the Usca-Paucar, or the loves of 
 the golden flowers ; the Taravies or melodies, and the Cachuas or songs, 
 we may look upon as Incarial. 
 
 Turn we to old and enigmatic lluanuco, in 9° 'N., with its six stone 
 portals, one inside the other ; said to have been conquered by the Inca 
 Tupac- Yupanqui. 
 
 Descend we to the coast, to the country of the Chimu-Canchus, 
 whose principal city was in the valley of Trujillo. It took the ninth 
 Inca a long period, and with large armies, to make them his allies. In 
 this region is found a peculiar civilisation, architecture and language. 
 
 Coming south along the coast, we find other nations, such as tliose 
 governed by the Cuiz or Curys-Mancus, rulers of Euna-huanac (the 
 present Lunahuana), about where Lima now stands ; their ancestors, 
 the originators of the celebrated temple to Pachacamac, the creator of 
 the world, which, vdieu the later Incas conquered that part of Peru, 
 lound it'prudeut not to demolish, but rather to erect a temple to the 
 sun by its side. South again of these were the Chincha nations, the 
 Chuqui-Mancu rulers, living about the vicinity of Caiiete. 
 
 Between these and the commencement of the nations of Chile, were 
 some Aymara tribes, who appear to have descended from the Andean 
 regions, the pres^^nt province of Tarapaca being still inhabited by them. 
 
 In my paper to the Ethnological Society,- in May, 1852, I entered 
 into an examination of some points of Peruvian history. I opposed 
 such writers as Marco Polo in olden, and Eankin in modern times, and 
 who have spoken so decidedly as to the Asiatic origin of the Peruvians 
 in the thirteenth century ; they asserting that Manco-Capac was the 
 son of Ghengis Khan, and came with elephants !'^ and that the term 
 Inca comes from the Mongol word Ungut ! also, that Montezuma was 
 the grandson of Askam, a noble of Tangut ! More than one author 
 has written on the identity of the people of America with the Tyrians.'* 
 
 ^ Cuzco and Lima, London, 1856. 
 
 2 Obs. on the History of the Incas, &c., vol. iii., 1854, in Ethno. Journal. 
 
 •* 1 have already, at p. 80, adverted to the supposed elephant's bones (which are 
 fossil) found in various parts of America. 
 
 •* Ancient American History, by George Jones, London, 1824. See European 
 Colonization of America in Ante-Historic Times, by Zestermann, of Leipsic, with 
 Critical Obs. by E. G. Squire, Amer. Ethno. Soc, April, 1851. 
 
136 
 
 I also dwelt on the view that the Inca dynasty was rather modern, and 
 adverted to the Pintados or Indian Pictography observed by me, in the 
 province of Tarapaca, South Peru, in 1827. 
 
 The reader will now please to go with me south, along the coast of 
 the Pacific from the green shores of Equador, and in sight of the sandy 
 desert of Sechura. In about 8° S. we pass the country of the Chimus ; 
 Lima and the ruins of Pachacamac in 12°, where the Curys-mancus 
 were the rulers ; and in 14° S., the Chincha country, formerly governed 
 by their Chuqui-Mancus, which region has become so interestiug, as 
 yieldiug such vast quantities of guano. 
 
 I have to make a few observations on Lima, the Gruano Islands, &c. ; 
 
 I shall then explore the Indian tombs of Arica, proceed to Tarapaca, 
 
 in South Peru, examining into its antiquarian, ethnological and other 
 
 matters. 
 
 Lima is in about 12° S., six miles from the port of Callao, from which 
 
 there is a railway to the capital. It has a population of some 55,000, 
 
 composed of descendants of the Spaniards, Indians, Mestizos, Negroes, 
 
 Mulattos, Quarterones, Quinterones, Zambos, &c. Since the separation 
 
 of Peru from Old Spain, foreigners of all nations have settled in the 
 
 country ; there are many Chinese as servants and labourers. 
 
 In ioOO, there were 14,262 souls ; 1700, 37,259 ; 1790, '52,627 ; 
 1820, 64,000 ; 1836, 54,618. 
 
 The first good account we have of Lima and Callao, its port, is by 
 Prezier, 1712-1714. Lima is built on a plain in the valley of Rimac, 
 the name of a noted Indian oracle, whence by corruption, says Prezier, 
 and through the difficulty those people found in pronouncing the letter 
 li as harshly as the Spaniards, came the name of Lima. I would ob- 
 serve, that it is more likely that the Inca or Quichua people found a 
 difficulty in pronouncing the li of the nation they subdued here, ruled 
 over by the Curys-mancus. Pizarro, when he founded Lima, called it 
 the City of the Kings, from the King and Queen of Spain. In 1682, 
 when the Dake de la Palata made his entry as viceroy, one of the prin- 
 cipal streets he had to pass through was paved with iugots of silver, 
 valued at £16,000,000. The Inquisition was established in 1569, its 
 name giving terror everywhere. First, the informer was reckoned as 
 a witness ; second, the accused knew not their accusers ; third, they were 
 not confronted with witnesses. 
 
 In 1735-40 we have, in the " Brothers Ulloa's Voyage to South 
 America," another good description of Lima. Stevenson also gives 
 interesting details. A small annual volume, the " Calendario y Guia de 
 Torasteros," is a useful reference. In 1839 appeared the " Estadistica 
 de Lima," by IJrrutia, in whicli there is much recent information given 
 
137 
 
 by a native. The last is that by Mr. Markham, in his " Cuzco and Lima," 
 published in 185G, to which work I must refer my readers who wish to 
 be initiated into particulars as~To the present political and social charac- 
 ter of Peru. It will be seen that Lima has often been well described ; 
 still I will mention a laconic idea of it, that it is the heaven of women, 
 purgatory of men, and hell of jackasses — or that the Limefias are 
 beautiful, the men enslaved by them, and the donkeys are cruelly cud- 
 gelled by the negroes. In "^Heylin's Cosmographie," 1654, England 
 is called the paradise of women, purgatory of servants, and hell of 
 horses. 
 
 1 must confess that I was struck with the peculiar, fascinating 
 I appearance of the Limenas, added to which were feet of from 4^ to 5^ 
 ; inches ! ^ 
 
 Let the unsuspecting youth, particularly if he be a foreigner, beware 
 ; in particular of the Calle del Peligro, the street of danger — not from the 
 i stilletto, but from sparkling eyes, beautiful figures, and small feet ; and, 
 ! if he understands Spanish, he will be enchanted with the Syren song of 
 ! the Limeiia, 
 
 i Stevenson - says that portion of the Plaza allotted to the flower sellers 
 is appropriately called the Calle del Peligro ; for here the gentle fair 
 1; resort, and their gallant swains watch the favourable opportunity of 
 1 presenting to them the choicest gifts of Flora. This locality, at an early 
 hour in the morning, is truly enchanting. The fragrance of the flowers, 
 their beauty and quantity, aud the concourse of lovely women, persuade 
 a stranger that he has found the muses wandering in gardens of delight! 
 The charming climate near the coast '^, the vicinity to the mountains, 
 where all climates maybe found, from the ever-during snow to perpetual 
 sunshine, send their abundant and rich produce to this cornucopia of 
 Ceres aud Pomona.. 
 
 II here found the famed chirimoya in its greatest perfection. It takes 
 its name from chiri, cold, and muhu, seed — or cold-seeded. It is a species 
 of anona. They may be seen at times weighing as much as two pounds, 
 and contain about seventy black seeds. This is called the queen of fruits 
 by some ; by others as having that happy mixture of sweetness and 
 acidity, with delightful scent, which forms the perfection of fruits. Mr. 
 Markham denominates it as " spiritualised strawberries." The flowers 
 most in use by the Limeiias are those of the chirimoya, the scent being 
 exquisite. 
 
 ^ The very small feet (in Chile) are sometimes attributed to mixture with Indian 
 blood. " Smith's Chile and the Auracanians," 245. 
 
 2 I. 227. 
 ^ Maximum temp. 78^, minimiun 62°, 
 
188 
 
 PizARRO founded Lima on Monday, January IStb, 1535, which pro- 
 ceeding was confirmed by Charles Y. 7th December, 1537. The con- 
 queror of Peru built himself a residence about two hundred yards from 
 the river E-imac, opposite to where the Palace of the Viceroys was built. 
 The remains may yet be seen in the Callejon de Petateros, mat-maker's 
 alley. 
 
 Prescott ^, who follows the Spanish writers, says, Pizarro received a 
 wound in his throat, and reeling sunk on the floor, when a stroke more 
 friendly than the rest put an end to his existence, and, in a note, Borre- 
 gon struck him on the back of the head with a water-jar. In the 
 "Estadistica de Lima," p. 140, 1839, it is mentioned: it appeared to 
 Juan Sanchez Borregon, that Pizarro was not dead, so he smashed his 
 face in (desbaratd la cara) with a water-jar that stood on a table. His 
 body, begged as a favour, was wrapped in a coarse frieze, and after 
 having been tied it was carried on the back of a negro, by the false door, 
 known as that of the fish-market, to that spot in the cathedral called 
 the Naranjos (where criminals were buried), when he was deposited in 
 a hole, and covered with earth. Tears afterwards his bones were put 
 into a vault, and subsequently placed under the high altar in the 
 cathedral. At page 68 of the Estadistica, when describing the cathedral, 
 it savs : " Under the choir is the Panteon where are preserved the re- 
 mains of archbishops, canons, and the head o^ the conquistador Pizarro." 
 
 When in Lima, I failed to get admittance to what is called Pizarro's 
 tomb, a larger sum of money being demanded by the sacristan than I 
 cared to give, particularly as it was very uncertain that the hodi/ was 
 there. However, parties are made up to visit the said tomb, and a 
 friend of mine told me that he explored the vaults, and saw the so- 
 called body of Pizarro, dressed in Spanish costume, when one of the 
 visitors purloined a button from the vest ; at another period, among 
 other things taken from this body, was one of the little fingers. It is 
 admitted on some authority, that the head is there, but as to the body, '. \ 
 it is most questionable. !|li 
 
 In the Museum of New G-ranada, is the banner with which Pizarro \ 
 led on his band^ when he entered Cajamarca. ^t 
 
 In June, 1859, General O'Brien (who had been aide-de-camp to ^ ^' 
 General San Martin) showed me in London, the large and rich umbrella- i'^' 
 formed canopy, which was held over Pizarro when he went abroad in ^ 
 state ; this was given to O'Brien when the patriots entered Lima as 
 conquerors. 
 
 1 Conq. Peru ii., 117. 
 
 ' Holtou's New Granada, 159. 
 
139 
 
 Perlmps a few lines may not be out of place regarding the present 
 ruler of Peru, General Don Ramon Castilla. He is the son of Pedro 
 Castilla, of Tarapaca, who ]ive"dr principally at the amalgamating works 
 of La Tirana, and worked the llampos and gransos (refuse silver ores) 
 of the mines of El Carmen. He discovered the class of ore called 
 lecheador (chloro-bromide of silver). 
 
 Tesqueros, a sort of tinder-box, were not in general use, and, as Pedro 
 Castilla was a great smoker, he used to carry a lighted piece of dried 
 mule dung from La Tirana to the mines. The present president of Peru 
 was his father's leiiatero or wood-cutter ; he enlisted in the royalist 
 army and attained the rank of sergeant. When the war of independ- 
 ence broke out, he received a commission from the patriots. In 182G 
 I found Don Eamon Castilla as Intendente of his native province of 
 Tarapaca, and under his auspices Mr. Greorge Smith and myself sur- 
 Teyed the province.^ I did not again see him until 1854, in Lima, when 
 he was on the eve of upsetting President Echenique. 
 
 In 1846 Castilla was elected president of Peru, and restored peace 
 after a long period of anarchy and civil w^ar. He retained power until 
 1851, when General Echenique became president. In 1854 Castilla, 
 assisted principally by Elias, after several encounters and extensive 
 marchings, beat Echenique at the battle of La Palma, near Chorillos, 
 entering Lima in triumph in January, 1855. Castilla abolished the capi- 
 tation tax on the Indians, and put an end to slavery. 
 
 LiTERATUEE. — Of modern Peruvian authorship, I will first allude 
 to an extraordinary work " A Defence of Governments against the 
 pretensions of the Court of Rome," in six volumes ; there is also a 
 " Compendio,"^ in one volume, both by the priest Dr. Erancisco de 
 Paula Vigil ; he was excommunicated for this, by Pius Xono, in 1851 ; 
 but the Peruvian government ignored the papal document, " Ad perpe- 
 tuam rei memoriam." Vigil had been in ill health for some time, however, 
 when the excommunication was fulminated against him, he regained his 
 ealth and answered the " Beatissimo Patri," in a most temperate manner : 
 is reply is a fine specimen of sound reasoning, and most eloquent are his 
 ords. I had the pleasure of Dr. Vigil's acquaintance, in Lima, where 
 e quietly superintends the national library, beloved by all who know 
 im. 
 In the chapter " Proyectos y Decretos," among the latter are the 
 PoUowing : 
 
 ^ See my Southern Peru, Geographical See. Journal, 1851. 
 
 " " Defeusa de la Autoridad de los Gobiernos, contra las pretensiones dc la Curia 
 
 )mana, por Franscisco de Paula G. Vigil." Lima, 1852. 
 
140 
 
 Sundays only to be recognized as feast days. No ostentation at 
 funerals. Bishops not to publish their edicts or pastorals without per- 
 mission of the gov^ernment, nor ordain more priests than absolutely 
 necessary. A bishop's income to be two hundred pounds, paid by the 
 State ; as also that of the priests. Charges for marriages and burials, 
 one half the present prices. No ecclesiastical immunities. Those lead- 
 ing a monastic life, not to vote at elections. Monastic life, conditional 
 only. Neither monasteries or convents to inherit property. Marriage 
 to be a civil contract. Married men and widowers to be preferred for 
 public employment. The father who has six children, to pay half taxes ; 
 he who has nine, a third ; he who has twelve, none. In mixed marriages, 
 or between Catholics and Christians not Catholics, should the Ordinary 
 object to give permission, the marriage can take place before the civil 
 authorities. The nation recognizes as lawful the marriage of priests. 
 A Father, requiring the assistance of a son, such not to enter monastic 
 life. Third article of the Constitution to be thus read : — The religion 
 of the State is that professed by the Roman Catholic Apostolic Church ; 
 the public profession of other religions not to be excluded. The dead 
 to be buried in one burial ground, which in future need not to be 
 consecrated. 
 
 Colonel Espinosa is the author of an interesting political work, 
 published in Lima, 1851, " La Herencia Espanola," or what Spain has 
 bequeathed to its colonies, namely, indolence, pride, and love of show ; 
 The origin of bad government in South America is, that Spain is the 
 worst governed country in the world — that the Spanish Americans 
 believe themselves to be a very superior people, and will not acknow- 
 ledge their sad inferiority in comparison with the people of Europe. 
 
 The legal works of J. S. Santistevan,^ particularly his " Derecho Peru- 
 ano," have earned for him the name of the Peruvian Blackstone. 
 Mariano Paz Soldan published, in New York, in 1853, an important 
 report on the penitentiaries of the United States, as applicable to 
 Peru. Manuel Bilbao has most eloquently written the biography of 
 the unfortunate General Salaverry, who became a victim of civil war 
 in 1836. Bustamante- must not be forgotten, his contribution is a 
 literary curiosity ; the record of his wanderings in various parts of 
 the world, and rather original observations thereon. 
 
 The Peruvians are much given to pamphleteering and verse making ; 
 but the poetry of Marquez, particularly the " Flor de Abel," is much 
 prized. It is in defence of innocence and charity, in a heroic combat 
 
 1 Derecho Pernano, Piura, 1853. 
 
 - Apuntes y observaciones, &c. Paris 1849. 
 
141 
 
 against the worldly selfishness that devours us. A brother poet is 
 Althaus ; his most important composition is in prose, " To a Mother," 
 many poems, including the '^anto Biblico," said to resemble some of 
 the Hebrew melodies of Byron, and has the advantage that the 
 Spanish is a more suitable language than the English for the lamenta- 
 tions of the Captives of Babylon. 
 
 In 1851, was published, at Vienna, the very imj3ortant " Antigiie- 
 dades Peruanas," by M. E. de Eivero and Dr. Tschudi, in folio, with a 
 large atlas of coloured plates. This work has been translated into 
 English by Dr. Hawks, of New York. It is indeed a most Taluable 
 acquisition to ancient Peruvian history ; and truly, they say, in their 
 dedication to the Sovereign Congress of Peru, " centuries have passed 
 without the possession by Peru of a collection of such of her ancient 
 architectural monuments, as have escaped the ravages of time, avarice, 
 and superstition. These silent, yet eloquent, witnesses reveal the 
 history of past successes, and demonstrate the intelligence, power, and 
 grandeur of the nation once ruled by the Incas.*' 
 
 I will now make a few observations on the " Mercurio Peruano " and 
 " Lima por dentro yfuera." One of the first newspapers that appeared 
 in Lima was the " Diario Economico," by Jayme Bausate ; but, in 1791, 
 commenced the publication of an important periodical, the " Mercurio 
 Peruano." About the same time was established the Academical 
 Society, which ofi'ered gold and silver medals for various researches. 
 The Mercurio was only allowed to continue some three years, issuing 
 three volumes annually. This learned work met with great opposition, 
 more especially from the church, on account of the freedom it intro- 
 duced into the discussions of the variety of subjects of polity, &c. 
 
 By the capture of the Spanish galleon, " Santiago," in 1793, from 
 Lima to Cadiz, by the English, a collection of the Mercurio came into 
 the possession of a Mr. Skinner, of Tottenham, who gave extracts in 
 the Monthly Magazine, 1797-8. In 1805, he translated the more 
 important papers in a quarto volume, with plates, entitled " The present 
 state of Peru," from which I here give the heads only of the principal 
 subject matter. 
 
 Greneral idea of Peru, including produce of the mines. Ancient 
 monuments, where it is stated that the ruins of Tia-Huanacu are un- 
 questionably anterior to the times of the Incas ; in Chachapoyas is a 
 stone building with unwieldly busts. Geography. Botany. Zoology, 
 describes the Llama family. Alludes to the fossil bones at Manta, 
 Tarija, and Chichas. Account of a giant in New Granada, Pedro Cano, 
 over seven feet five inches. Basilio Huaylas, a Peruvian giant, more 
 than seven feet two inches, his limbs out of all due proportion (a draw- 
 
142 
 
 ing is given). Mineralogy, condition of the miners. Commerce, in 
 1780, including the galleons, 16,375 tons of shipping belonged to the 
 port of Callao ; 2000 quintals of cinchona bark annually exported. 
 Contraband trade. Description of Lima, statistics, coffeehouses estab- 
 lished in 1771, mate or paraguay tea had previously been used. Customs 
 End manners. Calle del Peligro, or the promenade of beauty. Com- 
 plaint of a husband of his wife, and hers also, shows what were the 
 peculiar domestic relations. Indians, their ideas of religion. Indians 
 of the Pampa del Sacramento and of the Andes. Negroes of Lima. 
 Province of Guamalies. Yalley of Yitoc. Biographies, that of 
 Father Menacho, born in Lima, 1565 ; at six he could read, write, 
 cipher, and draw ; his statue was prodigious ; at seven he appeared 
 to have attained his fifteenth year ; at five and twenty he had grown to 
 such proportion that there was no person in Peru whom he did not, like 
 Saul, exceed from the shoulder upwards ; at seventeen he entered the 
 Jesuits' college ; he became professor of theology at Cuzco ; he had a 
 wonderful memory, he died in 1626. Antonio L. Piuelo, an indefatigable 
 writer on jurisprudence and history ; he was appointed principal chro- 
 nologist of the Indies. Pray Castillo, a poet : one of his modes of ver- 
 sifying was to touch a guitar, and at the close of the day to recapitulate 
 what he had done, heard, or discussed, without omitting any of the 
 circumstances, which he constantly realized with grace and ingenuity. 
 Lopez : he possessed more than a common share of mathematical 
 knowledge, and having heard that the Paris Academy had offered a 
 considerable premium to him who should discover, for the benefit of the 
 longitudes at sea, the quadrature of the circle, he began to draw lines, 
 make calculations, forming tables, circles, and filling reams upon reams 
 of paper with figures — in a word, he became crazy. He died in 1790, after 
 having toiled uselessly for fifty years. Castro-Monte, of Pluaraz, 
 died at 133 years of age. He had never tasted wine or strong 
 liquors. Earthquakes ; Missions of Caxamarquilla ; Explorations 
 of the Huallaga to the lake of the Gran Cocama, with a map ; 
 Of the IMarafion and Ucayali to the tribes of Manoa ; from Huanuco 
 into the mountains, 1631 ; from Jauja by Andamarca, 1673 ; from 
 Huanta, 1671 ; from Chachapoyas to the junction of the rivers 
 Mayobamba and Huallaga, 1560 to 1685 ; Descent of the Maranon from 
 Tomependa to the town and lake of Cocama ; Descent by the Maranon 
 to Tefe, a Portuguese colony ; entrance into the mountains of Huamalies ; 
 from Pataz to Caxamarquilla ; Itinerary from Chavin to Chicoplaya — 
 these explorations appear to be worthy the attention of modern i 
 geographers. 
 
143 
 
 Some years since a copy of the curious sarcastic poem " Lima por 
 dentro y fuera," by Simon A;^\inque (a fictitious name), fell into my 
 bands. I intended at that period to have given some account of it, but 
 my copy was stolen. When lately in Peru I procured another copy, 
 printed in Madrid, 1836. On making inquiries as to the author I was 
 informed that his real name was Ataraya an Andalucian. He was a 
 lawyer, and had visited all the Spanish colonies. Having made money 
 in Mexico, he went to Lima, but, in the over-enjoyment of pleasure in 
 the luxurious capital of Peru, became poor, and, suffering for his past 
 conduct, wrote the work about 1790-5. My informant's father procured 
 a MS. copy of the work, taking it to Spain about that period. It is 
 thought the poet died about 1795, and it is said that after his death in 
 Lima, his A'oluminous MSS., principally severe critiques upon manners 
 and customs in the Spanish colonies were destroyed by order of tlie then 
 viceroy of Peru. 
 
 The only notice I have met with of this work is in the " Estadistica 
 de Lima," 1839 — ''that Taralla occupies himself in pourtraying vicious 
 people, a class he probably belonged to, if one may judge from his 
 observations." This is not quite fair : what he did was to draw Lima 
 and its people too true to life ; and as he had been victimised and 
 ruined, surely retaliation was no more than could be expected from poor 
 human nature. 
 
 The following is the title : " Lima inside and out, being economical, 
 salutary, politic and moral ; which one friend offers to another, the 
 latter having decided to leave the city of Mexico for that of Lima. A 
 jocose and diverting work, in which, with witty conceits are described, 
 with other things, customs, usages and artifices there and in other parts, 
 by Simon Ayanque, for the warning of some and the amusement of all. 
 Madrid, 1836 ; with an amusing address to the reader, in which, among 
 other observations, it is stated, that if the pernicious customs of the 
 New World are satirised, similar cases occur in the Old." The work is 
 divided into eighteen parts ; containing the will of the author, made 
 fifteen days before his death ; his epitaph and notes, 144 pages, 16mo. 
 
 He begins by asking his friend what his country has offended him in, 
 why he leaves beautiful Mexico for Lima, an absurdity, most notable 
 excess ; to leave a glory for a well known hell, light for darkness, life 
 for death, joy for torments, or 
 
 Por una sombra, una luz, 
 Por un eclipse, un lucero. 
 Por una muerte, una vicla, 
 Y un gusto, por un tormento- 
 
144 
 
 The voyage from Acapulco to Paita is described, also the burning 
 desert of Sechura; that he will see many nobles in Trujillo, and alludes to 
 their Quixotic character ; that in the market flour and meat are bartered 
 for eggs and bread ; also, cats for dogs. 
 
 Now you are in Lima at last ; I tell thee no falsehood, here will be 
 the last of you, like unto many others. Speaks of the tambo (inn) of 
 the Sun, where the sun (its sign) can be seen at all seasons ; for in winter 
 the atmosphere is so misty, that the sun is seldom observed. Of the 
 Calle del Peligro, in a note it is said, in front of the cathedral is a path, 
 on each side of which are Indian women who sell fruit and flowers, 
 called the path or street of danger, on account of the risk the unguarded 
 run from the beautiful women who promenade there. 
 
 Que pasas por un cafe 
 Y dices aca fe ? niego ; 
 Porque aca fe no se halla 
 Ni en uno ni otro sexo. 
 
 You pass a cafe (coffee-house), and you say, aca fe (is there good faith 
 here) ? I deny it ; because aca fe (good faith here) is not to be found 
 in man or woman. 
 
 Lima is described as a dirty city ; the gutters in the streets pesti- 
 ferous, broken conduits, dunghills, heaps of mud, myriads of flies, wet 
 mist, the people pale and melancholy, fleas in abundance in summer ; 
 the dogs so lazy, that they will not get out of the way of carriage \: 
 wheels. Senas or tokens were used at shops. The puchero or bunch 
 of flowers, wrapped in a plantain lealf, is alluded to, as the gift of the 
 Tapada, who has her face covered, one eye only seen ; the ^codeo, or 
 self-invitation to take ices, &c. — 
 
 El artificioso meneo 
 
 Que de voluntades Conquista, 
 
 the artful wagging walk, the cause of many a conquest. 
 
 Describes the want of domestic management. The young miss wishes 
 
 for roast meat for her breakfast, another, criadillas ; another, pigs'-feet : ^ 
 
 this boy asks for nuts, another cakes, pastry ; the Negress for panal, < 
 
 the Negro, brandy ; the Mulatto, meat ; the coachman, bread and | 
 sweets ; the lady of the house demands milk, the master, toast. This 
 
 system goes on for awhile, but the day arrives when bread is^wanted, | 
 
 and their goods are pawned or sold. ! 
 
 The stranger gives a supper to the family who had invited him to f 
 
 dinner. This is a codeo, or loafing on a grand scale. The said family \ 
 
 invite their relation, friends, acquaintances and hangers-on ; as, their I 
 cousin, the priest ; the collegian, a relative ; the officer, a brother ; the 
 
145 
 
 tradesman, a brotLer-in-law ; the lawyer, an uncle ; the father-in-law, a 
 notary; the captain, a godfather; the doctor, a grandfather; tlie pro- 
 fessor, a relative ; the minerT^ comrade ; tlie neighbour, a musician ; 
 the priest, a relative; the landlord of the house, the stepfather; and 
 the stranger is the host. Then follows what all these ask for at the 
 cafe, after which, they take their victim to the fonda or hotel, where 
 they sup, and, having got all they can out of him, they quarrel with 
 him, c<all him swine, miser, wretch, savage, donkey, " Chapetou grosero," 
 or vulgar Spaniard. 
 
 Our hero falls in love, and having been well swindled by the lady, is 
 turned out of the house, and, under plea that he is persecuting her, he 
 is banished from Lima by the authorities. He is advised to beware of 
 the Moscardones, loafers or false friends of the most ungrateful stamp. 
 General pillage of servants. Married life — the Limefias treat their 
 European husbands badly, marrying them for a home only and because 
 they are industrious, not like the Limeiios, who are indolent. Tiie 
 Limefias' dowry of fifteen thousand dollars is amusing: value of a sofa 
 and chairs, one thousand five hundred dollars ; other articles of furni- 
 ture and dress of similar fictitious value, and to obtain which, a law- 
 suit is necessary. If there be any children, the boy is more especially 
 alluded to, as being the mortal enemy to every European ; but, when 
 it suited any particular purpose, that they were descended from pure 
 Spanish blood, as, my father was a gallego, my mother born in Spain ; 
 my great-grandfather was an Andalusian, my grandfather from Asturias, 
 my uncle from Zaragosa, my kinsman from Barcelona, I have property 
 in Toledo, I have an uncle a cardinal, another a councillor of state, 
 another mariscal de campo, who wrote to me by the last mail : all I 
 have of Creole, is that of having been born here. 
 
 Pero soy mas Espauol, 
 Que los mismos Europeos. 
 
 But I am more of a Spaniard than they themselves. Alludes to those 
 who call themselves white : 
 
 Que investigando el natal 
 
 La estirpe, y el nacimiento, 
 
 O hai pasas en la cabeza, 
 
 O chicha en los pies corriendo — 
 
 or that they have Indian or Negro blood. That you will see many good 
 and men of talent poor, abandoned and wretched. 
 
 Peeuviais" Zodiac or Lunar Calendar. — Although this interesting 
 monument was found at Cuzco, still, as it came into the possession of 
 
 L 
 
 I 
 
146 
 
 G-eneral Echimqiie when President of Peru, I introduce it here. The 
 following is from my paper to the Royal Society of Antiquaries, in 
 January, 1860 : — 
 
 Mr. Markham, when in Lima, made drawings of the objects I am abont to de- 
 scribe. He says,^ " I have seen a golden breastplate or sun ; it is of pure gold, , 
 and the figures upon it are stamped, being convex on the outer side." I. This, I ; 
 suppose, may be a lunar calendar or zodiac, the only example I know of. 
 
 Mr. Markham observes," " In one part of the convent of the Virgins of the Sun 
 there was a space set apart for artificial flowers, imitated in gold with the most 
 wonderful skill." II. One of these is a model of a circular fruit in gold. Diameter 
 of the outer ring 3 inches, the two middle rings 2x^o inches, inner ring 2x^0" inches. 
 III. The model of the leaf of a plant in gold, 12^0 inches long, including the 
 length of stem 5^ inches, breadth of base of leaf SyV inches. IV. is a fillet or 
 llautu of gold, worn round the head ; its length is 18^ inches. V. is a pin or i 
 tupu of gold, profusely ornamented ; length 5 inches, breadth at base 2^, at end i 
 1^^; when entire was about 8 inches long. The figures are cut on its flat 
 surface (b.) 
 
 The important figures here are what we know as the Maltese cross. This sort 
 of cross was supposed by the Spaniards to denote a connexion with Christianity : 
 however, this form of ornamentation was well known in early times among many ; 
 nations in the old as well as in the new world. It may have meant, as regards ' 
 the Inca Peruvians, the planet Venus (Chasca), for the Amautas or astrologers 
 noted its movements and venerated it as a page of the sun, (Chasqui-CoylKir). 
 The pin has some thirty-three of these stars on it ; also some other figures. There 
 are three circular compartments, the upper containing five stars, the centre a large 
 star, the lower four small animals round a circle. This may have been the tiijpu ■ 
 or pin for fastening the mantle of a priestess of a temple or altar to the planet i 
 Venus. 
 
 The Incas had in Cuzco a similarly formed cross of white and red marble, 
 three-fourths of a yard in length, which was held in great veneration. In the 
 ruins on the island of Coati, in the Lake of Titicaca, are several cruciform figures 
 on the walls. It is also seen on vases. The stone pan-pipes found in a tomb at 
 Cuzco (pan-pipes were also made of cane) had twelve Maltese crosses. It would 
 be erroneous to deduce from these crosses any inference as to a connexion between 
 the religion of the Incas and Christianity. The cross is a figure so simple and 
 easily represented in design and sculpture, that it exists as an ornament amongst 
 all nations. 
 
 The Zodiac (a). — I will now describe what I s^^ppose to be an incarial lunar 
 calendar or a zodiac ; it is of gold, and on a circular plate. The outer ring is 5-^ 
 inches in diameter, the inner ring 4 inches. There are apparently four holes on 
 the inner ring, so as to fasten it on the breast of an Inca, priest, or amauta 
 
 * Cuzco and Lima, 107. 
 ' Cuzco &nd Lima, 123. 
 
IiLca Zodiac, of Gold 
 
 m- 
 
 foiirLd at Cuzco. 
 
 5 /lo iTicfbes dzam^eiiir 
 
 G-old Tup II or P/'r';^;^'^ ; 
 foijxLd at Cxizco , 
 
 • J »" • o » 
 
 <J 1 ■> 
 
 ' ' ' ' 1 t ^ } ' 1 , > 1 , , 
 
147 
 
 (astrolog-er or learned man). There are apparently twenty-four compartments, large 
 and small, including three at the top, a triangular gateway, on its right a small 
 space with two circles and three lines ; on the left three lines, and two upright 
 ones joined. At the hottom are two spaces ; figures were probably here, but looks 
 as if worn awa3\ 
 
 I will advert to the centre portion first. It is sunnounted by the prongs of a 
 trident, (our Aquarius is sometimes represented with a trident) ; on each side are 
 four small circles ; there are other four on the nose, and two more on the sides, 
 at the base of what may be intended as pillars or ears ; the circles may represent 
 the bases of the stone pillars used as gnomons by the Incas for detennining the 
 solstices. Two large eyes, teeth showing the canines, and eight angular points ; 
 the last may be intended for the sun's rays ; the whole figure represents the face 
 of the sun. 
 
 Underneath the eyes are two faces ; these may represent the first Inca and his 
 sister- wife, the reputed children of the sun. 
 
 Description of the Zodiac in connexion with the Lunar Months of the 
 
 Incarial Calendar. 
 
 1. Decemher. (Raymi, a solemn dance.) The first month ; it began with the 
 winter solstice. In the space is a face or sun, a small diamond-shaped figure 
 underneath it, and another to the right. In this month was held one of the four 
 principal feasts of the 3'ear. The Inca Peruvians counted the montlis from the 
 20th, 21st, or 22nd, according to the solstices, until the same day of the following 
 month, so that December included twelve days of January, or from one new moon, 
 to another. 
 
 2. January. (Huchhuy-poccoy, from small, and to ripen, because the corn began, 
 to form small ears.) Here is a space with an oblong figure, a quarter of a moon, 
 and four small circles. 
 
 3. February. (Hatun-poccoy, from liatun, great.) The corn began to increase 
 in size. There is a ladder-like figure, two straight and two waved lines. 
 
 4. March. (Paucar-huaray : paucar, beauty of flowers; huaray, figuratively, 
 to unfold a carpet of flowers.) Here are two small spaces, one with three 
 strokes, a half-moon figure and two circles : in the other, a square oblong and 
 two circular ones. 
 
 5. April. (Ary-huay, or an ear of corn Avith grains of various colours.) In 
 this month began the grain harvest ; there was dancing, and deep libations of 
 chicha. Here is a face with an angular projection, and aiv oblong figure difficult 
 to describe. 
 
 6. May. (Aymuray, because of the conveyance of the corn to the public 
 granaries.) Here we have the sun's face and two diamond-shaped figures. 
 
 7. June. (Inti-Raymi, from inti, the sun, and raymi, dance.) In this month 
 was the third solemn feast. They rested from labour, giving themselves up to 
 pleasure aud enjoyment. Here is a sun, diamond underneath it, a diamond on 
 Ifift side ; a square in the corner enclosing two small circles. 
 
 8. July. (Anta-asitua : anta, copper ; asitua, great dance.) This began the 
 summer solstice ; thej^ cultivated the land and prepared it for sowing. Here is 
 a pear-shaped figure, a curved line, and an angular one. and three strokes. 
 
 l2 
 
148 
 
 9. August. (Capac-asitua : capac, powerful.) They sowed corn, potatoes, &c. 
 Here are two longitudinal lines, and two cross lines ; also, a pear-shaped figure, 
 a curved line, an angular one, and three strokes. 
 
 10. Sejptemher. (Umu-Raymi : umu, head.) In this month took place the 
 enrolling of those liable to be taxed, and the verification of the prior register. 
 It was also called Coya-raymi, for now the C03'as, or princesses, and others married. 
 Here are two small space.^, one with two diamond-shaped figures, the otlier with 
 a diamond, quarter of a moon, and two curved lines. 
 
 11. Ocioher. (Aya-marca : aya, a corpse, and marca, to carry in arms.) Now 
 was celebrated the feast of the dead. The potters made large vessels for the 
 chica. In each house this beverage was made and drunk at the feasts of the 
 following months. Here is a different sort of face of the sun, and a quarter of 
 the moon. 
 
 12. November. (Capac-raymi : capac, rich; ra3-mi, to dance.) This space is 
 similar to the first month. Dancing and drinking were carried to great excess. 
 They represented tragedies and comedies composed by the Amautas. The Haravec 
 or poet composed the haravi or melodies, and cachuas, songs. 
 
 One of the dramas has been preserved ; A portion will be found translated by 
 Mr. Markham, It is called " Ollanta, or the Severity of a Father and the Gene- 
 rosity of a King," composed in Quichua about the beginning of the fourteenth 
 century. The following is part of a speech by the Huillac-Umu, or high-priest 
 
 of the Sun : — 
 
 " O living Sun ! I watch thy course, 
 As it moves downwards in the heavens ; 
 Por you are now preparing 
 A thousand sacrificial Llamas. 
 Their blood shall flow for thy glory. 
 For you, too, is gathered the herbs of tlie field. 
 Glory to thee, O living sun ! " 
 
 The small compartments on either side of the triangular gateway at the top, ' 
 as well as those at the bottom of the Zodiac, composed of a diamond and two 
 lines, and two lines and two circles, may be intended for the Puchucquilla, or 
 fourths of a moon, remaining. 
 
 We know that the Inca Peruvians divided the year into months, or quilla-huata, ' 
 (moon -year) ; the solar being called inti-huata, (sun-year). As their lunar year 
 fell short of the true time, they verified their calendar by solar observations, made 
 by means of a number of cylindrical columns raised on the high land round Cuzco, 
 which served them for taking azimuths ; and by measuring their shadows, they 
 ascertained the exact time of the solstices. 
 
 The period of the equinoxes they determined by help of a solitary pillar or 
 gnomon placed in the centre of a circle, which was described in the area of the 
 great Temple of the Sun, and traversed by a diameter drawn east and west. 
 
 The constellation Hyades in Tauras they called the jaw-bone of the Tapir. 
 The Pleiades and Southern Cross v.ere kno-.vn to them. 
 
 The Mexican? had an elaborate Zodiac ; the Muyscas of Bogota had a curioug 
 
 ^ Cuzco and Liiua, 174. 
 
Hi 
 M 
 
 I— I 
 
 w 
 
 o 
 
149 
 
 lunar calendar; of the other nations of America I have been unable to find that 
 thej had any such astronomical representation except this of the Inca Peruvians, 
 and the first I have seen or heard of. The learned in ancient Peruvian history 
 may be able to give other information regarding this, to me, curious monument 
 of antiquity. 
 
 It has been suggested to me, that what I consider to be a zodiac may 
 be a talisman. The Peruvian Indian had his piripiri or charms, equal 
 to the talisman. They consisted of the Bezoar stone (biliary calculi ol 
 the llama family) ; yairuvies, or small black and red seeds, worn as pre- 
 ventives against colds and coughs ; loadstone, worn by either sex, to 
 attract lovers and keep off evil spirits ; there were charms against wizards, 
 and witches, also against poisons. The idea that this object is a talisman I 
 do not consider of much, value, but rather think that it was attached 
 to the breast of an Inca, or principal priest of the sun, when performing 
 his sacred duties. 
 
 GrUAXO. — The most important deposits are on the Chincha islands; 
 these lay in 13° to 14° S., and twelve miles from the land. Its extrac- 
 tion and sale is a government monopoly, and a most ready-money source of 
 revenue. The political party who may have possession has the command 
 of almost any amount of funds ; thus guano has become a curious 
 political element. As an instance, in 1853-4, when General Castilla, 
 Elias, and others succeeded in turning out President Echenique and his 
 party, this revolutionary state of things was known as the Gruano War, 
 and the possession of the Chincha islands was the prize. 
 
 Guano, or huanu, means dung, as huanacu-huanu, excrement of the 
 huanaco; pishu-huanu, birds' dung. Tschudi kept one of the guano 
 birds, the sula variegata. and found its daily weight of excrement to be 
 3|^ to 5 ounces. Formerly, the great flights of sea birds on the coast of 
 Peru used to astonish me ; since 1841, when the first cargo of guano 
 Avas sent to England from Paquique, in the " Charles Eyes," the haunts 
 of the birds have been so disturbed by the collectors, that their numbers 
 have much diminished. 
 
 When I lately visited the Chincha islands, there were more than two 
 hundred vessels lading guano ; the work of excavating and loading the 
 ships was done by Chinese, said to be smuggled out of China, and 
 brought to Peru as labourers. 
 
 Some say there is guano only for a few years ; others, for a hundred 
 years. In an article on the " guano diggings," in " Household Words," 
 1853, the writer estimated there were 250,000,000 tons on the Chincha 
 islands alone, and that it would take one hundred and eighty years to 
 clear them ; so that, at the present selling price in England, £12 per 
 ton, would give £3,000,000,000 ! 
 
150 
 
 Mr. Geo. Peacock^, well known on the west coast in connection with 
 the Pacific Steam Navigation Company, his researches in the Chile coal 
 districts, also for his surveys of the islands and coast containing the 
 Huaneras, reported, in 1846, the following as to quantity : 
 
 On the Chincha group 18,250,000 
 
 At Chipana 280,000 
 
 Punta de Lohos ......... 1,460,790 
 
 Huanillos 1,912,505 
 
 Pabellon de Pica 2,975,000 
 
 Puerto Ingles , . • 1,292,500 
 
 Lohos Islands, Gluanapes, &c. . . . . . 7,000,000 
 
 Tons . . 33,170,795 
 
 This at £4 profit per ton to the Peruvian government, shows a sum of 
 £132,683,984. Prom the commencement in 1841, to June, 1858, it is 
 estimated that 2,608,659 tons had been shipped from Peru, which at £4 
 per ton gives £10,600,000. 
 
 Gruanos are divided into three great varieties : those w^hich have 
 suffered little by exposure to atmospheric action, as the Peruvian ; 
 those which have lost a considerable portion of their soluble ingre- 
 dients, Chile, some of the Bolivian, and the Ichaboe ; and those which 
 have lost all their ammonia. 
 
 The early shipments of Bolivian guano were about equal to the Peru- 
 vian, and were collected from near the surface. I am informed that 
 recently very large quantities of a hard rocky material have been met 
 with on the Bolivian coast, containing much less organic matter than 
 the surface guano, but a great increase of phosphate. This we may 
 look upon as the result of very old deposits. 
 
 In 1847, a curious stone slab- was discovered in the N. Chincha, 
 under eighteen feet of guano ; now, if we suppose this stone had been 
 buried two hundred years, this would give a deposit by the birds of 
 about one inch per year. It is said that guano is found from thirty to 
 one hundred feet thick ; and the general opinion is, that it has been 
 accumulating for thousands of years. 
 
 Tropical Sunset. — In the region of the Chincha islands, even at 
 sea, it is very hot during the calm portions of the day ; this is tempered 
 by the daily cool south winds, and by the cooler land breezes at night. 
 The sky is deep blue and clear, and hereabouts is the real Pacific Ocean. 
 
 ^ Official correspondence of Service, &c. Exeter, 1859. 
 
 2 1 have given a drawing of the Chincha Islands, and of this stone to " Illus- 
 trated Times," March 5th, 1859. 
 
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 The sunsets at times are maguificent, and the colours so brilliant. 
 On one occasion, in particulai:^ the day had been cloudless, and the sun 
 shining vividly ; from a gentle breeze it became calm ; and it now re- 
 quired, but a slight stretch of imagination, to fancy that we were sailing 
 through a sea of the most glistening idtramarine ; and, as the sun was 
 setting, the western sky was as if on tire, causing the sea to glow with 
 its glorious reflections. The other half of the heavens was composed of 
 light rose and lavender colours, blending harmoniously into one another ; 
 then the change was so rapid. One sees all this wonderful beauty — in a 
 moment it is gone, and one has to call upon a traitorous recollection for 
 a faint description. 
 
 Aeica is in 18° 20' S. Frezier, who visited the coast in 1712, thus 
 
 describes the Huacas, or ancient tombs at Hilo and Arica their 
 
 bodies are entire, Avith cloths on, and often found with gold and silver 
 
 vessels. The graves are dug in the sand the depth of a man, and 
 
 enclosed with a wall of dry stones, covered with wattles of cane, on 
 
 which there is a layer of earth and sand ; such I saw during my first 
 
 visits to Arica, in 1825. In 1854, 1 again came here, when a railway 
 
 was in construction to Tacna, and a portion of the Morro or headland 
 
 was being excavated to fill up ground on the shore ; by this operation, 
 
 as the loose ground on the side of the Morro was broken up, an ancient 
 
 cemetery was discovered in the debris, resulting from the rock of the 
 
 ! Morro. The graves were near the surface, lined with stone, and some 
 
 I closed with a stone slab. The bodies were in a sitting position, com- 
 
 ; pletely dessicated (not embalmed), and wrapt in woollen and cotton 
 
 1 mantles: sometimes a dog is found in the graves. The weather was 
 
 I extremely hot, and, whilst examining these tombs, I became ill with 
 
 fever and ague, very common here, and of a bad sort, so that I could 
 
 I not continue my researches with the care and attention I had antici- 
 
 : pated. Wherever a stream of water from the Cordillera comes to the 
 
 I coast, dense vegetation is seen just were the water may run ; the 
 
 decomposition of this vegetable matter produces terciana or ague. 
 
 I made a collection from these tombs, the objects are now in the 
 
 : British Museum ; they consist of cotton and woollen cloth of various 
 
 i colours and patterns, ordinary pottery, small wooden idols (some gold 
 
 ' figm'es of men, animals, and ornaments, I saw in the possession of a 
 
 I native), double pandean pipes (huayra-puhura) of cane, some other 
 
 I articles, and a golden coloured semi-transparent object, Avhich has been 
 
 : at last determined to be the eye of the cuttle-fish ; these eyes were not 
 
 I introduced into the head of the mummy, but deposited in the gi'ave as 
 
 i something rare, beautiful, or as a huaca (sacred). 
 
 I f ' Eivero found in other parts of Peru thin plates of gold and silver 
 
 li 
 
152 
 
 painted of different colours to represent the eye, and introduced. I 
 may here advert to what E^ivero and Tschudi state, that in the mouths 
 of some Peruvian mummies is found a rodaja (round disk) of gold, 
 silver or copper ; had we any information respecting the existence of a 
 Peruvian Charon, we might suppose this disk was intended for the obol. 
 
 Mr. Fariss, who lately returned from the north of Peru with a col- 
 lection of antiquities, informs me that, at Atequipa, 15^ 35' S., he has 
 seen such disks of gold, with a human face on them, in the mouths, 
 ears, and nostrils. At Huamanchuco, he found these rounded pieces of 
 metal loose in the graves. Stevenson says, any small piece of gold 
 which was huried with the bodies, at Huara, is generally found in their 
 mouths. 
 
 The Crania, at Arica, were generally like those described by Tschudi, 
 as Aymaras ; but I saw two, one with a deep hollow across the centre,^ 
 the other nearly square. 
 
 The Morro, or headland, of Arica, is five hundred feet above the sea ; 
 its base is of gneiss, succeeded by porphyries, then horizontal layers 
 like basalt, its flanks deeply covered with debris. An interesting fea- 
 ture about the Morro is the existence of fissure caves, probably formed 
 by earthquakes. Mr. Geo. Taylor, an old resident, informs me that, 
 in 1827, he was accompanied by a friend on a treasure trove expedition 
 into the great cave El Infierno or hell. 
 
 They were inside a long time, and travelled about one thousand 
 fathoms ; the air was bad, and their lights would go out ; at times very 
 cold, with gusts of wind. They did not get to the end. They found 
 large numbers of gallinazos, or tiirkey buzzards' nests, and much of 
 their ordure. There is a smaller cave, which can be traversed in an 
 hour ; in this, people, when in " difficulties," political or otherwise, hide 
 themselves. 
 
 I examined another cave at the sea-level, known as the ' Infernillos' or 
 little hell ; this is a frightful looking place, and may communicate with 
 the others in the Morro. There is an account of a balsa being upset 
 her6 by the heavy surf; the balsa was washed into "little hell," and 
 never seen again ; the man who was paddling managed to escape by 
 clinging to the rocks. 
 
 It is probable that the great cave may have been used anciently as 
 a place of burial, for at its mouth are painted small red figures of men, 
 animals, &c.; and I think I observed the " Mano Colorado," or red hand : 
 
 1 Ethno. Soc. Feb. 1860. " On the deformed skulk found at Wroxeter." It was 
 thought that the general deformity of some Peruvian skulls had been produced by '^ 
 some outward cause after interment. What I obsei'ved at Arica may have been |l 
 thus caused, as the Peruvians generally buried their dead in a sitting position. 
 
' ' > , 
 > ■> •, 
 
 1 y 
 1 ) 
 
163 
 
 the colouring matter of these is either oxide of iron or cinnibar. Mr. 
 Miles,^ iu his paper on " Demigods," and in the chapter devoted to the 
 "Mano Colorado," says, it is found in caves in Australia, in other parts 
 of the world ; and that Stevens found it in Yucutan, not drawn or 
 painted, but stamped by the living hand. 
 
 Gilliss- observes, that ten miles from Arica is a place supposed to be 
 full of Huacas. A friend wrote to him, that near Tacna is an old 
 Indian cemetery, on the bare face of the sloping mountain, at whose 
 base these tombs are ; he noticed huge characters traced in t he sand • 
 they can be perceived and could be read Avith the unassisted eye, if 
 one understood them, at a distance of ten to fifteen miles. The whole 
 side of the mountain is covered with them. They appear to be written 
 as are Chinese characters, in vertical lines. Some must be ten to twelve 
 hundred feet in length, that is, each character is of that size, and looks 
 as fresh as if just made ; they are ancient Indian records, gigantic 
 picture writing, and probably allied to the Pintados of Tarapaca. 
 
 PEOYIXCE OP TAEAPACA. 
 
 Camarones is one of those deep and narrow ravines running from the 
 Cordillera to the coast : this is the north boundary of the province of 
 Tarapaca. Indian tombs are met with here, near the sea. Pisagua is 
 another of these ravines ; the stream is found generally a league from the 
 port ; but, during the rainy seasons, or the melting of snow in the Andes, 
 it occasionally reaches the Pacific. Here, and at Alcaparosa, two 
 leagues north, are tombs and Indian ruins. Much nitrate of soda is 
 shipped from Pisagua. 
 
 Iquique, 20^2' S., 70°30' W., var. 11° 20' E., iu the department of 
 Moquegua (Moqiiingoa). This district, in the twelPch ceuturv, was 
 included in Coya-Suyu, probably CoUa-Suyu, and was starved into sub- 
 jection by Malta Capac, fourth Inca. The Incarial armies, when going 
 south to Atacama and Chile, passed through the province, and knew of 
 its mineral riches. 
 
 In 1538, the following was communicated by Pizarro to the court of 
 Spain : " Its inhabitants are the Cacique of Tarapaca, whose name is 
 Sanga, including the fishermen of the coast. There are villages, called 
 Pachica, Pinchuca and Guavina, which are in the valley of Cato, under 
 the Cacique, Opo. In the valley of Carvisa is the village of Camina, 
 
 ^ Ethno. Soc. Journal. London, ITT., vol. 
 United States AstronoDiical Expedition to Chile, I., 144. 
 
154 
 
 where Ayvire and Taucari are the Caciques. There is another town 
 called Comagnata under Ayvire ; another town, Diayapo, under the 
 Cacique, Chuqui-Chambi, with 900 Indians." 
 
 Almagro having seen the greater number of his follow-ers on their 
 way from Chile, across the desert of Atacama (when Tarapaca was dis- 
 covered), he went by water along the coast in a vessel commanded by 
 Nogueral de Ulluoa, and took Cuzco by surprise in 1538. 
 
 Iquique is the principal port for the shipment of nitrate of soda. It 
 is dug up and refined some leagues distant in the interior. In 1830 only 
 900 tons were exported, but in 1859, 78,700 tons. 
 
 The present population of the province is about 18000, the greater 
 portion occupied in the manufacture of nitrate of soda ; then follows 
 the agricultural, which is but limited, in consequence of the general 
 arid character of the country ; still some alfalfa or lucern, as food for 
 cattle, conveying the nitrate to the coast, produces 100,000 dollars ; the 
 wine of Pica, 84,000 ; some figs, other fruit, and a little wheat are 
 grown ; how^ever, provisions are principally brought from Chile and 
 other parts of Peru. 
 
 The mercantile portion, including many foreigners residing at Iquique, 
 pay 200,000 dollars or more annually to the Customs, mainly on flour. 
 About 84,000 dollars duty were paid on wines and spirits in 1858. The 
 Post Office of Iquique yielded in 1859, 3,130 dollars. 
 
 From 1st January to August Ist, 1859, 281 vessels entered Iquique ; 
 in all 74,420 tons. 
 
 Tarapaca, far away in the interior, is the capital, and the residence 
 of the authorities. 
 
 The climate on the coast is temperate, owing to the cool southerly 
 winds. In the nitrate districts the heat is great during the day, cool 
 at night in summer, but cold in winter. In the Cordilleras, to the east, 
 there is every gradation of temperature. Pica and Tarapaca are very hot 
 during the day, and agues common, but generally the province is healthy. 
 
 This province was first celebrated for the rich silver mines of 
 Huantajaya ;^ the LaPuentes alone paid in duties to the Spanish crown 
 more than a million sterling. They sent a mass of native silver, weighing 
 nearly thirty-three hundred weight, as a present to the king of Spain ; 
 it was rolled by hand from the mines and then allowed to fall by its 
 own weight down the sandy side of the mountain range to Iquique ; a 
 portion of the track it made is seen to this day. 
 
 At present the province of Tarapaca is well known as producing vast 
 quantities of nitrate of soda. In 1827, at the request of Greneral Cas- 
 tilla, then Intendente of the province, Mr. George Smith and myself 
 
 ^ See my paper to Geological Societv, 1838. 
 
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 V'i,;> 
 
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 iOM WM. BOLLAERT, 
 
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 Tainarugal. * 
 
 Panipix de 
 
 Tiita Jackuru, Volcano of Islu^a, 
 
 I7,0l0. ir.ooo. C I 
 
165 
 
 examined the district, presenting survey and report to the Peruvian 
 government ; this I extended in my Observations on the Geography of 
 Southern Peru,^ with map. Ii\ the notes reference is made to further 
 information by myself and others. Whilst these pages were going 
 through the press, my friend, Mr. George Smith, has forwarded to me 
 the most recent account about nitrate, printed on an elaborate plan, 
 published in Lima, of the localities in the province of Tarapaca, where 
 the nitrate of soda and borate of lime are found, with the positions of 
 the principal oficinas or works, and the ports the nitrate is shipped 
 from.^ I translate the following from his observations on the plan : — 
 The Pampa de Tamarugal is a plain, having a rise of about one per 
 cent, from east to west. There is great abundance of salitre or caliche 
 (native nitrate of soda) on the north, about Tana ; also in the south 
 to the river Loa. In the far north it is not worked, there being no 
 water ; neither in the south, on account of the distance from the coast. 
 It is generally considered that the nitrate of soda producing ground 
 does not extend beyond the ravine of Camarones on the north, nor 
 south of the river Loa ; however, some say it is found in Bolivia, south 
 of the river Loa, far in the interior and distant from water. Mr. Smith 
 gives all the positions whence the nitrate is extracted, and also where 
 very large quantities are pretty well known to exist ; he likewise notes 
 the spots where the borate of lime is met \yiih. He calculates that 
 the nitrate ground covers fifty square leagues. There have been single 
 square yards of ground that have produced nearly a ton weight of 
 nitrate, the layer being three yards thick. If we allow only one hun- 
 dred pounds weight of nitrate for each square yard, we shall have the 
 enormous quantity of 63,000,000 tons ; so that, at its present rate of 
 consumption, there is sufficient for 1,393 years. The opinion in the 
 country is, that the nitrate is formed from the waters that come from 
 the Cordilleras. 
 
 ^ Geographical Soc. Journal, 1851 ; " Southern Peru," United Service Journal, 
 1848; " Essay on the Origin of Salt, &c.," Journal Soc. Arts, 1854 ; " Examination 
 of the Nitrate of Soda and Borate Districts," British Association, 1859 ; P. of Tara- 
 ipaca, by J. H. Blake, Silliman's Journal, 1818; "Darwin's Geological Obs. on South 
 America ;" " Source and Supply of Nitrate of Soda," by P. Pusey, Journal Agricul- 
 jtural Soc, 1853, map; "Williamson Obs. sobre la Industria de Tarapaca," Lima, 
 Il859 ; " Trade in Nitrate of Soda," Steam Shipping Gazette, Sept. 19, 1859 ; " Obs. 
 Ion P. of Tarapaca," by Don M. B. de la Fuente, Geographical Soc. Journal, 1856. 
 
 ' Piano de las locaHdades de la P. de Tarapaca en el Departamento de Moquegua 
 idonde se encuentra Nitrate de Soda y Borato de cal con las oficinas principalcs y 
 sus caminos a los Puertos habilitados para su embarque, por Jorge Smith, F.R.G.S- 
 Dedicado a S. E. El Gran Mariscal Dn Eamon Castilla, Prcsidente del Peru. 
 
156 
 
 There are about forty nitrate works and nine shipping ports, 
 including Iquique 
 
 At the Soronal (its lowest position), the nitrate is found at 2,593 
 feet above the sea, and thirteen miles inland ; its most elevated is 
 3,724 feet, and at twenty-three miles. The borate is found as high as 
 about 3,600 feet, and as low as 3,211, at the Noria. 
 
 In 1826, when I first lived at Iquique, it had a population of fisher- 
 men, in all about one hundred souls ; subsequently my friend, 
 Mr. Greorge Smith, became one of the principal nitrate of soda refiners 
 and exporters ; and now Iquique boasts of a well-built and flourishing 
 town. Water for drinking is distilled from sea-water, and sells for 
 about three halfpence the gallon, at which price £40,000 worth is used. 
 Its importance as a port is only second to that of Callao, its population 
 being about 5,000. 
 
 There is one amalgamating establishment for separating the silver 
 from the ores of Huantajaya, two iron foundries, a candle manufactory, 
 steam bread making machines, and gas is projected. 
 
 Gruano was taken from its island in ancient times ; in modern, the 
 deposit was 800 yards in length, 1,200 in breadth, and was cleared in 
 twenty-five years. Iquique has always been a fishing place, and will 
 account for the number of Huacas found here, as also at Molle, a few 
 miles oft", and other points of the coast. 
 
 In this district, as it seldom or ever rains, the bodies would soon be 
 dessicated and remain so for ages ; also, being preserved by the saline 
 and very dry surface soil which covers the whole country, plain and 
 mountain, up into the very Andes. 
 
 I think, with Itivero and Tschudi,^ that if embalming was practised in 
 Peru, it was a very uncommon proceeding, and only used for the Incas 
 and principal chiefs, and, as I have observed, the heated saline soil of 
 the coast was sufticient to dessicate the bodies ;^ they observe, that in- 
 the interior the pure cold air and dry winds would do the same thing ; 
 they note that in the tracks, such as from Islay to Arequipa, and from the 
 latter to Lima, there are numbers of mummies of animals, which serve, 
 as land-marks to show the road. I may also state that Iquique, La | 
 Noria and other nitrate works are perfect Golgothas, and the tracks 
 over the province are densely strewed with mummies of mules and 
 asses ; these are brought principally from the Pampas of Buenos Ayres, 
 some 8000 annually ; one-half die on the desert tracks for want of food 
 
 ^ Peruvian Antiquities, 208,9. 
 
 ' E. M. Kirero Antiguedades Peruanas, 1841 ; Tschudi, Travels in Peru, 504. 
 
157 
 
 and water ; whilst tbey can work, they are mainly feci on barley 
 from Chile. __ 
 
 I have placed in the British Museum articles from the Huacas of 
 Iquique and Mclle, consisting of wooden combs, bones used as awls, 
 spines of the cactus, pierced at the thick end for needles, copper fish- 
 hooks, stone arrow-heads, coloured woollen cloth, yellow, brown and 
 red miueral pigments, heads of indian corn (a rare species, zoa ros- 
 trata), &c.,^ and the crania of Aymara type, with the Ethnological 
 Society of London. Morton- gives four forms of crania among the 
 old Peruvians, produced by artificial means : first, the horizontally 
 elongated ; second, conical ; third, flatteniug the forehead ; fourth, ver- 
 tical elevation of the occiput : these had their names, as Caito, Oma, 
 Opalla, &c. ; and describes a very conical head from Chuichuic or 
 Atacama baja, on the western edge of the desert. 
 
 When I was last at Iquique, a Huaca, containing some 500 bodies, 
 Tvas discovered a short distance from the town : the bodies were in a 
 sitting posture, wrapped in Avoollen mantles of various colours. There 
 were found pieces of ordinary pottery, fishing utensils, mummies of 
 dogs and birds, maize and coca in the hualqui or long bags. 
 
 Not long since, in cutting a water-course in the valley of Quilliagua, 
 on the river Loa, images of gold were found, one in the shape of a heart, 
 weighing 1^ ounces, with a hole through it, so as to be worn ; huacas 
 ■were then discovered with their mummies, also finely wrought reed 
 baskets, in various colours, capable of holding water ; arrows of tama- 
 rugo (acacia), bows, slings, vessels filled with coca and maize, some 
 chicha in a jar, mantles of various colours, netting, and some small 
 granaries. 
 
 In my papers to the Geographical Society, and the Ethnolo- 
 gical, in 1852, I gave some account of those curious ancient Indian 
 remains called " Pintados," or Indian Pictography, found in the province 
 of Tarapaca ; and I described those I had examined in 1826 in the 
 T^lley of Pintados, in 21° S., at the foot of the Andes, consisting of 
 representations of Indians, llamas, dogs, and other forms, on the side of 
 the desert ravine, some of the figures being thirty feet or more in height, 
 cut, or rather scraped out in the sandy soil, the lines being twelve to 
 eighteen inches broad, and six to eight inches deep. I was then informed 
 they were the work of " Indies Gentiles," or old pagan Indians, and I 
 [thought that the Pintados had been done by ancient and modern Indians 
 
 ' Tsehudi say?, he found ears of maize in tombs, belonging to a period anterior to 
 the Incas, and of two kinds. 
 
 ' American Joui'nal of Science, 1846. 
 
158 
 
 for amusement ; but I have now reason to believe, that some of them 
 mark burial places, places of worship, and to preserve memorials of 
 the past. 
 
 At Las E.ayas, south of the mines of Huantajaya and Sauta Kosa 
 Mr. George Seymour gives me the following description of one : the 
 sides of one of the barren mountains is laid out, as if for a garden, 
 with a large double circle in the centre, and paths branching off dividing 
 the ground into compartments. The loose stones having been picked 
 off the paths, which are rendered hard apparently by the feet of people, 
 it is supposed that rites and ceremonies were and are still per- 
 formed here. 
 
 Long after the conquest the Indian continued secretly to render 
 homage to his religion on the summit of mountains in particular. In 
 some provinces they had the custom of taking their dead into the rocky 
 fastnesses, and among the snows, burying with them food, gold and rich 
 apparel : thus I think it most probable that many of the Pintados of 
 Tarapaca mark the position of Indian tombs, as weR as of places of 
 worship. 
 
 We will now make an excursion easterly towards the Andes. The 
 western chain is the Cordillera, the eastern the Andes. Mounted on a 
 sure-footed mule, the saddle-bags well stored with provend, booted, 
 spurred, and ponchoed according to the fashion of the country — no 
 turnpike to pay, or hotel-keeper with heavy charges to annoy — having 
 generally for one's resting place at nights the sand of the desert^, the 
 bright, starry heavens for a cj^opy, with generally for my companion 
 my old friend, Don Jorge Smitji. And a better desert traveller cannot 
 possibly exist, he wending his way calmly and stoically over the burning^ 
 sandy, saline, desert plains, when I would fain have been elsewhere ; 
 and the fearless manner he would go up and down the Andean laderas, 
 or steep places, was rather astonishing. 
 
 Leaving Iquique and its sandy, shelly, and saline plain, the 
 escarped porphyritic coast range is ascended by a steep cuesta, its 
 summit 1,761 feet, when undulating de&ert land in the mountains is 
 traversed. To the left are the Pintados of Las Rayas, already described; 
 to the right, on the side of a barren mountain, are others, consisting of 
 
 1 Grarcilasso, Book ii. How to make a horse fast in the sandy desert. Dig a hole, 
 fill a bag with sand, put it into the hole, and press down ; to the end of the bag attach 
 the cabresto or rope. 
 
 2 On one of our trips in January, 1854, the thermometer stood as follows : at La 
 I^oria, 3213 feet above the sea, 5 a.m., 64°, 1 p.m. 83°, 10 p.m. 63°. In the sun at . 
 noon 92«; on a heap of sand 128*^ Faht. 
 
•> ' ) 1 
 
SOUTH PERU. 
 
 c < f r 
 
 A, 
 
 Bol]a£T't.s ^ti q : S . Aid erica . 
 
 ■ . —r: 
 
 3/ /^=^ / 
 
 On Roa.cL from Iguiq^ue to la. Noxia/. 
 
 B. 
 
 ^ 
 
 On 'KodA from La. l\[oria to tJie P.l 
 
 D. 
 
 l^orth of La.s fisas or the B-orajc Towns. 
 
 ITear La Pe£a,. 
 
159 
 
 four paralellograms, a cross-like figure, the commencement of another 
 parallel form and a zig-zag track running down the mountain (c). These 
 figures are of large size, and well seen from the road below, formed by 
 the disintegrated pieces of rock and sand having been scraped and 
 picked off inside the outline. 
 
 At the salitre or nitrate of soda works of Cocina, huacas have been 
 found containing mummies, arrow heads of silicious stones, stone clubs, 
 or huactana, 14 inches long by 5 broad; also a dozen globular olyects 
 of black stone, inserted into the quills of condors, the use of which I do 
 not know. Among the mountains of the coast are many huacas of the 
 " Grentiles," where, independent of other objects, weaving apparatus and 
 small perforated stones, have been met with. 
 
 Having rested at La Xoria, a town built of salt, and the largest 
 nitrate of soda quarry and refining works, our track is now S.E. towards 
 the Pampa de Tamarugal, and one league on this track to the S., on the 
 side of a mountain, is another pintado (a), consisting of a large circle, 
 with a smaller one in the centre ; then four oblong spaces, and three 
 more underneath. The desert mountains about here are very wild and 
 rocky. The track leads into the Pampa de Tamarugal, over grounds con- 
 taining nitrate of soda and much common salt. AYe now come upon two 
 small towns, Las Tisas, the origin of which is interesting. Some years 
 since a chalky-looking substance was met with, which was called Tisa. 
 On examination it was found to be a mineral of Borax. Subsequently 
 a box of minerals was sent to me by Mr. Smith, in which was enclosed 
 some small specimens of the tisa. This was examined, and proved 
 to be a new boracic-acid mineral.^ Mr. Smith came to England, and on 
 his return I begged of him to examine the locality for borate. This he 
 did, and found the district to be very rich in the mineral, as well as various 
 other parts of the Pampa de Tamarugal, It has also been found in the 
 northern part of the desert of Atacama. Preparations were made to 
 work the borate grounds, but the Peruvian government having been led 
 to believe that it was too valuable an article to be exported, except 
 under similar conditions as the guano — viz., a government monopoly — 
 the working of it is interdicted. Some portion has been extracted, 
 and the greater part smuggled out of the country. Permission has 
 occasionally been given to a favoured few to export small parcels, which 
 brings about £30 per ton in the English market. 
 
 If allowed to be exported under favourable circumstances, there would 
 
 ^ Hydi'oborocalcite or hayescine. A specimen examiBcd at the Museum of Prac. 
 tical Geology, gave water, 27-22 : sul. acid, I'lO ; lime, 14-32 ; soda, 822 ; potash, 
 0-51 ; chlo. sodium, 1-65; sand, 0-32; bovaeic acid, 45-66 j nit, acid, 1 = 100, with 
 traces of iodiue'and phos, acid. 
 
160 
 
 be a good demand, and it would be applied to numberless uses in tlie 
 arts. I have deposited in tbe Museum of Practical Geology in London, 
 a large nodule of this new boracic-acid mineral ; also specimens in the 
 British Museum. Pickeringite and Glauberite occur with the borate. 
 Iodic and chromic salts are found with the native nitrate or soda. 
 
 In my second series of observations on " Southern Peru," read at 
 British Association, 1859, I have given details of this borate formation, 
 and its connection with the nitrate of soda deposits in the province of 
 Tarapaca. The first series on this subject will be found in Journal of 
 the Geographical Society for 1851. 
 
 South of the Tisas five leagues, are the mountains of Pintados 
 where, for the space of a league, it is covered with figures of llamas, 
 squares, circles, and other forms ; and farther south still, is the Pintado 
 of a large Puma ; indeed, these peculiar remains are met with in 
 many other places in the province. There is the " Cerrito Pintado," 
 three leagues south-west, from Messrs. Geo. Smith's Salitres at the 
 Soronal. 
 
 North of Las Tisas, on the road from Iqique to Tarapaca, is another 
 collection of Pintados ; the principal one composed of irregular designs, 
 a puma, a llama, and two Indians, (b). 
 
 The most interesting Pintado is east of the Salitre works of Zavala, 
 and near La Peiia (n). There is a straight line, a calle or street ; but 
 the main figure is made up of fourteen compartments, joined by their 
 edges of a rhombic form ; one of these compartments my friend, Don 
 Lorenzo Zeballos found to be a huaca or grave, paved with stones ; in 
 the grave was a mummy of an Indian female in a dress of feathers, 
 with a well-made straw helmet on, under her head a jar containing two 
 small bones.^ Here we have an instance that some of these Pintados 
 are ancient graves. A few years since a huaca was found near Quilli- 
 aga, the body was in a horizontal position, dressed in penguins' skins 
 neatly sewed together ; at its side was a bow and quiver full of arrows, 
 the arrow heads of cornelian. 
 
 JSTear La Pena is the hill of Unita, where there is a colossal pintado of 
 an Indian, the guardian of some supposed hidden treasure ; and, it is said, 
 the Indians of Atacama, taking treasure for the ransom of Atahualpa, 
 when they heard of his death, buried it here. There are also figures 
 of llamas, birds, arches, circles, and other forms. 
 
 ^ Eivero and Tschudi, 205. In imitation of tbe Egyptians, the Peruvians drew 
 out the brains through the nostrils, thus explaining the want of the small bones 
 which separates the eyes, and the fracture made in the suture. The bones mentioned 
 as found in the Pintado, could they have been of this character? 
 
IGl 
 
 An old Indian road runs from the hill of lliiara (which also has Pin- 
 tados) to the town of Tarapaca, the stones having been merely picked 
 off the track. ~^ 
 
 The desert hill of Iluara is a Bramador, roarer or bellower, some- 
 times called the musical mountain ; also Eetumba de los eerros, rumb- 
 ling of the mountains. Darwin describes such a one near Copiapo. 
 The mountain of the Bell, in Arabia, is of this character. Mysterious 
 sounds are heard in the morning at the statue of Memnon, " a low, sad 
 monotone — the music of Memnon, in harmony with the chan<^eles8 sun- 
 shine and the stagnant life of Egypt." 
 
 Mr. Seymour gives me the following which may have been a Pintado, 
 at Pisco,^ it is on the north side of the peninsula of Parracas, 13° 52' 
 S. It is of considerable dimensions, and most probably the work of 
 the natives before the conquest. The central prong of this trident 
 looking figure is two hundred feet long, and the lines ten yards bn^>ad. 
 It is annually visited by Indians, who " scour " away the sand that may 
 have accumulated, having a Piesta or holiday ; the lower portion I 
 suppose to be a huaca or grave. I find that Gilliss says, it is appa- 
 rently made of white stones set in the face of the rock, by whom, or 
 for what object this huge emblem of the Christian truth (?) was con- 
 structed, no one can tell. A Priest said that Christ had wrought it in 
 one night, during the rule of Pazarro, and as a warning to the sun 
 worshippers ; also, that, annually, the devoutly inclined go with the 
 priests from Pisco to the cross, its conclusion smacking more of 
 " earth earthly " than " heaven heavenly." 
 
 Sculptures on rocks, and of various periods, are not uncommon 
 throughout America ;- but the existence of this class, viz., the Pintados 
 of Tarapaca, I do not find noticed, except in England — in Berks, Wilts, 
 and Bucks — the " White Horses " in the two first counties, and the 
 "White Leaf Cross" in the latter is one himdred feet high. JS'ear 
 Oldbury Castle, in Wilts, is a w^hite horse, carved out on the slope of a 
 hill, supposed to be a memorial of Alfred the Great's victory over the 
 Danes at Eddington, or may even be of higher antiquity, as the white 
 horse of the Celts, which was of religious origin. Triennially the 
 people assemble to " scour the horse," or clean away the turf.'^ 
 
 A huaca was discovered, in 1830, at the entrance of the valley of 
 Tarapaca ; it was surrounded with stones ; in the centre was buried an 
 
 ^ Pisco and Fichui, bird. 
 
 2 For drawings of some, see L'Univers Pittoresque, Bresil, 1837; Wallace, travels 
 on the Amazon, 1853 ; see also Humboldt, Seliomburgh. 
 
 ^ See my Antiquarian researches in Tarapaca, Pei'u, Antiq. See. Lond., 1857. 
 
 M 
 
162 
 
 Indian female under tliese stones ; at the four corners, under a pile of 
 three stones, were male Indians. Amongst other articles deposited was 
 a stone figure of a female, the face of silver. 
 
 Two leao-ues from Mamina is the cross of St. Marcos; here is a 
 gigantic Pintado of an Indian idol. 
 
 Starting from La Noria, entering the great Pampa of Tamarugal, and 
 resting at La Tirana, where good water is procured from wells, and 
 where formerly much silver ore of Huantajaya and Santa Eosa was 
 amalgamated, either by being trod out by the feet of men or subjected 
 to heat in boilers. The journey is continued in an easterly direction to 
 the foot of the Andes. In the summer it is intensely hot daring the 
 day, and oftimes clouds of saline dust and sand envelope the explorer. 
 There is no shade to protect from the ever scorching sun, and the 
 mirage or delusive appearance of water, the espejo or looking glass of 
 the Spaniards, is most tantalizing to the thirsty traveller. This very 
 arid district is a portion of a great desert which, with little intermis- 
 sion, extends 1,500 geographical miles, from Coquimbo in Chile, to 
 Payta in Peru. 
 
 About south-east are the rather large towns of Pica and Matilla, 
 where the vineyards are nourished by waters of irrigation. The church 
 of Matilla is an imposing building, erected by an Indian architect. 
 
 We now progress by Tambillo and the pretty Indian farm of Manuel 
 Cruz, with its gigantic algarobo tree (Prosopis horrida) and its andenes 
 or step-like hanging fields and gardens ; we ascended a very rough, 
 dangerous cuesta and laderas, to some 10,000 feet above the sea. We 
 soon descended to the Indian village of Macaya, 6,278 feet, which is in 
 a deep ravine. Near Macaya, are the " Minas del Inca," yielding 
 copper, formerly worked for the use of the Incas. 
 
 On the way to the rich copper moiuitain of Tabricoya, and one league 
 from Macaya, I observed an interesting monument in the Pampa del 
 Leon. It is a large, isolated block of granite, 12 feet square, called the 
 *' Piedra del Leon," it is covered with very old Indian sculptures. 
 The centre group consists of a man wrestling with a puma, holding the 
 animal with one hand ; in the other is a stone as if defending himself. 
 There is a smaller puma ; also figures of llamas, guanacos, circles, ser- 
 pents, &c. These figures are not chiselled, but picked out with some 
 pointed instrument. A cross has been cut subsequently on this stone. 
 I suppose this to be very ancient Aymara work. 
 
 In this region the docile llama and alpaca flourish, droves of wild 
 vicunas and guanacos are seen, also many chinchillas and biscachas. 
 This animal I have seen as high as 14,000 feet in the Andes. The puma 
 occasionally roves about here, as well as the ostrich. Parinas, or 
 
168 
 
 flamingos^, and then the mighty condor that builds its nest higlier than 
 15,000 feet, and was seen by-JIumboldt wheeling in circles at an eleva- 
 tion of 22,000. Condor, cuntur, called huitre by the Spaniards. The 
 English Cyclopedia says the condors are to be seen in groups of three 
 or four, but never in large companies, like the vultures. This is hardly 
 the case. My friend, Mr. George Smith, and myself were attacked by 
 rather a large flock of condors, on the heights of Iquique, in 1S2G. i 
 saw, in 1854, a group of fifty condors, near the cuesta of Icjuique. They 
 are to be seen at times, as many as a hundred or more, hovering over 
 the farms in Chile. In 1820-3, when there was whale fishing at 
 Coquimbo, the offal would float on shore, when as many as two to three 
 hundred condors were to be seen in company ready to gorge on dead 
 whales. I once was exploring with Mr. Smith the Mountain of Molle, 
 above the Noria nitrate w orks, on the summit of which is an abandoned 
 silver mine. Having entered it to rest and get out of the heat of a 
 scorching sun, we very soon had to make our exit in consequence of be- 
 ing covered with condor lice. Such a spot is called the " Alojamiento," 
 or resting place. On another occasion, exploring some high mountains 
 overlooking the Pampa de Tamaragual, on a rocky crag we found a 
 deposit of their excrement. Erom such a spot the condor watches for 
 dead and dying mules and asses in the tracks, particularly to and from 
 the nitrate works. 
 
 The condor was an object of worship by some of the Peruvian nations. 
 
 I am informed that at Mani, in the south, there are, sculptured 
 stones with the sun, moon, and stars, Indians, and animals ; and that, 
 at Huatacondo, are many huacas, in which have been found objects in 
 gold and silver ; that in the valley of Sipuca, 7 leagues S. of Mani, in 
 the huacas there, small stone figures were found. 
 
 Between Arequipa and Uchumayo are sculptured stones ; the spot is 
 known as the " Campanas del Diablo." 
 
 The Indians of the province of Tarapaca are Aymaras, and speak that 
 language. They may be said to be partially Christianised ; some, how- 
 ever, still practise ancient ceremonies, such as bowing to the rising sun 
 and certain mountains. 
 
 In the Pass or Abra of Pichuta, I noticed a pile of stones with quids 
 of coca on it. It would appear that the mastication of coca when going 
 to great elevations facilitates the ascent, and these piles of stones are 
 called apachitas or cotorayarumi. The Mercurio Peruano for 1794 says 
 these piles of stones were adored as deities, they are found in all the 
 
 ' A specimen of this bird, a new species, I have deposited in the British Museum. 
 
 2m 
 
164 
 
 niountalu roads, and appear to have had their origin among the 
 early Indians ; for, when they ascended a mountain, or passed over a 
 dangerous track laden, they put the load down, and, as a sign of grati- 
 tude offered the first thing they got hold of (which was generally a 
 stone) to Pacha-camac, saying •' Apachecta," which means " To him who 
 has given me strength." 
 
 In the pass of Pacheta I found a pile of stones which takes its name 
 from the Apachitas. 
 
 Ascending the ravine of Pisagua, which runs through the mountains 
 of the coast and northern part of the Pampa de Tamarugal, the large 
 Indian town of Camiua is attained, where maize, alfalfa, olives, grapes, 
 and other fruits grow. The llama and alpaca are also reared. This 
 may be called one of the entrances to the Cordillera. Ancient Indian 
 graves are met with containing objects in gold and silver, also pottery 
 with designs in alto-relievo. The track now goes easterly up the cuesta 
 of Parasuya to the pass of Pichuta. Maymaga is near a marsh ; at 
 sunrise in November the thermometer was at 26°. This is one of 
 the many solitary spots in the Andes called estancias or llama farms. 
 We come next to the pass of Pichuta, 15,000 feet at least, where it 
 generally blows a piercing gale of wind from the S.E. 
 
 From here the Volcano of Isluga is seen, as well as many snow-capped 
 peaks and ridges ; from Anquaje five openings in the volcano are observed. 
 Isluga is an Indian village 14,000 or more above the sea, with a stream 
 coming from the colossal mountain of Carabaya, 18,000 feet high, which 
 runs into the lake of Isluga, where there is an ugly-looking fish, the 
 suchi. In the hollows among the mountains a few potatoes and quinua 
 are with difficulty grown. 
 
 The volcano of Isluga is not very conical, but occupies some extent. 
 In winter it is covered with snow to its base. Loud rumbling uoises 
 are heard in its vicinity and earthquakes often felt. I give as the 
 height of the volcano, the approximate elevation of seventeen to 
 eighteen thousand feet above the sea. Mr. Smith and myself were the 
 first, I believe, to describe this volcano. To the east of Ishiga com- 
 mences a salt plain, extending to near Potosi, varying in breadth from 
 three to eight leagues, the salt being from five to ten inches thick. 
 
 South-west from Isluga is Chiapa, 9000 feet above the sea. From 
 this Indian town Mr. Smith and myself ascended the beautiful looking 
 mountain of Tata Jachura (see p. 10 for tradition) in the month of 
 June. We left Chiapa at noon, by ridges, stony cuestas, and at sun- 
 down camped for the night under the lee of some huge rocks. The 
 following morning, at sun-rise, it blew strongly from the east and very 
 cold. We travelled onwards with our mules as lone: as the rugged track 
 
105 
 
 permitted, when our ludian guides begged to be left bebind in cbarge 
 oftbem. To this we were obliged to agree, and continued our ascent 
 on foot. We soon left tbe large cactus below us, and the only plants 
 seen were tbe ichu pasture, stunted tola bushes, and the resinous 
 yareta (Bolax). Our ascent was over steep broken rock (probably por- 
 phyry), until we came upon thick ice. We bled a little at the nose, 
 had an unpleasant singing in the ears, headache, dimness of the eyes, 
 caused by the puna, soroche, or attenuated state of the atmosphere ; the 
 body was benumbed by the extreme cold. However, at one p.m., after 
 a painful and laborious struggle, we reached the summit over broken 
 rock and ice, there being glaciers below us. I give the elevation of this 
 peak over 17,000 above the sea. It blew a piercing gale from the east, 
 and so cold was it, that the water in a gourd was frozen, and a piece of 
 roasted meat was as hard as a brick. Our fingers were so stiii* and cold 
 that we could scarcely use our surveying instruments ; there was not 
 sufficient power in them to strike fire wherewith to light a cigar, and 
 we could scarcely hear each other speak. 
 
 From the summit there was a glorious view of the Andes ; many 
 peaks must have been from three to six thousand feet higher. AVe saw 
 to the north some high mountains, most probably the volcanic group, 
 sixty to seventy miles ofi", containing the Gualtieri, 22,000 ; Parinacota, 
 22,030; and the Sehama, 22,350 (Pentland). The cloudless sky was 
 of a very dark indigo colour, and the icy peaks and ridges showed a 
 bold and well defined outline. Humboldt observes, that in the Andes 
 tbe azure is less blended with white, because there the air is constantly 
 of extreme dryness. I am informed that the Andes of Atacama is so 
 dry, that picture frames are made of salt An interesting phenomenon 
 was, that stars were visible as if it were night. I am told that at 
 Copiapo, the sk}^ is so clear, that a planet has been seen at one p.m. 
 
 Our descent did not occupy much time ; we soon regained our 
 guides, and entering Chiapa at sun-set, the bells of the church were set 
 ringing, and a good meal awaited us, including the callapurca, a savoury 
 stew, kept hot by large heated pebbles put into it, and old oily chicha, 
 in honour of our having been the first, in all probability, who had ever 
 gained the summit of Tata Jachura. 
 
 Mamina is a large Indian town, and where the Aymara only is spoken. 
 Above the town are seen several tiers of small doors ; they look like the 
 port-holes of a ship-of-war. These are the doors to caves in the rock, and 
 used by the Indians as store-houses, and are probably of aboriginal 
 origin. The doors are fastened by wooden padlocks, opened and shut 
 by a skewer-like key. 
 
 According to D'Orbigny, the Quichua is spoken from the equator to 
 
166 
 
 28° S. (interrupted at 15° S. by the Aymara people), consisting of 
 934,707 pure, and 458,572 mixed. The Aymaras are from 15° to 20° 
 S., round Lake Titicaca and ruins of Tia Huanacu (surrounded by 
 Quichuas) 372,397 pure, and 188,237 mixed. 
 
 QuiCHUA. — We are told that the Incas had a secret language of their 
 own, and the general tradition is they first appeared about the Lake of 
 Titicaca; if so, it would be very old Aymara. If they came from the 
 country to the E. it might have been the Calchaqui ; or, if from the coast 
 of the Pacific, the Chinchasuyu. However, the language spoken by the 
 early Incas is lost ; but it is said that a few words have been spared. I 
 have not seen them particularised. 
 
 In that admirable work of Ludewig's on the literature of the 
 American aboriginal languages, it is stated that the Quichua is the lan- 
 guage of the Peruvians. I will admit that the Quichua was spoken by 
 people inhabiting Cuzco and its vicinity ; but to have so fine a language, 
 they could not have been the barbarous tribes so stated by historians. 
 They were most probably the remains of a once powerful nation, brought 
 again together by the Incas. That Quichua was spoken by the nations 
 the Incas first conquered is easily understood ; also, that it subsequently 
 got mixed with the language of the Chimus of Trujillo, sometimes called 
 the Lamano, with the Chincha about Lima, the Calchaqui of Tucuman, 
 with the Cara-Quitu, Aymara, &c., &c., which has given rise to the idea 
 that these and other languages are dialects of the Quichua. 
 
 Before the conquest of the various nations by the Incas, each most 
 probably had its separate language, and when in proximity, affinities 
 with each other ; and, ere the Incas over-ran the country, I conceive 
 that each nation had its own language, and even at the present time 
 they should not be called dialects exactly, but corrupted by the Qui- 
 chua, the language of their Incarial invaders. 
 
 To get at any knowledge, and of, perhaps, only a few words of the 
 various pure languages spoken from Quito to the Chile, we mast go back 
 to the earliest MS3. and printed vocabularies and grammars arranged 
 by the Spaniards. 
 
 Atmaea. — Ludewig classes the Aymara race as Indians of Bolivia, 
 the N.W. provinces of the Argentine Hepublic, and Southern Peru. I 
 found the Aymaras to be of a brown olive colour, but darker in the 
 Andes ; the hair black and straight, sparely made, and may be called a 
 small race of people. The Aymara Indian population of Tarapaca is 
 about 6,000. La Paz, in Bolivia, is about the centre of the Aymara 
 country, which anciently included, among others, the Canchis, Casnas, 
 Collas, Lupacas, Pacases, Carancas, and Charcas. 
 
 The following may not be deemed uninteresting to philologists. It 
 
167 
 
 is from the Spanish preface to the Gospel of St. Luke, translated into 
 Aymara by the late Don Y. Pazos. The Ayniara language lias a labial 
 dental and guttural pronunciation peculiar to it. The first is designated 
 as pp, being pronounced by emitting the respiration with force against 
 the lips united as ppia, a hole ; ppampana, to bury. The second, with 
 tt, is done by the tongue being placed against the teeth, as ttanta, head, 
 but which, if pronounced with force, w^ould mean something knavish. 
 The third, ck or k, are pronounced in the throat, with this difference, 
 that the first is more guttural, as choka, tree ; kollke, money. The w 
 has been introduced because the Spanish v and u do not give the sound 
 of w, but which in Aymara is the same as in English — thus : acawa, 
 this ; acanwa, here. The other letters have the same value and sound 
 as those in Spanish. 
 
 Eivero and Tschudi say, the Aymara language is very much like 
 Quichua, and doubtless came from the same root. Very many words in 
 the two idioms are identical, and even in the grammatical structure there 
 is a striking resemblance. 
 
 Under Yahuar-Huacac YIII. Inca, Colla-suyu, or the country be- 
 tween Arequipa and Atacama, was brought under his rule ; this would 
 include the province of Tarapaca. At Mocha resided, in 1826, a noble 
 Indian family named Quispe Sugso, descended from the Incas. 
 
 Being at Macaya diu-ing the feast of " our lady of Candelaria," there 
 being no priest, the cacique read prayers in the chapel, and as the sun 
 w^as setting and throwing its rich golden light on the mountains, just 
 under the cacique's house, on a dais, a cloth w^as spread. To the sound 
 of the merry Cachua songs, of tambourines, pan-pipes, and pipes, women 
 brought earthen vessels containing rich stews, condimented with aji or 
 red pepper. 
 
 The cacique and the men seated themselves at the dais, being served 
 by the women with savoury dishes, potatoes, beans, maize, &c. The 
 women afterwards sat on the ground in groups to their meal. The 
 young girls now handed about the chicha to the men, who drank 
 copiously, after which, and as night approached, the festal party retired 
 to a large building to sing haravis^, or mournful and other melodies, 
 dance, laugh, and Avhoop as the Indian can when under the influence of 
 his beloved chicha-, recite traditions as that of Tata Jachura (p. 10), 
 or recall scenes from the play of the Death of Inca Atahualpa. Could 
 there then be any good feeling for the Spanish invaders ? The times of 
 
 ^ From Harivicus, the Indian poet, who composed dramas, wrote idyls and odes 
 in particular. j, 
 
 ' See my paper on " Indian Corn," Hogg's Instructor, July, 1852. 
 
IGS 
 
 Tiipac-Amaro, Piima-cagua, and other Indian patriots would be recalled. 
 There were a few pretty girls, and when the excitement of the dance 
 chased away the usual melancholy that pervaded their features, they then 
 looked interesting. For the matrons I cannot say so much, for the coca- 
 chewing does not add to fading beauty. In the middle of the carousing 
 there occurred a sharp shock of an earthquake, commencing with its rumb- 
 ling noise, then an undulatory movement, and then the shake. This broke 
 up the Indian revel. 
 
 It is at such times the Indian plays the game of pasa. It is one of 
 great antiquity, and seems to be the only one of this sort. Pasa meaus 
 a hundred, as lie v^dns who first gets that number. They play at it with 
 two instruments : one a spread eagle of wood with ten holes on each side, 
 being tens, and are marked with pegs to denote every man's gettings ; 
 the other is a bone in the manner of a die, cut with seven faces, one of 
 which has aparticular mark, called guayaro (huyaru) . The other five tell 
 according to the number of them, and the last is a blank. The way of 
 playing is to toss up the bone, and the marks on the upper surface are 
 so many got. Eut the guayro goes for ten, and the like number is lost, 
 if the blank side appears. 
 
 In UUoa's time the Indian had the reputation of a belief in fortune- 
 telling, and that they employed artifices, supposed charms, and strange 
 compositions, in order to obtain some visionary happiness. In Southern 
 Peru I found no ghost stories ; however, now and then one hears of 
 sayings approaching superstitious belief. On asking why the silver mines 
 of El Carmen, near Iquique, are not worked, the answer was that a 
 white mule had foaled there, which caused the mines to stop yielding. 
 
CHILE. 
 
 Geograpliy — CTiango Indians— Atacama — Iluacas — Huins of Lasana — 
 Copiapo — Iluacas — Antiquities — Musical Fish — Iliiasco — Coquimho 
 — Valparaiso — Santiaqo — Antiquities — Supposed existence of Nitrate 
 of Soda and of Gold in Copper from Atacama — Nitrate of Potash 
 in Equador — Valparaiso and Santiago Railway — Coal mines of Lota 
 and Coronet — Araucanos — Indians of Tierra del Fuego. 
 
 Chile^ is a beautiful and fertile country, situated between the Andes 
 and the Pacific. It extends from the desert of Atacama to Cape Horn ; 
 in some parts it is thirty, in others seventy leagues wide. It is bounded 
 on the north by Bolivia, on the east by the Argentine Confederation, 
 on the south by the Southern Ocean, and on the west by the Pacific. 
 
 This country, it is said, w^as called Chile by the aborigines, and to 
 have originated from the notes of a species of thrush, or from the 
 Quichua word chiri, cold ; as being a colder land than Peru. Its 
 population in 1854 w^as 1,439,120 ; foreigners, 19,669, and thirty-one 
 Negroes. In 1843 there were about 15,000 Araucanos, but in the 
 middle of the last century Superunda gave 50,000. 
 
 The inhabitants consist of Chilenos and Indians ; the first occupy the 
 greater portion of the territory, and are descendants of the Spaniards ; 
 the latter are divided into independent tribes, speaking the same 
 language, which is abundant and harmonious. Some reside in the 
 Andes, to the south of 33°, as the Pehuenches, Puelchesand Iluillches ; 
 these are wild and barbarous. The brave Araucanos occupy the lovely 
 country south of the river Biobio. 
 
 Chile may be called a rugged inclined plain from the foot of the 
 Andes to the Pacific. This space has three chains of mountains parallel 
 to the Cordillera with their fruitful valleys, particularly in the southern 
 portion. The mighty Cordilleras run north and south through Chile, 
 being 120 miles or more in width, with its numberless icy peaks and 
 volcanos, the mountain of Aconcagua being, according to a recent calcu- 
 lation, 23,910 feet above the sea. 
 
 There are many rivers and torrents ; they rise in the Andes and run 
 into the Pacific, about 120 in number. Some are navigable, as the 
 Sinfondo, Bueno, Chaivia, Yaldivia, Cauten, Tolten, Biobio, and Maule 
 
 1 See Lastarrias Jeografia de Chile, Valparaiso, 1857. Gaye, His. de Chile, maps. 
 Essai sur le Chile, par Y. Perez, Kosales, Hamburg, 1851, maps. 
 
170 
 
 Many hot springs are found in the Cordilleras, as Colina, Cauquenes, 
 Panimavida, and Chillian. There are salt lakes towards the sea, as 
 those of Biicalemu, Cohuel, Yicuquen, and BoUeruca. Lakes of fresh 
 water, as those of Eauco, Yillarica, and Llanquihue. i 
 
 Very many are the ports on its long line of coast, the principal ones 
 being Valparaiso, Talcahuano, Huasco, Coquimbo, and Caldera. j 
 
 There are several islands, including those of Juan Pernandez, Quiri- 
 quina, Santa Maria, Mocha, Chiloe, and Chonos. ■ 
 
 The greater portion of the year the atmosphere is fine and clear. ' 
 Meteors are often seen traversing the heavens in various directions. 
 Southern auroras are occasionally observed. ' 
 
 The climate is healthy and benign. The more northern portion ' 
 partakes of the arid character of the desert of Atacama. The principal 
 productions are silver, copper and some gold ; wheat and other grain, I 
 also much timber. 
 
 Silver and copper are found in the rich mines of Copiapo, Huasco, ! 
 Coquimbo and Aconcagua.^. Wheat is produced in all the territory, 
 from the valley of Aconcagua to Arauco. Timber for building comes ; 
 from the banks of the Maule, also from Valdivia and Chiloe. The ; 
 principal vegetable productions are w^heat, barley, maize, beans, ■. 
 potatoes, and other vegetables. Amongst the fruits are some chiri- ' 
 moyas and lucumas ; pear, apple, peach, figs, oranges, melons, water- ; 
 melons, almonds, nuts, and a small species of coco-nut in abundance. ; 
 "Wheat yields a hundred for one, maize and barley the same. The hemp ■ 
 and flax are very good in quality. The vine flourishes and yields good ; 
 wine. The maju, yuca, potatoes, quinua and madi are indigenous i 
 aliments ; the frigol or bean, and aji or pimenta is grown in abundance ; i 
 silk can be produced, also tobacco of good quality ; herbs of various 
 sorts, including medicinal ones, and others useful in the arts. Some 
 portions of the Chilian soil will produce cotton, pine-apple and sugar- 
 cane. Of trees, its magnificent forests produce, pines, cypresses, : 
 alerces, laurels, cedars, oaks, lumas, litres, &c. CoaP also has become ! 
 an important article of extraction and export. 
 
 The animals imported from Europe have increased extraordinarily, as . 
 the horse, horned cattle, sheep, pigs, &c. There are indigenous animals, 
 as the vicuna, the chillihueque (llama), huanaco and huemul (a deer), 
 the Chilian lion (puma), and a species of jagua ; the cunning fox, the 
 terror of the hen-roost. No serpents or venemous animals have been 
 
 * See E. A. Alison's admirable observations on the Greology of Chile, Mining 
 Journal, Aug. and Sept. 1859. 
 
 ' See my paper on Chile coal, Geogr. Soc. Journal, 1855. 
 
171 
 
 observed in Chile. Among birds is the gigantic condor. Fish and 
 shell-fish is abundant on its coasts. 
 
 Chile has been free from Spanish domination since 1818, when it 
 became a republic, and is most prosperous. 
 
 In 1855 the amount of imports and exports were more than 37.^ mil- 
 lions of dollars. 841,842 tons of shipping entered its ports, 820,024 
 left. In 1857, exports and imports were nearly forty millions of dollars. 
 General instruction is spreading rapidly. At Santigo is the university 
 and national institute ; there are schools all over the country ; also 
 schools of arts and agriculture. 
 
 The territory of the republic is divided into thirteen provinces and 
 two territories: Atacama, Coquimbo, Aconcagua, Santiago, Valparaiso, 
 Colchagua, Talca, Maule, Nuble, Concepcion, Arauco, Valdivia ; colonies 
 of Llanquigiie and Magellan. 
 I Ckaistgo Indians. — In 1828, when at the Eolivian port of Cobija, 
 ' 22° 28' S., on my way along the coast of the desert of Atacama,^ I first 
 saw a few Chango fishermen. I left Cobija in an open boat, bound 
 south for Paposo, sailing during the day (beating to windward), rowing 
 at night, along a most wretched, sterile and mountainous coast. On the 
 ninth day I saw a few Chango fishermen on shore ; they understood a 
 little Spanish, but their own language is probably a mixture of Atacama 
 and Aymara. The following day, three came off in a seal-skin balsa out of 
 Caleta de Cordon, bartering their dried congrio fish for flour and coca. 
 On the twelfth day, three more Changes came off from El Rincon 
 (a fishing cove), and on that day I anchored in Paposo, where I found a 
 j j few families, people of Copiapo, who were here to barter for dried fish 
 with the Changes. 
 
 At Punta Grande were three or four families of Changos, and at 
 Agua Dulce half a dozen more, who had a few goats and asses. Having 
 ( j traversed the dangerous Mai Paso, I came to Hueso Parado, 25° 30' 
 (this spot was shown to me as the divisional point with Bolivia). At 
 Salinas I found four or five families of Changos ; and as they had just 
 then been supplied with w^ine by the purchasers of their dried fish, 
 wild dancing and singing continued all night. It was a sort of wake, 
 in consequence of the death of two children : the bodies (angelitos) 
 were about being taken to Copiapo for interment. Thus some of these 
 Indians may be called partially Christianized. 
 
 The Changos move from one cove to another ; they told me they 
 belonged to the district of Copiapo, but paid no tribute. They go 
 
 ^ See my trans, of Philippi's Researches in the Desert of Atacajna, Geogr. Soc. 
 Journal, 1855. 
 
.72 
 
 occasionally with asses laden with their dried fish (charquicillo) to San 
 Pedro de Atacama, across a long angle of the desert, also to Copiapo. 
 They are called Changes, hut I could not discover that they constituted 
 a distinct trihe ; and I look upon the term Chango (given to them 
 probably by the Spaniards) rather as something to do with their miser- 
 able condition and occupation. I saw about one hundred, I allow fifty 
 more fishing north of Cobija, and another hundred travelling in the 
 interior, would make two hundred and fifty souls. 
 
 Acosta speaks of a nation of Changos north of Cuzco. In 12° 20^ S. 
 in the interior, in some maps, is a spot marked Changos. 
 
 D'Orbigny says these are a distinct tribe, and gives their population 
 at 1000 souls. Erom having visited them, I gave at most 250. He 
 speaks of a " Chango nation," and says they were " once powerful" — • 
 if they lived on the desert coast of Atacama, they had no means of 
 becoming powerful ; he also says that Cobija w^as the centre of this 
 family, but nothing is known of their government and religion. Their 
 huacas opened at Cobija, in 1830, the sexes were found buried 
 separately and lengthways ; that they may be a transition from the 
 Aymaras and Quichuas towards the Chilian races, for, long after the 
 conquest, there was a large Indian population in the valley of Copiapo. 
 Their huts, I observed, w^ere generally made of whales bones covered 
 with seal-skins. Fish is their principal food, and their dried fish, the 
 congrio, they bartered with the Indians of the interior for maize, coca 
 and stufiT for clothing. They generally congregate a league or so from 
 streams, so as to avoid ague and mosquitos ; they oftimes supply them- 
 selves with water from springs in the mountains. On asking them 
 about their history, their reply was merely, " Si, seiior, "and " No, sehor" 
 — Yes, sir, — no, sir. They fish in the seal-skin balsa, which is safe in 
 any surf. A few years ago the Changos suffered severely from small I 
 pox and measles. They can imitate the bark or cry of the seal, by \ 
 which means they get them to approach, and easily spear them. 
 
 In my " Southern Peru," ^ I give some particulars of the 
 coast of Atacama and presumed positions of the Atacama meteoric 
 iron. Since then, Dr. Philippi, by order of the Chilian govern- 
 ment, has examined the great desert of Atacama,^ and determined one 
 of the positions of the said meteoric iron to be at Imilac, in 23° 49' S., 
 (59° 14' W.^ He speaks of the Changos as inhabiting the coast from 
 Huasco to Cobija, and as being an indigenous population. The men 
 fish, the women tend small flocks *of goats. This sort of life requires 
 
 * Geogr. Soc. Journal, 1851. 
 
 2 Greogr. Soc, Journal, 1855. 
 
 3 See my paper on the Meteoric Iron of Atacama, Meteor. Soc. Journal, 1858. 
 
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173 
 
 that they should frequently eliange their abodes as fish is scarce or 
 plentiful, or as the desert pastures are abundant or not. They live in 
 miserable huts formed of the bones of whale or cacti, covered with seal- 
 skins, rags or sea-weed ; and, as the occupation of the men is dilVerent 
 from that of the women, they live but seldom together. 
 
 Atacama.. — D'Orbigny says, " the natives of Atacama were called 
 Olipes or Llipis, and inhabit the western declivity of the Cordillera, 
 from the 19° to the 22° S. — viz., Tarapaca and Atacama." My observa- 
 tions show, that Tarapaca has been, and is still inhabited by Aymaras. 
 
 Philippi estimated the population of San Pedro de Atacama, from five 
 to six thousand ; the greater number are Indians, who speak a peculiar 
 language, very harsh and guttural, but they understand Spanish. 
 
 Four days journey from the port of Cobija is Calama, and two days' 
 more is Chiu-Chiu, in the desert of Atacama, an ancient Peruvian 
 burial place. Here Dr. Beid^ found in an extensive half-moon, in a 
 sitting position, men, women and children, five to six hundred in 
 number,- all in the same attitude and gazing vacantly before them. 
 They still sit immoveable in the dreary desert, and like dried mummies by 
 the effect of the hot air. There are cooking vessels beside them full of 
 maize. Near here is the old Peruvian fortress of Lasana," built on a 
 tongue of land, between the two arms of a small river. The style of 
 building is similar to that of old G-erman fortresses, the walls being of 
 coarse masonry, and the small rooms, holes, and hiding places, endless 
 and indescribable. No room is more than eight feet square, many 
 scarcely five ; door, two feet in height ; windows few in number, and 
 those not larger than one's fist ; and with all the whole town (a hundred 
 or a hundred and fifty families might have dwelt here) built like one 
 room, in which the greater part had to pass through from ten to fifteen 
 rooms to get to their own apartment,* we literally stand and walk on 
 skulls and bones. Every corner is full of them. 
 
 Capiapo. — Molina says, according to Indian tradition, owes its name 
 to the great quantity of turquoises found in its mountains. 1 have 
 already mentioned the existence of antiquities near this district, viz., 
 those of Lasana, in the desert of Atacama, which are Incarial. I now 
 come to the valley of Copiapo, which rises in the Cordillera, crosses 
 nearly the whole breadth of Chile and runs into the Pacific a little to the 
 south of the now flourishing port of Caldera, from which so much 
 silver and copper is shipped. 
 
 1 Chamber's Eclin. Journal, March 8, 1851. 
 
 " A male and female, is now in the museum at Katisbon. 
 
 ^ Probably Caspana, and south-east of Chiu-chiu. 
 
 * Such as__the Inga-pirca or palace at Caiiar, in Equadoi*. 
 
174 
 
 From Caldera there is a railway to the city of Copiapo, and branches 
 even farther in the interior. It is in contemplation to carry this line 
 over the Andes into the Pampas, from whence there will be but little 
 difficulty in reaching Buenos Ayres and Europe J 
 
 As to the antiquities of Chile, I am not able to say much ; but on 
 the Ethnology there is something more to communicate, particularly 
 as regards the Araucanos. 
 
 Erom what we know of the Indians of Chile, they appear to have 
 been, and in the south still continue a roving race rather than a fixed i 
 one. Those tribes who anciently inhabited the valleys of Copiapo, Guasco, ; 
 Coquimbo, Quillota, and the beautiful country where now stands the ■ 
 capital of Chile, cultivated the land, and had their habitations. I i 
 find no account of ancient temples or other buildings of stone among ' 
 the Indians ; they had a fine climate and prolific soil, and scarcely i 
 required such, as did the Incarial nations of the elevated plateaus of ( 
 Peru ; and this may be one reason why we do not fiud monuments of ' 
 antiquity among them. ; 
 
 Tupanqui, tenth Inca of Peru, projected the conquest of Chile. He ; 
 organized an army of ten thousand men, about 1400, a.d., which i 
 passed the desert of Atacama ; he gave the command of this army to | 
 Chinchi-cura. The Incarial force came to the country of Copayapu 
 (Copiapo), but there met with determined resistance. The Inca re- 
 inforced Chinchi-cura with ten thousand men, when the Copayapenicas 
 found it prudent to obey his laws, and receive the religion of Inti. 
 
 The Peruvians descended into the valley of Copiapo by the ravine of; 
 Paipote, where now is seen a rill of water, with a little vegetation, and ; 
 even a few algaroba trees. ^ 
 
 The Peruvians, reinforced by a third army, then traversed tSe desert 
 track to Huasco and Cuquimpu (Coquimbo), conquering to the river 
 Maulli (Maule), but at this line the Araucanos successfully opposed 
 them. When Almagro arrived at the valley of Copiapo, the Indians 
 gave him vessels of gold valued at 2,000,000 ducats, equal to £400,000. 
 
 "When I first visited Copiapo, in 1828, I sought for ancient ruins and 
 huacas ; I heard of the existence of some of the latter, but could find 
 no one to further my view^s of exploration. 
 
 Being in Valparaiso, in 1854, my old friend Mr. Bridges, the bota- 
 nist, handed me several pieces of huaca pottery, from Peru and Chile, 
 to bring to England ; amongst these were six specimens from Copiapo, 
 now in the British Museum ; one of them, a painted drinking cup. 
 
 ^ Proposed railway across the Andes from Caldera to Rosario, viz., Cordova. By | 
 W. Wheelwright, Esq., F.R.G-.S., read to G-eogr. Soc., January, 1860. 
 ^ Darwin Nat. voy. 359. 
 
175 
 
 Mr. Abbott, of Copiapo, gives me the following account of liuacas 
 opened in 1843 : 
 
 In consequence of the great development of mineral wealth in 
 Copiapo, it was necessary to build houses and amalgamating works, and 
 in doing so, many Indian tombs of the Copayapenicas were cut into. 
 These huacas were large and small, built up from the surface like a 
 mound, some twelve feet high and twenty to thirty in length. One 
 examined contained the skeletons of a man and a woman, no clothin"- 
 was found, as in. the Peruvian mummies ; and the skulls were of good 
 form. 
 
 "With the skeletons were several pieces of pottery, as large jars for 
 holding water, others for chicha, and others for boiling water in; also, 
 ornamented vessels for holding and carrying water or chicha, silicious 
 arrow^ heads, copper pins, upper and low^er stones for grinding maize, and 
 maize in earthen pots. 
 
 An interesting object was found about 1832 at Copiapo, in a huaca, 
 by Dr. Adrian Mandiola. It was of fine gold, as thin as paper, in the 
 form of a small coco-nut shell, and open at top ; when blown into gave a 
 whooping sound ; it bent on being pressed by the hand, but resumed its 
 shape, the pressure being removed. This was presented by Mandiola 
 to the National Museum. So much was this gift valued by the govern- 
 ment, that he was sent a colonel's commission. 
 
 At the time of the Peruvian inroads into Chile, the district of Copiapo 
 must have been well populated, as huacas are found throughout the 
 valley. Dr. Echeveria, when building on the hill at the old port of 
 Copiapo, found many huacas containing skeletons. For such a state of 
 things, there must have been more land under cultivation, by reason of 
 , there being more water in the river, and, perhaps, more frequent rains. 
 ,, iAt present the stream is insignificant and rain uncommon ; indeed, it 
 . jmay be called a desert country. To account for so dry an atmosphere 
 jat 'present, there must have been some change in the carrying power of 
 ■ the vapour of water and duration of winds. 
 
 About 1544, Yaldivia sent emissaries from Chile to Peru by land, to 
 ^ive an account of his doings, which were not successful, Monroy, 
 Miranda, six companions and an escort of thirty horse, they were attacked 
 3y the chief of Copiapo and killed, excepting ]Monroy and Miranda, 
 vhose lives were begged by the chiefs wife, to teach her sons Ihe 
 nanagement of the horse. Being out one day with one of their pupils, 
 \lonroy fell suddenly on the young chief, mortally wounding him, 
 vliilst Miranda, turning upon the officer in command of the guard, 
 vrenched from his hand a lance, and, breaking from the Indians, 
 hey escaped and fled to Cuzco. 
 
 il 
 
176 
 
 In 1548, the Indians of Copiapo rose on the Spaniards settled in the 
 valley of Coquimbo and destroyed the city of La Serena. 
 
 Towards the Cordillera from Copiapo, and near Punta Grorda, are 
 some old Indian ruins. Darwin^ says, he observed Indian ruins in 
 several parts of the Cordillera : the most perfect were the Euinas de 
 Tambillos (or little Tambo or Tampu, a resting place), in the Uspallata 
 pass. Tradition says they were used as halting places by the Incas, when 
 they crossed the mountains. At first, Darwin supposed these buildings 
 had been places of refuge, built by the Indians on the arrival of the 
 Spaniards. He is inclined to speculate on the probability of a small 
 change of climate. 
 
 In the northern part of Chile, within the Cordillera, old Indian 
 houses are said to be especially numerous. By digging amongst the 
 ruins, bits of w^oollen articles, instruments of precious metals, and beads 
 of Indian corn, are not unfrequently discovered : an arrow-head of : 
 agate was found, and of precisely the same form as those now used in ',. 
 Tierra del Fuego. 
 
 In the valley of Punta Grorda, the remains consisted of seven or eight j 
 square little rooms, which were of a similar form with those at Tam- 
 billos, but chiefly of mud, which the present inhabitants cannot, either \ 
 here, or, according to Ulloa, in Peru, imitate in durability. 
 
 Silver mines of Tres Puntas. Grilliss (1, 2, 8, plate viii) gives a;|. 
 description of Indian antiquities found near the Incas road, including 
 a cast copper axe, weighing about 3^ lbs. He observes, that the old 
 Chilian Indians do not appear to have w orked in metal. Pottery was 
 also met with, two specimens being glazed. I may observe, that salts 
 of borax exist in the desert of Atacama, which may have been used 
 for glazing. 
 
 In the atlas to Gaye's large work on Chile," are two plates of Chilian 
 antiquities, consisting of a sort of chopper in metal, a quiver for- 
 arrows, metal star-like war implements, &c. li 
 
 Musical Fish. — Gilliss (i., 270) speaks from report, of musical fish 
 in the bay of Caldera ; they w^ere heard from January to March, 1852, 
 but not since then. His informant says, he went out in a boat, and lay 
 with his ear to the bottom of the boat, when he heard certain well 
 defined sounds, which he calls musical. Singing shells are mentioned 
 as existing at Ceylon, and a species of snail at Corfu is said to emit a; 
 audible and not unmusical sound. Ilt| 
 
 My friend, Mr. J. S. Wilson, late Geologist to the North AustraliaQ| | 
 Expedition, gives the following on the subject of musical fish, in hi 
 
 ' Nat. Toy. 356. 
 
 ' Historia jEisica y politica de Chile. 
 
 P 
 
177 
 
 paper to the Geographical Society (vol. xxviii., 1858, 149). The cat-fii*h 
 in the Victoria Kiver makes a singular trumpeting noise, while it is in 
 the water and after it is lauded. It is armed with a strong sharp 
 spine, 2 to 2^, inches in length, standing perpendicularly from tlie back ; 
 and if the fingers get pricked with this, it causes a stinging sensation. 
 I think I have heard this trumpeting sound when fishing in some of the 
 rivers of Texas, where the cat-fish abounds. 
 
 !?raturalists observe, that to some fish is accorded the faculty of rumi- 
 nating, which is an error ; that they possess a voice — another mistake. 
 It is possible they may make some noise with their movements. 
 
 HuASCO. — At the conquest this valley had a chief named Marcandie, 
 who, with the ruler of Copiapo and twenty-eight Indians, were burnt 
 by Almagro for the killing of three Spaniards : this was the first Chilian 
 and Spanish blood spilt in Chile. 
 
 CoQUiMBO. — At the time of the conquest, the name of the nation 
 who occupied this pretty and fruitful valley, was called the Cuquimpu. 
 Whilst I was there in 1828, the guest of the hospitable and kind David 
 !Ross, who for many years has been Her Majesty's Consul at Coquinibo, 
 he had occasion to repair a wall, when a huaca was met with, containing 
 bones of its ancient people and a painted vase. 
 
 My friend, Mr. Alison, informs me, that in the port of Coquimbo, 
 huacas with bodies have been found; also at Herradura, under a block 
 of sienite of some five tons weight, three bodies were found. In the 
 vicinity was much broken pottery. 
 
 At Andacollo, huacas have been met with, also a bronze chisel, 
 fourteen to fifteen inches long. There are gold mines here. 
 
 Leaving the rich mining districts of the north, I remained some time 
 in Valparaiso, the emporium of the west coast. The best idea I can 
 give of its rapid progress is, that in 1825 the population was under 
 10,000, in 1854 more than 80,000, including a large number of English, 
 Americans, Grermans, French, &c., as merchants, shopkeepers and 
 artizans. 
 
 Independent of its theatres, other places of amusement, colleges, 
 hospitals, it has scientific and literary institutions ; indeed, when 
 perambulating its gay streets, lined with fine shops and houses, aud 
 examining its picturesque bay full of ships, an Englishman can scarcely 
 realise the idea that he is so far distant from home, and in a locality, 
 not long since possessed by the jealous Spaniard. 
 
 A beautiful ride of thirty leagues brings one to the capital. One 
 ascends (formerly on horseback, now in a gig) the granitic mountains 
 of the coast, covered with shrubs, cacti and palmetto, and, in the 
 season, multitudes of pretty plants, including the calceolaria. A gallop 
 
178 
 
 of a few leagues brings the traveller to Casa Blanea ; then over the 
 interesting scenery of the mountain ranges of Zapata and Prado, where 
 the pass is 2,394 above the sea. The descent is to the table-land 
 of Mapocho, on which stands Santiago de Chile, founded by Yal- 
 divia in 1541. 
 
 P'rom the hill of Santa Lucia, there are commanding, extensive and 
 lovely views, comprising not only the large and populous city, with 
 its suburbs and promenades, but the fertile valley, broken here and 
 there by detached hills, and bounded on the east by a long line of 
 Cordillera, clothed in perpetual snow. On the hill of Santa Lucia we 
 fiud the National Observatory ably conducted by Moesta. The city is 
 well built, many of its houses may be called palaces ; its population is 
 hospitable and refined. I became the guest of my old friend Mr. Greorge 
 Bingley, unto whom I am under great obligations for his unremitting 
 attentions. 
 
 Santiago now boasts of a good University, one of its professors being 
 the learned and amiable Domeyko, who is a considerable contributor to 
 the scientific " Anales de la Universidad," and has a very fine collection 
 of the minerals of the country, including a huge mass of the meteoric 
 iron of Atacama; whilst the Museum is ably superintended by Philippi, 
 the explorer of tlie desert of Atacama. I had not the pleasure to see 
 Senor Pissis, who is conducting an elaborate survey of the country. 
 The National Library is extensive, containing several thousand volumes 
 formerly belonging to the Jesuits, also curious manuscripts relating to 
 the Indians. There are some antiquities in the Museum, most probably 
 the handy-work of the Peruvians during their ingressions, and a few 
 Auracano weapons. An interesting relic of the conquerors is Yaldivia's 
 house. 
 
 Some old Indian ruins appear to exist near the gold mines of Taquil, 
 south of Santiago. On the Cerro de los Incas, near Lake Taguatagua,^ 
 are the remains, probably, of a fortress, said to be erected by the 
 Promaucaes, the tribe which drove Almagro from the country. 
 
 On the Maipu, at San Jose, ancient human remains have been found, 
 also implements of pure copper, as chisels ; also a knife like the modern 
 one of the leather-cutter. 
 
 Darwin saw one of the perforated stones used by the old Indians ; 
 these were fixed on the ends of sticks, and formed a rude agricultural 
 instrument. These stones are of a circular flattened form, five to six 
 inches in diameter. 
 
 1 Mr. Smith, II. M. Consul at Santiago, gave me specimens of mastodon's bones 
 from this spot ; Professor Domeyko has lately sent to the Paris Museum similar spe- 
 cimens, also large horns of fossil deer. 
 
179 
 
 To the north of Valparaiso is tlie port of Zapallar, and a few miles 
 inland is the hacienda of Catapilco ; between these places tliei-c is a 
 considerable Indian cemetery. About 1850, these huacas, or ancient 
 tombs, were discovered, and found to contain very large quantities of 
 sea-shells ; they were extracted, burnt into lime, and sent to yal|)araiso. 
 I have not been able to obtain particulars as to tlie state in which the 
 bodies were found, or as to the objects buried with them. 
 
 "Whilst in Peru, I was invited by my esteemed friend, Henry F. Fox, 
 of the firm of Messrs. Eavenscroft, to visit him in Chile, and examine 
 some saline bodies from the desert of Atacama, said to contain nitrate 
 of soda, with a view of establishing nitrate works in that district. I 
 went to Chile, examined the minerals, but they turned out to be merely 
 common salt and sulphate of lime, and useless. I do not wish it to be 
 understood that nitrate of soda does not exist in the desert of Atacama : 
 I think that in the northern part it will be met with. I am aware 
 that the borate of lime has been found in this direction. 
 
 I assisted Mr, Oxley, of Valparaiso, in the careful assay of native 
 copper from San Bartolo, in Atacama, purporting to contain a large 
 
 j per-centage of gold ; we did not find the slightest trace. 
 
 I On my way from Guayaquil to Lima, I made the acquaintance of 
 Senor Moncayo, then going from Equador to Peru as minister, ho 
 
 I kindly ordered a copy of Velasco's Historia de Quito to be sent to me, 
 also samples of the saline products of Imbabura, in Equador ; I found 
 these to be nitrate of potash, in various stages of purity, extracted from 
 surface soil. There is much salt in the vicinity of this nitrate forma- 
 
 I tion. Were there a direct road from Imbabura to the coast — say to 
 the port of the Pailon, where it is the intention of the Equador Land 
 
 • Company of London to commence a settlement (see p. 103) — this 
 
 nitrate might become a valuable export. 
 
 During my stay in Chile, a serious question arose, as to the direction 
 
 the line of railway ought to take from Valparaiso to Santiago. Allan 
 
 Campbell projected it, along the coast to Concon, Quillota, &c. To 
 
 Vina de la Mar there was no objection, but from thence by the coast, 
 
 it was soon discovered, that in consequence of very light sandy soil and 
 
 iback water at times, from rather heavy rains, it would be difiicult to 
 
 ihave a permanent way ; thus it was necessary to look for another line. 
 
 iMr. Lloyd, the engineer, requested me to accompany him and his staft'; 
 
 my department was to examine the country gone over for lime, as this 
 
 substance would be required in large quantities. 
 
 After due investigation, Mr. Lloyd decided upon altering Campbell's 
 
 ine, and go up the valley of Vina de la Mar to Limache, and thus avoid 
 
 ;he almost quicksands of the coast. From Limache we crossed the 
 
 >- 2 
 
 II 
 
ISO 
 
 pass of the Dormida, 4,526 feet (July), where we found Snow, to the 
 gold mines of Tiltil. We returned to Limache by the copper mines and 
 pass of Caleo : near to the pass are some gold mines and washings ; 
 lower down are the gold mines and washings of Ocoa. The rock of the 
 country is granitic with quartz veins, coloured with oxide of iron 
 resulting from the decomposition of the sulphuret. On this trip, I 
 only met with granite yielding sand, and rocks yielding sandy clays ; 
 except near the village of Alvarado, there is a silico-calcareous rock, 
 which may be useful. A similar formation exists at the Calera, near to 
 Santiago, and in some few other localities. _ 
 
 At the request of Messrs. Cousiiio and Garland, of Valparaiso, I went 
 and reported on the coal mines of Lota and Coronel. My observations 
 were read before the University of Chile, and will be found also m the 
 Journal of the Geographical Society of London for 1855. Ihis coal 
 belongs to the tertiary formation, and appears to be m abundance. 
 There are thirty-four mines at Lota, employing nearly 3000 workmen. 
 In 1859, Lota alone extracted 39,807 tons. 
 
 After examining this coal district, I could not resist another visit to 
 Arauco, celebrated by ErciUa, in his poem, " La Araucana," and by 
 Ona, inhis " Arauco Domado." , ^r n q -4-1, 
 
 As early as 1828, 1 had been in this region, with Mr. George bmith, 
 of Iquique, on a survey of the Island of Quinquina and vicinity for coal. 
 Accompanied by a friend, both well mounted, with our thick woollen 
 ponchos to protect against rain, we went by the cuestas of Colcura and 
 YiUa-ran ; on the summit of the latter, there is an interesting view ot 
 Colcura and the country of the coal mines of Lota and Coronel AVe 
 forded the river Chivilingo, but had to swim our horses over that ot 
 Laraquete, whilst we crossed on foot over the bridge-namely a long 
 pole There had been heavy rains, so the tracks were perfect quag- 
 mires, generally obliterated ; we were lost for awhile, but came up with 
 a rancho, the mother and daughter only within ; the latter, a little giri, 
 at our request, jumped up behind my friend, who was very tall, his 
 large tarpauling hat, long Indian poncho, huge boots all over mud, with 
 the descendant of the Lautaros and Guacoldas in half-Indian costume- 
 her good-natured lace, and long black hair, flowing freely m the wind- 
 made a good picture. 
 
 Onwards we went, through mud and streams, to another rancho, 
 where we procm-ed a guide in his picturesque guaso costume, who 
 conducted us over the Vegas, down the river Carampangui, which we 
 crossed in a launch, and, after a smart gallop, arrived at the famed lort 
 of Arauco, at the entrance of which I was shown a hole that held the 
 pole on which had been placed the head of one Zuiiiga ; he was ot 
 
181 
 
 the rebel party, headed by General Cruz, and thus disposed of just 
 before the bloody battle of Longomillo. 
 
 I found a considerable town in formation outside the walls ; on a 
 former visit there were only a few huts within. Now coal mines are 
 being opened, corn and timber mills established ; indeed, a busy and 
 increasing population. 
 
 At the house in which I stopped, I saw some Araucano women ; tl)oy 
 were of small stature, the head large and covered with thick black hair, 
 round features, a red tinge on the cheeks, seen through the copper 
 colour ; nose flat, eyes bright, small feet and hands, and habited some- 
 what like the Indian women of Peru, with the choiii or blue sliifts, 
 without sleeves ; theyquella or mantle, fastened by the large silver topo 
 or pin, broad girdle, the end having tubular tin ornaments ; round the 
 neck a silver-mounted collar, from which hung a breastplate of beads, 
 the neck part studded with two-rial pieces, and in the ears large silver 
 rings or oupelles. 
 
 Subsequently I saw parties of Araucanos on horseback ; they were 
 thick-set men, had large heads, broad faces, their black hair bound by 
 the red Uautu or fillet ; the under clothing or macun, then a sort of 
 waistcoat and short trousers, and the never-failing poncho. They were 
 armed with the lance and some had sabres, and men who looked as if 
 they were not to be trifled with ; they also use pikes, axes, darts, 
 arrows, slings and lassos. The favourite and death-dealing weapon of 
 the Araucanos, at the time of their terrible wars with the Conquis- 
 tadores, was the macana, said by some to be shaped like a long sword, 
 by others, a club. They still paint their faces with red and black 
 pigments. 
 
 The earliest notice we possess of the aborigines of Chile, have 
 descended to us from the Peruvians. Ercilla and Oiia follow, IMolina 
 copies from them. Stevenson, in 1825, gives his observations. English 
 and American missionaries have made reports, particularly the late 
 Captain Grardener; much is to be found in Gaye's History of Chile ; 
 and, lastly, E. E. Smith's " Araucanians," published in New York, 1855, 
 is the most recent account we have of a tour amongst them. Erom this 
 work I make some extracts. 
 
 The aborigines of Chile and of a portion of the present Argentine 
 Bepublic, were of one race, and spoke but one language ; they called 
 themselves Alapu-che, children of the land. They were distinguished 
 as Pehuenche, people of the east ; Morache, people of the west ; and 
 Huillche, far-off people living in the south. Thes(^ were divided ino 
 provinces, as the Purumancians ; and then into districts, and lived as 
 
182 
 
 separate tribes ; the most important was the so-called Araucano, a name 
 given to them by the Spaniards. 
 
 Mr. Smith tried to discover whether the Araucanos retained any 
 traditions of times anterior to the Spanish conquest, especially of the 
 encroachments of the Peruvian Incas, but he was surprised to find that 
 their historical recollections did not extend farther back than the wars 
 of South American Independence. 
 
 The Mapuches appear to have no idea of their origin, but assert that 
 they always lived in the same place and manner as at present ; nor have 
 they any traditions respecting a deluge. 
 
 Valdivia is said to have met with certain rudely-carved figures on the 
 Cauten, at its confluence with the Damas, bearing some resemblance to 
 the double-headed eagle. 
 
 Mr. Smith observed, between Cholchol and Cautin, graves marked 
 with a single post, rudely fashioned and ornamented at the top ; some 
 by a figure resembling the European hat ; others, by what might by 
 one so predisposed, be constructed into a double-headed eagle. What 
 this latter carving was intended to represent we know not. Mr» Smith 
 thus describes the grave of the Huilyiches : over each is planted an 
 upright log, ten or twelve feet high, rudely carved to represent the 
 human figure. The chief — for such he must have been — stood in the 
 centre of the group with a hat on and a sword ; while on either hand 
 were ranged his wives. These were the only carved representations of 
 the human figure, or of any other animate object met with among the 
 Mapuches ; for they have no idols, neither do they mould earthenware 
 vessels into forms of men and animals, as was customary among the 
 Peruvians. There appears to be an Araucano Charon, sometimes a few 
 beads or money deposited in the grave, as was done at the burial of the 
 Mapuche chief, Cari-coyan (the green oak). Tempulagy is their She- 
 Charon. They dread magic and are very superstitious. 
 
 I have already referred to the custom of the ancient and modern 
 Peruvian Indians — that of making oflJerings of apachitas, being a stone, 
 coca or other object, when they had arrived at the summit of a mountain 
 or elevated pass. I find that the Araucanos have something similar. 
 At the entrance to one of the narrow defiles in the Cordilleras, in 
 which they are often overtaken by violent storms, there has been 
 observed a large mass of rock with small cavities upon its surface, into 
 which the Indians, when about to enter the pass, generally deposit a 
 few glass beads, a handful of meal, or some other propitiatory ofiering 
 to the genius supposed to preside over the spot and rule the storm. 
 
 As to the language of the Araucanos, I must refer to Ludewig, who 
 gives copious lists of grammars and vocabularies of Chile. He says 
 
183 
 
 the aborigines call themselves Auca, IMoluche, or Chilidugii, and are 
 divided into Pikunehe or Puelche ; Pehuenche, to which the Auca or 
 Moliiches proper belong, and Huilliche. D'Orbigny distinguishes them 
 by the sedentary (Araucanian) and roving (Auca) tribes. 
 
 1 trace in the Chilian language some almost pure Quichua words, 
 probably left by their Peruvian invaders ; as, Anti, the sun ; Anti-cheo, 
 Albatross of the Sun, the name of a chief; Epu-namun, god of war — 
 this is from Apu, lord or master; Apo-ulmenes, chiefs or lords ; Piri- 
 mapu, Andes : Chiri would be the frozen Andes in Quichua. Yquella, 
 mantle, lliclia ; topo, ])m, from tupu ; llantu, fillet round the head, 
 same in Quichna ; also macana, a club ; &c. 
 
 The Guarani,^ to Avhich the Chilian attaches itself, and which 
 manifests a great grammatical development, was spread throughout the 
 south and east of South America. The Pampean or Moxo belongs 
 to the Carib family. 
 
 Araucania- formerly extended from about the river Biobio, in SC^ 
 44i' S., to Yaldivia, in 39^ 38' ; Concepcion bounded it on the nortji, the 
 Llanos or plains of Yaldivia, on the south. The Cordillera formed its 
 eastern limits, and the Pacific its western. It was divided into four 
 parallel strips or nthal-mapus : first, Laugen-mapu, the maritime 
 country, including Arauco, Tucapel, Ilicura, and Boroa : Second, Lel- 
 bun-mapu, the plain country containing Eucol, Puren, Kepoura, 
 Maquegua, and Mariquina : Third, Mapire-mapu, the foot of the 
 Cordilleras, as Malsen, Colhue, Chacaico, Quecheriqua, and Guanague : 
 Pourth, Pire-mapu, the valleys of the Andes. These were again divided 
 into allareques provinces, and reques districts. This form of division 
 existed before the arrival of the Spaniards. Each uthal-mapu was 
 governed by a Toqui, who had under him Apo-ulmenes and Ulmenes. 
 There was also the Grande Toqui, the head of all, and who presided 
 at their councils. 
 
 The Supreme Being was called Pillian, or the invisible Toqui. Epu- 
 namum, the god of war; Alooc, the devil. No Temples, idols, or 
 religious rites were observed by Stevenson ; but they believed in witch- 
 craft, divination, omens, flights of birds, and dreams. 
 
 The following I obtained regarding the present position of the 
 Ai-ancanos. They are divided into Costenos, or those of the coast who 
 trade with the Chilians, exchanging cattle and horses, principally fur 
 
 ^ " Indigenouii Races," 83. . 
 
 2 See Stevenson, I., 47. Uistorical and Des. ^^arr. of Residence in S. America, 
 London, 1825. 
 
184 
 
 silver, indigo and beads : gold they call copper.^ These Costenos trade 
 with other Indians inhabiting the country between the coast and the 
 Cordillera, and these latter with those of the Andean valleys, who cross 
 the mountains to rob or barter with the Indians on the Mendoza side, 
 passing their booty of horses and cattle to the Costenos, who sell to 
 the Chilians. 
 
 The Araucano of the interior will not part with his land, but the 
 Costenos are sometimes induced to let land ; and such, when near the 
 Chilian frontier, is considered as sold. 
 
 Captain Grardener says,^ although frequently confederated, they are 
 not strictly federal, each tribe being independent of the rest and distin- 
 guished by a particular name, as Huillches, Moluches, and Picimtos, 
 on the western ; Pehuenches, Puelches,^ and Chuelches, on the eastern 
 side of the Andes. 
 
 "With the exception of the Chuelches, who are reported as distinct 
 in language from the rest, but one common tongue is said to be 
 spoken by all. 
 
 Their habitations are generally oval. At Piligen, in every house was 
 observed two spears hung up to the beams across the roof, with their 
 points directed towards the entrance ready for use ; they are sixteen 
 feet long, and headed with a narrow steel point. They manufacture a 
 coarse woollen fabric, make reins for bridles, stirrup leathers and 
 saddle girths. Indigo is in general demand for dyeing ; other dyes are 
 also employed, and some that are peculiar to the country, which are 
 chiefly required for the bordering of their ponchos ; each tribe, like the 
 Scotch clans, have a distinctive colour. 
 
 The Picuntos are distinguished by a red bordering to their ponchos ; 
 the Huillches, by a party-coloured fringe, yellow, red, blue, white and 
 green. They have neither whiskers nor beard. The heads and feet of 
 both men and women are always uncovered. Infants, when put to 
 
 ^ Smith, " Araucanians," 181. GTold is not seen in their possession, in all proba- 
 bility from the difficulty of procuring it by their own labour. Silver, which they use 
 in large quantities for their spurs, bits, stirrups, head-stalls, saddle ornaments, ear- 
 rings, breast-pins, &c., is drawn from the currency of the country, probably to the 
 amount of £40,000 annually. According to Molina, the copper mines of Payen, in 
 the Puelche country, furnished pure copper containing half its weight in gold. The 
 mines of Curico yielded a similar alloy. 
 
 2 « Indians of Chile," London, 1840. 
 
 3 Puenche or Puelche, is applied to those Araucanos living east of the Cordillera, 
 or, perhaps, amongst the mountains east of the plain (of Chile). Tiie name signifies 
 pepuen, pines and che, people ; probably from the forests of the Araucano pine, 
 found at the foot of the mountains. Puelche, in the sense of east, or wind fi*om the 
 east. — Smith's " Auracanians," 64. 
 
185 
 
 sleep, are confined by bandages to a sort of wooden troiigli. The women 
 are employed in cultivating the ground, preparing the food, and otlier 
 family offices. The men attend to the cattle, fell timber, train horses, 
 and prepare their weapons, and have as many wives as they can 
 maintain. 
 
 The present frontier system of the Chilenos is based upon the 
 ephemeral principle of expediency : the peace they cannot ensure by 
 their arms, they maintain by bribes ; especially by the introduction of 
 cider, to effect unequal sales, and thus by gradually intermixing witli 
 them whenever allowed, to push forward their frontier to an indefinite 
 extent. 
 
 Their form of government is patriarchal, each community acknow- 
 ledging a chief of the particular district, who is styled Ulmen ; all the 
 chieftains are hereditary, and although they differ in power, according 
 to the strength of their respective tribe, none are permitted to exercise 
 independent control over the whole tribe, excepting in time of war ; but 
 even this temporary dictatorship of the Toqui is elective. 
 
 They have neither priesthood, temples, nor idols, but regard the sun, 
 under the name of Anti, as the supreme being ; some pay a veneration 
 to (kayan) the moon ; and their devotions do not amount to anything 
 more than occasional offerings to propitiate their favour in cases of 
 sickness, or on the approach of war. 
 
 Frezier informs us, that the Araucanos, to keep account of their 
 flocks and preserve the memory of particular affairs, make use of the 
 Quipo, the science and secret of which parents do not reveal to their 
 sons until they are about dying. 
 
 Stevenson gives the following as regards the Quipo : in 1792, a revolt 
 took place near Yaldivia, and, on the trial of the accomplices, Marican, 
 one of them, declared that the signal sent by Lepitrarn was a piece of 
 wood, that it was split and found to contain the linger of a Spaniard ; 
 that it was wrapped round w^th thread having a fringe at one end, 
 made of red, black, blue and white worsted ; that on the black were 
 tied by Lepitrarn, four knots, to intimate that it was the fourth day 
 after the full moon when the bearer left Paquipilli ; that on the white 
 were ten knots, indicating that ten days after that date the revolt 
 would take place ; that on the red was to be tied, by the person who 
 received it, a knot, if he assisted in the revolt, but if he refused, he was 
 to tie a knot of the blue and red joined together ; so that, according to 
 the route enjoined by Lepitrarn, he would be able to discover on the 
 return of the messenger, how many friends would join him ; and if he 
 dissented, he would know who it was by the place where the knot 
 uniting the two threads was tied. Thus it would appear that the 
 
186 
 
 Toquis of Arauco may preserve records by means of a sort of Quipo, 
 which they may have had originally from Peru. 
 
 Their important meetings wind up with a lengthened scene of drink- 
 ing, called Cahouin Touhan, their beverage being chicha of maize, 
 apples, and from the berries of the huinan (schinus moUe) ; from this 
 last is prepared a sort of honey and vinegar ; the gum of it is used 
 medicinally, and a decoction of the bark dyes a brown colour. 
 
 The apple tree has been said to be indigenous : I have always had my 
 doubts on this point ; and Smith,^ in speaking of an apple orchard, 
 judging from the age of the trees and the regularity with which they 
 were set out, says they must have been planted by the Jesuit mis- 
 sionaries. The apple abounds in Southern Chile, and found growing 
 wild throughout the Indian country ; yet, that it is not indigenous, but 
 owes its introduction to the Spaniards, seems proved also by the 
 fact that the Indians call the fruit manchana, a corruption of the 
 Spanish manzana or apple. 
 
 Three leagues south of the fort of Arauco, is the river Tubul. The 
 bills of Colocolo are of recent sandstone, and bear evidence that their 
 bases were not long since washed by the sea, althoiigh now half a mile 
 inland. The river Tubul is a tidal stream, and at its mouth is a bar ; 
 the port was formerly two miles inland, and there are the remains of an 
 old ship-yard there ; this would show that the elevatory process is 
 going on rather rapidly. The shores are thickly strewed with large 
 mussel and other shells. Sea birds, flamingos and green parrots are in 
 abundance ; the hills and valleys covered with pastures, shrubs, trees, 
 and flowers, including the Copique (Lapageria rosea), gorgeous with its 
 crimson blossoms ; the Indian revelling in the more secluded forests 
 and where grows the beautiful Araucano pine or pehuen. This tree is 
 said to grow to the height of two hundred and sixty feet ; the seeds are 
 called pinones ; they are nutritious, and in flavour resembling the 
 roasted chesnuts ; when boiled, they are eaten hot or cold. Mr. Greorge 
 Smith, of Iquique, made an elaborate drawing of the tree in 1828 (the 
 first accurate one), which the late Mr. Lambert introduced into his 
 great work on pines. 
 
 In the beginning of 1859, some of the Araucauos were induced to 
 aid the movement headed by the Gallos ; however, the Montt govern- 
 ment was the strongest, and the Gallos were beaten after some san- 
 guinary fights in the north and south. The government seriously 
 propose to attempt the settlement, even by force of arms, of that 
 portion of Arauco near the Chilian frontiers. 
 
 In August, 1859, the Araucano chief, Maguil, organised a force of 
 
 ' The Araucanians, 267. 
 
187 
 
 13.000 Indians. In December the Chilcnos pushed forward, when 
 Mariiian, with sixty Mocetougs, came to the city of Arauco, sent by 
 Lepin and other chiefs, asking wliy the Chilenos were attacking their 
 frontiers ; the answer was, because the Indians were assisting the 
 enemies of the government, and for this must be punislied. A few days 
 afterwards, the Chilenos went in search of stolen cattle, when several 
 Indians were killed. This has been followed by other fights ; but the 
 conquest, or even pacification of the Araucanos is a very serious 
 question. 
 
 On a late occasion an Indian, mounted and with his lance, came out 
 on the plain and challenged any Chilian to single combat, when Casi- 
 miro xlnquita accepted the defiance with sword in hand. The fight was 
 of some duration and severe, when at length the Indian's lance was 
 dexterously parried by the sword of the Chileno, and he with his other 
 hand seized the Indian by the hair of his head, cutting his throat with 
 his sword, when the victim fell to the ground. 
 
 A Grerman colony has been established near Yaldivia, and appears to 
 be progressing. 
 
 I visited the island of Juan Fernandez, but found no indication of 
 native inhabitants. The island was discovered by a Spanish pilot named 
 
 I Juan Fernandez ; it was occasionally occupied by the buccaneers, and 
 
 ! immortalised by Defoe in his Robinson Crusoe. 
 
 Indians of Tieera del Fuego. — In 1825, whilst chemical assistant 
 in the laboratory of the Royal Institution, I accepted an appointment 
 
 ; connected with mining operations in Peru. I proceeded to Buenos 
 
 : Ayres, but the passes of the Andes to Chile being closed by winter 
 snow, I took my passage round Cape Horn. 
 
 j I had to remain some days in Buenos Ayres ; and, amongst many 
 others, I have to thank Sir AV^oodbine Parish, then our representative 
 there, for much kindness. I was informed that a large mass of the 
 
 ■meteoric iron of Otumpa was deposited in the arsenal, and obtained 
 
 'permission to inspect it, and even to cut a small piece oS, which 1 sent 
 to my friend, Professor Brande. Years afterwards, when going through 
 
 I the British Museum, I was indeed gratified to see the same mass pre- 
 
 isented by Sir W. Parish. It weighs about 1,400 Ibs,^ and the largest 
 specimen of meteoric iron in any collection. 
 
 I sailed the 1st of July in the brig " Cherub," bound to Valparaiso ; 
 we had bad weather, but having got to 58° S., 69° W., hoped to have 
 
 [weathered Cape Horn. However, on the 6th of August at noon land 
 was seen. We thoue^ht ourselves to have been farther to the west. It 
 came on to blow hard from the S. W., when, at eight p.m., we found 
 
 1 See Buenos Ayres, &c., by Sir W. Parish. 
 
188 
 
 ourselves among the rocky inlets of York Minster, wliere we passed a 
 fearful niglit. From two a.m. the following morning to daylight, we 
 were prepared to be dashed upon a lee-shore. At this critical moment 
 the gale abated, and, by judicious management, we rounded False Cape 
 Horn, and got into Nassau Bay. Here we intended to wood and water, 
 and the time thus employed, gave me an opportunity of examining this 
 but seldom visited portion of South America. 
 
 8th. Landed up a sound, probably that of Tekenika, when a native 
 and a dog was first observed ; the man hallooed and beckoned us to 
 approach ; he kindled a fire on the beach ; other natives appeared, saw 
 some canoes on the shore, and a grass-covered hut and females peeping 
 at us through the bushes. We landed, approaching the men, who had 
 squatted round the fire, and whose shoulders only were covered with a 
 seal-skin. They rose to receive us, when we gave them some presents ; ■ 
 we proceeded to the wigwam, but found that our visit was not wanted 
 in that direction. In rambling about, piles of dead whale flesh were ! 
 found ; this was the winter stock of food of the natives, who, from our \ 
 charts, were called the Red Magellans : on the other side of the bay | 
 was placed the Black Magellans. On the pile of whale flesh was a trap 
 of whalebone for catching birds. I gave a young Indian boy a red > 
 " comforter;" in return^ he stripped himself of all he had on and gave , 
 me, namely, a seal-skin, and a bracelet made of pieces of small birds' : 
 bones. The tallest man here was not above 5 feet 4 inches ; they i 
 appeared in good condition and well greased with whale fat, to protect \ 
 themselves somewhat from the cold. One of the men had three streaks I 
 of red paint across the face, others two. They repeated what we said i 
 to them correctly, but rapidly ; we danced and sang to them, in which f 
 they joined. One of them had a strip of a check shirt round his head, 
 showing that such had been received from whalers or sealers, who came 
 into these waters. 
 
 9th. Blowing a heavy gale from south-west. The mountains at the 
 head of the bay seen, very well defined. 
 
 11th. The Indians procure fire by rubbing iron pyrites with hard 
 stone, letting the sparks fall on dry moss. I tried to gain admittance 
 to their principal wigwam, but was refused. I gave them salt beef and i 
 biscuit ; the biscuit only was liked. The canoes were of bark of trees, j 
 fastened by thin strips of whalebone. About the shore were ferns and 
 many pretty sorts of trees ; the rock of the country granitic. 
 
 12th. "Went up the bay on foot ; wood is in abundance, including . 
 the winter's bark. Saw much wild celery : it would appear that this ; 
 useful anti-scorbutic was introduced by early navigators ; we procured ! 
 a quantity of the seed for our pea-soup. Few land birds, but sea fowl 
 
189 
 
 in abundance, including penguins. Eeturned to the wigwam, and was 
 allowed to enter. "What a scene of misery ! a small rude grass liut, 
 four feet high, sunk two feet in the ground, filthily dirty. Tliere sat an 
 old man and w^oman in tears, the smoke from the fire of green wood 
 giving them much pain ; the party consisted of fourteen men, two 
 women, and three children ; their only clotliing a small piece of seal or 
 other skin. The day was fine, the small birds were chirping, the sun 
 was bright, clouds clearing away, so that we could see well the majestic 
 scenery of this region. 
 
 They had some rude cutting instruments of iron, doubtless made from 
 iron hoop given to them by w^ialers. They make neatly-platted baskets, 
 skin bags tor holding water, food and fat ; their arms are the bow and 
 arrow and sling. 
 
 14th. We got under weigh, when a canoe came off to bid us farewell. 
 
 15th. Passed Ealse Cape Horn at noon. Three p.m., the south point 
 
 of Cape Horn seen. We now ran to more than 60'^ S. ; the lowest 
 
 \ temperature observed w^as 20"^ F. We reached A^alparaiso on the 24th of 
 
 September. I found no vestige of carving in wood or stone, or monu- 
 
 i ment of any kind in Nassau Bay. The occupation of the natives is in 
 
 fishing, catching seals and otters for food, using the skins as raiment ; 
 
 I and when a dead whale might float on shore, they would remain at the 
 
 spot until it was consumed. They may have a few edible roots, but 
 
 they have several varieties of wild fruits. I thought if the potato was 
 
 introduced, it would be a great boon. Doubtless the scattered popula- 
 
 ! tion of the archipelago of Tierra del Puego communicate with each 
 
 other, and originally have come from the main land. I have again to 
 
 advert to this people when on my passage through the straits of 
 
 Magellan. 
 
 Having concluded my engagement at the mines in Peru, I returned 
 ' to Chile on my way to England. 
 
 On the 11th of February, 1830, I embarked on board H. M. survey- 
 ing vessel, " Adventure," Captain P. P. King, who kindly allowed me 
 a passage.^ 
 
 On the 16th we arrived at Juan Fernandez ; Dr. Bertero, the bota- 
 nist, had come with us ; he found many new plants. The Chilian 
 , family of Larrain was renting the island from the government, for 
 j breeding cattle. Large quantities of fish, langosta or lobster and seals 
 1 caught in these waters. 
 
 17th. Made one of a party to go goat hunting, had some good sport. 
 I The highest spot on the island is the Yunque or anvil, about 3000 feet. 
 
 ^ See Narrative of Surveying Yoyages of the "Adventure" and "Beagle," 1826-36. 
 
190 
 
 It was supposed that sandal-wood grew on this island, which does not 
 appear to be the case. 
 
 We sailed on the 22nd for Taleahuano, arriving the 3rd of March. 
 On the 6th T started for the fort of Arauco, saw Indians there making 
 purchases ; returned to Concepcion by the Molino delas Cruzes, so 
 called from stones found here, having a cruciform appearance. Captain 
 King had an interview with the Araucano chief, Pinoleo. 
 
 15th. Left Talcahauno for the straits of Magellan. 
 
 In 45° S. is the Chonos archipelago, inhabited by rude tribes, who 
 maintain themselves by fishing. 
 
 "We had rough weather on the voyage south, but having passed Cape 
 Pillar and entered the straits on the 1st of April, we had smooth water. 
 
 2nd. Anchored at Playa Parda, on our route passed much rocky 
 scenery, and some glaciers. Guanacos have been seen on the 
 Puegian side. 
 
 5th. Got under weigh ; noon off snowy Sound, some glaciers seen. 
 A canoe came along side with two men and two women. The painter 
 or boat rope, was of platted reeds, the fishing spears had bone barbs, 
 knives of obsidian, had supply of iron pyrites for obtaining fire. 
 
 6th. Canoes with Indians came from Port Gallant, and nearly naked, 
 and in this cold climate ; we bartered for spears, bows and arrows, 
 obsidian, pyrites, slings, combs (of the jaw-bone of the seal), necklaces 
 of small pearly-looking shells, cups made of the bark of trees, baskets, 
 red paint, (oxide of iron.) 
 
 Went on shore to wigwams. There can be no doubt that some of 
 the whalers and sealers treat the natives badly. 
 
 The Indians of Port Gallant are like those I had seen in Nassau Pay. 
 They object much to part with a lock of their hair ; a lock of hair i 
 having been cut from a woman, half of it was returned, which they 1 
 immediately burned ; an old man held his hands over the smoke, when ' 
 they all uttered " Picheray," and looking upwards. Pitzroy thinks it ! 
 may mean "give me." They were anxious to possess the other half; ■ 
 I halved it again ; one of the men warmed his hands, rolled the hair up \ 
 and swallowed it : they cut some of our hair, going through the same ; 
 ceremony. 
 
 7th Accompanied a party from the " Adventure" to replace Bour- 
 ganville's papers on the summit of the mountain of Santa Cruz, left by 
 him there in 1766 ; they had been examined by Cordova in 1786, and 
 by the " Beagle." The papers, with some by Captain King, were put up 
 in a lead case ; two metal plates were deposited also, containing the 
 names of the officers of the " Adventure." 
 
 We began the ascent at 9.20, a.m., through fallen trees, then over 
 
191 
 
 mossy ground, and throuo-h shrubs, arriving at second peak, 2,300 feet, 
 at 12.15, p.m. We dug a hole a yard deep, depositing the papers. 
 
 8th. Many canoes came ofL to us. Here I picked up the lb]h)wing 
 words : yab-skooler, probably means to eat, or something to eat ; sherro, 
 ship, boat or canoe ; kaib, no, or if disappointed ; chox-pitit, little child ; 
 jar, jar, yes ; uxchuca, water, probably from the Spanish, agua. 
 
 They use some few Spanish words, as capitan, perro (dog), canoa, 
 huanaco, cuchino for cuchillo, knife. ^ 
 
 For some trifliug offence, one of the men nearly laid open his squaw's 
 skull. They have no fish-hooks, but pull the fish up when the bait is 
 dovni its throat ; also spear them. At times the men are painted from 
 head to foot, red, white and black : we had seventy to eighty Indians 
 about us. 
 
 11th. Off Cape Froward; anchored in French Frigate harbour, where 
 there is a creek, and much celery. 
 
 12th. Went to Port Famine. The berberries in season, and very good. 
 
 14th. Visited the Sedger river, saw a fuschia in flower. 
 
 15th. Walked into the interior : grass in abundance. 
 
 16th. The transit instrument put up. 
 
 18th. Day fine, breezes from south-east ; nights beautiful and clear. 
 The comet, though now small, is near to the Magellan clouds. 
 
 20th. Went to Port Piedra : there have been Patagonians here lately. 
 
 21st. Fine and clear : saw peaks of the celebrated Mount Sarmiento 
 seventy miles distant, 6,800 feet high. Nine canoes full of Fuegians 
 took up their quarters near us. On Captain King's landing, found an 
 old man with stones in his mantle, as if ready for the sling. Captain 
 King showed him a musket, the Indian threw the stones down. I went 
 on shore to live in the marquee, where the transit instrument was. 
 
 22nd. Indians bartered with us. As we had clothes out drying, and 
 the instrument up, a line was drawn round us and a sentry stationed ; 
 the Indians pretended they did not understand us. At noon I went on 
 board, and returning at one, p.m., heard a musket fired down at the 
 meridian board, and learnt that Captain King, when showing his 
 telescope to the Indians at the lines, one pulled and broke it ; he 
 ordered them to go away, this they did, but getting near the meridian 
 board, broke it down, and prepared their slings, putting themselves on 
 the offensive ; a musket was fired, and the Fuegians made oft' round 
 St. Ann's Point. Two boats went to see what they were about, and 
 when returning, a volley of stones from the slings were directed against 
 our men, who fired a few shots, just to frighten them. 
 
 ^ See Vocabularies in Voyage of "Adventure" and "Beagle," in 4tli vol. j also in 
 Weddell, Snow. 
 
192 
 
 23rd. Indians very saucy to us, but kept their distance. 
 
 27th. The Indians came near the watering place, shouting " Osa, osa." 
 
 2nd of May. Broke up our camp and went on board. 
 
 3rd. Our tender, the " Adelaide," arrived. 
 
 6th. Left Port Famine ; 7th, noon, near Cape Grregory, saw a party of 
 Patagonians on shore with their horses; arrived at Monte A^ideo 23rd May. 
 
 Many attempts have been made to civilise tlie inhabitants of Tierra 
 del Tuego, but they have failed ; the last information is up to March, 
 1860, and as follows : 
 
 The " Allen G-ardner" (Patagonian missionary schooner), Captain Pall, 
 which sailed from the Falkland Islandsfor Woolga, Tierra del Puego, Octo- 
 ber 7th, was taken by the natives at Woolga, Beagle Channel, on the 
 6th of November, and the master, mate, five seamen, and Mr. Garland 
 Phillips, the catechist, murdered, one man only escaping. The " Nancy 
 Smyley," with extra hands and weapons on board, had sailed from the 
 Falkland Islands to recover the schooner. 
 
 Captain Snow, in his Cruise off Tierra del Fuego, 1857, says the Fue- 
 gians are divided into seven tribes : 1. Oensmen; 2. Tapoo; 3. Tekee- 
 nica ; 4. Alikhoolip ; 5. Chonos ; 6. Pecherey ; 7. Irees. 
 
 June 2nd. Invited to accompany the officers of the tender, "Adelaide," 
 to Bio de Janeiro, the "Adventure" in company. 25th. Arrived at Eio, 
 and in England 14th of October, 1830. 
 
 Patagoisia is that country south of the frontiers of the Eiver Plate 
 and Chile, and of a most uninviting aspect ; the principal trees are a 
 few willows on the banks of the streams. Mineral matters have not 
 been met with. Some guano has been found on the coast; huanacosj 
 and pole cats are the principal animals. 
 
 Among the Patagonian tribes are sometimes included the Molucos, \ 
 Puelches, Puenches, Araucanos, Tehuelches, and others ; but they may 
 be divided into three classes, as Araucanos, Indians of the Pampas and 
 the Patagonians to the south ; these last are a dirty, indolent race ;f 
 they are wanderers, and go where they may meet with food and good 
 climate ; they clothe in guanaco and pole-cat skins in winter, and also 
 use the poncho. The Patagonians or Pehuenches are tall men. 
 
 Pampa Indians are not so rude as the Patagonians ; they have someWi 
 permanent tolderias or villages, have property and ideas of traffic ; theyi 
 obey a chief and clothe themselves ; the horse is their companion in 
 peace or war. The territory occupied by them may be considered as^ 
 belonging to the Argentine provinces. Lately Urquiza went agains 
 Buenos Ay res, having as his allies some 2000 of these Indians, anci 
 mainly for fear of their pillaging Buenos Ayres, the inhabitants came tc 
 terms with Urquiza. 
 
PRE-INCARIAL, INCAllIAL, AND OTHER MOISUIMEXTS 
 
 OF PERUVIAN NATIONS. 
 
 I'S preceding pages I have brought together particulnra concerniDg 
 the antiquities of New Granada, Quito and Chile. Popayan and Pasto, 
 to the north of Quito, were once well populated lands, but I find littlo 
 as to the existence of ancient ruins in these districts ; should any be 
 discovered, they may partake of the Muysca character, or even that of 
 an older period. 
 
 Grenerally speaking, the antiquities met with in Peru are assigned 
 to the Incas ; however, the Conquistadores were told that some ruins 
 were much older than the Incarial times. Then come the pure Inca 
 remains, and, lastly, the contemporaneous. It is not my object to 
 describe the antiquities of Peru in detail, but rather to separate them 
 somewhat into their particular periods, adding, at times, new matter 
 ; regarding them. 
 
 Pee-IjS'CARIal Monumexts. — I will commence with the very ancient 
 
 ruins of Tia-Huanacu,i in 16° 42' S., 68° 42' W., 12,930 feet above the 
 
 sea, and near to Lake Titicaca. The principal remains are the sculp- 
 
 ; tured monolythic doorways, one ten feet high and thirteen wide ; 
 
 pillars seven yards high, partly cut, partly rough, placed in lines at 
 
 regular distances ; it is thought that these were never finished ; masses 
 
 of hewn stone, some thirty-eight feet long by eighteen broad, whilst at 
 
 ; Cuzco there were none nearly so large. Gigantic idols of stone and 
 
 fj various sculptures are alluded to by old writers; Cieza de Leon parti- 
 
 Ijcularly describes some stone figures, the length of the head of one, 
 
 ' from the point of the beard to the top, being three feet six inches ; in 
 
 the upper part were wide vertical bands, in the lower, symbolical figures 
 
 'Iwith human faces; from the eyes descended a band terminating 
 
 'in a serpent. 
 
 In 1842, an idol was excavated and taken to La Paz, 3^ yards in 
 ! length and half a yard in width. 
 
 In 1846, further excavations were made, when some idols were met 
 s !with, and some sculptured masses of large dimensions ; some were ten 
 ^ Syards in length, six in width, and more than two yards thick, and were 
 »• ^80 cut, that when resting on each other, their junction formed a 
 
 ' See Eivci'o sr.d Tschudi, Antig. Peru. 
 
 M 
 
194 
 
 channel between them. One proof to me that these statues are not 
 Incarial is, that their ears are not enlarged like the Inca Orejones. It 
 would seem that two different sorts of sculpture are met with : one 
 example is the portion of a statue, the face in particular naturally 
 designed ; others, as the centre figure in the large monolythic doorway, 
 which is grotesque and of a much older date, but neither have the 
 enlarged ears. The 4th Inca, Mayta Capae, w^as at this spot, but we 
 do not know if he lived here for any time ; if he did, the naturally- 
 designed work may be attributed to him ; if not to him, then there is 
 the probability of there having been two pre-Incarial epochs at Tia- 
 Huanacu. I have sometimes considered the remains in this locality to 
 be very old Aymara, but, in truth, no date can be assigned to them. 
 
 In plate xlyi. of Eivero and Tschudi, is a drawing of the great 
 broken monolyth doorway ; on the right, in the upper part, are nine 
 lines of heads, six of these have five heads each, three have four heads ; 
 the same number on the left, also tw^o more heads, under the large 
 figure, in all eighty-six heads. Can this collection of heads represent 
 the number of chiefs who may have ruled here, belonging to a particular 
 dynasty ? if so, then the number of one hundred and one chiefs and 
 Incas of Peru, according to Montesinos, may be worthy of further 
 investigation. 
 
 In the frontispiece to the " Antiguedades Peruanas," containing the 
 large figure in the centre, there are ten human figures to the right at 
 top, and as many on the left ; then a similar number with heads of l! 
 birds ; then follow below the same number of heads as above ; in all, 
 forty human figures, and twenty with heads of birds. No explanation 
 is given by Hivero and Tschudi. 
 
 *^ Dr. Latham observes, as to the ancient skulls found in this region, 
 1. that they are flattened in front, behind or laterally, with the surture 
 obliterated ; 2. the present inhabitants are not in the habit of flattening 
 the skull ; 3. the old race of the flattened skulls, is the race which 
 appears to have been the executors of the oldest portion of the Peru- 
 yian architectural antiquities, and as such, civilised or semi-civilised. 
 
 Neither tradition or history have handed down the original name of|l|, 
 this most ancient site. Grarcilasso sometimes calls these ruins Chiqui- 
 vitu, but under the Incas the western border of the Lake of Titicaca 
 was called Chucuito, the eastern IJmasuyu : this latter word meana 
 land of waters. 
 
 The origin of the term Tia-Huanacu is as follows : One of the IncasJ 
 probably Mayta Capac, being here, and receiving important news' 
 brought by a rapid foot messenger, who had travelled with great speed,* 
 
 %ta 
 
10 
 
 r 
 
 said to him, in praise of his exertions, " Tia-ITuanucu," sit or rest thee, 
 Huanaco," comparing his celerity to that of the fleet ITuanaco. 
 
 In Incarial times, this portion of Peru was also known as Colla, or 
 the mountain region, and was inhabited by various tribes called Collas, 
 or mountaineers, including the most populous one, the Aymani ; but 
 these were not the builders of Tia-Huanacu. 
 
 When Cieza de Leon examined these monuments, he asked of those 
 who dwelt there, if the Incas had built them ; the Indians smiled at 
 such a question, and told him they Avere centuries older than the Incas, 
 that they had once the idea of residing there, so as to take advantage of 
 the buildings, but changed their mind, went to Cuzco and built it, 
 something after the style of Tia-Huanacu. 
 
 Latham, in his " Migrations of Man," says — " the present occupants 
 of the country of Tia-Huanacu and Titicaca wonder at the ruins around 
 them, just as a modern Greek thinks of the Phidian Jupiter and 
 despairs." I believe that the Incas also looked with wonder on these 
 monuments ; and it is more than 700 years since Mayta Capac beheld 
 Tia-Huanacu with astonishment. 
 
 Humboldt thus generalises : " Throughout Mexico and Peru the 
 traces of a great degree of civilisation are confined to the elevated 
 ! plateaux. It can only have been men of a northern race, who, migrating 
 from the north towards the south, could find delight in such a climate." 
 I may observe, that old and enigmatical Tia-Huanacu is 12.930 feet 
 above the sea ; but there were great nations on the tropical coasts of 
 '■ the Pacific, as the Caras, governed by their Scyris ; the country of 
 Trujillo, by the Chimus, at Lima, and to the south the powerful Curys- 
 mancus and Chuquiz-mancus ruling the Chincha nations. 
 
 The latitude of Tia-Huanacu is about 16^ S., but what surprises, is 
 
 the fact of its height of 12,930 feet above the sea. Prom my own 
 
 experience of this sort of region, such an elevation is not propitious to 
 
 the respiratory organs for man or animal ; very few trees or shrubs 
 
 grow, maize and wheat in any quantity is out of the question. In the 
 
 summer months, some quinua or millet may grow, but this last would 
 
 hardly give sustenance to the builders of Tia- Huanacu. The Collas 
 
 had no maize to make their chicha from, but used the qninua for this 
 
 purpose, and gave llamas in exchange for fuel brought from the lower 
 
 country. This elevated region, in summer, may have fed on its rough 
 
 pastures the domestic llama and alpaca (but these did not yield milk), 
 
 also the wild huanaco and vicuna. AVe mav also include a few deer, 
 
 biscachas, chinchillas, and guinea pigs ; there was also water fowl and 
 
 some species of fish in the Andean lakes and streams. Maize and other 
 
 .vegetable productions may have been provided from the valleys below. 
 
 o2 
 
 / 
 
196 
 
 I have already referred to the quiuua plant as affording grain ; and 
 Tschudi speaks of the maca, a tuberose root (probably a Tropseolum). 
 It was in such a region the potato maf have grown in the summer, but 
 was frozen in winter ; then it was called chuiio and pagi, the starchy 
 part being changed into saccharine^. Still it is a matter for wonder to 
 find so large a collection of ruins in now a generally frozen desert. 
 Similar and other monuments are also met with around Lake Titicaca, 
 which is only 135 feet lower than Tia-Huanacu. 
 
 Buckle" is not quite correct in stating that the original civilisation of 
 Peru was seated in a hot country. Tia-Huanacu, the site of some of the 
 earliest architecture, is almost in a continual frozen region. 
 
 Weddell^ went from La Paz (which is in a ravine, 12,226 feet, its 
 upper part, or alto, 13,560 feet above the sea), by Tia-Huanacu, to 
 Arequipa ; he first traversed a stony desert ; there were some spots, 
 here and there, capable of cultivation, but without verdure. Innu- 
 merable piles of stones, formed by clearing the ground of them, show 
 the difficulty the Indian has to put it into a state of cultivation, say 
 for quiuua and the maca. After passing Laja, the stony plain was 
 covered with a more recent soil, and another plain, on which stands the 
 ruins of Tia-Huanacu, is of a similar formation : the ruins are on an 
 eminence, which formerly may have been a small island. Other heights 
 about here show lines of water level, and this same appearance is per- 
 ceived even to the shores of Lake Titicaca. 
 
 Pentland tells us that the extent of the great lake is decreasing even 
 within the historical period, that its w'aters washed the walls of Tia- 
 Huanacu in 1634 ; whereas, it is now 135 feet above the level of the 
 lalj:e, and twelve miles from it. It is 30 to 60 miles broad by 400 miles 
 in circumference. 
 
 We now come to the valley of the Desaguadero : it drains Lake Titi- 
 caca, in a south-easterly direction, into the Lake Auilagas. It w^ould 
 seem that the waters of Lake Auilagas are kept at lower level than the 
 Desaguadero by atmospheric evaporation, and the probable filtration 
 through the earth and by fissures ; for as yet no outlet, either to the 
 east or west, has been discovered. The Desaguadero valley, in the 
 south, is cold and unproductive, there are no trees, rushes only are seen ; 
 in the north some barley and potatoes are grown, but only in sheltered 
 s.it nations. 
 
 Lake Titicaca is, according to G-eneral O'Brien, 160 miles in length, 
 and 50 to 80 broad. Pentland gives it an elevation above the sea of 
 
 1 Buckle's His. CiTilisation in England, I., 100. 
 
 2 His. Civilisation, i., 86. 
 ^ Vov. dans le ]S^ord de la Boiivie, 1853, 
 
197 
 
 12,81G feet : he sounded iu 120 fathouid, but supposes it deeper. Much 
 tortora or rush grows on its shores, there is water fowl and seveu or 
 eight sorts of lisli. PentlauH says its shores are cultivated, producing 
 corn, barley, potatoes, and even Indian corn, and this at an elevation of 
 12,84!6 feet ! Later travellers add, that around Lake Titicaca, for eight 
 or nine months of the year, the sky is cloudless and the earth arid : in 
 winter it is cold, but the months of September, October and November 
 are temperate. General O'Brien says the west side of the lake is navi- 
 gable for IGO miles, but barren of all productions, excepting silver and 
 copper and tlie gold washings of Carabaya. Parts of the east side has 
 corn, fruits and timber, and round the lake alone the population 
 exceeds a million. 
 
 As to the position of Tia-Huanacu and its elevation, we see that the 
 waters of Lake Titicaca have retired from its walls not more than 220 
 years since ; this appears to show, that at that period there must have 
 been more rain and other systems of winds tlian at present, and thus 
 the climate has changed in this respect. Stiil the rarity of the air 
 would be about the same, but the temperature may have been higher. 
 The wonder, however, remains, that the seat of an ancient legislation 
 should have been placed at such an elevation, and is a subject of specu- 
 lation and inquiry, as to what was then the nature of the climate and 
 soil, to have produced sustenance for the builders of these extensive 
 and interesting monuments. I do not think we can bring to our assist- 
 ance the upheaval of the country, to cause this cold and arid character. 
 Darwin tells us, that at Valparaiso, within the last 220 years, there has 
 been a rise of 19 feet, and Lima has been upheaved 80 to 90 feet within 
 the Indio-human period ; but such small elevations could have but little 
 power in deflecting the moisture bringing atmospheric currents. Mr. 
 A. Taylor has computed that all existing causes would produce an 
 elevation of only three inches in ten thousand years. 
 
 Cuzco is in 13^ 30' S. The building of this city, I will suppose, 
 originated with the 1st Inca, 1100, a.d. ; its elevation is 11,378 feet. 
 Sometimes the soil is called moderately fertile : the little stream of 
 Guatani is dry for nine months in the year. The Spanish conquerors 
 found it very cold, but well supplied with provisions, the vegetable por- 
 tions of which must have been brought from such temperate valleys as 
 Tucay ; for there pomegranates and other European fruits grow ; it 
 was one of the country retreats of the Incas : indeed, the first Spanish 
 settlers wished to remove from Cuzco to Yucay, in consequence of the 
 inclement climate of the capital of the Incas. 
 
 Cajamarca, in 7° 8' S., and 8,840 feet above the sea ; its name implies, 
 place of frost, but Humboldt calls it a lovely and fertile plateau. This 
 
198 
 
 portion of Peru was conquered by the Inca Pacliacutec about 1400, a.d., 
 and became the second city of the empire, and must have been much 
 enjoyed by the Incas, for its fine climate ; and we can easily conceive 
 the love Huayna Capac had for Quito, in 12' S. at about 10,000 feet 
 above the sea, its mean temperature being about 60° F. 
 
 There is no cause for surprise to find the Muisca seat of civilisation 
 at Bogota, in 4° 36' JN"., at an elevation of 8,190 feet, and wbere the 
 mean temperature is 58° F. 
 
 Continuing onwards, we find climate propitious : Yucatan had a 
 table-land little elevated above the sea, and Guatemala at 5000 feet. 
 
 The city of Mexico, in 19° 25' N., is at 7,468 feet above the sea on 
 the table-land of Tenochtitlan, one-tenth of its surface covered with 
 lakes, and its mean temperature 62° E. It had its mountains or cold 
 countries, and its lower or tropical, and was thus supplied with pro- 
 ductions of every climate. 
 
 Many of the ruins on the islands and shores of Lake Titicaca may be 
 as old as those of Tia-Huanacu. On the island of Titicaca, or of the 
 Sun, are very ancient terraces and ruins. 
 
 Dalence^ speaks of ruins like those of Tia-Huanacu at El Puerte, in 
 the province of Chuquitu, where there are statues and sculptures. 
 
 Cieza de Leon alludes to ruins of very ancient and large edifices, also 
 stones with writing on them, on the banks of the river Yinaque, near 
 Humanga, which, according to tradition, was built by a bearded people, 
 long- before the Incas came here and made this their home : Herrera 
 says " white and bearded." In Chachapoyas, to the east of the 
 Maraiion, are very ancient ruins, too far from Cuzco, and too old to be 
 Incarial. Chacha means brave. The people of this country worshipped 
 the condor in particular, and bowed down before reptiles. Llavantu 
 was the name of their capital. Some of these monuments are of a 
 conical form, with large statues, and may have been the tombs of chiefs : 
 the ruins of Cuelap, in this direction, appear to be extensive, consisting 
 of chambers, tombs, and walls. At Concon, half-a-day's journey from 
 Lima towards Pasco, are ruins of an ancient place, surrounded by 
 walls : nothing is known of its history. 
 
 Ciu-umba, seven leagues from Andaguaylas, is an old square fortress, 
 sometimes called a pyramid ; it is of solid masonry, and was probably 
 erected by an independent nation previous to the conquest of this part 
 of the country by the Incas. The Chulpas are seen on the hill bathed 
 by the lake of Clustoni, in Puno : they may be tombs, they have sculp- 
 tures of lizards, serpents, and other objects. Here also are the ruina i 
 
 Estadistica de Bolivia. 
 
199 
 
 of Hatuu-Colla, said to have been the residence of a chief, the Gran 
 Ceoya, whose palace aud to^\-n was covered by the waters of the lake ; 
 also that this was the capital of the old CoUas (most probably Aymara's), 
 who lived principally around Lake Titicaca, and who courageously 
 opposed the Incas. 
 
 l)'Orbigny mentions the existence of a colossal statue at the entrance 
 of the cemetery of Santiago de Gruato. 
 
 Ollantay-tambo, 1S° 15' S., 72° 18 MV. This strong position, aud the 
 singular construction of its edifices, induce the supposition, that it 
 dates its origin from remote centuries ; that some of the later chiefs of 
 this territory were independent and contemporaneous with the first 
 Incas, and was only conquered by them in later times. Here are the 
 remains of a strong fortress, palace, walls, and galleries or terraces. 
 Mr. Markham,^ who visited this place in 1852, speaks of them as 
 remarkable for their enormous size, and the accuracy with which the 
 stones are cut ; some at various angles, to receive the dove-tailings of 
 their neighbours. Bustamante- supposes there were three periods of 
 architecture at Ollantay-tambo. The construction of the first appears 
 most perfect, the stones are large and built with taste and symmetrv. 
 In the second the same care is not observed, the stones are smaller aud 
 unequal : the third inferior to the second, and may be of a period not 
 long before the Spanish conquest. Guaraconda is in the vicinity, and 
 has similar ruins. 
 
 Hill,^ a recent visitor to this place, calls it Ottantaitambo and Attan- 
 taitambo, and composed of ruins of dwellings cut in the solid rock, at 
 the height of fourteen or seven hundred feet ; there are also numerous 
 terraces formed of irregular stones, which once supported a productive 
 soil, where now all is barren. Innumerable stone buildings are seen 
 everywhere in the most thorough confusion, as if an earthquake had 
 distributed them. 
 
 Osery, the companion of Castelnaii, observed on the top of a mountain 
 near Ollantay-tambo, a monument, supposed to be for astronomical 
 pui'poses, composed of a square building, each side having three win- 
 dows : unfortunately his murder on the Maraiion by his guides prevents 
 us deciding if the position of the twelve windows corresponded with 
 the sun's risings, during the twelve months of the year. 
 
 Old Huanuco, in 9° 58' S., 75° 40' W. : these ruins are interesting, 
 from the six stone portals one within the other. Another object there 
 is called the " look out," but may have been a place of sacrifice. The 
 
 ^ Cuzco and Lima. 
 
 ' Apuntes, &c.j Paris, lSi9. 
 
 3 Peru and Mexico, i., 286, 1860. 
 
200 
 
 architecture here is singularly distinct from other edifices built in the 
 time of the Incas ; but as this place was taken by the Incas, some of 
 their works are also found. In Huaytara, province of Castro-Yireyna, 
 is •an edifice similar to old Huanuco, also sculptured stones. In Grua-- 
 malies it is reported there are ancient ruins. 
 
 I will now come to the monuments of the coast nations, commencing 
 with the very extensive ruins of the Chimus or Chincus ; their capital 
 was at Trujillo, 8° 8' S. 
 
 We know very little concerning the history of the Chimus : the first 
 mention of them is by Montesinos, who states that Huasca-Titu, his 
 13th chief of Peru, died when he was about, to make war upon this 
 nation. Tlie next account is by Garcilasso : that the 9th Inca, Pacha- 
 cutec, sent an army of 30,000 men to conquer the Chimu-Canchu or 
 Canchu, known also as the Grran-Chimu, or king of Manseriche. Ste- 
 venson states that at Eten, 6° 50' S., the Indians speak Chimu, which is 
 the original language of (this part) of the coast of Peru, and so difiJerent 
 from the Quichua. Eivero and Tschudi inform us, that the works of 
 art of the Chimus, and those found in Cuzco, are much more perfect 
 and correct than those which are seen in the Sierra and on the coast 
 of Central Peru. 
 
 Don Mariano E. P-ivero visited Trujillo, and described the ruins in a 
 work published in Lima in 1841, and subsequently re-published in 
 London.^ They are found in the valley, but there is no data to fix with 
 certainty the period they were erected. When the last Chimu was 
 conquered by the Inca's troops, by the advice of his chiefs, he offered 
 to worship the sun and abandon the idols of his country, which con- 
 sisted of the representations of fish and other animals. The ruins 
 covered a space of three-quarters of a mile, exclusive of the great 
 squares, the walls of which are of small stones joined together with 
 mortar, and were probably used as fields. 
 
 Prom the village of Mansiche or Manseriche, we begin to see the 
 walls of adobe, and the vestiges of this once great city. The dimensions 
 of the great squares vary from 200 to 270 yards in length, and from 
 100 to 160 in breadth ; their number may be seven or eight. The 
 walls which surround these edifices are formed of adobes, often of 
 twelve yards long and five or six broad in the lower part of the waU, 
 but diminishing until they terminate in a breadth of one yard at the 
 top. Some of the squares contain huacas or tombs, and the walls of 
 large apartments or halls. Each of the palaces was surrounded by an 
 exterior wall of stone and mortar and adobes. 
 
 ^ See Rivcro and Tscliudi for drawings, &c. 
 
Tiollaert\s Antiq. S Aiuerica 
 
 FROM jV DOoit ^VAY 
 
 PI ) . L AK WIT FT EIG-KT UE Al; S 
 
 FROM THFj pillar 
 
 KEAD S (y.3 iiatUTal Size of CTanite') from HUAIIAN C H. U C O 
 
 -h-.. ft,c„.„ r-,+h'^-'t/> TTiP.O-.A.eeTU 
 
201 
 
 In the first palace there is a square, in which are found apartments 
 made of small stones and mortar ; it ia supposed these were tombs, or, 
 perhaps, apartments for the'~coucubines of the Chimu. The buildin"- 
 of the walls is simple and elegant, consisting principallv of sciil])tured 
 panels and ornaments. 
 
 The second palace contains various squares and buildings. At one 
 end is the huaca of Misa ; this tomb is traversed by small alleys and 
 has some large chambers. Mummies, cloths, pieces of gold and silver, 
 iron? (if so, probably meteoric), an idol of stone, with small pieces of 
 mother-of pearl, were found. 
 
 Among these ruins are many artificial eminences ; these are huacas, 
 and frequently curiosities have been taken from them illustrative of the 
 ancient inhabitants. In 1563 and 1592, the king's fifth of the o-old 
 found amounted to nearly £61,000. In 1550, Don Antonio Chayque, 
 a legitimate descendant of the Chimu-Canchu, showed to the Spaniards 
 a huaca called Llomayoahuan, upon condition that they should give a 
 part of the treasure obtained for the relief of the Indians ; but after 
 having taken from it much wealth, the agreement was violated by the 
 Spaniards. 
 
 It is certain that there have been obtained from the huaca of 
 Concha much gold, also some fetters supposed to be of copper. The 
 huaca of the bishop is the largest, but as yet has yielded nothing-. 
 
 In the " Mercuric Peruano," til, 80, is a notice of various curiosities 
 taken from the huaca of Toledo ; one was the body of an Indian with 
 a veil and a crown with four tassels ; on the neck was a sort of broad 
 cravat ; in one hand was something like a nail, in the other a symbol 
 which was unintelligible ; the outer robe was a tunic. 
 
 A Temple of the Sun is described as existing near here, which is 
 most probably of Incarial origin. 
 
 I have deposited in the British Museum specimens of red pottery 
 from Trujillo, including a vase representing the head of an animal, a 
 whistling jug, also a beautiful specimen of modelling, perhaps one of 
 the finest produced from South America, and as seen in the frontispiece 
 to this work.^ It is a vase, being the head, most probably, of a Chimu 
 ruler ; it has the lobes of the ears enlarged by the insertion of a 
 wheel of gold, silver or wood, ornamented with small circles, and would 
 
 ^ The authors of the " Indigenous Races of the Earth" say, that Tochudi I'm 
 \ Hivero and Tschudi) compares his Peruvian vase to any Etruscan pottery ; but if we 
 must dissent from his view, we may study the high proficiency of Peruvian art, when 
 we behold two exquisite heads in the British Museum, found at Titicaca : the male 
 head compares advantageously with the Egyptian and Etruscan. 
 
202 
 
 be called in Peru an Orejon or great ears, indicative of high rank.^ 
 The head here has not the Llautu or Incarial fillet, but a cap or casque 
 with, seemingly, a bat's head in front, and two circular ornaments 
 at the side. 
 
 The Otolicnians had " such very large ears, that they do sleep upon 
 one, and cover themselves with the other. "^ If we refer to the size of 
 the metal or wooden wheels introduced into the gristle of the ear of the 
 Orejones, or large-eared chiefs, among the Peruvians, we have an 
 approach to these Otolicinians. 
 
 At Pativirca or Pati-Huillca, near the coast, are to be seen large 
 walls of adobe, the remains of an ancient structure of the Chimus. 
 Pive miles distant are the ruins of Paramanca, probably of a fortress 
 and palace ; and it is the general opinion that the Chimus erected the 
 fortress as a frontier post against the Peruvians. Sculptures in por- 
 phyry and basalt are said to have been met with here. 
 
 Chaix^ states, that from Lima to Piura was inhabited by Chimus, 
 sometimes called Yungas, and are of foreign origin ; that they came to 
 Peru on rafts, bringing with them a green idol,^ called Llampellec, from 
 which Lambayeque : their language is distinct from the Quichua. In. 
 1644, forty thousand Indians spoke this language, but in 1791 it was 
 nearly extinct. After their establishment, they had their Chimu rulers, 
 who were as powerful in the plains, as the Incas in the mountains. 
 Their country extended 200 leagues in length : their civilisation was 
 probably of an older date than that of the Incas, and their monuments 
 are first seen at Supe, in 11° S. 
 
 Mr. Parris lately returned to England from this part of the country 
 with an interesting collection of antiquities extracted from huacas : a 
 portion has been purchased by the British Museum. A brief notice 
 may not be out of place. Prom Trujillo, pottery with figures of men, 
 
 ^ The reigning Inca pierced the ears of those of royal blood with pius of gold, 
 which they wore until the aperture was large enough to hold enormous pendents, j 
 peculiar to their order, which consisted of wheels of gold or silver. j 
 
 The Botucudos of Brazil enlarge the ear and under lip. The Apangis of same I 
 country have the ears pierced and loaded like the Peruvian Orejon. The inhabitants f 
 of Easter Island, when Captain Cook visited it, men and women, had an oblong sht j 
 in the ear. The statues on Easter Island show no ear perforation, and were probably 
 the work of another race. 
 
 2 See RawHnson's Herodotus, Edin. Review, Jan. 1860. 
 
 3 His. Amer. Merid. i., 213. 
 
 ■* The natives of Manta had the goddess of health, Umiila; the face was of an 
 emerald. 
 

 I 
 1^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 Vfl 
 
203 
 
 women, animals, and plants ; mantles, large silver breast-plates, with 
 embossed figures of men, animals, fish, and plants. The tombs of 
 Huarman, Manseriche, Ascope and Chocope have yielded pottery witli 
 various figures. Berue or Viru, much ornamented aud painted pottery; 
 one in particular is a globular vase (a.) Ctbis is in the British Museum), 
 with a circular handle, at the top of which was the spout. It has 
 paintings of two figures with wrings, probably the god of war of the 
 Chimus (b.) : it holds a club in one hand, a sliield and arrows in the 
 other. There are four compartments in the body of the figure, con- 
 taining something like hieroglyphs. The figures are painted red on a 
 yellow ground (in the drawing they are in black), and the first I have 
 seen with wings. The painting on this vase is Etruscan-like, and may 
 be considered unique. 
 
 I cannot make anything out of the hieroglyphs, but as to the figures, 
 y they may represent the god of war, and probably flying over a wooded 
 mountain : there is an insect flying, something like a figure on the 
 Athenian vase of Electra at the tomb of Agamemnon.^ 
 
 Santiago de Cao ornamented and figured pottery. Iluamanchuco, 
 7° 50' S., 78° 10^ W. : this country w^as conquered by the 9th Inca, 
 Pachacutec ; pottery aud a fine collection of copper and stone axes and 
 other implements of war, copper chisels, ornaments and tupus or pins, 
 nippers for extracting hair from the face, also two stone heads, called 
 " ornaments from the palace of the great chief, Marco Huamanchuco," 
 ]\ir. Parris tells me, that one of these was one of eight heads set round 
 a stone pillar, in the centre of a large apartment of the palace, which 
 •was also a fortress ; the other head is of an old man, and has the ears 
 enlarged like the Orejon ; it is from a doorway. 
 
 An oracle existed in the province of Huamanchuco, called the Iluaca 
 Catequilla, which predicted to Tupac-Tupanqui the result of the cam- 
 paign which he was going to undertaiie against a brother, who had 
 rebelled, that he, Tupanqui, should die in battle ; and this was Terified. 
 The son of Tupac, irritated at the death of his father, destroyed the 
 temple of the oracle ; but the priests resolved to place the idol in 
 safety, and carried it to Cahuana, where they built another temple and 
 continued its worship. 
 
 A monk of the Augustine order, in describing the superstitions of 
 
 Huamanchuco, alludes to a custom, that does not appear to have found 
 
 j imitators in other countries : when a young man asked for a young 
 
 I woman to be his wife, her father told him all her defects, so that he 
 
 might not be dissatisfied afterwards, should she turn ont wanton or 
 
 1 Birch's Ancient Pottery, ii., 124. 
 
204 
 
 lazy: "Take her," the father would say, " and if she is good-for-nothing, 
 do not blame me, for I have told you the truth about her."i 
 
 Yiracocha-pampa : pottery, implements of war in copper and stone. 
 Amaro : pottery and stone hammers, round at both ends. Tayabamba : 
 east of the Maranon, 8° S., 77*^ 25' W. : pottery and other objects. 
 From Buldebure, Parcoi, Pataz, Amaro, Tuscan, Nanac, various descrip- 
 tions of potterj^ One of these pieces of terra-cotta pottery is that of 
 an Indian bearing a small load, as they had to do in the presence of the 
 Inca, so as to show their humility. In this collection were many objects 
 like spindle twirls of stone and clay. From Sacrificios, in Mexico, 
 many such have been taken from tombs ; it|ias been thought that they 
 served as buttons. 
 
 Chancay, a league from the sea : the huacas have yielded household 
 gods of terra cotta, different from that of the Chimus, or similar works 
 of art from the interior of Peru : for specimens, see plates xyi., 
 liivero and Tschudi. 
 
 "VYhat I have to say of Supe and Huacho, I am indebted to Steven- 
 son.^ Supe is south of Pativirca, and between it and Huara is the 
 extensive plain or pampa del medio mundo (of half the world), which 
 before the conquest was under irrigation: vestiges of old canals are 
 visible, and bear witness of the enormous labour of the ancient 
 inhabitants, as well as of their skill in conveying water to great dis- 
 tances. The principal canal here, took its water from the Huara river, 
 and winding round the foot of the mountains, conveyed it to the 
 distance of ten leagues, irrigating in its course some very beautiful 
 plains, which are now sandy deserts. 
 
 Near Supe are the remains of Indian towns, one built on the side 
 of a rock, galleries being dug out of it, one above another, for the 
 purpose of making room for their houses. 
 
 Stevenson says, he was fully convinced that the Indians buried their 
 dead in the houses where they had resided, as he dug up many of 
 them ; they were buried with whatever belonged to them at the time of | 
 their death : he found bodies of women with their pots, pans and jars 
 of earthenware, some of which were curious ; one had two Indians upon 
 
 ^ Huamanchuco is between tlie Nevada of Huaylillas and the River Maranon, from 
 Maran-i-obbo or river of the ]\Iarans. Tlie Maran tree jields the balsam of Copiaba. 
 — Schomburgh. Yelasco says, the Maraiion derives its name from the circumstance 
 of a soldier, vrho was sent by Pizarro to discover the sources of the Piura river, who, 
 beholding the mighty stream, and astonished at a sea of fresh w^ater, exclaimed, " Hac 
 mare an non." At p. 414 of the Arauco Domado, the Licentiate Maraiion, visitador | 
 and oidor of Quito, is spoken of. 
 
 - Narrative, i. vol. 
 
I 
 
 205 
 
 it, carrying a corpse on their shoulders, laid on a hollow bier ; wlien 
 the vase was inclined backwards and forwards, a plaintive cry was heard 
 resembling that made by the Indians at a funeral. Long pieces of 
 cotton cloth, calabashes, maize, qiiinua, beans, leaves of plantains, 
 ostrich feathers, dresses, spades of palm wood, lances, clubs, jars of 
 chicha, small dolls of cotton ; their dress similar to that worn at present 
 by the females of Cajatambo, rings and small cups of gold, the latter 
 beat out very thin, and their size that of half a hen's egf^-shell ; it is 
 supposed they were worn in the ears, for a small shank is attached to 
 them ; slips of silver, about two inches broad and ten long, as thin as 
 paper, also frequently dug up. The body of a man was found whose 
 hair grew from his eye-brows, or rather he had no vi.^ible forehead ; a 
 great quantity of dried herbs had been buried with him, some small pots 
 and several dolls : the Indians who saw him, said that he had been a 
 wizard, diviner, or a doctor. 
 
 Huacho is an Indian village in the valley watered by the Huara. It 
 contained in 1815, four thousand Indians, who cultivated their farms, 
 cut salt at the salinas, caught fish, and mnde straw hats of fine rushes, 
 or of macora, the produce of a palm tree. They v/ere kind and 
 hospitable, but timidity and diffidence made them appear reserved and 
 sullen. The Indians on this part of the coast of Peru are of a copper 
 colour, with small forehead, the hair growing on each side from the 
 extremities of the eye-brows ; they have small black eyes, small nose, 
 the nostrils protruding like those of the African ; a moderately-sized 
 mouth, beautiful teeth, beardless chin, except in old age, and a round 
 face; their hair is black, coarse and sleek, without any inclination to 
 curl ; the body is well proportioned, and the limbs well turned, and 
 they have small feet ; their stature is rather diminutive, and they are 
 inclined to corpulency : the perspiration from their bodies is acetous, 
 which some have supposed to be caused by a vegetable diet. In the 
 colder climates, although in the sameT latitude, the complexion of the 
 Indian is lighter ; however, the Araucanos, who live in a much colder 
 climate, are of a dark copper colour. 
 
 At Huacho, Stevenson saw one of the ancient Indian rites — the 
 naca feast. A child never has his hair cut till it is a vear old : the 
 friends assemble, and, one by one, take a small lock and cut it off, at the 
 same time presenting something to the child. This ceremony among 
 the Peruvians, was practised at the naming of the child, and the name 
 was generally appropriate to some circumstance which occurred to the 
 child on that day. The Tth Inca was called Yahuar Huacar, weeper of 
 blood, because on that day drops of blood were observed falling from 
 his eves : and Huasca, the 13th Inca, was so named, because the 
 
206 
 
 nobles on this day presented bim witb a golden cbain or buasca, after 
 the ceremony of the iiacas. 
 
 Near Chancay are ruins of subterranean depositories for food, called 
 colcas, built by the Chimus during their wars with the Incas, Shortly 
 after the Spanish conquest, in the parish of Ancallama, a population of 
 30,000 paid tribute, at present there are only 425 inhabitants, 320 of 
 whom are JSTegroes. Guarmey, 10° S.: here is an old Indian fortress. 
 Lima, 12° S., six miles from the port of Callao : in 1740,^ there were 
 two Indian suburbs at Callao called old and new Pitipiti. The great 
 number of Indians who inhabited this valley before and at the time of 
 the conquest, w^ere reduced to the few inhabitants of Pitipiti, and had 
 only two caciques, and these in such low circumstances as to teach 
 music at Lima for subsistence. Lima is built on the river E-imac, the 
 banks of which are covered with ruins of ancient towns and tombs. 
 One tomb, 1^ miles south of Lima, is nearly 200 feet high. Three 
 leao-ues from Lima, Darwin- visited the ruins of one of the old Indian 
 villages, with its mound-like or natural hill in the centre. He observes, 
 the remains of houses, enclosures, irrigating streams, and burial 
 mounds, scattered over this plain, cannot fail to give one a high idea of 
 the condition and number of the ancient population. The burial 
 mounds or huacas, are really stupendous ; although in some places they 
 appear to be natural hills incased and modelled.. Eimac comes from 
 the word rimay, to speak, from an oracle that was here. Stevenson 
 states that its ancient inhabitants called the valley Eimac Malca, or the 
 place of witches ; it being the custom among the Indians who lived in 
 its vicinity before they were conquered by the Incas, to banish to this 
 valley those who were accused of witchcraft. Its climate was bad, 
 having marshy ground ; thus fevers generally destroyed in a short time 
 such individuals as were the objects of this superstitious persecution. 
 It is said, that when Manco Capac and his sister, Ocollo, were pre- 
 sented by their grandfather to the Indians living at Cuzco, and were 
 informed by him, that they were the children of the Sun, the fair com- 
 plexion of the strangers, and their light-coloured hair, induced the 
 Indians to consider them as Eimacs, and they were exiled to this spot. 
 
 This territory was anciently governed by various powerful chiefs, the 
 principal one being the Curys-mancu, his dominions extending from 
 Pachacamac to Barranca. We know but little of these coast rulers or 
 their origin. The Incas, particularly the 8th and 9th, descended from 
 the Andes as conquerors to the country of the Curys-mancu, who had 
 
 1 Ulloa, II., 43. 
 
 2 Nat. Toy. 368. 
 
207 
 
 a temple erected to the invisible god, Pacliacamac ; he was incorporated 
 into the Incarial family of Pachacutee, whilst other chiefs were severely 
 punished for their opposition to the Incas. 
 
 Three leagues north-east of Lima, in the valley of Guachipa, are 
 standing walls of a large town ; the streets are narrow, tlie houses of 
 mud, and each house consists of three small apartments. There is one 
 house larger than the rest, probably that of a chief. This spot is 
 know^n as " Old Cajamarca." The walls, as well as similar ones in the 
 district, have no foundations, and have withstood those violent earth- 
 quakes which overthrew the more solid buildings of Lima and 
 other towns. 
 
 The ruins of the great temple to Pachacamac (Pacha, the earth ; 
 Camac, participle of Camani, I create) and city of the Curys-mancus, 
 are some seven leagues south of Lima. There are many descriptions 
 of this celebrated locality, but I will only briefly refer to the observa- 
 tions in Wilkes' United States Exploring Expedition, to Eivero and 
 Tschudi, and Markham. 
 
 According to "Wilkes, the temple is on the summit of a hill having 
 three terraces ; some of the walls are of unhewn blocks of rock ; these 
 were cased with adobes or sun-dried bricks, then covered with plaster 
 and painted red. A range of square pilasters projected from the upper 
 wall, evidently belonging to the interior of a large apartment : no 
 trace's are found of doors or windows. Some graves were observed 
 south of the temple, but the principal burial ground was between the 
 temple and the town. The skulls were of various characters, the 
 majority presented the vertical or raised occiput, the usual characteristic 
 of the old Peruvians, while others had the forehead and top of the 
 head depressed. The bodies were wrapped in cloths of various qualities 
 and colours: various utensils and other articles were found which 
 seemed to denote the occupation of the individual, as wooden needles 
 and weaving utensils, netting, slings, cordage, baskets, fragments of pot- 
 tery, maize, cotton seeds, wool, gourds, shells, &c. 
 
 Eivero and Tschudi give a large drawing of the ruins, and describe 
 them as much dilapidated. On a conical hill, 458 feet above the sea, 
 are the ruins of the Temple of Pachacamac ; at the foot of the hill are 
 the decayed walls of the edifices intended for strangers who came on 
 pilgrimage ; the w^hole was surrounded by a wall of adobes, nine feet in 
 width. The material of the fabric is not of stone, as in Cuzco, bnt of 
 sun-dried bricks, easily crumbled. In the most elevated part is the 
 temple, which, when first visited by the Spaniards, they found the door 
 to be of gold, inlaid w^th precious stones ; the interior was obscure ; 
 this being the spot where the priests had their bloody sacrifices before 
 
208 
 
 an idol of wood, the vrorship of which succeeded the pure abstract 
 adoration of the invisible Pachacamac. At present there remain of this 
 temple some niches, which, according to Cieza de Leon, contained 
 representations of wild animals : frngments of painting of animals are 
 observed on the walls. 
 
 Outside of this edifice there was a temple to the Sun, palace and 
 house of Virgins of the Sun ; monuments erected by the Incas, Pacha- 
 cutec and Yupanqui, after their conquest of this great coast nation. 
 
 Kuins of vast extent still remain, with saloons twenty to twenty-five 
 yards in length, and six to eight in width, of mud walls, forming narrow 
 streets, all indicating that here was once a large population. Two 
 miles off* shore, are three barren islands, supposed to have formed part 
 of the continent, but separated by the terrible earthquake of 1586.^ 
 
 Mr. Markham, in his " Cuzco and Lima," speaks of Pachacamac as 
 a city of the dead : the roofs of the habitations are gone and the dwell- 
 ings filled with sand. The ruins of the temple consist of three broad 
 terraces, twenty feet high, in parts of which the vermillion paint, that 
 once coated the whole, is still seen. Above the terraces there is a level 
 platform, where once a splendid fane arose in honour of Pachacamac, 
 the creator of the world, the supreme god. The great silent city, which 
 does not contain ,one solitary inhabitant, is spread out immediately 
 beneath the hill. 
 
 The valleys of Pachacamac, Eimac-Malca, Chancay and Huaman 
 composed the state of the Curys-mancus or Quis-mancus.^ Montesinos 
 observes, that under the Peruvian Emperor, Ayartaco-Cupo XII, the 
 giants that came to Peru and populated Port Santa Elena, built a 
 
 ^ A very severe earthquake commenced in the morning of the 19th of April, 1860 ; 
 one shock lasted eighty seconds, the heaviest since old Callao was submerged. On the 
 22nd the ground shook violently for fifty seconds, doing great damage to Lima and 
 its vicinity, also destroying several estates at Cauete. In Manta trees were rooted 
 up, and one of the mountains close by was rent in two, and produced a volcano of 
 hot fetid water. Up to the 27th, twenty-eight shocks had been counted ; they com- 
 menced with oscillation of the ground, then heaving, followed by subterranean noise. 
 A chasm, nearly a mile long and several feet wide, has been opened in the ground 
 near Lima. 
 
 2 The Estadistica of Lima, 1839, mentions, that the department of Lima in ancient 
 times was governed by many chiefs, the principal ones being the Curys-mancus, whose 
 dominions extended from Pachacamac to the town of Barranca. The origin of this 
 nation is so remote that it is not known whether it v/as not older even than the Incas : 
 history only tells us that the conquering arms of the Incas, having arrived at the 
 frontiers, and discovering that the Curys-mancu had a temple erected to the invisible 
 god, Pachacutec, the 10th Inca, confederated with and incorporated him into the 
 Incai'ial family- 
 
209 
 
 sumptuous temple at Pacliacaraac. It is sometimes said tliat tlio 
 Yuncas (another name for thej)eople of a portion of this country) built 
 this temple. There must have been various buildings farther south ; 
 but as these were most probably composed of adobe, they have moul- 
 dered down level with the earth ; however, the huacas or graves are 
 abundant as at Cailete, in 13° S. (founded in 1559, near an ancient 
 fortress and palace), formerly the country of the Chuqui-mancus, who 
 ruled over the beautiful valleys of the Guarcu, and may have been 
 occupied by one of the great Chincha nations of the coast. At 
 Chincha-baja there is a fortress called the Inca's palace. 
 
 Caiiete, in the province of Yauyos, extends from the coast towards 
 the Cordillera. The inhabitants are distinguishable by their faces and 
 figures, and also by their language, from other Indians of the coast and 
 mountains ; their language, the Cauqui, contains many radical words 
 of the Quichua. Here rich huacas have been opened. I have placed 
 in the British Museum, from this spot, large silver-gilt ear-rings, a pair 
 of scales, the beam of bone and netted bags to serve as scales, and some 
 very thin pieces of silver, an inch square, each having holes at the 
 corners, probably to attach to dresses-; a sling of very fine workman- 
 ship, and some sweet-smelling resin, probably used as incense. 
 
 Eivero and Tschudi say that, under the collective names of Canopa 
 or Chanca, the Peruvians designated their minor deities, and they men- 
 tion in a note that the Quichua word, Canopa, deserves the attention 
 of antiquarians ; for, by the word Canopus or Conobas, the Egyptians 
 denominated a beneficent spirit or tutelar god, representing it under 
 the form of a bird or human head. Chanca, I can understand to be a 
 Quichua word, but Canopa looks to one as if it had been introduced by 
 some Spanish antiquary. In the " Extirpation of the Indians of Peru," 
 Lima, 16-12, by the Jesuit, Arriaga, who travelled in that country from 
 Eebruary, 1617, to July, 1618 ; he says he confessed 5,624 people, 
 imposed penance on 679 ministers of idolatry, removed 603 principal 
 huacas, 3,418 Canopas (household gods), 45 Mamazaras, deities of 
 Indian corn ; 189 huancas, masters of the field ; and 617 mallquis or 
 bodies of ancestors. 
 
 The Chincha coast race, with the Aymards and ITuncas, appear 
 to have been the three great nations of Peru existing before the 
 Incarial times. 
 
 In an interesting paper in " Eraser's Magazine," 1844, on the state 
 of the Peruvian Empire previous to the arrival of the Spaniard, by 
 General Miller, is the following : — " To the summons of Capac 
 Yupanqui, brother to the Inca, Pachacutec, who died 1400, the chiefs 
 of the densely peopled country of the Chinchas gave the following 
 
\ 
 
 210 
 
 reply : ■ We do not want to have the Inca for a king, nor the sun for 
 a god ; we ah^eady have a god whom we adore, and a king whom we 
 serve. Our god is the ocean, and every body may see that it is greater 
 than the sun, and that it besides yields to us an abundance of food ; 
 whereas the sun does us no good whatever : on the contrary, he 
 oppresses us with too much heat in our sultry region, and we have no 
 occasion for it, as they who live amidst cold mountains, where it may 
 be right to worship him, because he is useful there . . . The Inca had 
 better return homewards without entering into war wdth the lord and 
 king of Chincha, who is a most puissant ruler.' " ^ 
 
 Arequipa, 16° 50' S. Under Mayta Capac, 4th Inca, the country of 
 Arequipa or Arceypa, was subjected. Plate xxix., E;ivero and Tschudi, 
 is a head of red pottery, very different from the figures from the coast 
 and the interior, being so much more perfect : the eyes are apparently 
 of gold. 
 
 In the province of Canas there is a fortress on the mountain of Mol- 
 loccahua, where the Canenos defended themselves successfully against 
 Huayna Capac, who, being unable to subject them by force of arms, 
 w^ent to the court of the Ccana or ruler of the country, asking for his 
 daughter to be the Inca's wife, and thus the Ccana was allied. 
 
 In the district of Chota are many subterranean works and tombs 
 and in the court-yard of the farm of Mamoy there formerly stood 
 high stone tower that had sculptures in basso-relief of various figures! 
 of animals. This monument has been destroyed.^ 
 
 Peeuyian Potteet. — I do not find any account of the employmen 
 of the potter's wheel or table, in Peru ; still, as they made globular! 
 and circular vessels, they may have had some approach to this useful 
 invention. The Maypures of Colombia form the clay into cylinders.; 
 and mould the largest vases with their hands. The American Indian^ 
 appears to have been unacquainted with the potter's wheel (which wast 
 familiar to the nations of the east in the remotest antiquity) ; and sal 
 they did not use the oven, they generally placed twigs around the pots! 
 baking them in the open air. 
 
 Several sorts of terra- cotta pottery are found in the Peruvian tombs 
 black, various tints of red, yellow, brown, and some of a blue colour 
 the black is generally modelled, the red modelled and painted : as t( 
 moulding, this requires further examination. None of the old Peruviai 
 pottery I have seen is glazed. Mr. Squier, in his Archaeology o 
 JN^icaragua, states, that the pottery made there is formed by the handijjl 
 without the aid of the potter's wheel, baked, and when intended fo: 
 
 Gruia de Fore^teros, 1819. 
 
211 
 
 purposes requiring it, is partially glazed ; and in a note alludes to 
 Edwards' Voyage up the Amazon, who says that the glazing (varnishing 
 rather) there is produced by a resinous gum, gently rubbed over the 
 vessels, previously warmed over a bed of coals : this description applied 
 equally to the modes practised in Nicaragua. I have seen no glaziu" 
 on ancient Peruvian pottery. 
 
 I have supposed that the Huaqueros or sacred vases, found in the 
 Inca Peruvian tombs, were made under the superintendence of the 
 priests. The household pottery was made by working potters, who 
 were called Sanu-camayoc, the earthen vessels, Manca ; stone vases 
 were used, also vessels of gold, silver, and copper. The greater portion 
 of Peruvian pottery may be called terra-cotta ; many hold water, and 
 liquids can be boiled in them. From the north of Peru I have seen 
 clay figures, " characterised by a prurient indecency." 
 
 Mr. Birch,^ alluding to ancient vases of the old world, with white 
 ornaments, mseanders, &c., says, they much resemble those found in tlie 
 tombs of the early Peruvians, and may be regarded as displaying the 
 first attempts at decoration. He gives a drawing^ of a double cruze of 
 glazed ware from Egypt, united by a band : many of the Peruvian 
 vessels are double, quadruple, sextuple, and octuple. Some of the 
 double ones, when filled with liquid, the air escaping througli the 
 opening left for that purpose, produce musical sounds, or as that of 
 birds and animals. 
 
 After the conquest, Spain supplied earthenware to its colonies; 
 China a considerable quantity by way of the Philippine Islands ; and in 
 our own times, England principally manufactures for South America. 
 
 At p. 89, I mentioned the existence of potter's clay in Quito, having 
 a delicate fragrance. Molina^ gives the folloA\'ing of a similar clay 
 found in Chile, near the capital, called Buccari ; it is fine and light, 
 of an agreeable smell, of a brown colour spotted vrith yellow. In 
 many of the convents they manufacture from this clay, jars, bottles, 
 cups, &c., which they paint, gild, and varnish. These vessels com- 
 municate a pleasant smell and flavour to the water put into them, 
 which proceeds from some bituminous body in the clay. I have some 
 of this pottery, and it appears to me that the fragrance has been given 
 to it by cloves, vanilla, or such like bodies. 
 
 ' Ancient Pottery, ii., 253. 
 
 ^ Ancient Pottery, i., 55. 
 
 3 His. ChHe, i., 53- 
 
 p 2 
 
INCAEIAL MONUMENTS. 
 
 G-enerally speaking, the formation of those wonderful roads in Peru 
 have been awarded to the Incas : still I consider that before their 
 times many were in existence, but were extended by them. Those 
 travellers who have examined these roads say that, even in the existing 
 state of our knowledge, and with modern instruments of labour, they 
 would be deemed worthy of the most civilised nation. 
 
 According to Sarmiento, some of these roads passed over terrific 
 sierras, while the only means for their construction were fire and 
 a tool for picking. Cieza de Leon describes roads, some over the 
 Andes, with their tambos or lodging places and depositories, also one 
 along the coast, probably commenced by the IX. Inca and completed 
 by Huyana Capac XII. This was a broad road. On each side it had 
 a wall, while in parts the road was shaded by trees. Velasco notices 
 well preserved spaces in Quito twenty-one feet wide, parts cut out of 
 rock, and, to equalise the surface, it was covered with a cement of | 
 bitumen. Humboldt examined some of these roads, and states that 
 they do not fall behind the most imposing Roman ways. Eivero and 
 Tschudi tell us that the upper road from Cuzco to Quito was from 
 eighteen to twenty feet wide and about twelve hundred miles in length; 
 the lower road a foot wider and nearlv 1600 miles. 
 
 Almagro, when going from Cuzco to the Conquest of Chile, during 
 the first part of the way profited by the great road of the Incas, which 
 stretched across the table land far towards the south. On his return, 
 his army crossed the desert of Atacama and through the province of ; 
 Tarapaca. Here I observed broad tracks cleared of loose stones, so as 
 to allow of easy transit : these are considered as ancient roads. I will 
 here only allude to the bridges, some of stone, others swinging or sus- 
 pension : their acqueducts, one made by the Inca Yiracocha, 450 miles 
 in length along the steepest sierras, nourishing the andeneria or terraced 
 gardens ; tunnels, quarries, fortresses, arsenals, obelisks, theatres, 
 schools, temples to the sun in particular, houses for the virgins of the 
 sun, and as to palaces there were above two himdred from Cuzco to 
 Quito. These and other forms of building, combined with their 
 peculiar form of government, render the Incarial race a most interesting 
 people. 
 
 
213 
 
 The Incarial monumeuts are square, oblong and cyclopean ; of 
 granite, porphyry and other ^one : at Lunatambo stones of spherical 
 form are seen, but adobes or sun-dried bricks were used in the more 
 rainless portions of the empire. The lintel is sometimes narrower than 
 the threshold, but the architecture characterised by simplicity, sym- 
 metry and solidity. The present houses of Cuzco are built of stone, 
 the lower part being usually constructed of the massive and imposing 
 buildings of the time of the Incas, while the upper, roofed witli red 
 tiles, is a modern superstructure. 
 
 The principal ruins in Cuzco are the following : the great temple to 
 the sun, on the site of which the church of Santo Dominiro is built • 
 the Sacsahuaman,^ or great fortress, with underground communications, 
 which took fifty years to build ; Colcampata, the palace of ]\Ianco- 
 Capac ; palace of Inca Roca ; Ab. Uahuan, or residence of the Virgins 
 of the sun ; palaces of the Incas Yupauqui and Huasca ; ruins within 
 the Convent of Santa Teresa and monastery of San Francisco ; Cyclo- 
 pean constructions in the street of Marquez-Intipampa or square of 
 the sun ; gardens of the temple of the sun ; Coricaucha or square of 
 gold. 
 
 In the Tacha-huasi, or schools founded by the Inca Eoca, are ser- 
 pents carved in relief on stones, and the same designs are to be seen on 
 a stone lintel on the walls of the palace of Iluayna Capac, and on other 
 Incarial buildings. 
 
 There are four figures in relief on large slabs in a house occupied by 
 the Inca Grarcilasso de la Vega : on the two upper slabs are the figures 
 of two monsters with the heads of women and bodies of birds, resemb- 
 ling the harpies of Virgil, and on the lower slabs are monsters with 
 scales and long tails coiled up behind their backs. The walls generally 
 were built of huge stones, -s^-ith recesses and doors at certain intervals, 
 the sides of the doors approaching each other at the top and supporting 
 stone lintels. The side walls were pierced with small square windows, 
 and the whole was thatched M'itli Ichu or mountain grass. The inte- 
 riors consisted of spacious halls, with smaller rooms adjoining, and the 
 interior walls were adorned with animals and flowers in gold and silver; 
 mirrors of hard stone hung on stone pegs ; while in the numerous 
 recesses were utensils and household gods in gold, silver or terra cotta. 
 The couches were of vicmia cloth, and the tianas or seats used by the 
 Incas were covered \\rith gold. 
 
 The temple of Cacha, on the banks of the Vilcamaya, built by 
 
 ^ Bustamante, in his apuntes, says Sacsay-Guaman means, gloat thyself, eagle, and 
 it the Peruvians buried much treasure here, to save it from the Spaniards. 
 
214 
 
 Viracocha, is described as having been something very beautiful; it 
 was square with a door on each side, and in the centre was the statue 
 of a spirit in long flowing robes, leading some strange animal by a 
 chain. 
 
 In the valley of Tucay, four leagues from Cuzco, is Tambo-toco, 
 where there are considerable ruins, said to have been built by Manco 
 Capac: still it is generally believed they are of greater antiquity. 
 Garcillasso says that it is not known who built the great walls of Cuzco. 
 
 Although I have given a list of Inca ruins, there are many more, as 
 at Cajamarca, 7° 8' S. 78° 32' W.: this was the second city of the empire, 
 built in all probability on the ruins of the capital of the Chimus, of 
 Chicama, the last being subjected by the Inca PachacuteCj,^ The approach 
 to Cajamarca from the coast was guarded by fortresses of masonry. The 
 Spanish conquerors describe the city, with its white houses glittering in 
 the sun like a sparkling gem on the dark skirts of the Cordillera : it 
 was a league in length, and contained 10,000 people ; the houses were t 
 generally built of clay hardened in the sun, the roofs thatched or with 
 timber. Some of the buildings were of hewn stone. There was a house 
 for the virgins of the sun and a temple to the same, hidden in a deep 
 grove ; there was a square of large size, containing capacious halls of 
 stone and dried brick, with wide doors, probably used as barracks. At 
 the end of the square was a stone fortress ; there was another fortress 
 commanding the town, with spiral winding walls, this was of great 
 strength. The Inca Atahualpa's quarters was an open court-yard, a 
 light building with galleries was around it ; the walls were covered 
 vnth shining plates, white and coloured, (red) and before the edifice was 
 a bath fed with hot and cold water. There was a large stone building 
 with a serpent sculptured on its walls (the hall of the serpent) . 
 
 Benzoni states that when Pizarro first saw Atahualpa, he was adorned 
 with golden wreaths and beautiful feathers of various colours, dressed in 
 a shirt without sleeves, and a band of cotton round his middle, a tassel 
 of fine red wool on the left side of his head shaded his brow, and his 
 shoes were almost apostolical. He was of moderate stature, wise, 
 energetic, and desirous of empire : his sister Pagha (Pacha) was his 
 wife. The Peruvian nobles had a fillet round the head, and a woolen 
 tassel hanging from the left ear. 
 
 Atahualpa's palace^ was built of large sun-dried bricks, containing 
 many large apartments ; on its site was afterwards built the cabildo, 
 chapel and prison. Only one unroofed room of the Inca's palace 
 
 ' Guia de Forasteros, 195, Lima 1858. 
 
215 
 
 remains, twelve yards long by eight wide, and wliere Atalnialpa wna 
 imprisoned ; until lately could be seen the mark the Inea made on the 
 wall of the height the treasure-should be piled for his liberation- 
 
 The stone on which the Inca received his death was one and a-half 
 varas in length and two thirds of a vara wide, called peana, and is 
 now used in the altar of the chapel. 
 
 The rapacious Spanish invaders disorganized a })<)pulntion of ten 
 millions of people, who had a length of more than a tliousand leagues 
 of coast, and from thirty-live to ninety in width ; they robbed their palaces 
 temples and tombs, polluted their altars, and committed every species 
 of enormity upon an unoifending race. 
 
 We have sketches and plans of some of the Peruvian monuments 
 but these have not generally much architectural value, as few are to 
 scale ; thus, no very critical comparison can be made with the ruins of 
 such other countries as we have truthful views and plans of. However, 
 let us hope that the period is not distant when the monuments I hate 
 referred to, will be more carefully examined and properly described. 
 
 HiEEOGLTPHs A^B Quippus OF THE PERUVIANS. — Some early 
 writers tell us that the ancient Peruvians used a specie of hieroglyph 
 engraved on stone and preserved in their temples, and that there 
 appeared to be a similarity between them and those found in Mexico 
 and Brazil. Tschudi states, that among the Indians of the river Ucayali, 
 on the birth of a child the name of an animal is given it ; the witnesses of 
 the ceremony mark with a wooden pencil some hieroglyphical charact^M's 
 on two leaves, which are carefully preserved, and, on the death of the 
 Indian, deposited in the grave with him. 
 
 The Peruvians had no manuscript characters for simple sounds, but 
 they had a method by which they composed vrords and incorporated 
 ideas, which consisted in the dexterous intertwining of knots and 
 strings so as to render them auxiliaries to the memory, namely, the 
 Quipu. 
 
 It was generally of twisted wool, consisting of a string or cord as the 
 base of the document, and of threads, more or less fine, fastened by 
 knots to it. These threads include the contents of the Quipu, expressed 
 by single knots or intertwinings. 
 
 The size of the Quipu is very different, sometimes the base cord is 
 five or six yards long, at others, it is not more than a foot : the pendant 
 strings or branches rarely exceed a yard in length. 
 
 The different colours of the threads have different meanings ; thus, 
 the red signifies a soldier or war; the yellow, gold ; the white, silver or 
 peace ; the green, wheat or maize, &c. In the arithmetical system, a 
 single knot means ten ; two single knots joined, twenty ; a knot doubly 
 
21G 
 
 intertwined, one hundred ; triply, one thousand : two of the last 
 united, two thousand, &c. 
 
 Not only is the colour and mode of intertwining the knots to he 
 considered, hut even the mode of twisting the thread, and particularly 
 the distance of the knot from the junction of the thread with the hase 
 of the cord, are of great importance to a proper understanding of the 
 Quipu. 
 
 It is probable that these knots were at first applied to purposes of 
 enumeration only ; but, in course of time, this science was so much 
 perfected that those skilled in it attained to the art of expressing by 
 knots historical relations, laws and decrees, so that they could transmit 
 to their descendants the most striking events of the empire ; and thus 
 the Quipu might supply the place of documents and chronicles. 
 
 "Whenever a Quipu came from a distant part it was accompanied by 
 a verbal commentary to indicate the subject matter of which it treated- 
 The officials had certain signs at the commencement of the mother 
 thread, or base cord, which had a meaning intelligible to them only. 
 
 Eepeated attempts made in our day to read the quipus have proved 
 failures, because of the great difficulty of deciphering them. In effect, 
 each single knot represents some notion or thought, while there is 
 wanting (for a meaning) a quantity of conjunctions or links. Besides 
 there is another greater impediment in the interpretation of the 
 Quipus found in the huacas, and that is the want of a verbal commen- 
 tary to explain the subject matter of the document. Hivero andTschudi 
 think there are still, in the south of Peru, Indians who know very well 
 liow to decipher these intricate memorials, but they guard their know- 
 ledjre as a sacred secret, inherited from their ancestors. 
 
 The " Mercurio Peruano I., 206," observes, that the Peruvian letters, 
 of Madame Grafigny, caused Prince de S. Severino, a member of the 
 Acadamy of La Crusca, as well as an Italian duchess, to write on the 
 quipus ; after detailing what Garcilasso had said on the subject, the 
 authors describe, with too much assurance, the grammar and dictionary 
 of the Quipus, and would lead one to believe that they were Quipu- 
 Camayus, (record readers) of the Incas ! 
 
 In the " Westminster Eeview," XI, 1829, there is an article by T. 
 Perryonet Thompson, on " A prospectus of the Quipola, or an explana- 
 tion of the Quipoes, now open for public opinion, London, printed by 
 J. Phair, 69, Great Peter Street, "Westminster, 1827, 64-mo. p.p. 18." 
 It would appear that a ship carpenter, Alexander Strong, purchased 
 this Quipo in a box from the mate of a merchant brig, Eobert Baker, 
 for £10. Baker said the Quipo had come into the possession of a 
 native of Lyons named Eosenberg Yestus, who got it from the family 
 
217 
 
 of a chief in Chile of the Q-uarcos, who considered himself a descendant 
 of the Incas, who had fled from Peru to avoid the Spaniards. Vestus 
 was married to one of the chief's daiigliters, but after a time he left the 
 Indians, came to Buenos Ayres and sold the Quipo and box to Baker. 
 It would be interesting to know where the Quipo may be now de- 
 posited. 
 
 The secret language of the Incas is lost. They conquered the 
 Quichuas, and the language and dialects of these nations, were the more 
 general ones spoken in Peru ;i however, the Aymani, witli its dialects, 
 was extensively knowTi. I have sometimes tliought that the Incas were 
 of Aymara^ origin, or from one of the great nations to the East of the 
 Andes, such as the Guarani, Tupi or Brazilians. 
 
 Montesinos (not a good authority) says, that during the reign of the 
 III. sovereign of Peru (according to his list of 101) the use of letters 
 was known, and the Amautas or learned men taught astrology and the 
 arts of writing on leaves of the plantain ; that under Titu-Yupanqui, 
 the 64th sovereign, civil disturbances caused the loss of letters, and 
 that the 78th sovereign, 3,500 years after the deluge, proliibitcd 
 his people from making use of the Quillca, (a species of parchment 
 of plantain leaves) but introduced the Quipo, or knotted coloured 
 strings. 
 
 According to Acosta, p. 51, the Peruvians had symbolic paintings, 
 for, at the Conquest, the Indians made their confessions by paintijigs 
 and characters, which indicated the Ten Commandments, &c. 
 
 In many parts of Peru, chiefly in situations greatly above the level 
 of the sea, are vestiges of inscriptions on stone very much obliterated 
 by time ; one Tschudi found near Huara ; also other engravings on 
 granite, representing animals, flowers and fortifications on the lieights 
 of Caldera near Arequipa, and he says, these may tell of events anterior 
 to the dynasty of the Incas. 
 
 On another stone he found engraved a flower, a fortress, and what 
 may be a river ; the Cross looks as if placed after Christianity had been 
 introduced. Ancient Indian sculptures are figured in liivero and 
 Tschudi. 
 
 In Huaytaca, province of Castro Yireyna, Bradford notices that in 
 
 ' Dialects of the Quichua. — 1. Of Cuzco, or Quicliua proper. 2. Lamano or 
 Lamissa, round Trujillo. 3. Cliincliaisuju. 4. Calchaqui in Tucumau. 5. Quito. 
 ij — Ludewig. 
 
 2 Aymara, spoken in Bolivia, the N.W. provinces of the Argentine R<>public, 
 , ; and in Southern Peru bears a close resemblance to Quichua. Dialects otlhe Avmara, 
 spoken hj^he Xanchis, Kasnas, Kollaguas, Karankas, Charcas, I'acascs and Lupakas. 
 — Ludewig. 
 
218 
 
 an edifice similar to Old Huanuco, are coarse engravings on a mass of 
 granite, — also a stone pillar with marks and inscriptions. 
 
 At end of Vol. I of Molina, are supplementary Notes from an 
 anonymous work on Chile, printed at Bologna, 1776. In the 
 description of the province of Cuyo, it is stated that, between Mendoza 
 and La Punta, upon a low range of hills, is a large stone pillar, one 
 hundred and fifty feet high, and twelve feet in diameter. It is^ called 
 the Giant, and contains certain marks or inscriptions, resembling 
 Chinese characters. Near the Diamond river is also another stone, 
 containing some marks which appear to be ciphers or characters and 
 the impression of a man's feet with the figures of several animals. The 
 Spaniards call it the stone of St. Thomas, from an account which 
 they pretend the first settlers received from the Indians, that a w^hite 
 man, with a long beard, formerly preached to their ancestors a new 
 religion from that stone, and, as a proof of its sanctity, left upon it the 
 impression of his feet and the figures of the animals that came to hear 
 him. This man they suppose to have been St. Thomas, from a tradition 
 of his having preached in America. Cuyo was peopled by the Guarpes, 
 thin, brown and of lofty stature ; they were subdued by the Peruvians 
 after they had conquered northern Chile. On the road over the Andes, 
 from Cuvo to Chile, are still to be seen some small stone edifices, 
 erected for the accommodation of the officers and messengers of that 
 empire. 
 
 The Allentiac and Milcocayac, (Chilian languages) are spoken by the 
 Guarpes Indians of the province of Cuyo, which word means sand ; the 
 general character of the soil is arid. There is an extensive succession 
 of valley's running north from Uspallata, through which it is said,^ 
 that an ancient road of the Peruvians is to be traced at the present day, 
 nearly to Potosi. The Inca's bridge is on the road from Mendoza to 
 Chile, which, according to Darwin, is composed of a crust of stratified 
 shingle, cemented by deposits from neighbouring hot springs. 
 
 In Southern Peru, there are the Pintados of Tarapaca ; some of 
 these may be of hieroglyphic character. The engraved granite stones, 
 particularly that of the Pampa del Leon, are pictorial at least. 
 
 In Rivero and Tschudi, (plate xli) is represented a stone two feet 
 broad, from Huara in the department of Junin, the country of the 
 ancient Huancas. A portion of the engraving may have some analogy 
 to No. 7, or Cuhupqua, the ear or snail-shaped granaries of the 
 Chibchas ; there is a figure of this character on a slab of stone, from 
 Timana, New Granada, supposed to represent some astronomical 
 subject. <* 
 
 In plate xxyi is a Canopa, or sacred vessel, in shape of the human 
 
219 
 
 figure, they suppose to be a priest offering sacrifice, which has on 
 a mystic belt ; they do not give the locality from whence this was 
 obtained. It looks to me like the pottery from Pachacamac, in latitude 
 12° S. The belt is curious, but we know not what is meant by 
 the hieroglyphic writing. The priest may be drinking the sacred 
 chicha and imploring a good harvest. Plate xx. is a double vase, with 
 symbolical signification of sun, moon, &c. Plate xxi. are two vases, 
 one with mystic figures. There is a female figure from Peru, in the 
 British Museum, something like the one described above, witli 
 hieroglyphs above its head, composed of angles principally. I may add, 
 that on the head of a statue found at Tia-Huanacu, are some hiero- 
 glyphical characters, a drawing of which is given in " L'Univers Pitto- 
 resque." — Bolivie, 1843. 
 
 Gilliss (ii. 138) gives a drawing of an approach to the hieroglyph, 
 worked in a coca bag or chuspa. 
 
 Con, Pacha-camac, the Stjjt. — As there is some confusion in 
 regard to the history of the Peruvian deities, I will here oflTer a few 
 remarks thereon : — Con, is first heard of as the Supreme power, — the 
 invisible and omnipotent spirit in Quito, under the Scyris, and in 
 Peru, long before the times of the Incas. Con was a spirit without 
 bones or flesh ; he made the world, and flying rapidly from north to 
 south in America, caused the mountains and valleys to appear ; he then 
 formed man, giving him every species of food and pleasure. Man 
 offended Con and was chastised by having the previous abundance of 
 food taken from him ; the land became a desert and the human race 
 was changed into ugly cats, and other black animals. 
 
 Pacha-Camac is generally looked upon as the son of Con ; he had 
 1 pity for the degraded position of the human race, took the government 
 of the world into his hands and created all things anew, including that 
 ' of the present form of man and woman. 
 
 We then find that temples were raised to this new power, one 
 particularly on the coast of Peru, south of Lima, called after him 
 Pacha-camac. 
 
 Montesinos informs us, that under Ayartaco-Cupo, his XII ruler 
 
 of Peru, giants came to the coast and built a temple to Pacha-camac, 
 
 using instruments of iron (?) As they were very wicked, divine wrath 
 
 I annihilated them with a rain of fire, although a part of them were 
 
 i enabled to escape by going to Cuzco. Ayartaco-Cupo went out to 
 
 imeet them, dispersing them about Lima-tambo. He also states that 
 
 the 97th ruler of Peru, the Inca, Topa-Tupanqui, also called II ui- 
 
 racocha and Yiracocha, repaired the temple of Pacha-camac. This 
 
 Inca is the 8th, according to Garcilaso, and died about 13-10, a. p. 
 
220 
 
 It would appear that many nations, even from distant parts of Pern, 
 came to this temple, making rich offerings : their sacrifices on the altar 
 and adoration were simple and pure, to this great deity. They entered 
 the sacred place barefooted ; in invoking his name, they prostrated 
 themselves to the earth. There was no image to represent this deity, 
 as he was considered to be there in spirit only. This idea of supreme 
 power, and preserved for a very lengthened period, w^as corrupted by 
 the Incas and his cushipatas or priests. 
 
 The Suis". — The history of the worship to this luminary is as follows : 
 Montesinos calls his 1st ruler of Peru, Pishua-Manca ; he was the 
 youngest of four brothers, he shut one up in a cave, threw another into | 
 a deep hole, and caused the third to fly to a distant country. The 
 fratricide consoled his four sisters, telling them that they must con- 
 sider him as the only child or son of the Sun, and obey him as such ; 
 he is said to have built Cuzco. Following JMontesinos, his 5th ruler, 
 luti-Capac-Tupanqui, was ver)'- zealous for religion and the w^orship of 
 the supreme gods, lllatici-Huiracocha, and the sun. 
 
 Tf we follow Garcilaso, the 1st Inca, Manco Capac, only appeared 
 about 1022, a.d., telling the people that he was a child of the sun ; also 
 that Con and Pachacamac had been children of the sun like himself; 
 that the sun had sent him on earth to teach and govern them ; that he 
 was the offspring of the sun and moon. 
 
 It must be admitted that the worship of Con and Pachacamac was 
 widely extended long before the Incarial times, and it was only under 
 the 9th Inca, that the country of the Curys-mancus, whose capital was 
 at Pachacamac, was conquered by the Incas of Cuzco, and the intrusive 
 religion of the sun was in danger from the older and purer one of 
 Pachacamac ; however, after much negociation, it was arranged that 
 Pachacamac should retain his temple, and that another should be built 
 there to the sun, as the father of the 1st Inca and Pachacamac. After 
 a time the Incarial priests erected a statue of wood to represent the 
 formerly-invisible Pachacamac, and invented oracles. Paith in the 
 immortality of the soul was one of the fundamental ideas among all the 
 Peruvian nations ; and, first. Con, then Pachacamac, and, lastly, the 
 Sun, were the judges of the human race. Supay, the evil spirit, is 
 found early amongst this people, and in some places children were 
 sacrificed to it. 
 
 Questionable Traditioj^s as to a General Deluge. — Tierra 
 Pirme had a tradition that their progenitors, with some animals, had ' 
 been saved in a vessel ; of having sent a bird out to see if the rains 
 had ceased, which did not return, and then another bird, which did 
 
221 
 
 return with a green branch ; and then the people came out and settled 
 on the earth for a second tini^ 
 
 Quito.- The tradition there was of a very ancient deluge, that a 
 few were saved in a liouse of wood on the top of Pichincha. This 
 deluge was for the puuishment of three of the sons of the first man or 
 god, called Pacha ; these not having whom to subdue, went to war with 
 a great serpent, who, being wounded by arrows, revenged itself by 
 vomiting so much water as to deluge the earth : that Pacha, with his 
 three sons and their wives, built a dwelling on the summit of Pichincha, 
 wherein was put animals and food : after many days, a ullaguanga (a 
 bird like a raven) was put out, which did not return, having remained 
 behind to feed on dead animals : another bird was sent, which returned 
 with green leaves : that Pacha descended from the mountain with his 
 family to where Quito now stands, and whilst building a home, they 
 could not understand each other's language ; they separated with their 
 wives, locating in different parts of the country. The history of the 
 same tradition is also said to have occurred in another place from 
 w^hence their fathers came, which was by sea to Cara ; and they explain 
 this, that some of them were descendants of the primitive Quitus, 
 others from the strangers who first established themselves in Cara. 
 
 Cuzco. — The tradition of the Inca tribes or Peruvians, of a dehifre, 
 was as follows : all mankind was drowned, except a few whom the sun 
 hid on an island in lake Titicaca, or in the cave of Pacaritambo ; after 
 a time a Yiracocha or grand personage, came forth with his family, 
 when, after having built Tiaguanaco, went to Cuzco, and then the 
 human race multiplied again. 
 
 PACHACAiiAC (Lima). Those of this district (the subjects of the 
 Curys-mancu) and neighbouring ones, many centuries ere they were 
 conquered by the Incas, had the tradition that there had been a deluge 
 of rain and the earth was submerged, except the top of a high moun- 
 tain, where a few people built a house, with windows high above the 
 ground, and well secured, storing it with animals and food : after it 
 had rained for a long time, two dogs were put out, these returning wet 
 and not covered with mud, showed that the waters had not subsided : 
 some time afterwards, two other dogs were sent, these returned dry ; 
 this showed that the waters had subsided. The inmates of the house 
 on the mountain descended and commenced re-peopling the earth. 
 
 There is a general idea that nearly all the nations of South America 
 have traditions of a deluge. An examination of the various accounts 
 leads me to think that the hand of the Spanish priests can be seen in 
 the arrangement of these deluges, taking as the original that of Noah, 
 or, as Prescott says, the story of the deluge is told by different writers 
 
222 
 
 with many variations, in some of which it is not difficult to detect the 
 plastic hand of the Christian convert. 
 
 CONCLUSIOIS". 
 
 I now offer some remarks upon what is likely to be the fate of the 
 Ked man of the new world, which does not present anything cheering ; 
 also, some observations on the present populations of the South 
 American republics, and their system of government. 
 
 Mexico. — Yon Tempsky^ speaks thus of the Indians of Mitla (vale 
 of the dead) and its ruins : The faces of the idols are true types of the 
 spirit of Indian religion, — awful, terrible, and hideous countenances, 
 calculated to influence their worshippers with fear, the only feeling an 
 Indian acknowledges. Nearly all the American Indians sacrifice but to 
 power of darkness ; the good spirits, they think, need not be propitiated, 
 so they pay reverence but to the one they fear. 
 
 Unhappy, ill-fated America ! how all thy children seem to have been 
 doomed to fall, until they are fast disappearing from the face of the 
 earth. They first built altars to their own bloody gods, and were 
 afterwards dragged before similar tribunals the white man brought 
 from the east ; and now the powerful vices and diseases of Europe are 
 raging amongst these helpless creatures. Such fate befalling whole 
 races, nations that were numbered by millions ! is awful to contemplate. 
 
 Squier- tell us that the conquest of Nicaragua was effected with no 
 less violence than that of Mexico and Peru ; ship loads were annually 
 taken to Panama and Peru, and sold there. Las Casas says, half a 
 million Indians perished in the wars of the conquest. . . . The present 
 quiet of the Indian may be that of the slumbering volcano, and its 
 continuance may depend very much on the judicious encouragement of 
 white emigration from the United States and Europe. 
 
 The foregoing remarks, which express my own feelings, and over which 
 I have often pondered, with some experience of the Indian both in 
 North and in South America, open a painful field of enquiry. "We are 
 accustomed to brand the name of the Conquistadores as murderers and 
 robbers, but had the handful of men who made these wonderful 
 conquests been of any other nation, the chances are that history would 
 have had to chronicle very nearly the same results. Oppression causes 
 
 » " Mitla," in 1843-55. 
 
 - Trans. Amer. Ethno, Soc, 1853: 
 
 I 
 
223 
 
 resistence ; and this is met by fresh efforts of power ; and, as the white 
 man, although numerically so far inferior to the red, yet he had arms 
 of steel and the commaud^of gunpowder, moreover, well trained 
 warriors in the science of European warfare. 
 
 The Eed man in the United States is still an enemy to be feared ; and 
 should political difficulties occur between the North and South, the 
 Indian might join one side or the other, or even oppose both ; the slave 
 might even join the Eed man ; for awhile the scalping knife and toma- 
 hawk would have severe vengeance ; then would come the retaliation of 
 the white man, and the unerring rifle would take fearful retribution, 
 and the consequences be fatal to the Indian and negro. 
 
 It is very difficult to even semi-civilize the Eed Man ; you may 
 modify his religious and moral ideas to some extent, but he is adverse 
 to change from the hunter to the farmer ; he loves to roam over his 
 prairies, he hates the subjection of cities ; he has occupation enough 
 for his wants in the wilderness, and he becomes bewildered and uneasy 
 in community with the white man. Thus he remains in the savage 
 state, warring with his own race or revenging himself on the white in- 
 truder. 
 
 The mixed population of Spaniard, Indian and Xegro, in Mexico, 
 drove the old Spanish government from that country : since then, civil 
 wars have succeeded. Not long since, we saw citizens of the United 
 States, "revelling in the halls of the Montezumas ;" and ere long, 
 the more judicious of the Mexican people may find it suit them to 
 federate with the United States 
 
 Another point. It is well known that in the Eepublic of Guate- 
 mala, although the European press eulogized the important and scho- 
 lastic work of Don M. M. de Morentin, " Estudios Eilologicos ; 
 Dificultades Principales de la Lengua Espanola." This work has been 
 declared by the Padres Jesuitas there, " to be prejudicial to youth 
 and highly scandalous and heretical." This censure was given in 
 consequence, that in the said work they found the celebrated compo- 
 sition, in verse, of the " Ejercicios de San Ignacio, 6 la Penitencia de 
 los Teatinos," and other select pieces which gave some particulars of 
 the history of the " meek" followers of Loyola. 
 
 Yeistezuela AiSTD New Gtea^stada. — In this region much of the 
 Indian element is subjected ; still there is a large proportion in the 
 savage state, but broken up into small tribes ; thus there is but little 
 union, and, whilst they remain so, they are powerless. The 
 Spaniards did what the English and some other nations refrained 
 from: namely, that he married the native woman, and subsequently 
 
224 
 
 the negro was introduced,^ producing mixed races ; these assisted in 
 upsetting Spanish despotism in several of the colonies. Hepublics have 
 been the result, but these have generally been governed by military 
 chiefs, and with few exceptions civil war has continued to rage in 
 these States — thus putting themselves in the position of becoming a 
 prey to any powerful foreign invader ; and, secondly, the Indians might 
 join such to revenge themselves on their present rulers ; then the 
 Indian in his turn would in all probability get into difficulties with 
 the foreigners. 
 
 Komanism is the religion of New Granada (as in all the South 
 American States), but a late President there confessed to me his bias 
 for Protestantism — his enmity to the Jesuits — and his wish to have the 
 religion of the Bible in his country. 
 
 Eqtjadoe.^ — The Indians of Cuenca and all those of Equador 
 speaking Quichua, have changed but little since Pizarro's invasion. 
 They are aware that they have been the lords of the country ; and 
 they are often heard to say, that if they steal anything belonging to a 
 w^hite man they are not guilty of theft, because they are taking what 
 originally belonged to them. That the Indians entertain a hope of 
 freeing themselves from their oppressors, by " driving them into the 
 sea," seems to be a well-established fact. "Whether they are sufficiently 
 united to act in concert for carrying out their plan is difficult to 
 determine ; but it has been ascertained that there is an alliance between 
 all the Indians speaking Quichua, called Los Gentiles by the Spaniards, 
 and the more barbarous tribes living in the fastnesses of the primeval 
 forests. Should they persevere in their intention, they will find it 
 every day more easy, unless the face of the interior of Equador and 
 P-sru is greatly altered ; for the white and mixed population since 
 immigration has ceased, or at least been less numerous, is decreasing ; 
 while the Indians, wherever they have kept themselves free from in- 
 termixture with other races, are steadily increasing. Equador presents 
 a vast field for enterprise, and if the tide of emigration which has now 
 set in with such force towards North America and Australia, could 
 be directed somewhat to Equador, the political and social condition of 
 the country would be altei-ed in a short space of time. It is now so 
 thinly peopled, and inhabited by so limited a number of whites, that 
 about 12,000 immigrants would effect surprising changes. They would 
 not only exercise a most salutary influence npon the elections, by 
 
 1 In 1859, there were fearful negro insurrections in Yenezuela, a war of race and 
 colour. A judge was assassinated, 
 
 " Seemann Yojage of " Herakl." 
 
225 
 
 placing the Supreme power in the hands of superior men, and they 
 would have no difficulty in^keeping in order the negroes and Zainboes 
 of Guayaquil, the chief promoters of most of the revolutions that have 
 disgraced the annals ef this republic. 
 
 Peru. — Here civil war has repeatedly been on an extensive scale ; 
 also serious doings with its neighbours, Quito and Bolivia. Tlie 
 mixed element of White, Indian and Negro, has great difficulty in 
 settling down. Should the Anglo-American element in particular 
 find it at any time convenient to locate — say on the Amazons — ami 
 get the Indian to assist, the result is not very problematical as to who 
 will become masters of the country. 
 
 The following is from the " Spirit of the Times," New York paper, 
 of August 1851;, as regards Huacho in Peru. 
 
 In no better place can be studied the various traces of the Spani>h, 
 Indian, and negro admixtures, for although the Indian trace predomi- 
 nates, the cunning mestizo, and zambo occupy a marked proportion. 
 The head belongs to the pyramidal type, somewhat rounded by the 
 oval of the European, or distorted by the maxillary peculiarity of the 
 African. A pretty mestiza face may sometimes be seen — the hair is 
 ever black, the eye ever soft and melancholy, the skin pleasingly 
 bronzed, and the teeth as perfect as health and assiduous care can 
 make them. A single drop of Indian blood contains the elements 
 of all that is, ossifically, perfect, so that our pretty creole girl will have 
 the smallest hand and foot, the neatest figure, if not too adipose, and 
 among the crania that fell to my lot (taken from an Indian huaca), I 
 have yet to find caries of a single tooth. Many huacas (the ancient 
 receptacles for the s}Tnbols of life and death, rather than the mere 
 graves of the dead), are scattered over the vale. It is said that the 
 Indians object to opening them. And it is thought — moving fact — that 
 even after so many years of captivity, the patient Quichuas still indulge 
 the hope of an ultimate political regeneration — hence, their sacred care 
 and jealousy of relics. 
 
 Bolivia. — This is a very rich country, the seat of gold and silver 
 mountains, with mighty streams wending their way to the Atlantic. I 
 have heard from the lips of an ex-president, that he had quelled more 
 than thirty revolutions in seven years.i Here the romanized Indian is 
 almost the slave still. The Indian is still powerful in this country ; aad 
 he has not forgotten the bloody acts of the times of the Pizarros, or the 
 
 1 In 1859, the repubhc of Mexico had been in existence thii-ty-cight years ; during 
 which time there had been fifty-six changes of government, nearly all produced by 
 revolutions. 
 
226 
 
 severe punishments inflicted both in this country and Peru, when he 
 has risen against the Spaniards. It would not require a large foreign 
 force to steam up the Amazons and its tributaries, and " settle " most 
 advantageously portions of Equador, Peru and Bolivia. 
 
 Aegeittine Peoyinces. — Here we have the old story of civil war, 
 and the unfortunate consequences of the facility of arriviog at supreme 
 power. Lately one of the republican chiefs was assisted by a large 
 body of Pampa Indians to settle his differences with Buenos Ayres. 
 
 Chile. — Has had its civil wars and turmoils ; but here we have an 
 industrious people much given to agriculture and mining ; the great 
 majority being occupied with more important affairs than the eternal 
 and fatal " politic a," and are progressing in a wonderful manner. 
 
 The European element has increased very much in Chile — not the 
 Spanish, but English, G-erman, Erench, also North American, many of 
 whom have married Chilenas. The son of an Englishman, by a Chilian 
 mother, has been a minister of finance ; many others of such descent, 
 having government appointments, are in the army and navy ; others 
 occupied in commerce, mining, &c.; and it is a curious question to 
 speculate upon the part this new race may play. 
 
 In the south of Chile, the Araucanos and confederated tribes require 
 to be cautiously dwelt with. It is in contemplation to invite European 
 emigration on a large scale into Arauco, which, if accomplished with 
 sufficient numbers, as it must to protect itself against the Indians, who 
 will oppose as long as possible, but his weakened numbers in the end 
 will be driven into the Andean fastnesses, where it will not rapidly 
 increase ; and, if they attempt to descend into the Pampas, they will 
 meet with fresh enemies in the Buenos Ayrians. 
 
 Looking at the various forms of government (as an Englishman), I 
 see no better, for the practical afiairs of life, than a constitutional 
 monarchy, such as Britain may boast of, " Liberte, fraternite, egalite," 
 is a mere banner, unfurled to suit the artful demagogue; who, when 
 placed in power, becomes the despot, as we see if we look about 
 us. Ear be it from me to recommend monarchy to republican South 
 America ; but perhaps the best political move they can make is to 
 patronize for their presidents civilians, and not military men. 
 
 I>. Lane, Printer, 43, Lamb's Conduit-street, W.C. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 Abstract of First Series of observations on the Oeograpliy of SoufJiern 
 Peru^ including Sitrvey of the Province of Tarapacd and route to 
 Chile by the coast of the Desert of Atacama. By \V. Bollaert, 
 r.R.Gr.S. (^From Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of 
 London, Vol. XXI., 1S51, with Map.) 
 
 Leatin'G England, visiting Buenos Ayres, being some days with the 
 Indians of Tierra del Fuego, and rounding Cape liorii, I made an inter- 
 esting tour through some of the Gold, Silver and Copper ]\rining 
 districts of Chile; including an examination of the coast of Concepciou 
 for coal, which was found at various spots and is of a tertiary formation. 
 In concert with my friend Mr. George Smith of Iquique, the island of 
 Quiriquina was carefully surveyed ; its geological formation at surface 
 is sandstone debris containing coal ; then follow shistose rocks. 
 
 I then steered my course north to Peru in the month of December 
 (the summer of this region), with the usual southerly wind, which, 
 during the night, veers towards the land, forming the terral or cool 
 breeze from the Andes ; thus, depressing the temperature of the air, 
 dew is formed, and, as but little falls on the land, will account in some 
 measure for the arid and desert character of the coast of Peru. 
 
 In winter, namely from May to July, the winds are from the north, the 
 air is charged with much vapour, called garua, camauchaca, cerazon, and 
 Llovizna, enveloping the mountains of the coast, and where an occasional 
 cactus and a few bulbous plants appear. This period is known as the 
 Tiempo de Plores, when Ihuanacos may be seen roaming about these 
 elevated flower spots in the desert. 
 
 A residence of some years in Southern Peru, particularly in the province 
 of Tarapaca, commencing in 1826, during which time I was engaged at the 
 celebrated mines of Huantajaya, afforded me the opportunity of 
 examining this but little frequented portion of Peru. 
 
 As Arica is approached, barren undulating land is seen, and in the 
 rear, ranges of rocky sterile mountains, and further east, in the back 
 ground, peaks of the Andes towering majestically above all. 
 
 Aeica.— Allaround is a desert, save where the stream may run ; this 
 gives rise to vegetation, increased by irrigation and guano; the 
 principal productions are cotton, wine, aji or red pepper, oil, maize, 
 fruits and vegetables. The rock of the country is porphyritic ; in the 
 hollows and plains there is much debris and saliferous matters. 
 
 As to its ancient history, Acosta says, " lea and Arica sailed westward 
 thither upon sea-wolves skins, blown up like bladders." 
 
 A desert route of thirty-five miles brings one to Tacua, a pleasant 
 and pretty town, 1800 feet above the sea, and supplied with water by a 
 
234 
 
 fair stream, originating In the Andes. Earthquakes are common In this 
 district, and the ruins of houses and walls bear witness to this agency. 
 As it seldom or ever rains in these latitudes, and there being no vege- 
 tation, the surface of the country has remained desert, and may do so 
 for ages, in the same state. The mean temperature of Tacua is 64° F. 
 Tacora, east of this, is volcanic, capped with snow and 19,000 feet 
 above the sea. At Santa E,osa de Chaca, gray copper is found in abun- 
 dance. 
 
 I ^jIsLAT. — This port is about 100 miles north of Arica, and, although 
 in a desert, has, since 1827, superseded Quilca, being free from terciana 
 or ague, in consequence of there being no water in the vicinity but 
 that which is conveyed to it by an aqueduct. 
 
 • The track, from Islay to Arequipa is, first, over stones mixed with 
 sand and white volcanic ashes ; water is met vvdth, at the olive grove of 
 Guerrero : then, up a ravine which runs through the mountains of the 
 coast, to the great Pampa, an elevated desert plain, 3000 feet above the 
 sea, covered with sand and volcanic dust ; bounded on the west by the 
 mountains of tlie coast, and on the east, by the Andes, with the 
 volcano of Arequipa as a landmark, generally emitting smoke. 
 
 In these desert plains are seen the Medanos, or moving semi-circular 
 sand hills, the concavity generally towards the north, on account of the 
 winds being from the south. In case of heavy winds these Medanos 
 shift and are blown about, and travellers have been overwhelmed and 
 lost in them. They are of all sizes, from that of an ant-hill, to hundreds 
 of feet. Here the mirage is seen in great perfection. It is burning 
 hot during the day, and at times very cold at night. 
 
 Having passed the Pampa, a distance of thirty miles is gone over, 
 composed of volcanic rocks, sandstone, and here and there a little dark 
 granite, and their debris, when the vineyards of Tiabaya appear ; and a 
 few miles further is Arequipa, at the base of the volcano anciently 
 called Misti. Arequipa is a most picturesque city, first visited by the 
 Spaniards in 1533, and founded by Pizarro in 1539. 
 
 It is some sixty miles from the sea, and may contain 50,000 inhabi- 
 tants. According to Haenke, who visited the summit of the volcano 
 in 1794, the circumference of the principal crater was about 1380 
 English feet ; a second crater was 440 feet in its largest part, and 120 
 in its least. 
 
 Mr. Peutland makes the elevation of the volcano of Arequipa 18,300 
 feet, and the city 7,788 feet above the sea. JSTearly the whole of the 
 year, the summit of the volcano is covered with snow. All around is 
 composed of lava and ashes. 
 
 Arequipa has often been visited by earthquakes ; those of 1582, 1600, 
 1604, 1660, 1667, 1687, 1715, 1725," 1738, 1784, 1785, may be particu- 
 larised from their ruinous efiects. In 1667 there was a violent 
 eruption of the volcano of Arequipa. 
 
 (xarcilasso speaks of an eruption (probably of the volcano of Are- 
 quipa), when it rained ashes for twenty days, the ashes being found in 
 places one-and-a-half yards thick. 
 
235 
 
 In February, 1600, there was a great eruption of tlio volcano of 
 Ornate, south-east of Are^iipa (probably the Uvinas of Pentlaiul), 
 accompaiiied b}^ severe earthquakes, whicli destroyed many villa<^n'S witli 
 their inhabitants ; ashes were carried to <j;reat distances from the vol- 
 cano : I have been informed that they fell even in the province of 
 Tarapaca, 240 miles off. 
 
 The mountains of the coast, from Arica to Islay, as well as those to 
 the north, have not the elevation of those to the south, neither are they 
 so well defined, but sufficiently elevated to receive moisture from tl»e 
 garuas in the winter months, which gives life to a few cacti, a little 
 pasture, and some flowers on the lomas or summits. 
 
 PEOVINCE OF TAEAPACA. 
 
 The first account we have of South Peru is in 1450, when the Inca 
 Yupanqui established his court for a time in Atacama, intrusting the 
 command of an expedition to Sinchi Eoca against the Copiapinos : this 
 chief went as far as the fruitful plains of Maipu. Tarapaca was tli(! 
 most distant and extensive province of Peru, but so uninhabited and 
 without the means of cultivation, that it was alniost disregarded by the 
 discoverers, who, when they were questioned concerning it, replied — 
 " that its tracks were over rocky mountains, sandy, uninhabited, and 
 rainless deserts, covered with salt and without water ; excessive heat 
 during the day and cold at night." However, Oiia, in his " Arauco 
 Domado," says — 
 
 " Su ncmbre es Don Alonzo aquel de "Vargas, 
 Aquel de lengua breve j manos largos," 
 
 called the Seiior of Tarapaca. 
 
 The physical features of this province, which will generally apply to 
 the southern portion of Peru, may be described as follows : — 1st. The 
 arid mountains of the coast are porphyritic, running north and south, 
 rising at times abruptly from the sea, from 3000 to 6000 feet, and some 
 thirty miles in width, having extensive hollows and undulations, des- 
 titute of vegetation, and the greater portion of their surface covered 
 with sand, salt and nitrate of soda. When they are found mixed, they 
 are called Caliches. The origin of the salt in particular is not clearly 
 made out ; it has been called a saliferous alluvium, by some su])posed 
 to be washed out of the mountains ; by others to have been left there 
 by the ocean — neither of which opinions are of much value. In this 
 range the rich silver mines of Huantajaya, Santa Eosa, El Carmen, 
 Chanabaya, and others, are situated. 2nd. The Pampa, or great plain 
 of Tamarugal, 3000 to 3500 feet above the sea, running north into the 
 province of Arica, and south into the desert of Atacama, about thirty 
 miles wide. Much of it is covered with sand, salt, nitrate of soda, 
 particularly on its west margin, and other saline bodies.^ Water, 
 derived from the mountains to the east, is found at various depths. 
 Some Tamaugos, Algarobos, and a few other plants grow in the Pampa. 
 
 * Lately, salts of borax have been found in abundance. 
 
 B 2 
 
236 
 
 3rd. Thence rises a desert range of mountains of some 7000 feet 
 elevation above the sea, and twenty miles in width. 
 
 4th. An elevated district follows, ranch broken; and here, for the 
 first time, are seen coarse pastures, brushwood, and large cacti. The 
 pastures improve as they get higher, until, by the severity of the 
 climate, they diminish, and finally disappear at an elevation of 
 16,000 feet. 
 
 5tli. We are now at the base of the "Western Cordillera, in w^hich 
 are very high mountain ridges, inckiding Lirima or Chuncura, 19^ 47', 
 69° 12' W., supposed by Mr. George Smith to be 24,000 to 25,000 feet 
 above the sea. Ille, in x\ymara, is snow ; hence Illi-rima, from whence 
 Lirima. Crossing high passes, and descending a little — 
 
 6th. Is an elevated undulating region, knowai as the Puna, Paramo, 
 or Sierra ; this comprises a great extent of country, north, south, and 
 east, and is sometimes called the mountain knot of Potosi ; in it appear 
 high ranges of mountaius, including the snow-capped heights of Lipes, 
 and, far to the east, Ilimani and Sorata. There are considerable depres- 
 sions in this elevated region, where there are lakes, containing fish ; 
 pasture is found, and quinua grown. This great mountain knot, or 
 rather the Peruvian Andes, may be looked upon as one of volcanic 
 elevation, containing at present many active and numberless quiescent 
 volcanos — the Thibet of Peru. 
 
 In the province of Tarapaca, the two Cordilleras are not so well 
 defined as farther to the north, where they may be truly called the 
 Peruvian and Bolivian ranges. We know, however, but little of the 
 geography of this great mountain knot in the district under considera- 
 tion, but doubtless the seat of much volcanic action: indeed, the 
 Indians say that the greater number of the mountain peaks have been 
 formed by volcanos. 
 
 A survey of the province was made by Mr. George Smith and 
 myself in 1828, at the request of the Peruvian Government, and pub- 
 lished by the Eoyal Geographical Society ; introduced by Arrowsmith 
 into his maps for the works of Titzroy and Sir Woodbine Parish. 
 Berghaus also engraved our survey, and" calls us " Two Gentlemen of 
 the Potosi Mining Company" — read Arequipa for Potosi. 
 
 The province of Tarapaca lies between 19° and 21° 30' S., and 68° 15' 
 and 70° 22' W. In 1628, it formed part of the province of Arica. It 
 is divided into four curacies — viz., Tarapaca, Pica, Sibaya, and Camifia, 
 with a mixed population of about 11,000, consisting of Spaniards, their 
 descendants, Aymara Indians, and a few Negroes. 
 
 Those Indians who hold land pay an annual tribute or tax equal to 
 £1 sterling ; other Indians without land, 16s. ; the white population, 
 12s ; the latter also pay a property tax. The whole income of the 
 province is under £3000. 
 
 CuEACT OP Taeapaca. — The town of Tarapaca is 4,796 feet 
 above the sea ; 19° 56' S., 69° 35' W. is the seat of government, the 
 chief of which is the Sub-Prefect. The ravine at the mouth of which it 
 
 * At this period, Don Roman Castilla was sub-prefect, now President of Peru. 
 
237 
 
 is situated, rises in the Cordillera of Lirima. Seldom is there eullicient 
 water to irrigate the land (wliich is carefully manured with guano) fit 
 for cultivation in this quebrada, as well as in many others ; but wlieu 
 thunderstorms with their heavy rains occur in the Andes, torrents or 
 avenidas rush down the ravines, bringing with them masses of rock, 
 trees, huts, cattle — indeed all that may be in their way, leaving, alter 
 one of these destructive floods, nothing but a bed of stones. The 
 houses are built of adobe, and seldom of more than a ground floor, as h 
 jDrecaution against the frequently-occurring earthquHkes. The produce 
 of the land is maize, wheat, alfalfa (a medicago) or lucerne, I'ruit, and a 
 few vegetables. Up the ravine are the Indian towns of Pachica, Laon- 
 sana, and Puchurca; in the vicinity are some gold, silver and lead 
 mines. 
 
 On the road from Gruantajaya to Tarapaca, is the Cerrito of Iluara, a 
 bramador or rumbling mountain. The sounds are generally heard at 
 sun-rise. This hill is in a desert plain ; during the day the country 
 around is exposed to great heat ; at night there is a considerable dimi- 
 nution of temperature : as the sun rises the air becomes heated, expan- 
 sion takes place, rapid currents, and even gusts of wind are formed, 
 which, striking upon the sides of the mountain, sets the sand in motion, 
 and is most probably the cause of the rumbling sounds in question. 
 
 Mamina, 20^4^48" S., is a large Indian town. The potato is here 
 met with in perfection ; this locality is supplied with water from clear 
 boiling sulphur springs. Hereabout is much gypsum, magnesian alum, 
 and carbonate of soda. Hamitca is in the vicinity, where there is a 
 gold vein. To the east of Mamifia is the Indian town of Macaya, and 
 then the high range of Yabricoya, abounding in copper, silver and 
 gold. In the vicinity of Quipisca are many desert sandy ravines, and 
 those unaccustomed to travel in such countries would be alarmed at 
 the overhanging precipices, large masses from which have been thrown 
 down by earthquakes. The track from Mamina to Pica passes through 
 many deep ravines without water. Pozo de Eamirez, is a well 210 feet 
 deep, sunk in the Pampa for the use of travellers. In these regions, no 
 one starts on a journey without a pair of bullock's horns (chifles) lull 
 of water slung in front of his saddle, provisions in the saddle-bags, and 
 a thick poncho or two to serve as blankets, as at times one may be for 
 days without falling in with water or a hut. 
 
 Iquique, 20° 12' 47" S., 70° 14' ^Y., is the principal port of the pro- 
 vince, sheltered by an island (formerly thickly covered with guano^, 
 and situated at the north-west extremity of a low tract of ground, sur- 
 rounded by high and barren mountains. Iquique stands in a stratum 
 of broken shells, in all stages of degradation, in places several leet 
 thick, intermixed with others similar to those now inhabiting the neigh- 
 bouring seas, and have in all probability been elevated above the level 
 of the ocean at no very distant date. The general opinion is, that 
 there is a gradual upheaving of the whole line of coast, extending some 
 distance inland ; on this point Mr. Blake observes, that fnigmenta of 
 recent shells have been found in the Pampa of Tamarugal, 3000 to 
 
238 
 
 3,500 feet above the sea, and distant thirty to forty miles.^ Iquique 
 owes its present importance as a port to the shipment of nitrate of soda 
 from thence, and some silver from the mines of Huantajaya and 
 Santa Rosa. 
 
 There is neither wood, water, nor vegetation here. Water was for- 
 merly brought from Pisagua, forty-five miles north ; it is now distilled 
 from sea-water. Provisions come from the interior, from other parts 
 of the coast, and i^hile. The population is employed in commerce, 
 shipping the nitrate of soda, and fishing. During three years' residence 
 at Iquique, I only once saw a slight shower of rain. Mean winter heat, 
 63° at 8 a.m., 67° at noon, 62° at 8 p.m. ; summer heat, 72° at 8 a.m., 
 78° at noon, 74° at 8 p.m. 
 
 Of sea birds, there are immense flocks, including the cormorant, 
 pelican, booby, gull, shag, &c. ; to these birds is owing the existence of 
 so much guano found on the coast and islands of Peru. 
 
 Of land birds, condors, vultures, havv^ks, and turkey-buzzards are 
 very numerous. There are a few bats, rats, mice, fleas and mosquitos, the 
 latter engendered by wet sea- weed ; a vinchuca is occasionally seen ; 
 and there are several varieties of small lizards. Iquique is the only 
 village on the coast of the province ; the other places named on the 
 charts are merely headlands, beaches, islands, &c., visited by fishermen 
 in search of the fish called congrio, seals, and sea otters, in their 
 ingeniously constructed balsas or floats, made of seal skins inflated with 
 air. During their stay at such places, they live in caves or wretched 
 cabins, built of whales' ribs covered with seal skins, and subsist on 
 water, maize, and fish. 
 
 "With the present steam navigation along the Pacific, facilitating the 
 transport of merchandise and provisions, I am led to believe that this, 
 perhaps the most barren coast in the world, will sooner or later be 
 carefully examined for mines ; and it would not surprise me to hear of 
 important discoveries of precious and other metals, as, also, of valuable 
 saline matters ; then, although large cities may not rise up, places of 
 great commercial importance will line the coast. I will mention a few 
 spots worthy of further examination. 
 
 Alcaparosa, north of Pisagua, for gold. North and south of Pisagua 
 are silver veins. Chanabaya, 20° 40' S. is an important locality, and, 
 if water and provisions could be placed there at a reasonable rate, it is 
 the general opinion that another Gruantajaya would arise out of the 
 desert ; here both gold and silver veins have been partially worked. 
 Chuchulai, in 21° 8' S., contains silver veins. At Paiquina and Chipana, 
 north of Loa, gold has been met with. To the south of Loa, there is 
 much guano, particularly at Paquique, in 21° 56' S. Ten miles south 
 are the rich copper veins of Duendes and Tocopillo. 
 
 GiJANTAJATA. — These celebrated silver mines are about seven miles 
 from the port of Iquique, and in 20° 14' S., 70° 7' W ," 2,877 feet above 
 
 1 During my residence, in early times, I never noticed any recent shells in the Pampa, 
 neither during my last visit. 
 
 "^ In map, this spot is placed two or three miles too much south. Santa Rosa 
 the same. 
 
239 
 
 the sea. They are reached from the port by a track over a plain 
 through which runs an immense ridge of sand. Tlie road is then ali)ii<r 
 the slope of the mountains to the caracol, or steep zin:-zag road, the 
 summit of which is 1760 feet. At the summit, the ground is loose, 
 sandy, and thickly covered with angular pieces of rock, some in an 
 advanced state of degradation, to which ages of solar heat have given a 
 calcined appearance, some having crumbled into powder. Here is much 
 salt, looking as if it had oozed out of the earth and crystallized by the 
 suu's heat ; at a distance, it has the appearance of a collection of bones, 
 and the scene is one of absolute sterility. The mountains of Giian- 
 tajaya, Santa Hosa, and others, are seen towering above the surround- 
 ing country. Everything is of a dull brown colour, except the bluish 
 ranges of the Cordillera, in the distance, covered with snow. 
 
 The mines of Guantajaya have rendered the province of Tarnpaca 
 so celebrated in Peru, that it has sometimes been called the Potosi of 
 the south. They were discovered, about 1556, by Spaniards fron 
 Arica, who worked at a spot called the Chiflones, but who after a time 
 abandoned them. The mines were re-discovered by an Indian liamed 
 Cucumate, during one of his journeys to the coast for guano, who made 
 them known to Juan de Loyaza, who commenced working, but died 
 without reaping much benefit. In 1718, Loyaza's son, Don Bartolomeo, 
 found rich ore in the vein of San Simon, and, in 1727, the Paniso or 
 unconsolidated rock (composed principally of argillaceous limestone 
 containing fossil shells), at the foot of the mountain, was discovered, in 
 which were found the papas or insulated masses of silver ; one, met 
 with in 1729, weighed 800 lbs., another in 1794, 400 lbs. In 1740, the 
 paniso having been bored through, the principal vein was found, which 
 led to the discovery of many others. The ores are native, cliloride, 
 chloro-bromide, and sulphuret of silver, and their combinations with 
 copper, lead, &c.; the matrix is of carbonate of lime. 
 
 It was computed in 1826 that the mean annual amount of silver 
 extracted up to that time, since 1726, was 750,000 dollars, which would 
 give a total of about £15,000,000 sterling. Since 1826, the produce 
 of the mines has been very irregular, not averaging more than 30,000 
 dollars a year. 
 
 There are about fifty mines ; and in one only has a little water been 
 met with, so impregnated with saline and metallic matters, as to be unfit 
 for drinking. 
 
 In such a desert spot labour is very expensive, and the mining opera- 
 tions are generally carried on in the veins only, not working by shafts 
 and adits, the system there being to extract little or no loose rock, and, 
 as new works arc opened, to throw the loose stufl'into older ones ; this 
 has caused the mines to be called aterrada, or filled up. Periods elapse 
 when but little silver is extracted ; then a boya, or rich discovery is 
 made ; one amongst these was a mass of nearly pure silver, fifteen yards 
 long and in places a yard thick. I might indicate positions \vhere rich 
 veins could be cut at other levels, and other boyas discovered ;' this, 
 however, belongs to the mineralogy of tht^ province, iuid is only locally 
 interesting. 
 
240 
 
 In flourishing times as many as 4000 persons have been employed at 
 these mines : I have seen as few as 150. The habitations are gene- 
 rally built of caliche, that is, sand and salt, some few of wood, the 
 material brought from Chile. The water for drinking is conveyed from 
 the wells of Almonte (s. g. 100,165, temp. 70° E.). distant twenty-one 
 miles, in llama skins containing fourteen gallons, selling for four 
 shillings ; when scarce, for much more. Tor a live sheep £10 has been 
 paid, and £20 for a live bullock from Atacama. 
 
 At times it is distressing to see the miners returning from the sultry 
 mine, the temperature of which is often 100° T. (highest exterior 
 temperature in the shade 78°), and obliged to go on foot to Almonte for 
 water. 
 
 Mean winter heat 8 a.m., 53°; noon, 64°; 8 p.m., 56°. Summer heat, 
 8 a.m., 73°; noon, 76°; 8 p.m., 64°. 
 
 Mines of Santa E-osa and El Carmen, discovered about 1778, are 
 distant from Gruantajaya five miles. Independently of yielding the 
 class of ores similar to those of Guantajaya, there is much sulphuret of 
 silver and copper (cochiso). Erom 1815 to 1825, one mine gave 
 £600,000 ; and a boya in the Arcos mine, three yards long and twenty 
 in height, gave £100,000. 
 
 Pintados, south of Santa Kosa, is a curious spot. Las Hayas, so 
 called from some rude Indian work scraped out on the surface of a 
 mountain (see p. 158, and plate at p. 159). 
 
 Salinas de Ceeemeno, or salt deposits, fifteen miles south of 
 Iquique. Here salt is found on a plain fifteen to twenty feet above the 
 level of the sea, and 1500 yards from the rocky shore. How has this 
 been formed ? Can it have been formed near to the edge of the ocean 
 and then nj^lifted ? or is it from saline waters of percolation from the 
 interior ? The salt is friable and crystalline, sometimes taking a curved 
 appearance. It is met with in mounds, and a little below the surface, 
 from one-eighth of an inch to two feet thick, and free from earthy 
 matter. It is in layers between irregular strata of rock, in which are 
 perpendicular splits also filled with salt, one layer communicating with 
 another. AYhen the layers are thick, they are made up of five or six 
 smaller ones. They have an inclination towards the sea of 2° to 3°, 
 and contain abundance of sulphates. Ship loads are occasionally taken 
 to Chile. 
 
 The existence and origin of salt near the ocean is not difficult to 
 understand ; but when it is met with on the mountain range of the 
 coast, in and near the Pampa of Tamarugal, in company with nitrate, 
 sulphate, carbonate of soda, &c., also borate of soda and lime, as well 
 as high up in the Andes at 15,000 and 16,000 feet, and ^perhaps 
 higher, with, as I presume, no saliferous rocks, is a curious matter of 
 speculation, and tempts one to surmise that so much salt in such 
 elevated positions may derive its origin from other sources than the 
 ocean, viz., from volcanic and the gradual decomposition of rocks con- 
 taining the bases of saline materials in their composition. 
 
 Mr. Smith wrote me in 1850 : " The large salares appear to be drawn 
 
211 
 
 from the earth by a powerful Biin acting on a surface moistened by 
 heavy dew ; I think we nearly^bared tlie mountains about Santa Rom, 
 when I sold a quantity of salt to Captain Bowers, in 1827 ; there is 
 now a very fair crop upon them''' This is nearly a pure chloride of 
 sodium. 
 
 Curacy of Pica.— Pica 4,290 feet above the sea, 20° 30' 8" S., 69^ 
 24' W. (the church), is on the eastern margin of the Paiupa, on very 
 sandy soil, at the base of Arid mountains ; above which is an elevated 
 tract, where the humidity of the air and occasional rain produce the 
 ichu, iru and sajana pastures ; upon which feed the domestic llama and 
 alpaca and sheep, and, in the more retired parts, the wild vicuna and 
 guanaco. 
 
 The land at Pica under cultivation is limited, the chief supply of 
 water being from inconsiderable thermal and other spriugs, varying from 
 55° to 98° Flit.; the water is collected in cochas, or reservoirs, and care- 
 fully distributed to the vineyards and farms ; some of which are sup- 
 plied with water by means of socabones or adits driven on a slight 
 incline ; some of these adits are more than two thousand yards long, 
 and were probably commenced by the Indians before the arrival of the 
 Spaniards. The estates at Pica consist of small vineyards, orchards, 
 vegetable gardens, and plots of alfalfa. Among the fruits are the grape, 
 from which wine and brandy are made, figs, guavas, melons, chirimoyas, 
 pears, peaches, quinces, small but very sour lemons, pomegranates ; tuna, 
 the fruit of the opuntia ; date, pacay (prosopis dulcis), the largest tree 
 of the country, and the favourite aji or capsicum, which the Peruvians 
 use in almost every dish. Olives are also cultivated, canes for thatch- 
 ing, a little cotton, sweet potatoes, the castor oil plant, chanar, capuUes, 
 and a few other plants. 
 
 The principal houses are of adobes, but only of one floor in conse- 
 quence of the earthquakes ; the majority of the dwellings are merely 
 bamboo huts plastered with mud, and have flat roofs. The streets are 
 deep with loose sand, which, in the day time, during summer, becomes 
 very hot and most painful to walk on, so much so, that the inhabitants 
 keep a horse or mule saddled at the door to ride from house to house. 
 This spot suffers from ague, a bad sort known as tabardilla, chuicchuic, 
 and even peste (plague). 
 
 Locusts at times do great damage, and the vinchuca is common. The 
 Cerro de Chuchulai is, famed for its buenos panisos, or as showing 
 favourable indications of gold and silver. 
 
 Matilla.— 20° 31' 22" S.W. of Pica. Its farms are supplied with 
 water from the valley of Quisma or Chintaguay, as weU as from Adits. 
 This spot was comparatively populous before the conquest, as there are 
 many ancient tombs hereabouts. In the vicinity, are the warm baths 
 of Culco, with shade under a barranco or cUff. There is also much 
 sulphate of soda hereabouts. 
 
 Pampa de Tarmarugal. — This interesting table-land takes its name 
 from the tamarugo or tamarisk tree ; another tree of this family is the 
 algarobo, called carob and espino : these trees aftbrd the principal fuel 
 
2^12 
 
 of the country, and grow Vv^herever water may reach the pampa from 
 the ravines to the east. Here is also buried underneath the soil large 
 collections of dead wood of the above trees, sometimes called fossil wood. 
 Mr. Smith wrote to me, in 1850 : " Eorests of fossil wood have been 
 dug up in the pampa ; and, singular to relate, the whole trees were 
 found lying in the same direction, as if swept down at the same instant 
 either by a hurricane or a torrent of water from the mountain ravines." 
 The pampa extends throughout the whole length of the province, 
 appearing to be elevated in. the north : its height above the sea is from 
 3000 to 3500 feet ; it is a continuation of the desert of Atacama. Its 
 surface is strewed here and there with pebbles, patches of sand, salt, 
 nitrate of soda, borate of soda and lime, and other saline bodies ; much 
 marly land, lit for cultivation if there were water, this reposes on 
 rounded stones ; and, lastly, porphyritic rock is met with. 
 
 By sinking wells, water is obtained at various depths ; near the east 
 margin it is not far from the surface, but towards the west it is deeper ; 
 still among the hollows, further west, as at La Noria, Cocina, &c., it is 
 in places near the surface ; this is owing to difference of level. 
 
 A curious point about much of the water in the Pampa is that, 
 although there is so much saline material covering the plain, there is 
 not much in the water. On the east a few ravines descend into the 
 plain from the Andes, whilst there are other ravines quite dry. Only 
 three of these quebradas reach the sea, viz., Loa, Pisagua and 
 Camarones. 
 
 The view of the Cordillera from the western border of the Pampa is 
 very fine. The sky is generally cloudless, and the heat of the day is 
 intense ; but the nights are cool even in summer, thanks to radiation 
 and the land breeze. Shooting stars or meteors are seen to perfection 
 at night darting into and across the plain ; and the deceptive mirage 
 sadly tantalizes the thirsty traveller. 
 
 Although a level plain, still, when rain has been abundant in the 
 Andes and has escaped by the ravines into the Pampa, watercourses are 
 formed, producing irregularities. About noon, in summer, it sometimes 
 blows strongly from south-west, when the sand and dry earth (carauso) 
 is carried before it in large quantities, and is very annojdng to the 
 traveller. Whirlwinds of this sand, and even land spouts are seen in 
 the plain. In 1830, there was a terrible sand storm, the hurricane 
 blowing from the south ; the sand was lifted more than a hundred yards 
 in the air ; the sun was obscured ; the people in the villages were 
 greatly alarmed, they hurried to the chapels to embrace the statues of 
 the saints, and pray to them for protection. 
 
 Observations on the Desert Coast of Peru. — Taking as 
 the bases, first, the existence of the prevailing south to south- 
 south-east winds on the coast during the greater part of the year ; 
 secondly, that the line of coast runs about north to south ; thirdly, 
 the northerly winds in winter. 
 
 The great south-south-east wind having been deprived of its humi- 
 dity (contracted from the South Atlantic) in traversing the eastern. 
 
24=3 
 
 portion of the continer.t of South America) ere it reaches the east base 
 of the Andes, has already .passed over much sterile country it has 
 assisted to render so, arrives in the frozen regions of the Andes so dry 
 as not to be in a position to deposit moisture of consequence (thus iu 
 a measure accounting for so little snow and ice in the Cordillera of 
 South Peru from this source) ; then this dry south-aouth-east wind, 
 blowing across the lands on the western coast, would I conceive be the 
 main cause of its deserts. 
 
 Were the winds from the west, they would arrive charged with, 
 moisture absorbed from the Pacific ; there would be periodic rains, and 
 the now desert tracks would be fertile, but this probablv at the expense 
 (the more particularly on account of the Andean barrier) of there 
 being deserts from east to west across South America ; and the now 
 prolific soil of Brazil would be like the desert of Atacama. 
 
 The reason of the inconsiderable streams on the west coast may be 
 accounted for by the rather small quantity of snow in the Peruvian 
 Cordilleras ; and, as the rain in and near them is limited, and principally 
 when the northerly winds blow during the winter months towards the 
 Andes, meeting them with the cold atmosphere in south-south-east 
 Avinds, atmospheric conflicts take place, when storms with rain, light- 
 ning and thunder occur. 
 
 In winter, the light north and north-north-west winds deposit some 
 of their moisture (which from late observation is saline) on the summits 
 of the mountains of the coast, giving rise to spare vegetation ; but the 
 lower portions of these mountains, as w^ell as the more elevated tracks, 
 as the Pampa de Tamarugal and desert of Atacama, absorb and hold 
 so much heat as to prevent any moisture falling. 
 
 Onward goes the north and north-north-west winds, passing the arid 
 moiintains, to the east of the Pampa and desert, depositing there mois- 
 ture in the shape of rain at considerable elevations near the base of 
 the Ajides ; and, lastly, the remaining portion as snow and glacier. 
 
 From Pica to the Noria or well of Eamirez, the track goes through 
 patches of espino trees. As there is some land here free from saline 
 matter, but containing no humus or mould, experiments were made in 
 1820 to render these barren spots fit for cultivation ; wells were sunk, 
 the w^ater extracted by pumps, and by irrigating the pure marl and 
 sand, wheat, alfalfa, maize, and vegetables were produced. In 1850, 
 another form of farming was resorted to, called " chacra sin riego," or 
 a farm not requiring irrigation. About two feet of the very saline 
 earth was cleared off the surface, thus approaching the water below the 
 Pampa to within two or three feet, when sufficient moisture was 
 obtained to grow maize, wheat and vegetables. 
 
 La Tieats-a.— 20^ 21' S., 60° 43' W. Good water is met with a few 
 feet below the surface (s. g. 100255, temp. 70') ; when heavy rain falls 
 in the Cordillera, a small stream reaches here. It is rather a considera- 
 ble place, and where the principal Buitrones or amalgamating works are 
 established for reducing the silver ores, particularly of lluantajaya and 
 Santa Eosa. 
 
244 
 
 Wells of Almonte, — Here water is at the depth of thirty yards 
 (s. g. 1°001G5, temp. 70°). The mines are sup]3lied with water from 
 these wells. Here is a buitron. 
 
 NiTEATE or Soda — At page 153, I refer to the more recent infor- 
 mation regarding this valuable substance. Its existence in Tarapaca 
 has been known in Europe about a century. In 1820 some was sent 
 to England ; but, the duty being high, it was thrown overboard. In 
 1827, efforts were unsuccessfully made by an English house to export 
 it. In 1830, a cargo was sent to the United States, and found to be 
 unsaleable : a part was taken to Liverpool, but did not sell. A cargo 
 was taken to France, and, in 1831, another to England, when it sold for 
 thirty and forty shillings the ton. The price has varied, in 1851 it was 
 at fifteen shillings. Since 1830 to 1850, 239,860 tons had been 
 exported. 
 
 The principal deposits of nitrate of soda yet known are in the western 
 margin of the Pampa, on the sides of some of the ravines, and in some 
 of the hollows of the mountains of the coast, La Noria being the 
 principal oficina. The nitrate has not been found nearer to the coast 
 than eighteen miles, and it seems as if salt was gradually transformed 
 into nitrate. There are about 100 olicinas or refiniuo- works. 
 
 The nitrate deposits, or caliche, commence about Tiliviche, extending 
 south to Quilliagua, with interruptions of deposits of common salt, 
 borate of soda and lime, &c. The nitrate or caliche grounds vary in 
 breadth, the average being about 500 yards, and in places seven to eight 
 feet thick, sometimes quite pure. In the ravines and hollows, the 
 nitrate is found on the shelving sides : the bottom of the hollows look 
 like dried up lakes and are covered with salt two to three feet thick, 
 and on the margins there is the nitrate — at times there is a hard earthy 
 crust on it. 
 
 There are several varieties of nitrate : 1. White and compact, con- 
 taining 64 per cent. II. Yellow, occasioned by salts of chrome, 70 per 
 cent. III. Grey, compact, 46 per cent. IV. Grey crystalline, 20 to 
 •25 per cent. V. White crystalline, resembling refined nitrate. All 
 these contain iodine, as well as salt, sulphate and carbonate of soda, 
 and murate of lime. 
 
 Recently, in connection with the nitrate deposits, borate of soda and 
 lime has been found. 
 
 The rough nitrate is broken into pieces, put into boilers, water intro- 
 duced, and the whole boiled ; the nitrate is held in solution, whilst the 
 earthy matter, salt, sulphates, &c., are separated and fall down. The 
 saturated solution of nitrate is run off into shallow troughs to crystal- 
 lize, now containing from 2 to 3 per cent of impurities, and is then con- 
 veyed to the coast for exportation. The province of Tarapaca contains 
 nitrate for the world's consumption for ages ; the Desert of Atacama 
 yields it, and it is said to have been met with in the Andes and in the 
 eastern plains. 
 
 Passing El Pugio (pucjai, a well) a small farm on the road from Pica 
 to Guatacondo, and the Rio Salada, the route leads by Cuevas, Tambo, 
 
240 
 
 Eamada, and Chipani, halting places without water. HaviiuT ascended 
 the Cuesta de Chelis, and descended into the deep ravine of Guatacondo, 
 a few trees are seen amongst masses of rock. In ascending the ravine, 
 it becomes very narrow, and at one place it is taken up by a cliajai,aia 
 or waterfall. In order to pass this augostura, or narrow, a path has 
 been cut out of the overhanging rocks, a few miles from which is the 
 Indian village of 
 
 G-UATACONDO (in Aymara, the Devil bound) 20^ 57' 51" 8. Here, 
 granite, porphyries, clay-slate and their debris are seen in perfection. 
 High up the ravine, in the Cordillera, are the mines of Ugina at 10,000 
 feet, and where gold, silver and copper are found in tlie same vein ; 
 also a white copper, called pampua ; here, are gold washings also. The 
 produce of the valley is maize, fruit and vegetables ; a few sheep are 
 reared. Impejza, Tigua and Yareta, are silver mines in the vicinity. 
 
 Erom the heights of Guatacondo, there is an extensive view into the 
 desert of Atacama. The mountains of Conche, famed for their gold 
 and copper mines, may also be seen. It is from that part of the 
 country where large quantities of green sand or atacamite comes, for 
 sanding letters instead of using blotting-paper. 
 
 QuEBEADA DE LOS PiNTADOs, or the pictured ravine. Here are 
 representations of Indians, llamas, dogs and other forms, on the sides 
 of the dell ; as well as at Quebrada Onda ; the figures are, twenty to 
 thirty feet high, scraped out in the marly sand, the lines being from 
 12 to 18 inches broad and 6 to 8 deep. 
 
 Maxi, 21° 10' S. in the ravine of Capaua, takes its name from the 
 earthapple, Mani (Arachis hypogaea) ; it is the most southern inhabited 
 spot of the province. JNear to this are some old gold works, as well 
 as those of Catigna, in the Quebrada onda, 
 
 QriLLiAGUA is in the valley of Loa, where 'reside a few Indians. 
 The stream, which is regarded as the south boimdary of Peru, with 
 Bolivia, is generally five feet wide and five feet deep, and brackish ; 
 during the rainy season in the Andes, its volume of water is augmented. 
 It is in contemplation to open a canal above the village, so as to 
 irrigate t|ie neighbouring plain. Earthquakes are severely felt here. 
 
 Loa, on the coast, in 21° 30' S., is the abode of a few fishermen. To 
 the north, are the deserted gold mines of Chipani, and Marejo. also the 
 silver mines of Paiquina. To the south are the gold mines of Guachan, 
 Mr. Peacockinforms me that some ore he obtained, vielded 50 ozs. the ton. 
 
 Pavellon de Pica is a hillock on the coast from whence large 
 quantities of guano are taken. 
 
 Mines of Chanabaya. These are of gold and silver. It takes 
 three days to transport water and provisions to them from the interior 
 There are a dozen mines. From what I have been able to learn, 
 I am inclined to think, now that there are such facilities afforded by 
 steam-navigation, that this spot deserves further notice, and might be 
 got at easily from the coast. 
 
 CuEACY or SiBAYA.— SiBAYA, 19° 47' 33" S. is an Indian town. 
 Maize is grown, and sheep and llamas bred. In the vicinity is 
 
246 
 
 Limacsifia, G-uavina, and the ruined village of Manca-Guaviiia, 
 prostrated by one of those rushes of water (avenidas) from the 
 Andes. There is a route from Sibaya to Potosi, across the Andes, 
 which takes an Indian 12 to 15 days. From Sibaya to Mocha there are 
 two tracks, one by the mountains, used when the valley is impassible 
 by reason of the sudden rushes of water through the Angostura, or 
 narrow, which is two miles long, 800 feet deep, aud two or three yards 
 in width, in some places excluding the light of day. These augosturas 
 appear to me t© have been formed by earthquakes — they are called rajas, 
 splits or fissures. This pass, although originally such a fissure, has 
 been worn down by torrents 20 to 30 feet more, the latter distance 
 being very smooth. 
 
 Mocha produces wheat and maize. Here resides an Indian family 
 named Quispe-Sugso, descended from the Incas, paying no tribute. In 
 1850, I was informed that Juan Quispe-Sugso followed the calling of a 
 muleteer. One of the Incas conferred the title of Quispe or resplend- 
 ent in this family. At Mocha there is much gypsum, and in its moun- 
 tains indications of gold. 
 
 UsMAGAMA, Chusmisa and GuASQUiisrA are Indian hamlets where 
 llamas are reared, and wheat, maize and potatoes grown. Grigantic 
 cacti are hereabouts seen twenty feet or more high, the stems a foot 
 thick, which, when split, serves for doors and rafters. 
 
 Usmagama is at the bottom of a deep ravine, prettily surrounded 
 with trees, and has a picturesque appearance from the moimtain road to 
 Zipisa. The track is steep and dangerous, along a precipice in a zigzag 
 course, some of the steps being cut out of the solid rock, aud at great 
 distances from each other, so that a mule in descending is obliged to 
 drop both the fore feet at once, which is not pleasant to the rider. 
 
 At Gruasquiiia there is gypsum, and on the heights are abundant 
 debris from the higher country, containing much sulphuret of iron, 
 supposed to be a favourable indication of lavadero gold. At Chusmisa 
 are hot sulphur springs. 
 
 On leaving G-uasquiiia for Zipisa, the track leads up the nq^i^'th side of 
 the ravine : it is cut out of the mountain and looks almost perpendicu- 
 lar. The road is firm, but so narrow that there is much danger when 
 travellers or troops of animals meet. From the summit of this road 
 the track is most mountainous, until a dry quebrada is attained, which 
 is entered by an escalera, or ladder path, a flight of steps at an angle 
 of 45°, cut out of the rock, a sort of road the Indians of old knew so 
 well how to construct. Here, travellers are obliged to dismount and 
 lead their animals. 
 
 Zipisa, 19° 38' 6" S., at 10,250 feet, is in a very rugged country, sup- 
 plied with w^ater, from springs, conveyed by a long acqueduct made to 
 wind round the mountains, a system used in Incarial times. Here, is a 
 sanctuary, the resort of the pious in the month of June. It is a pretty 
 spot, and where a few paraquets, wood-pigeons and small birds are 
 seen. , . 
 
247 
 
 ■ SoTOCA, 19° 36' 18" S., is reached by a mountainous up and down 
 track, and half way between it and Zipisa, both vina«,a\s are seen be- 
 neath the traveller, apparently at only a stone's throw. In tlie moun- 
 tain of Taracagua is a silver mine, and there is much sulplun-et of iron 
 in the debris that covers these mountains. It is supposed that the 
 existence of this substance here will lead some day to the discovery of 
 gold washings. 
 
 Curacy of Camina. — At tlie mouth of the quebrada of Camifia, is 
 the Port of Pisagua, from whence Iquique is supplied with water : the 
 stream seldom reaches the beach. The mountains about Pisigua have 
 veins of gold, silver, antimony and copper. From this place lluayna- 
 Pisagua and Mejillones nitrate is shipped. 
 
 Tana. — Alfalfa is grown, and there are large deposits of salt in the 
 vicinity. This ravine of Camina, like the other two of Loa and 
 Camarones, cut straiglit through the Pampa ; they are wide in parts, 
 narrow in others ; their structure is alluvial, and imbedded in them are 
 rounded masses of rock, resulting from mountains to the east. I looked 
 for fossil bones in this district, but found none : Garcilaso mentions 
 the existence of bones of giants on the borders of the Desert of 
 Atacama. 
 
 Quimpasa, Talamanta, Moquella, Quistagama, Cuisama and Chapi- 
 quilta are native hamlets before reaching the large Indian town of 
 Camilla (anciently Carvisa, one of the names of the llama,). IMuch of 
 the cultivated land is far above the level of the stream, formed into 
 terraces, and watered from above by means of an acqueduct running 
 from some distance up the valley, Here we see the domestic llama and 
 alpaca, and a little higher up in the mountains the wild huanaco and 
 vicuna. 
 
 The track to Isluga leads up the ravine through trees and shrubs, 
 leaving which to the N,, by a long ascent, you arrive at the Cuesta of 
 Parasuya without any road being distinguishable from the tracks made 
 by the herds of llamas and sheep that graze on the mountains ; these 
 tracks continue nearly to the pile of stones known as the Pass or Pas- 
 cana of Pacbeta, 14,430 feet above the sea. 
 
 Matmaga has a marsh, the waters of which issue out of springs. 
 'Now and then a chinchilla and biscacha are seen, — also condors, eagles, 
 and wild geese. These solitary and dreary spots are called estancias, 
 "where reside a few Indian families, tending the llama and jerking (or 
 drying) its meat. From the N.E. the land is contracted by the moun- 
 tains ; a cuesta is ascended, when after passing the estancia of ^Mauqui, 
 the track is very bad, over rising barren ground, without vegetation, 
 until a high pass in the Andes is reached, known as the Abra de 
 Pichuta, with its pile of stones. I have estimated this pass to be at 
 least 15,000 feet above the sea. Much inconvenience was experienced 
 in traversing this pass by the violence of the cold-piercing wind from 
 S.E. From here the volcano of Isluga is well seen, giving out volumes 
 
248 
 
 of vapour, as weii as the view of manv snow-capped ridges. Ascending 
 through a ravine, the coals and stream of Pasirugo, 14.079 feet are 
 attained — this is a resting place of the Indian when tending his llamas. 
 Angaaje is on a lake and is a llama farm. From here five small 
 craters of the volcano of Isluga are seen — two near the summit — three 
 some distance down the south side. 
 
 The YoLCAisro of Isluga is not very conical. It was winter when I 
 was there, and then it was covered with snow to its base. During the 
 summer, sulphur is collected from the craters. Loud rumbling noises 
 are heard in its vicinity and earthquakes frequently occur. 
 
 From the character of the rocks and debris of this region I should 
 say that the Cordilleras in these latitudes, and far north and south, is one 
 mass of volcanic matter. Passing the Estancia of Enquelca, on the 
 border of a lake, the high Andean town of Isluga is reached. This 
 is the largest village in this part of the Cordillera, on a good-sized 
 stream which comes from the mountain of Carabaya and running into 
 the lake of Isluga. In these elevated inland waters I saw an ugly- 
 looking fish — the suchi — eight to ten inches long. I am inclined to give 
 14,000 to 15,000 feet of elevation to this town. In the hollows, a few 
 potatoes and millet is with difficulty grown, and there are some scanty 
 pastures. The severity of the climate freezes the potato readily, and 
 in this state it is called chuiio — the starchy part of the potato being 
 changed into saccharine by freezing. Near here are water-fowl, a few 
 ostriches, plovers and biscachas : the puma is sometimes seen, its 
 prey the young llamas : the condor is also dreaded. Of fuel there 
 is a little turf; the tola, a resinous shrub, and the more resinous 
 yareta, of a globular appearance, the resin exuding in winter. 
 
 Pampa de Sal. — To the east of Isluga begins an extensive salt-plain, 
 said to extend to Challapato and the insulated Cordillera del Frayle 
 40 leagues off and near to Potosi, varying in breadth from three to 
 €ight leagues ; the salt being five to ten inches thick. From near 
 Enquelca this Andean salt-plain is seen as far as the eye can reach, 
 forming a regular white horizon, and in striking contrast with the 
 dark bases of the Cordilleras. The elevation of this plain, is at least 
 14,000 feet. 
 
 Caraquima is an estancia at the western base of the mountain of 
 Mama-Huanapa. There are other estancias, as Xiquima, Turini, 
 ChivuUani, &c. 
 
 Matjqui, 14,342 feet, is a small village, with a chapel larger than 
 the whole place put together, and dedicated to N, S. de Gruadalupe, 
 who, it is said, appeared to an Indian woman on a hill north of the village, 
 at which spot a large cross is erected. 
 
 Lake or the Parikas, or of the Andean Flamingos — This bird 
 has some red on the breast and is a new variety. I have deposited in 
 the British Museum a specimen. This lake is 13,567 feet in length, 
 and has much wild-fowl. 
 
 PucHULTiSA. — Here are a few huts for the accommodation of Indian 
 
249 
 
 shepherds. A small stream runs by it, augmentetl by others from the 
 boiling springs, water volcanos, or 
 
 YoLCANTTOS DE AouA DE PuciiULTTSA : Thcse arc in a hollow, 
 the surface of which is composed of a thick white criust. Tlierc arr a 
 dozen or more of these geysers, from three to live feet in diamcti-r, 
 with water boiling at various levels, some throwing the water to two 
 feet in height. The water as it cools leaves a sediment which increases 
 the size of the cones. There are more than 500 smaller ones dis- 
 persed over the hollow, emitting a sulphurous odour, whilst ;v 
 rumbling subterranean noise is continually heard, like distant iiring. 
 May not the surface of this hollow be the covering to a comparatively 
 quiescent crater, which, as the water runs into it from the moun- 
 tains, gets heated, expands and forms these Andean geysers. Tlio 
 specimen of the white crust was lost, but I should not be surprised 
 to hear when it is examined, that it contains salts of borax. 
 
 By the Quebrada of Biscachas, and a mountainous route by Ulmaga, 
 round the base of Tata Jachura, (see p. 164i for ascent of this mountain) 
 I came to the large Indian town of 
 
 Chiapa, 19° 32' S., 63° 30' W.. 10,152 feet. Here wheat, maize, 
 potatoes and vegetables are cultivated. In the month of June it freezes 
 at night. The water used in the irrigation of the land is brought by 
 aqueducts of some extent. Here grows the cactus, tola, culen, jarillo, 
 aracache or wild celery, valerian and a few flowers. 
 
 Soga is between Chiapa and Camilla, by so mountainous and broken 
 a track as to be called the Devil's Eoad. 
 
 QuEBBADA or Camaeones. — The boundary with Arica is a few 
 miles north of the ravine. The water is brackish, and ague prevails in 
 that part near the coast. Much blajck oxide of arsenic is found in the 
 ravine. Chisa is a small vineyard in the valley of the same name, in 
 which is also Minimini, an Indian town, producing wheat and fruit, 
 
 Indians of Taeapaca. — They are of the Aymara race. At pp. 
 166, 167, I have mentioned these Indians. I may here add, that 
 they have been so subdued that they pass for an inoli'ensive and quiet 
 race. They marry young and appear to lead a virtuous life. The 
 Indian is slow in his movements, but most patient and persevering, 
 performing long journeys with troops of mules and asses, laden \yith 
 the produce of his land, for sale, whilst the women remain behind, 
 assisting in the cultivation of the soil and tending the herds of llamas, 
 alpacas and sheep. Their habitations are of rough stone, seldom more 
 than one apartment — without windows; at the end is an elevated i)art, 
 on which they sleep, on llama and sheep-skins. Their cooking utensils 
 consist of a few earthen pots and dishes, and they manufacture the 
 material for their clothing from the wool of llama, alpaca, sheep, and 
 cotton. 
 
 At their homes they fare pretty well, living on llama meat, &c. 
 Some have flour and vegetables, but their principal grain is maize, 
 from which they make their bread and favorite chicha; but, with a 
 little toasted maize and coca, they will travel for days over the most 
 
250 
 
 desert tracks. The coca is masticated with llipta, an alkaline ash mixed 
 with boiled potato. 
 
 The dress of the men is a coarse cotton shirt, woollen breeches and 
 jacket, stockings without feet, a large hat, and hide sandals. A long 
 strip of cotton hangs loosely round the neck, and sometimes round the 
 head and face, to protect those parts from the cold, or the intense 
 heat of the sun. A waistband, of various colours, in which is the pouch 
 containing the coca ; this, with a coarse blue and red poncho, com- 
 pletes his attire. 
 
 The women wear a long cotton garment, over which is a woollen 
 dress ; then a long mantle fastened by tupus or pins of silver, some- 
 times these have a spoon at one end ; a long waistband : then the 
 Uiclia or female poncho, in which they carry their children behind them. 
 They w^ear sandals, but seldom any covering to the head ; they are 
 adorned with the gargantilla, or necklace of coloured beads, little crosses 
 and small spoons. Occasionally a few Chirihuanos Indians of the 
 Tungas visit Tarapaca. They are called the travelling doctors of Peru, 
 in consequence of their ambulatory pharmacy being composed of 
 remedies for all diseases : herbs, gums, resins, roots, charms of various 
 sorts, including the loadstone ; but the only useful one is the quinquina 
 or Peruvian bark. 
 
 Sectiok I. — At Pisagua much black granite is seen, traversed by 
 veins of quartz. The deep ravines of Tiliviche and Camiiia are com- 
 posed of sand, silicious pebbles, rounded and angular masses of granite, 
 volcanic rocks and much gypsum. From Talamanta the section goes 
 through the arid range of Cahuisa to a broken undulating region 
 where there is pasture. The Volcano of Isluga succeeds, then touching 
 the great Salt Plain we get to the Volcano of Carangas. 
 
 Sectioist II. commences at Iquique with granite, then porphyries. 
 At the silver mines of Gruantajaya, (the Chiflones) and near the summit 
 of the mountain, I examined a superficial layer called Manto, which is 
 composed entirely of a fossil shelly deposit, principally of broken valves 
 of gryphae. Beneath the Manto argillaceous limestone is met with ; 
 and at the base of the mountain of Gruantajaya, the Paniso, a peculiar 
 unconsolidated mass is found, which contains the papas, or insulated 
 masses of silver, as well as fossil shells. Darwin has figured three, viz. : 
 Terebratula Inca, T. aenigma and Lucina Americana. 
 
 My friend. Professor Morris, on examining the fossil shells I obtained 
 from the Paniso, names them as follows : Lucina excentrica ; a Venus ; 
 Trigonia (a cast) ; and a new Lucina which he calls L. Bollaerti. The 
 worn fragments of ammonites, probably A.plicatiles. Professor Porbes 
 found one fragment of ammonite undistinguishable from A. biplex; 
 others either biplex or nearly allied. Cast of a Trigonia near Costata ; 
 an Astarte and a Venus. 
 
 Having passed through the Paniso, argillaceous limestones are met 
 with : then a hard basaltic formation : also a silicious rock. 
 
 The coast range being traversed, we reach the Saline Pampa de 
 Tamarugal. There rise out of it some isolated silicious mountains ; the 
 
251 
 
 principal ones are Challacollo and Challacollcito. Jn the former 1 
 visited some abandoned silveiL mines. In the arid range on the eastern 
 border of the Pampa, there is much sand and detritus, underneath 
 which, in all probability, the rocks are similar to those of the coast 
 range. Next is an elevated country, broken by ravines, with much 
 debris from the Cordilleras, with volcanic matters, then the Andes. 
 
 Eaethquakes. — A severe one is expected every six or seven years ; 
 but few days pass witliout a shock being felt, coming generally from 
 the East. In 1795, as many as forty shocks were expeiienced in one 
 day. In 1818 a series of heavy shocks continued for fifteen days, when 
 the people left the to\^^l of Guantajaya ; the ground opened and clouds 
 of dust were raised in the streets by the violence of the concussions. 
 On one occasion I was at the bottom of a deep mine here, when I heard 
 a faint rumbling, which rapidly increased, sounding like distant 
 thunder, and then it passed onwards ; next followed a horizontal, 
 undulating motion, which shook down part of the slanting road of the 
 mines. The rest of the paper contains my route from Cobija to 
 Coquimbo, by the coast of the Desert of Atacama, with observations 
 on the meteoric iron of Atacama. 
 
 Abstract of Second Series of Observations on the Geography of Southern 
 Peru; and on the Salt, Nitrate of Soda and Borax deposits in the 
 Province of Tarapacd. By W. Bollaert, F.B.G.S., Corr. Mem. 
 Univ. Chile, Bead at British Association, Aberdeen, 1859. 
 
 In November, 1853, the steamer " Magdalena" took me to the "West 
 Indies in 16 days, and another steamer across the Carribean sea to New 
 Granada ; then by rail and the river Chagres across the Isthmus of 
 Darien to Panama. In a few days another steamer conveyed me to 
 Guayaquil, and having left this port I bade adieu for some time to the 
 sight of vegetation. The deserts of the Coast of Peru became the 
 scene of my wanderings until I got to Chile, and revelled once more in 
 the beautiful forests of Arauco. 
 
 Paita. — Here we first got sight of the arid shores of Peru. The 
 sandy cliffs are three to four hundred feet high, composed of horizontal 
 layers, containing recent shells. I was informed, that as far as eight 
 leagues inland, shells were found and of a species now existing in these 
 seas. The impression one has in viewing these shores, is that they 
 have not long since been uplifted from the sea, or that the ocean has 
 retired. Water and provisions are brought from Piura, seven leagues 
 off. It had not rained for the last eight years. The exports of the 
 country are straw hats, hides and wool. Near here is much gvpsum ; 
 and I found two Italians — political refugees and friends of Gari- 
 baldi—turning it, by burning, into plaster of Paris, and manufacturing 
 images. 
 
9 '^9 
 
 ij 
 
 PiUEA ia on a river of the same name. Coal (probably tertiary) 
 exists at Mai Paso on the estate of Mancora. Coasting along the 
 desert of Sechura I passed the Lobos Guano Islands, so called from the 
 number of seals found there. 
 
 Lambateqtje. — In this region are seen immense flights of huanaes, 
 or guano-producing birds, some so gorged with fish as to find it difficult 
 to get out of the way of our steamer. The balsas, or floats of woo d 
 nsed here, are wonderful tilings for a snrf, and the way cargo and 
 passengers are thrown on and lugged off", is amusing. 
 
 HuAK-CHACO, the port of Trujillo — the land of the ancient Chimus- 
 Here we took in silver bars and much cochineal. 
 
 HiJACHO. — In this vicinity much salt is collected, originating from 
 the sea. The general appearance of these coast towns, including 
 Huacho, when viewed from the sea, is that they are built in hollows. 
 The houses are of one story high, giving to the town the aspect of 
 having been razed, driven down, or swallowed up. It is impossible in 
 a view of this kind, and recollecting something of its geological history, 
 to divest oneself of the feelings attached to earthquakes. 
 
 Another peculiarity is the clay colour which pervades everything. 
 Stone and wood are scarce, hence sun-dried brick is the building 
 material. The sauce or willow (salix humboldtiana and falcata) is 
 prolific where water may run, and protects the inhabitants from the 
 tropical sun. 
 
 The only fertile soil of the Pacific slopes is formed by valleys, which 
 seem to be a continuation of mountain passes. They are filled with 
 small streams which descend from mountain snows and afPord means of 
 irrigation. They vary in dimensions, that in which Lima is situated is 
 fifty miles in length. 
 
 The " Mercurio Peruano," I. 98, 116, states that in January, 1791, 
 this district was visited by rains. On the 15th " heavy rain ;" 16th, 
 " mountain torrents ;" 17th, " thick mist," temp. 75° P. In Pebruary, on 
 the 10th and 14th, avenidas or mountain torrents came down the river, 
 from rain, covering a space of from sixty to seventy leagues. This was a 
 most extraordinary rain for the great quantity of it ; for, after only two 
 hours duration, it had formed new rivers and ruined many villages. 
 1746 is the date of the last heavy rains about Lima. 
 
 The following is also from the " Mercurio," being the account of an 
 extraordinary meteor seen at Cailete on the evening of the 25th Decem- 
 ber, 1790, wdth the observers reflections thereon. 
 
 *' The sun set at 6.12, a dusky meteor running north and south illumi- 
 nated the valley. Its figure the segment of a circle, about 115° in 
 circumference, the two extremities of which, perpendicular to the 
 horizon, were accurately defined, and suspended in the air. Its equal 
 aspect in every part denoted its thickness to be about half a yard. It 
 was embellished, or rather rendered terrific by a mixture of black and 
 ash colours, which resembled an overshadow^ed iris. It remained fixed 
 and motionless in its primitive situation until 10.30, p.m., when it began 
 to be dispersed by the rays of light emitted by the moon. 
 
2o3 
 
 " While the pe(^3le with uplifted liands implored the deity to suRpend 
 the ealamities whieli this sinister token, as they thought it, auiiouncod 
 to them, my mind was wholly occupied by reflections on the nature of 
 meteors. The knowledge, such as it is, which I possess on that subject 
 impelled me to make a philosophical exhortation to the spectators to 
 combat their vain terrors ; but I was deterred by the recollecticn of the 
 austral aurora which appeared at Cuzco in the year 1742, and did not 
 wish to bring down mischief on my head. The inhabitants of Cu/.co, 
 struck with awe at so rare a phenomenon, vented their curses on the 
 learned Marquis of Yalle-Umbrosa, who Ibrmed the hazardous resolu- 
 tion to attack their prejudices." 
 
 Eemaining a few days in Lima, visiting the Chincha Islands, famed 
 for the guano deposits, I found the whole coast to be arid and desert, 
 with trachytic rocks, with here and there much indurated sand. 
 
 IsLAt. — This is now a large well-built place. It has two fountains 
 and an iron mole. It is the port for the large inland city of Arequipa. 
 The following occurred between two frenchmen on landing here : one 
 exclaimed — " Dans quel horrible desert nous sommes ! c't st aiVreux ! 
 Pas un abre, pas de verdure, rien que du sable noir et aride, Mon Uieu ! 
 Mon Dieu ! The reply of his friend was — " Xous venons ici pour 
 chercherde Tor, et nou de lieux champetres." 
 
 Dr. Hamilton says, on the road through the desert from Tacna to 
 Arequipa, between Locumba and Moquegua, numerous marine sheila 
 are seen in the sand at a distance from and above the sea. They are 
 similar to those at present found on that coast within the tide limits, 
 thus indicating that at no very remote epoch there has been in that 
 locality either an elevation of the land or a subsidence of the sea. 
 
 Mr. Hill states, on the road from Arequipa to the baths of Yura 
 there is a narrow plain between high lands where the ground is covered 
 with salt, which appears to issue everywhere from the ground in small 
 patches, after the falling of the dew in the evening, and is gathered and 
 purified. 
 
 Aeica is on a plain, a ribbon of alluvium, extending into the interior. 
 The original formation of the whole is doubtless due to torrents during 
 the early geological history of the western slope of the Cordillera. 
 Here grow oranges, paltas, pomegranates, line figs and much aji. There 
 is ague caused by the decomposition of vegetation. This is the sea-port 
 to Tacna, distant forty-one miles, and there is now a railway over the 
 desert between the two places. 
 
 Senor Carrasco, in a representation he made to the government in 
 1853 about Arica, says : it has suffered from barbarous invasions, over- 
 flowing of rivers, terrible earthquakes, and hurricanes fi'om the south ; 
 and that, from good data, it can be shown that forty years since the 
 margin of the sea was 150 yards further inland ; and that, in conse- 
 quence of this retirement of the sea by upheaval of the land, it has 
 been found necessary to lengthen the mole. 
 
 The water of Arica is so saline and earthy, that, before it can be used 
 on the boilers of the locomotives, it has to be distilled, as also the water 
 
254 
 
 of Tacna for this purpose. The water used for the locomotives on the 
 Copiapo Railway, is distilled from the sea, that of the wells being earthy 
 as well as saline. 
 
 Mayen describes the vegetation of the Peru-Bolivian Andes thus — 
 On ascending from Arica, you have to traverse many miles, a steppe of 
 gravel and sand, a desert without plants or animals. At Tacna some 
 trees and bushes make their appearance : beyond this, olives, pome- 
 granates and figs occasionally are seen. You next come to the 
 region of the cactus, 5000 to 7500 feet. Higher up the vegetation 
 is extremely beautiful ; but at the pass of Guallilas (14,750) all vegeta- 
 tion has again ceased, and the whole broad mountain crest is a desolate 
 waste till you descend to the table-land of the Lake Titicaca. Tew 
 trees are met with in this table-land, which consists chiefly of extensive 
 pastures and fields of grain. The road from Chuiquito to Puno is like 
 a flower garden. Maize at 12,900, viscachas 15,000, flamingos 13,000, 
 condor's nest 15,000 — its flight to 23,000. Snow limit of west chain 
 18,500, east ditto 15,900. 
 
 PROVINCE OF TARAPACA. 
 
 iQiriQTJE is the principal port in the province of Tarapaca, for the 
 export of nitrate of soda. In 1825, when I first went to Peru, it was 
 the landing place for the silver mines of Huantajaya and Santa Rosa. 
 The mines having been badly worked, and as labour was most expen- 
 sive, they were almost abandoned. The existence of nitrate of soda in 
 this region, attracted attention ; its extraction and refining was found 
 to require but little capital and to be more profitable than mining, and 
 Iquique, from a mere collection of fishermen's huts, now has a poulation 
 of about 5,000 people. 
 
 I was rather astonished, when in Valparaiso, to hear Grerman female 
 street-singers ; but more so, in Iquique, to hear an Italian boy playing 
 on the organ. Iquique now has its newspaper, the " Mercurio de 
 Tarapaca." 
 
 This now considerable town, with well-built habitations and ware- 
 houses, an amalgamating establishment for silver ores from one mine in 
 Huantajaya, as also for the Desmontes or refuse of the mines, is in a 
 complete desert, and water for drinking is distilled from the sea. In 
 former times water was brought in boats from Pisagua. Two wells 
 have been sunk towards the mountains in Iquique ; but only a little, 
 very saline and sour water obtained. No artesian boring has been 
 effected, and, from the geological character of the rocks, granites and 
 porphyries, and the very little quantity of water of percolation there 
 may be, and this probably saline, offers but little inducement, although 
 
255 
 
 an artesian well, producing good water, would give £10,000 a year. 
 Provisions and coal are principally supplied from Chile; however, much 
 English coal is used at tlie refineries. The luxury of ice comes from 
 the United States. 
 
 My old friend, Mr. George Smith, was one of the first nitrate 
 refiners, and mainly to his perseverance and untiring exertions, the 
 exports of nitrate, which were only 18,700 cwt. in 1830, in 1858 
 amounted to 61,000 tons. Mr. Smith may be called the discoverer of 
 the new boracic acid mineral found in the Pamna do Tamaru«ral ; and 
 1 may claim some part m mstigatingand making extensive examinations 
 of the Borate district, and giving it more publicity in Europe, Up to 
 the present time (1860) the Peruvian Government does not allow its 
 extraction, probably with a view at some future period of making it a 
 State monopoly, like the guano.' 
 
 Humboldt's Current, in September, 1854, ofi" the port of Icpiicpie. 
 — During a calm of 12 hours, the " Guise"--was drifted 15 miles to N.W. : 
 thus, when sailing vessels get to leeward of a port in these latitudes, 
 they may be several days fetching in to their destination. 
 
 On my voyage to Europe in a sailing vessel, on a W.S.AV. course, on 
 the third day from Arica, we got out of the cool water of this current, 
 into warmer. 
 
 The 21st of April, 1854, at Iquique, the temperature was, 8 a.m., 
 66° F. Bar. :^0^ ; noon 67° 30^ f , 9 p.m., 30^ f , with same regu- 
 larity through the month : indeed, throughout the year, the barometer 
 has but little change. 
 
 About this period much dew falls at night ; even a few drops of 
 light rain with winds from the North. The gigantic cactus now thrives 
 on the Lomas or mountain heights : a few bulbous plants and fltnvers 
 appear in May, and this is the " Tiempo de Elores," for the inhabitants 
 of these desert shores, who ascend the mountains to pic-nic, gather 
 flo\vers, and an oxalis, which makes a good salad. 
 
 As the nitrate shipped at Iquique is brought from the refineries by 
 mules and asses, the number of dead, dying and skeletons, in and around 
 the town, is something considerable. The dying animals, covered with 
 sores, are persecuted by flies and mosquitos ; and, when dead, their flesh 
 is soon consumed by condors, eagles and gallinazos. 
 
 When I first knew Iquique, in 1826, there was seldom more than a 
 hundred people there ; it was very healthy all the year round ; but 
 at Pica and Tarapaca in the interior, and where there was water, and 
 consequently decomposing vegetation, terciana or intermittent fever of 
 a bad sort, was generated. In those times, all foreigners were looked 
 upon as doctors, and when one was in possession of a medicine-chest, 
 such was a sufficient diploma. I had a medicine-chest and was sent 
 for to Pica ; my patient was soon relieved, but I took a terciana, which 
 was followed by a bad dysentery. I had to go to Arica in search of a 
 medical man, there was none there ; however, after a time, H.B.M. 
 ship, " Volage," visited the port, 1 was taken out to sea for a erui/.e, 
 and with the help of calomel and opium, I soon recovered under tiie 
 
256 
 
 kind superintendence of Dr. Hammet. The native treatment for ter- 
 ciana is as follows : first a dose of sulphate of soda, then a spoonful of 
 powdered Peruvian bark, in a glass of wine; then a glass of lemonade, 
 generally repeated twice or thrice ; this averts the fever or cuts it. 
 
 For some years past, about the month of June, Iquique — where 
 there is no vegetation — is terribly scourged with what is called peste, 
 and very much like yellow fever. It has been thought that this fever 
 was brought from Panama by the steamers ; but I think this peste is 
 engendered at Iquique. There is now an increased population. The 
 soil is sandy, but there is no drainage whatever ; to this must be added 
 the ordure of thousands of animals that bring the nitrate down from the 
 refineries; then a hot sun, pouring on the soil-impregnated ground, the 
 greater portion of the year, is I think, sufficient to cause peste at 
 Iquique, and which at times is fatal] 100 died of it in 1854. When 
 coming from the interior and entering Iquique about sun-rise, the stench 
 at times is most fetid, and known as the "barber." The Callao 
 "barber," is described as a nauseoTis smell in May and June, and 
 ascribed to vast numbers of small dead fish washed in by the swell and 
 dejDosited in the sand. » 
 
 MoLLE is six miles S.E. of Iquique. I had occasion to visit this spot 
 many times in company with Mr. George Smnh, who had been induced 
 to put up two parallel iron-wire ropes from the summit of the mountain 
 1800 feet high, to the shore, so as to send down, in a running suspended 
 car, nitrate of soda, and by its weight in the descent to cause a similar 
 car to ascend, laden with coal and provisions. The principle of this 
 may be correct, but the very great length of wire required, viz., 3735 
 feet of 3i-incli circumference, of lOlbs. per fathom, breaking strain 
 said to be 20 tons — working, 60 cwt., — so strained and weakened the 
 more central portion of the wire rope, that on trial they broke. They 
 were spliced several times, but the same breaking occurred ; when the 
 costly idea of a "Plying Eaiiway"was abandoned. 
 
 At this spot there is no water, yet there were flies, mosquitos, vinchucas 
 lizards, rats, mice, scorpions, centipedes and large fleas. Here formerly 
 were amalgamated some of the silver ores of Huantajaya with sea 
 water. The sargasso, a gigantic sea- weed of interminable length, is 
 in great abundance ; at certain times of the year is seen floating about 
 a beautiful polypus, large and round, called " Agua Viva," or live water. 
 It is asserted, that should it come into contact with the body when 
 bathing, by a sucking action causes inflammation. 
 
 There is a tradition that this spot is called after a molle tree that 
 once grew here — if so, water comparatively fresh must have found its 
 way to the vicinity of the tree, most probably originating in the garuas, 
 or a very slight rain, more frequent formerly than at present. An adit 
 was driven a few yards at the foot of the mountain, when, it is said, 
 traces of water (probably of percolation) made its appearance, but too salt 
 to drink. A well 30 yards deep was sunk by M. Digoy, at the foot of the 
 mountains of Guantaca (Iquique) : water, rather warm was obtained, 
 but it was very brackish : gome said it might be drank. The ground 
 
257 
 
 went through was sand, rounded stones, a sort of clay witli rounded 
 stones, to the rock. Another well, sunk her('al)outs, by jNlr. Smith, at 
 40 feet, came to a little saltpT^tter, and sourwatcr. 
 
 I will now allude to the fact that at lluanliijaya, 10 miles N.E. 
 and about 2,300 feet above the sea, there is a silver mine known iis 
 the Quebrada, and at 648 feet depth, a small ])ortion of saliue water 
 is found, s. g. 1010,1G, temp. 78°, containing chlorides and sulphates, a 
 little alumina and iron. Similar water is met with at 700 feet in same 
 mine. Can this water percolate towards MoUe and ](iui({ue, throu;;h 
 hard porphyries, and cause so much surface salt ? or rather, is it the 
 saline vapours from the ocean, which have been waited to the mountains 
 of the coast for ages, and coated them with salt, and there beiiii; no 
 rain to wash the salt back into the sea, accumulates and remains on the 
 land. 
 
 Two leagues S.E. from Santa Eosa, is the Pozo de los Ingleses, a 
 well sunk iu 1826, by an English Mining Company, they got to damp 
 ground, but did not proceed further, as the company broke up. 
 
 Accurate levellings through the coast range and deep hollows would 
 be interesting in connection with this subject of percolation. The pampa 
 of Tamarugal is, say 3,500 feet above the sea ; saline waters are ever 
 coming into that plain from the Cordillera, run and percolate into the 
 hollows on the east border of the coast mountains, and some saline 
 matters may be blown by the wind on to the sides of the said moun- 
 tains, and account in some measure for the surface salt there. 
 
 At Molle, sea-cliffs are seen, containing thick layers of recent shells 
 and saline matters from the sea : these mix and decompose each other, 
 forming sulphate and muriate of lime. 
 
 The mountain of Molle is very steep, much of it covered with very 
 large quantities of disintegrated porphyritic rock, caused by solar action 
 and dews : this at times gives way in the upper part and runs down to 
 the base, there forming something like the Paniso of Ilantajaya.^ 
 
 In August, 1853, half a league north of Mejillones, 19'' 50' S., 
 there was a great fall of disintegrated rock from the upper part of the 
 mountain into the sea, which lasted nine days ; the noise was heard at 
 Mejillones, and volumes of dust seen in the air. 
 
 The rock of the coast is porphyry, with indications of copper : indeed 
 a copper mine has been opened near Iquique. Old sea-beaches are 
 seen with recent shells, 50 feet or more above the sea. Broken shells 
 are met with further up to the foot of the mountains. I suppose this 
 would be called the uplifting of the coast, rather than the retiring of the 
 sea. 
 
 Mr. Smith wrote me in 1850, that the coast certainly appeared to 
 have risen since he had lived there, since 1822, but that it was very 
 gradual. 
 
 ' See observations by Moesta on the expansion and contraction by solar licat of the 
 hill of Saiita Lucia, on which stands the observatory of Santiago de Chile, translated 
 by me for the Astronomical Socictv, 185 1-. Also change of level by action of 
 water on the rock, on which is tlie Armagh observatory.— Tiiub's Curiosities of 
 Science, 1857. 
 
25S 
 
 Salt. — Sea water at MoUe, s. g. 1,026,3, 71° F. — From the shore at 
 Molle and its vicinity, to 100 feet or even more, may be seen patches 
 of salt mixed with sand, from a few inches to a foot thick. This salt 
 I do not think is formed by water of percolation, neither has it flown over 
 in a liquid form from above ; it is a recent superficial deposit, not from 
 sea-spray, but in all probability risen in vapour from the Pacific and 
 deposited as saline dew on the land. Continuing my researches I 
 found this sort of salt all the way up the mountain of Molle, and 
 also on higher ones. At the spot where the upper works of the Flying 
 E-ailway were fixed, it was requisite to cut away the rock, when solid 
 salt was found filling crevices. It was heavy, transparent, and soluble 
 in water ; this salt must have been deposited at higher elevations and 
 then by dews brought downwards. 
 
 The rock of the country about here is porphyry ; there are no salt- 
 bearing rocks, and I do not see how salt could have got here by per- 
 colation from the interior — the sea has not left it — and I see no other 
 way to account for these surface accumulations, from much above sea- 
 level on the slopes of mountains ; on the plains and hollows in the 
 mountains^ of the coast (until we descend, say to Cocina and the Noria, 
 3277 feet and some 30 miles from the sea) than that the great Pacific 
 ocean by a burning sun in a cloudless sky becomes a cauldron, gives ofl" 
 saline vapours, some being wafted landwards and leaving salt on the 
 surface of the country. 
 
 There are land-winds, but these are generally bone-dry, otherwise 
 there would be rain and the saline matters washed back into the ocean ; 
 had there been rain the salt would have acted as a fertilizer and we 
 should have had the beauty of vegetation ; but, under existing circum- 
 stances, terrible deserts only meet the eye ; but man is satisfied with 
 the existence of rich metallic and other valuable substances. 
 
 I subsequently put up pieces of cloth at various elevations, parti- 
 cularly at Molle, at 1800 feet, having first washed them in distilled 
 water ; in a few days, they had become slightly coated with salt. I 
 also did the same on the road from Iquique to the JS^oria, and at the 
 Noria, when — after a few day's exposure to the atmosphere, they gave 
 abundant traces of chlorides, thus showing the existence of saline 
 matters in the air. 
 
 Ulloa says, " the houses of Carthagena have balconies of wood, as 
 more durable than iron, — the latter being so corroded and destroyed by 
 the moisture and acrimonious quality of the nitrous air." It is not the 
 nitrous air exactly, but rather the larger quantity of saline matter 
 taken up in vapour from the sea of that hot region. 
 
 In the winter season, from October to March, N.W. winds prevail, 
 the air is cooled ; at times, thick damp saline clouds roll ofi" the Pacific 
 upon the land, sometimes depositing a very light rain or garua. When 
 
 ^ The Paniso of Huantajaya, is a great collection of disintegrated rock, in which 
 the nodules (papas) of silver are found, resulting from veins ; at a little distance from 
 the surface there is no trace of salt. I mention this to show the superficial character 
 of the salt here- 
 
259 
 
 travelling tlirough this garua my poncho has become salt to the taste ; 
 and on testing the dews at Iquique I have found them saline. As such 
 a system of things has be'en going on for a<;e», this may in some 
 measure account for the surface salt in the positions I have men- 
 tioned. 
 
 This garua envelopes the mountains of the coast for 18 to 20 hours 
 at a time. T have been lost more than once in a dense garua. Once 
 in the month of September, 1827, I was lost all night, it was very 
 cold and raw ; this sort of weather continued some weeks, when the 
 people at the mines of Huantajaya and Santa liosa had most violent 
 colds, and some died after a few hours illness ; dysenteries and cholics 
 were common. 
 
 There is the probability that some of the patches of salt on the 
 lower part of the mountain of MoUe, may be formed by the sand of the 
 sea having been blown up there ; this sand would be covered with 
 salt, and accumulating would soon give indications, and ultimate layers 
 and nodules of salt would be seen. 
 
 If we now go to the Noria and Pampa de Tamarugal, 3500 feet, and 
 ascend into the Andes to 15,000, we ttnd thick surface salt, this may 
 result from some ancient and peculiar saliferous formation, but my 
 impression is, that it is volcanic and comparatively recent, for nearly 
 all the mountain peaks are volcanic. What I call, in the survey of the 
 Province, the great Andean salt-plain, Mr. Cable informs me is known 
 also as the Laguna de Sal, and it stretches from Conchas Blancas 
 (white shells) to Oruro, being 150 miles long by 90 wide ; the salt is 
 thick in places ; the rock of the country is principally of micaceous 
 shists, and fossil shells are found at 12,000 feet. Indeed, there is the 
 Andean province of Salinas in this region, so named from the very 
 large quantities of salt found there. 
 
 Ceremeno. — The salt deposits at this spot I have referred to in 
 first Series. 
 
 Patillos, 20 miles south of Ceremeno. Mr. "Williamson informs 
 me that half-a-league south are several salt deposits, thirty to forty feet 
 above the sea, and from whence cargoes have been taken ; that a quebrada 
 in the cuesta of Patillos leads up to the Salar Grande, (one league 
 distant), which is a large collection of salt, and it is believed there 
 is nitrate there also. This Salar is sixteen leagues long, north and south, 
 and in parts two wide. My informant thinks that the salt found 
 at Patillos has its origin from the Salar Grrande by means of subter- 
 raneous channels. 
 
 I may state, that a long way east of Ceremeiio is the Salar del 
 Carmen, but I do not think that the salt found at Ceremeno, has other 
 origin than the present ocean. 
 
 To the west of the Salar Grande, Mr. Smith has explored the 
 Hundimientos or natural w^ells ; they are from four to eight yards 
 deep. In some places the water is found a foot from the surface, 
 two yards deep, and good. These wells are narrow at surface, 
 widening below. * 
 
2G0 
 
 MoERO GrBAKDE DE Taeapaca is 5780 feet above the sea. I 
 made the ascent, which was most fatiguing ; the summit is a scene of 
 the most desert character. 
 
 The Graruas in the winter months produce spare pastures on the 
 slopes of such mountain masses. A little water is occasionally found 
 in rocky hollows at the top. At this season of the desert pastures, 
 an Indian may be seen tending his asses and mules, who regale 
 on fresh provend. Then a few iluanacos may be observed feeding ; 
 a fox occasionally prowling about and a few slate-coloured and 
 greenish birds. There are several species of plants, (including some 
 blue and white bulbous ones,) the|principal being an oxalis. I sent 
 a collection from here to the Linnean Society. A few cardones, or 
 gigantic cactus, thirty to forty feet high and fifteen in girth, are 
 also met vsdth. I found three specimens of Bulimi, which I gave 
 to Mr. Cuming, 
 
 Ais^STJELO K-OCKS AT Iquique & Pampa — The rocks are hornblend and 
 sienitic granites, the latter containing sidphuret of iron. Here the sea 
 s^^ray is rapidly exfoliating the granite. This rock rises hereabouts to two 
 thousand feet or more, and is seen in the u^^per part in junction with 
 porphyry. During the winter months a slight vegetation appears, 
 including much oxalis. It is stated that the oxalic acid in the oxalis 
 is in combination with potash, which it gets from the granite. I 
 may state that the cacti grow on the granitic debris, but not on the 
 adjoining porphyry. 
 
 The Ansuelo pampa has the appearance of rising shelly beaches (at 
 Iquique is a rocky eminence called the morro, on which stood the ruins 
 of a fort until 1854, — it is reported that formerly the sea flowed round 
 it ; the lower part is now many feet above the sea — I think I could 
 make out an increase in the elevation of this part of the coast since 
 1825), and behind them the ground is depressed, where sea water, by 
 filtration, comes in, which, mixing with dead shells, decomposition takes 
 place, when large quantities of a well crystallised salt is formed, mainly 
 of sulphate of Hme. 
 
 Iquique Island. — Was once thickly covered with guano. It is th® 
 burial place for foreigners. It is two miles round ; its highest part fifty 
 feet. It appears originally to have been merely a collection of rocks 
 (porphyry), the channels are now filled with shells. The island is 
 covered with sea-rounded stones. Does this not show that elevation 
 has been going on ? There is one shelly locality twenty to twenty-five 
 feet above the sea at the west end. Of sea birds there are many 
 pelicans, gulls, divers, and an occasional penguin. 
 
 Seals are met with about the rocks : from their skins the useful balsa 
 is made. The number of sea birds are diminishing since they have 
 been disturbed by civilization ; and they do not lay their eggs in such 
 quantities on these shores as formerly. 
 
 Mines or Hu ant a jay a. — I had the pleasure of taking Professors 
 Eaimundi and Mariani to the mines. These gentlemen had just returned 
 from an official exploration of the borax deposits, for the Peruvian 
 
government. Only one mine was work inn;, Hie Lecaros, belong'! n^ to 
 Don M. B. de la Euente, yielding ores of native, chloride, and Hulj)liuret. 
 j\ear the surface a silver ore called leclieador is often met witii ; this, 
 accoi'ding to Domeyko is a chloro-bromide. The ores of Lecaros were 
 giving three to fonr marcs the aroba, ecjual to twenty-four to tvvcntv- 
 live ounces the twenty-five pounds of ore. Only tliirty miners were at 
 work, and these Chinese. The shell, Conchalepas Peruanis, is the 
 lamp used by the miners. 
 
 The works in the mines of Huantajaya afford a good opportunity of 
 examining the interior of the earth. On the sunnnit of the mountain 
 there is surfiice salt. At the Chiflones is seen a thick superficial layer 
 called manto, composed of a fossil shelly deposit of broken valves of 
 Grypha?, principally Gr. Darwiiiii. The Chificnes are about 2,500 feet 
 above the sea. Eaimundi made out that the laver of manto was three 
 to four yards thick, composed of terebratida, mactra, &c., difficult to 
 separate ; also a new grypha?. About here, also, are silicious rocks, and 
 the appearance of great disturbance, also many cross courses. 
 
 If we now go to the base of the mountain we have, first, Caliche or 
 surface salt, with earthy matter; second, Paniso, a thick debris of 
 angular pieces of rock, none of them water-worn, neither are there 
 indications of saline matters. This Paniso, I conceive, results from 
 the breaking up, by long continued solar action, assisted by dews, of the 
 argillaceous limestone principally, and where fossil shells of this forma- 
 tion are found ; third, argillaceous limestone ; fourth, porphyries. I 
 could not trace any saline matters in these rocks ; but at 648 and 700 
 feet in the Quebrada mine (1,600 feet above the sea) saline water is 
 met T\'ith. I may state that twenty miles to the east, is the saline 
 hollow of Cocina, 3,000 feet above the sea, with water near the surface. 
 Thus, then, we have, at Cocina and its meridian, saline waters which may 
 have percolated to and are found in this mine. There are periods when 
 rain is somewhat abundant in the Andes ; then these waters of percola- 
 tion would rise higher than 1600 feet above the level of the sea. I 
 have already given some particulars as to the extraordinary richness of 
 the ores of 'Huantajaya. The most recent information is in a paper by 
 Don. M. B. de la Fuente, translated by me in the 26th Vol. of Geogra- 
 phical Soc. Trans. ; wherein it is stated that the mines of Huantajaya, 
 Santa Eosa, and some few others, produce in a century £30.000.000. 
 In the museum, at Madrid, exists a mass of native silver from the 
 mines of Huantajaya, presented by Don F. de la Fuente, weighing 
 two hundred and sixty five-pounds. 
 
 The projectors of a company to work the Desmontes, or^ refuse of 
 Huantajaya, say, and truly, that there are millions of tons of valuable 
 Desmonte, or refuse ore, inside and outside the mines. 
 
 Average of fifty samples gave them 39^ ounces of silver per ton. 
 From picked heaps, 71^ ounces. 
 
 Mr. Smith and myself have always thought the average would be 
 about eighty ounces the cajon of 6100 pounds, which is below the above 
 estimate. 
 
2G2 
 
 It is probable that with economical amalgamating machines, say at Iqui- 
 que, or in England, the reduction of the Desmontes wouldberemunerative. 
 
 Mr. Williamson, of Iquique, observes that there exists in the mines 
 of Huantajaya and Copiapo an exact analogy ; there is found the same 
 stratification of " Caja Piedra " which divides the " Criaderos." In 
 Huantajaya, ouly the upper portions of the veins have been worked. 
 Mr. Williamson recommends to do as they did in Copiapo, to pierce the 
 "Caja Piedra" by shafts and adits I may observe that this Caja 
 Piedra was pierced in the Piqueiios and some other mines, and native 
 silver was found in masses or pockets, but this system was not fully 
 carried out. Mr. Williamson adds that one mine. La Vieja, has em- 
 ployed five hundred people ; two-thirds of these were Apires, who took 
 an hour to bring up three to four arobas of ore or rubbish (Desmonte) . 
 
 With regard to the interior heat of the earth, 1° P. is given for 
 every fifteen yards of deptn. In 1826, whilst superintending mining 
 operations at Huantajaya in descending dry mines of a hundred and 
 fifty to two hundred yards in depth, and in which work had not been 
 carried on for years, I was repeatedly struck with the effect of the 
 elevation of temperature as I descended, the rock of the mine feeling 
 comparatively warm, and now attribute it to the internal heat of the 
 earth. 
 
 The following is told of a young girl of Huantajaya (where there is 
 no water) who, on going to Tarapaca, where there is a stream, on seeing 
 it, exclaimed " what heretics these Tarapaquenos must be, to let so 
 much blessed water run to waste — pray save it, save it ! 
 
 A cura, who had come from Arequipa to Huantajaya, on seeing a 
 troop of asses laden with O dries or skins filled, enquired what they 
 contained ; " water " was the reply, " water in bags ; no, that 1 cannot 
 believe " However, on examination, he found such to be the case. 
 The Cura soon returned to Arequipa. 
 
 I proceeded vrith Professors Raimundi and Mariani to the abandoned 
 mines of Santa Rosa. Our track was over Caliche (here of salt, with 
 calcaneus and siliceous matters) patches of salt, much of it nodular, 
 being nearly a pure chloride of sodium, containing no sulphates, and 
 only mth a trace of lime, this sort reaching high up the mountain of 
 Sauta Rosa. We looked intently at this salt formation, and were 
 puzzled to account how it got there, viz., on the slope of a mountain 
 and in such quantities. By percolation, here seemed improbable ; I 
 ventured to suggest that it might be deposited by saline dews from the 
 ocean. It is superficial, in lumps, ridges, patches, and in some of the 
 hollows, as if a foaming sea had been suddenly stopped. Then follow 
 sand, disintegrated rock, argillaceous limestones and porphyries. 
 
 Has saline waters from the interior ever got into these hollows ? If 
 so, perhaps saline dust may have been blown up the sides of the moun- 
 tains, and the damp air and dews fixed the salt there. 
 
 We returned by the mines of El Carmen and the Caiiada ; how I 
 wished that I had been accompanying a Murchison or a Lyell : they 
 would have examined and explained the efi^ects produced by upheavals, 
 
tl 
 
 lepressions, disintegrations, and other disturbances in tliis eartlujiiake 
 region. They, I think, would liave been struck at the rapidity with 
 which the hardest rock disintegrate, and the amazing collection of loose 
 pieces of rock and dust continually falling from the npj)cr parts of 
 mountains, forming panisos at their bases. 
 
 Rarely, for the last was in 1S19, heavy rains fell in the Andes ; and 
 even in the Pampa of Tamarugal, and as there is so much saline matter 
 at 15,000 feet, saline streams came down, shallow lakes were formed, 
 and streams poured into the ravines west of the Pampa. The quebrada, 
 of Pasos, near the Noria, was inundated, trees grew, some remaining to 
 this day. 
 
 AVell, we find the saline matters on the mountains of the coast 
 to be nearly pure chloride of sodium ; but, to the east, in the region of 
 saline waters, we find salt, nitrate and sulphate of soda, salts of lime, 
 borate of soda and lime, and salts of iodine, chrome and traces of 
 bromine. 
 
 In 1852, some water came into the Pampa from the Andes : since 
 then I have no account of such an occurrence. 
 
 From Iquique to La. Noria — January. — Iquique may be said to 
 be built on a plain of elevation, composed of dead shells, conchuelo (not 
 fossil), in places ten feet thick. They are burnt, with sea weed, into 
 lime for building purposes. Near to the sea, the shells are perfect, of 
 Trochusater, Mytilus Orbignyanus, A^enus Per, Mesodesma, Concho- 
 lepas, &c. Inland, thirty to forty feet above the ocean, and where they 
 must have lain for ages, with a little sea salt, they are finely divided 
 and chemically changed. Sometimes whales' bones are found in this 
 Conchuelo. If this shelly deposit is raked about on a dark night, 
 phosphorescence is observed. A long ascending track is journeyed over, 
 with high porphyritic mountains on the left, and the Medano de la 
 Ballena, a huge sand mountain, on the left. A friend of mine once 
 went up on the east side : and, descending on the other, was nearly 
 buried in loose sand ; his horse was imbedded for a while : it appears to 
 be on the increase. A very steep rocky zigzag cuesta is ascended 17G1 
 feet. The track is now over plain and undulating ground to the top of 
 the Canada or ravine, 2475 feet, then a descent, ascent, long descent 
 to a spot called La Fonda Inglesa, 2830 feet — a collection of rocks, 
 which is made a half-way house of, and the saddle bags searched for 
 refreshment. After which, there is a long ascent ; here I once found 
 the fragment of an ammonite. The rocks about here are porphyritic 
 and argillaceous limestones, in a rapid state of degredation. On 
 descending, you come to the Salar, salt and nitrate of soda basin of 
 Cocina 3000 feet above the sea. Here we see the bottom of a hollow 
 thickly covered with clinker-looking salt, water being found in the wells 
 at four feet (s. g. 1005) with scarcely a trace of nitrate. On the sides 
 and elevations in the hollow is found the caliche, or native nitrate of 
 soda. Passing the nitrate works of Tungay, 3230 feet, we arrive at the 
 principal nitrate quarries of 
 
 La Nueta Nokia, 3,227 feet above the sea. Water boils at 206" F. 
 
2G4 
 
 Here are two towns built of salt, from the Salares, one called the JN'oria, 
 the other the Salar. 
 
 JSTiimberless quarries of nitrate are observed at the rising bases of 
 hills and undulating ground from 50 to 150 feet above the Salares, 
 and evidently of an older date than the salt in the Salares. There is no 
 nitrate in the Salares. The chimneys of the boilers are seen smoking ; 
 the JN'orias,^ for extracting water from the wells. The scene is of abso- 
 lute sterility, with heaps of skeletons of mules and asses around the 
 various Oficinas, or nitrate refineries. The water here has to be distilled 
 for drinking, but the animals drink from the wells. When nitrate has 
 been accidently or purposely put into the drinking troughs, the animals 
 are poisoned, swell up and die. S. Gr. of the water 1004,9, temp. 78°, 
 containing no nitrate. There is a well known as that of Isidoro 
 Marquez, (s. g. 1005,88, temp. 75°) : nitrate is found in it. 
 
 La jS'oria is pestered with a green fly, and the bed bug swarms. As 
 if to welcome my arrival, there was met with a large nodule of borate, 
 weighing fifty pounds, and where 1 saw, for the first time, this interest- 
 ing mineral in situ ; this specimen is now in the Museum of Practical 
 Geology, in London. 
 
 In the superficial saline crust here, are angular fragments of granite, 
 porphyry, siliceous and argillaceous rocks, and underneath they are in 
 situ. 
 
 Mr. Blake has stated the existence of fragments of marine shells to 
 have been found in the nitrate beds. I looked most carefully for such 
 but found none. 
 
 Darwin, in speaking of the Pampa de Tamarugal, a few miles east of 
 the jNoria, supposes that it was formerly an inland sea, and from the sea 
 got its salt. I suppose that the saline matters have been washed down 
 from the Andes ; and, as to the iodfc salts, we need not look to the sea 
 for them, as iodine and bromine exists in the minerals of these regions. 
 Tempehature, January 21st : 
 
 5 a.m. Cool land breeze, Terrel .... 64° F. 
 1 p.m. Strong breeze from S.W., clear sky 83° „ 
 
 „ „ In the sun 92° „ 
 
 „ „ On a heap of sand 128° „ 
 
 10 p.m. Calm and clear sky 53° „ 
 
 Water in a well eight yards deep . . . . 72° „ 
 
 In the month of October the greatest variation of the aneroid was 
 from 26.44 to 26.53. On the 17th October, 1854, aneroid and 
 thermometer stood as follows :— 9 a.m., 76° P. 26.48. Noon, 78° 26:48 ; 
 6 p.m. 57° 26.46. On the 23rd November, at same hours, 64° 26.34 
 74° 26.36 ; 74° 26.36. 
 
 In summer, when iron work is exposed to the sun, it becomes too hot 
 to be handled, and dark rocks are at about same temperature. This 
 great and bright solar heat causes rocks to expand considerably during 
 
 ^ From the Arabic word Naora, a well, and the rude machinery of a moveable 
 cross piece of wood, at one end a bucket, the other a weight. 
 
2(;.") 
 
 the (lay, and, in coolini^ at night, to crack and their aurfnces break away. 
 Aqueous vapours from the^a and the Andes, wintry mists, and slii^ht 
 rain, the air in peculiar states, as when with much ozone, (this last in 
 particular) may play an important part in the formation of nitrates 
 from chlorides. 
 
 CLniATE AT THE NoRTA.. — In winter, during the morning, light 
 easterly winds. Noon, sea-breeze south-east to south-west, blows strong 
 occasionally from north-west, with much mist. In summer, but little 
 north wind ; principally from the south with clear weather, and extreme 
 barometric regularity. In tlie month of June, ice has been seen 
 one-eighth of an inch thick. March 29, 1S54, during the night rained 
 a little, the dusty gronnd was covered with spots; 6 a.m. misty, wind south- 
 east veering to south, blowing all day from south-west. As the sun 
 went down, light airs from west, then a calm. During the night the 
 Terral, or land breeze, from east to south-east. 
 
 roiiM:ATTON OF Caliche or Nitrate op Soda, a>'d its manu- 
 facture INTO Kefined. — Section of Nitrate ground at La Noria, 
 descending, I. Costra, or crust, composed of earthy matters, angular 
 pieces of rock, salt, and other saline matters, about two feet thick. 
 
 II. Caliche, granular layers of Nitrate of Soda, containing salt, other 
 saline and earthy substances, and angular pieces of stone, to live feet 
 thick, often accompanied w^ith much Grlauberite, (Sulphate of Soda) 
 some Pickeringite (magnesian alum) mixed with earthy matters, as 
 silica, alumina, carbonate and sulphate of lime ; also. Iodine, Bromine, 
 Chrome and Boracic acid mineral. III. Coba is the general loose earthy 
 covering to the Silico-calcareous and porphyritic rocks, and here at the 
 Noria the Borate is found in nodules, from the size of a pea, to two 
 feet in diameter. In some parts of the Coba the borate is seen in thin 
 striaB with sulphate of lime. 
 
 In this region, it appears to me, that salt and other saline matters, 
 including boracic salts, have been formed in the Andes, and brought 
 down by streams and percolation. (The almost pure chloride of 
 sodium on the mountains of the coast, I have supposed to be mainly 
 indebted to the salt-vapours of the ocean) There is scarcely a trace of 
 organic matter in the soil, to afford nitrogen to change the salt into 
 nitrate. Ought we not rather look to the atmosphere for nitrogen, and 
 the various chemical changes resulting from solar heat, dews, and occa- 
 sional slight rains. 
 
 The salt of the Salares is a mixture of various saline substances; and, 
 as there is abundance of calcareous minerals, the nitrogen of the air 
 may give rise to nitrate of lime, then the change v.ill be as follows : 
 
266 
 
 Nitrate of Soda. 
 
 Nit. Acid. 
 
 Sodium 
 Oxygen. 
 
 Nitrate of Lime. 
 
 Lime. 
 
 Chlorine. 
 Hydrogen. 
 
 Chloride of 
 Sodium. 
 
 Water, 
 
 Chloride of Calcium, or Muriate of Lime. 
 
 The Saliteros say that one may almost see the salt of the Salares 
 transformed into nitrate- A Salitero observed to me that he could not 
 tell where the salt came from, but he believed the nitrate was formed 
 by light rains trickling through saline and earthy matters, turning the 
 salt into nitrate. Some caliches when quarried are called green, and 
 on exposure to the air ripens, yielding the nitrate more easily. 
 Sometimes the salt and caliche has a yellow, pink or green colour, 
 caused, I think, from chrome, iodine and bromine. 
 
 Manueactuee of Nitrate trom Caliche. — The nitrate grounds 
 are known to be on the edges of the salares and rising ground : at the 
 Woria water is within a foot of the salar. There are some nitrate 
 grounds without any apparent salar, and where water is now thirty to 
 forty yards deep, and even deeper ; but salt has been there to form 
 the nitrate. 
 
 Having Cateado, hunted for, and found the nitrate ground, habitations 
 are built of salt from the salar, wells are dug, the water being extracted 
 by Norias ; paradas or iron boilers in pairs are fixed ; depositos or 
 settling tubs ; bateas of iron or wood as crystallizers ; tubs for mother 
 liquor ; provisions for the people and food for animals. The salitero or 
 refiner can now commence operations, having, however, previously 
 obtained legally his estacas of 200 square yards. Some manage to 
 become possessors of very large tracks of nitrate grounds. 
 
 The Salitero now directs his barretero or quarryman to make open- 
 ings with a heavy iron bar, increasing in width at bottom, through the 
 costra and caliche to the coba ; this is the tasa or cup into which is 
 put from one to fifteen hundred weight of very rough powder (made 
 from nitrate of soda, and sulphur from the volcano of Isluga), the upper 
 part being well rammed with loose earth ; these are called Bombones, 
 and are exploded, which loosens the earth and turns it up. The 
 irregular masses of caliche are broken into large lumps, collected out of 
 the loose mass and conveyed in panniers by asses to the oficina or 
 refinery ; here the large pieces are broken into smaller by the Asen- 
 drador and thrown into the boiler, to which, when nearly full, water is 
 added, and the boiling commences, more caliche being added at inter- 
 
267 
 
 vals. In about seven or eight hours the saturated ])oiling point of tlie 
 liquid has attained a temperature of 2-10' F., when the mother-waters 
 are added. The boiler-man now removes with a shovel the borra or 
 salt that has been precipitated, aud earthy matters separated and sub- 
 sided to the bottom of the boiler. The sohition is bucketed out into 
 the deposito, where a further quantity of earthy matter, the liipia, goes 
 down, leaving a clear solution, which is then run into coolers, wli(?re 
 crystallization takes place, producing salitre or reiincd nitrate of soda, 
 which is shovelled out of the bateas, and the sun's heat soon dries it. 
 It is now bagged and sent to the coast for shipment The best relined 
 nitrate was found to be composed of water, 0.11 ; salt, 1.84 ; sulphate 
 of soda, 0.35 ; nitrate of soda, 97.70=100,00. This nitrate trade 
 employs nearly all the people in the province, about 12,000, exclusive 
 of foreigners and Chinese labourers. The exports are now 01,000 tons 
 annually, and could be increased to any extent, as the nitrate grounds 
 are inexhaustible. 
 
 Messrs. George Smith and Co. have been using large boilers, and of 
 more scientific construction, with advantage, they also have conmienced 
 boiling by steam. The fuel used is the tamarugo and algarobo trees, 
 these are getting very scarce, thus much English and Chile coal is also 
 resorted to. 
 
 This nitrate of soda has been known about a century. It was dis- 
 covered by a woodcutter, named Negreros, in the Pampa de Tamarugal, 
 by his having made a fire at the spot that still preserves his name, the 
 ground began to melt and run like a stream, the melted substance was 
 examined and found to be nitrate of soda. 
 
 About 1794, the German mineralogist, Haenke, was sent to the pro- 
 vince to teach the method of its extraction and turn it into nitrate of 
 potash for gunpow^der, which it is said he did, by adding to it a solution 
 or ley prepared from burnt cactus, which contains 8 per cent, of pot- 
 ash. Caliche was subsequently sent to Concepcion, in Chile, to be 
 turned into nitre, but wdth little success. In my first series I have 
 given some particulars as to the history of nitrate and its varieties, also 
 that it contained chrome and iodine. Of chrome it is in very small 
 quantities, but as to the iodine, Ulex, of Hamburg, got six-tenths per 
 cent, out of a mixture of caliches. Hayes, of New York, the same. 
 Ulex obtained one-half to one per cent, from the mother-waters. 1 
 suspect that in some varieties the per centage of iodine is greater than 
 given by Ulex. Sea-water only contains one-millionth part of iodine ; 
 that found in the nitrate has its origin, I conceive, from mineral iodides 
 and iodates. When the caliche has a yellow or orange colour, it is 
 called azufrado and canario. The mother-waters at Negreros are some- 
 times blood red. I once supposed that this colour was owing to iodine, 
 1 now think it is from Chrome. Bromine has been found in the 
 caliches. 
 
 About 1853, several vessels were sent to the west coast of Africa, in 
 the hope of being able to ship nitrate of soda, but the saliue matter 
 
 t2 
 
268 
 
 met with there proved to be salt. The vicinity of the Dead Sea has 
 been examined for nitrates, but none as vet found. 
 
 -Nitrate of soda is well known as a fertilizer, and is used extensively 
 in the arts. It has been converted into nitrate of potash for the gun- 
 powder makers, but its employment has not been patronised in con- 
 sequence, it is said, of its deliquescence. I am informed that pure 
 nitrate of soda is not deliquescent— is it that such property is owing to 
 chloride of calcium, the imported nitrate always contains ? 
 
 Test foe Nitrate of Soda. — The cateador or caliche-hunter easily 
 distinguishes nitrate by the taste, which is bitter and cooling ; salt is 
 merely saline. A delicate test is the following, which will show if there 
 be only 2 per cent. : — i\.dd sulphuric acid to a portion in a tube, when, 
 if nitrate be present, red fumes will appear. Salts of soda are distin- 
 guished from salts of potash, the soda giving no precipitate with 
 muriate of platina. Hofstetter is said to have found 0.43 nitrate of 
 potash in a sample of refined nitrate from Tarapaca. 
 
 Nitrate of Potash. Ecuador or Quito. — In the province of 
 Imbabura, at Ibarra, thirty leagues from the port of Pailon, I examined 
 from this locality saline matters extracted from surface soil containing 
 much nitrate of potash. I am not prepared to say if this nitrate of 
 potash exists in great quantities ; and, until a road is made from Ibarra 
 to the Pailon, it could not be exported. 
 
 Salts of potash, it would seem ,are rare in South America ; and the 
 principal reason why nitrate of potash is not found in any quantity, as 
 in India, is the scarcity, I suppose, of potash-^delding rocks. 
 
 It is a practical remark, that the production of nitrate of potash is 
 greatest during the prevalence of hot winds. There are continual 
 scorching winds blowing over the great nitrate of soda region in Peru. ; 
 and, without entering into the question of nitrification, I may observe, 
 that salts of lime are generally present in the surface formations of 
 nitrate of potash in India, and in the nitrate of soda of Peru. 
 
 Near Lima, a small portion of nitrate of potash is procured, by 
 washing the earth from ancient Indian graves. 
 
 New Boracic Acid Mineral. — I have already said, that Mr. George 
 Smith may be called the discoverer of this valuable substance. I give 
 further on a resume of Professor Raimundi's report, with his analysis 
 of several varieties. I will now give some details of my own examina- 
 tion of the Pampa de Tamarugal, where it principally exists, and in large 
 quantities. At page 159 of this work, I make general reference to the 
 borate. 
 
 Visit to the Borate Towis^s. — Mr. Grirdwood, formerly a pupil of 
 Br. Percy, and chemist to Mr. Smith's establishment, accompanied me 
 on this trip, and to whom I am indebted for valuable suggestions and 
 assistance. 
 
 Leaving the Noria and ascending the steep side of its hollow, our 
 course lay east by south, over undulating country, between high moun- 
 tains, some giving off very large quantities of detritus : descending a 
 ravine, and approaching the Pampa de Tamarugal, we came upon nitrate 
 
2Gi) 
 
 caliches at the Rinconada, and descendhig a little lower, an extensive 
 sakr is entered, having on its west margin considerable tracts of nitrate 
 caliches. A IW. taniarugo^ and algarbo- trees are seen ; but, excepting 
 these, a salt desert and arid plain occupies the fore ground, and far 
 away to the east are the mighty Andes. 
 
 On the eastern margin of the Salar in particular, as well as in it, and 
 where the ground is free from salt, there the borate is first met with, in 
 some places, from the surface to three feet below it. We progressed 
 along an old dry watercourse (free from salt) into the Tisas or borate 
 towns, at 3,200 feet ; the sky was very clear and blue, and the sun 
 intensely hot. We visited the two small villages, built of salt ; around 
 them excavating and collecting the borate was going on to some extent, 
 -although against the orders of government, and conveyed by unfre- 
 quented tracks to the coast, and smuggled ofl". 
 
 Some few persons have been allowed occasionally to ship small 
 parcels, but up to the present time (1860), the extraction of the borate 
 has not been permitted, although its exportation would be beneficial to 
 the province, and the substance of great use in the Arts in Europe. 
 
 The borate ground is generally flat, and the surface free from salt, 
 the mineral making its appearance in uneven nodules of all sizes, but 
 generally that of a large potato (one was found at the Xoria weighing 
 fifty pounds) . The nodules are sparely or plentifully imbedded in a 
 now dry saline mud ; however, in some places, this saline mud is damp 
 and even wet, from its proximity to the water of percolation of the 
 Pampa. This water doubtless plays an important part in the forma 
 tion of the borate. Much glauberite, in large and small crystals, is 
 found at times combined with the borate, as well as separate.'^ Some- 
 times the ground or strati is made up entirely of borate. This is the 
 general position of the mineral, having water not far ofl' below ; and 1 
 cannot help thinking that surface waters in particular have brought 
 saline matlers from the Andes into the IPampa, and with boracic salts ; 
 in the Pampa they have found lime and soda, which has given rise to 
 the present borate of lime and soda formation. 
 
 Independently of the surface water, brought down from the Andes 
 through the numberless ravines that run into the Pampa, there is 
 always some portion percolating into and through the Pampa, as seen 
 in the hollows of the mountains of the coast, near the surface at Cocina, 
 and found at 700 feet deep in the mines of Huantajaya. 
 
 ^ Raimundi says it is a Prosopis, or it may be a new genus. 
 
 2 Prosopis dulois. Seemaun calls the algarobo of Panama, Hymenaea splondida ; 
 that of Peru, Prosopis horrida ; that of Chile, P. siliquastrum. 
 
 In Tarapaca the Tamarugo is sometimes called AlgarobiUa ; its pods are rouud, 
 one to two inclies long. The pods of tlie Algarobo are eight to nine inches long, and 
 contain saccharine matter. The Tara is of the family of Mimosa, it yields much 
 tannin, tlie pods are flat. 
 
 3 Millo or Pickeringite, (raagnesian alum,) is found in the mountains of the 
 Pintados, in veins traversing the rocks there, the vohis from throe to live ftfct thick, 
 white and some pale yellow (probably froju chrome). 
 
270 
 
 In working the borate grounds, the boratero has merely to open a 
 hole iu the soft surface of the ground, and commence immediately 
 picking out the nodules of borate and bag them, the substance being 
 ready for transit to the coast and exportation. This requires little or 
 no capital, whereas quarrying and refining nitrate of soda is a serious 
 matter on the score of outlay. Up to March, 1854, some 10,000 
 quintals had been extracted, selling in England for about £30 per ton. 
 
 Dr. Philippi, during his investigations in the desert of Atacama, in 
 1853, did not observe any borate, but much salt and a little carbonate 
 of soda ; a friend of mine gave me a specimen said to have come from 
 near Calama, in the northern part of the desert. I have examined 
 several saline materials from that region, but salt and sulphate of lime 
 have predominated : no nitrate of soda has yet been brought from 
 there, although it is said by some to exist. 
 
 Absteact of Peofessoes Eaimtjndi at^d Maeiani's Eepoet to 
 THE Peetjvian GovEENMEisT. — The result of our labours is, that the 
 pure borate of lime is found in only few places, as in the E-inconada, 
 Cabreria, Tronco, and between the oficinas of Independencia and 
 Colombia. The borate found under the salitres is accompanied by 
 glauberite. The white pasty substance found in many places, particu- 
 larly at the Pascana del Tronco, as also in nearly all the spots covered 
 with grama grass, is not borate, but a mixture of sulphates of lime and 
 soda and salt.. 
 
 The substance collected near the Aguada del Sur, has no value. 
 
 Borate from Cabreria and Einconada, gave 42.20 per cent, boracic 
 acid. From the Pascana of Pedro Castro, 21.25, is of a yellowish 
 colour (probably from chrome) ; a white matter from Tronco, Challa- 
 pozo, and Challapozito, borate of lime, 5 per cent. 
 
 White matter from Aguada del Sur, no borate, principally sulphate 
 of lime ; but, one league distant, good borate is met with. 
 
 At the Puquios of Quilliagulf is a Poly halite, composed of sulphates of 
 lime, magnesia and potash, with salt. The salt found near Matilla, 
 called San Sebastian, is Thenardite. 
 
 Under the calichales of ChaUa, there is much glauberite. In Zapiga, 
 under the nitrate, borate is met with, containing borate of lime, 35.17 ; 
 borate of soda, 20.21. Borate, between Independencia and Colombia, 
 contains 43.139 boracic acid. At page 159 I give Mr. Dick's analysis 
 of a fine specimen of borate. Mr. Greorge Smith made borax from it in 
 Iquique. He sent borate to the United States, where it was examined 
 by Hayes, and obtained the name of Hayescine. 
 
 Test foe Boeate : — When in small quantities, macerate in alcohol, 
 adding a little sulphuric acid ; evaporate the solution, in firing it, and, if 
 there be the merest trace of boracic acid, it will colour the flame green. 
 
 Notes of journey from La Noria, in the months of January and 
 February, to the mines of Tabricoya, in the Andes. 
 
 Towards the east-north-east, in the mountains of the Noria, are some 
 small water-courses, caused by garuas, which play a part iu forming 
 nitrate from salts. 
 
271 
 
 There is an old silver mine at summit of ravine of Los Pasos. 
 
 An algarobo was planted in the amalgamating works of Kivero, 
 at La Tirana, about 1828. It is now a fine tree, 25 feet higli and U yards 
 in circumference, and has its pods. I took some resin from it. ("in the 
 patio of Dr. Bokenham's house, in Tarapaca, is a very old algaroljo, GO 
 to 70 feet high, measuring 6 feet in girth ; a light pinkish juice 
 exudes, which, on exposure, becomes black ; this is a gum, bitter and 
 wholly soluble in water ; sulphate of iron discolours the solution, showing 
 it to contain tannin.) La Tirana is pestered with the viuchuca 
 (Conorhinus, sex turburculatus), or black bug of the Pampas. Not 
 long since, an Indian was laid out for dead and put into a vard, during 
 the night, the vinchucas sucked a large quantity of blood out of the 
 body, he revived, and was living in 1854. 
 
 In 1827, I found the water of the wells at La Tirana to be s.g. 1,001G5 
 temperature 70° ; in 1854, 1000,92, temperature 76°. February 6th, the 
 air at 6 a.m., 47°, exposed in the belfry of the church to the cold terral 
 from the east ; in the village, 52° : water in the wells, 68° : soil alluvial 
 and in layers. 
 
 Three leagues east-south-east from La Tirana, is Digoy's farm of 
 Challa ; the track is through trees and salt calichales ; the salt looks as 
 if a foaming saturated sea had been suddenly stopped. This appearance 
 has been produced by capillary action, as water is near the surface. 
 The water at present is but slightly saline, but increases in saltness to 
 the west. Juri and Santana are similar farms in this salt desert ; they 
 are known as Chacras sin riego, and the manner of bringing them into 
 cultivation is curious. The saline matters, two feet thick, are removed 
 and used as walls, this brings the soil down to within a foot or 
 so of water, when maize, wheat, vegetables, &c. are grown. 
 
 Macata, 6270 feet — Here is much pink and white mesotype. 6 a.m., 
 air, 50° ; 7 p.m., 59°. Hot springs, 100°. Chuca, or carbonate of soda 
 on the margin of streams. G-ypsum abundant, but no salt. 
 
 Passed the silver mines of Jauja,i on the way to the mines of Tabri- 
 coya. 5 a.m., February 1, air, 42° ; 6 a.m., 41° ; noon, 55°. In the 
 sun, 70° ; 1 p.m. in the sun, 75°. These mines were first worked for 
 silver, but at present only copper is sought for. The ores consist of 
 oxides, arsenurets and sulphurets. The arsenuret gave copper, 20.70. 
 The summit of the mountain of Tabricoya is 13,480 feet. 
 
 Mamika, 5,980 feet ; the hot springs, 130° to 131°, containing much 
 sulphureted hydrogen, s. g. 999*95, temp. 78°. Visited copper mines 
 of the Inca, they are about 11,000 feet above the sea. 
 
 Prom Mamiiiia are seen the silver mines of Quinquina. 
 
 JoTJENEY FEOM Iquique TO Tarapaca, Ij^ Pebruaet. — At the 
 La Pena Oficina, 8452 feet, some of the nitrate grounds are 
 free from salt. 
 
 Tarapaca, February 26th, 6 a.m., 58°; 9 a.m., 73°; noon 77°; in 
 
 ^ The name of l^hia mine has inadvertently been placed in the large Map (Gcogr. 
 Soc. Journal, 1851,) in the valley of Mani. 
 
272 
 
 the Sim, 98°; 4 p.m., 80° in a room, with stronjy breeze blowing from 
 S.W. ; midnight, 71°, and calm. Tarapacd is 4796 feet above the sea, 
 and up to the top of the ravine, 3000 feet more ; the latter part hope- 
 lessly barren, and where, perhaps, vegetation has never existed ; the 
 rock is porphyritic. 
 
 March 9. — llebellion in the town. The Outs turned the Ins out ; 
 two killed, some wounded, many imprisoned; others fled. In the 
 midst of the firing and killing at 5.27 p.m., severe shock of an earth- 
 quake, continued at intervals seven minutes. Some days afterwards, 
 the party in power entered Iquique, when there was a repetition of 
 killing, wounding, imprisoning and running away. The earthquake 
 above mentioned was felt all over the province. And the fight in 
 Tarapaca was called " La Batalla del Temblor ;" that of Iquique, 
 " Batalla de los Asesinos," when a fellow, named Legay, shot the 
 Grovernor, Don Isidro Marquez, and took command of the place. 
 
 Chile. — When I first wrote on matters connected with Peru 
 and Chile, I intimated that when readier means of transit presented 
 themselves, the desert coast of Peru and the northern portion of 
 the coasts of Chile would be carefully examined, valuable mines, 
 &c. discovered. We see what a considerable trade the nitrate of 
 soda is, and that of borax must soon be important ; old mines will 
 be re-worked and new ones opened. 
 
 The coast of Bolivia begins to share in this march of progress, 
 it has its copper mines. Continuing south we come to the Bay of 
 Mejillones, to which of late the Chilenos assert their right of terri- 
 tory. 
 
 Here is a locality known as the Chimba, in the centre of the 
 Peninsula, formed by Morro Mejillones and Morro Moreno, worthy 
 of a visit by the Cateadores for gold in particular. Since I journied 
 along this coast in 1828-9, important copper mines have been discovered 
 and worked ; at that period I was benighted and lost with a tired 
 mule, and had to lay myself down on a sandy solitary plain till 
 day-light ; that desolate spot now boasts of the flourishing port and 
 town of 
 
 Cai.dera in 27° 20' S. The port is secure and almost land-locked. 
 It has a mole, to which steamers and vessels come alongside. The 
 town is built on sandy ridges ; there is no water except that produced 
 by distillation from the ocean or brought by rail from Copiapo. 
 The river is but a small stream (anciently called Mamoas) used for 
 irrigation, which consumes all the water at about ten miles from the 
 town of Copiapo ; the whole stream could be contained in a channel 
 five or six yards wide to two deep. 
 
 A railway connects Copiapo with the port of Caldera, its length 
 is 50 miles, and an electric telegraph is forming ; beyond Copiapo 
 it extends 25 miles further to Pabellon ; another railwav is in course 
 of construction to the mines of Tres Puntas, about 75 miles in lenerth ; 
 
273 
 
 and Mr. AVheelwright is now projecting a railway from Copiapo across 
 the Andes into the pampas of Bueuos Ayres. 
 
 CopiAro, the capital ofThe Province of Atacama, in Chile, is 1213 
 feet above the sea. In the town, its vicinity, and valley, there are 
 fifteen large amalgamating establishments worked by water power, each 
 extracting silver from five tons of ore every twenty-four hours. At 
 Copiapo and within a distance of twelve miles above it, there are four 
 copper smelting works, with fourteen furnaces ; and in the port of 
 Caldera there are four works, with twenty-six furnaces. These smelt 
 with English coal principally. 
 
 There is a German establishment at Copiapo, with five furnaces 
 for smelting silver Relaves, or the earthy matter remaining from the 
 silver ores after amalgamation ; this refuse always contains a portion 
 of silver which has escaped amalgamation, particularly the sulphuret. 
 
 Copiapo has four churches, a hospital and theatre. The town is 
 lighted with gas. The Protestants have a cemetery adjoining the 
 Catholic burial-place, in the latter are some good marble monuments, 
 executed in Europe. In the principal square is a fountain, with 
 a statue of Juan Godoy, the discoverer of the great mineral wealth 
 of Chanarcillo, in 1832, which produced, in ten years, twelve millions 
 of dollars. The town is situated in a narrow valley, surrounded by arid 
 mountains, in which abound mines of gold, silver and copper ; lead, 
 iron, bismuth, antimony, cobalt, arsenic and quicksilver are also met with. 
 There are 235 mines of silver, 14 of copper and 6 of gold in this 
 department. 
 
 There is a promenade near the town, planted with sauces, (willow) 
 and where a band of Italian musicians occasionally perform. 
 
 Earthquakes are of common occurrence; the town has been destroyed 
 several times, and the inhabitants are always prepared to witness 
 a similar visitation. October 5th, 1859, at 8 a.m., commenced a series 
 of violent shocks, continuing for some days; there were 116 shocks 
 in twenty-four hours, and the sea receded twenty-three feet at 
 Caldera. 
 
 The valley of Copiapo has rather an inconvenient neighbour, viz. : 
 the valley of Paypote, which comes direct from the Cordillera ; in its 
 run of sixty leagues, it takes in the waters of man>*ravines, and, were 
 rain at all continuous, Copiapo would be washed away ; in 1S32, the 
 water of Aveuidas reached the sea. 
 
 Copiapo is healthy ; in summer it is ver}'' hot during the day, but 
 cool after sun-set ; in winter there is a dry bracing air, and a slight 
 frost has been seen early in the morning. 
 
 Eain falls once or twice a-year in the winter, but for a few hours 
 only. The want of rain prevents the growth of vegetation, and, except 
 on lands watered by the river, not a tree, bush, or blade of grass 
 is to be seen. The hills are bare rocks, having occasional patches 
 of fine sand. The atmosphere is clear and the sky cloudless the 
 greater part of the year. A planet has been seen shining brightly 
 at 1 p.m. 
 
274 
 
 The houses are mostly built of adobe ; (mud and straw sun-dried) 
 the roofs of same material. 
 
 The Intendente La Euente, in his "Memoria," 1854, says, the 
 Province of Atacama in Chile is composed of the departments of Copiapo 
 and Huasco. 
 
 HuASCO has the city of same name and district of Ballinary,^ and the 
 town of Freirina ; the former is divided into eight sub-delegations, 
 with 15,000 inhabitants. Ereirina has six sub-delegations and 10,000 
 inhabitants. Copiapo has seventeen sub-delegations, and 40,000 
 inhabitants. In 1828, there were 4000 souls in the valley of Copiapo. 
 In 1712, only 900 souls. 
 
 Copiapo and Huasco exported from 1851 to 1853, or two years 
 and four months, 14,120,548 dollars in silver and copper. The mine 
 of Buena Esperanza, in Tres Puntas, produced in six months, (in 
 1852), 495,151 dollars. 
 
 The establishment at Piedra Colgada that had been in operation 
 since November, 1852, to October, 1853, had operated on 8422 quintals 
 of relaves, the lowest ley being 14 marcs ; the highest, 70 marcs, the 
 cajon. 
 
 Exports of Metal and Mineral from the Port of Caldera in 1853 : 
 
 Marcs of gold . .• 560f at 25 dols. m. 70,094 09 
 
 silver . 328,197 « 9 dols. 75c. „ 3,199,920 75 
 Quintals of sulphu- 
 
 ret of silver . . 116,961| " 15 dols. q^u. 1,754,427 00 
 Quintals of copper 
 
 in bar . . . . 894^ " 16 dols. „ 14,816,800 00 
 
 Copper ore, quintals 144,546| " 2 dols. 50 „ 361,367 00 
 
 Dollars . 5,400,125 64c. 
 = £1,080,025 
 
 Colonel Lloyd says : that 10,000,000 dollars worth of metals were 
 exported in 1853^ if this was so, then nearly one-half was smuggled 
 off into Bolivia and across the Andes. 
 
 CoQTJiMBo shipped, in the months of June, July and August of 
 1859, from the copper mines of Tortoralillo, Coquimbo, Guayacan, 
 Herradura and Tongoy, value 758,358 dollars. The silver mines of 
 Arqueros, Higuera, Brillador, Tambillos, Tamaya, Laja, &c., doing but 
 little. 
 
 ^Don Demetrio O'Higgins, now in London, gives me the substance of the following 
 note : Ballenary was founded by his grandfather, the Captain- General of Chile, Don 
 Ambrosio O'Higgins, after his native place in Ireland. Don Ambrosio became 
 Viceroy of Peru, and his son, the gallant and patriotic Don Bernardo, was the first 
 President of Chile. Ballenary is a well-built city, its streets are at right angles, and 
 it is a thriving place. 
 
275 
 
 Chile exported in 1857, value 19,778,150 dollars. 
 
 " imported " _ " 2(),10(),1)G8 
 
 " exported in 1858 " 18,3.35. 1-22 " 
 
 " imported " " 18,18(),21)2 
 
 England imported in 1858, 6,418,751 dollars, and exports to, were 
 9,460,966. 
 
 The principal Chilian exports are, copper in rep;iilus, bars and ore ; 
 silver in bar and ores ; guano ; coal ; wool ; gold ; gold and silver coin ; 
 and plata pina.^ 
 
 Longitude or Valparaiso. -In Geographical Society's Journal, 
 1858, are the Observations relative to the Geographical position of the 
 "West Coast of South America, by Carlos Moesta, Director of the 
 National Observatory of Chile. 
 
 The longitudes of Callao and Valparaiso served to determine inter- 
 mediate points between these two ports, also the coast of Equador and 
 Panama. 
 
 During the last few years, the port of Valparaiso has been in 
 contact with Santiago, by means of the Electric telegraph, which 
 has given the most correct means of knowing the diilerence of 
 meridian of the two places. Thus, it has been proved, that the 
 difference of longitude between Santiago and Valparaiso, is 3 m. 
 56.5 s. 
 
 Erom various results, the longitude of Santiago de Chile is deduced 
 to be West of Greenwich 4 h. 42 m. 32.4 s., and that of Valparaiso, 
 4.46.28.9, and compared with Paris, 4.55.49.5. 
 
 This value differs 17 s. 1, from that adopted by the English expe- 
 ditions for the longitude of Valparaiso ; and ly this said quantify, 
 in nearly all the maps, the tvhole of the West Coast of South America is 
 placed too far to the West. 
 
 THE SEVERAL LONGITUDES, COMPARED WITH THAT OF 
 
 GREENWICH. 
 
 H. M. S. 
 
 Santiago . . 4. 42. 32,4 
 
 Valparaiso 4. 46. 28,9 
 
 Callao 5. 8. 37,3 
 
 Lima 5. 8. 8,6 
 
 Humboldt gave for Callao, 5.18.18 ; Eitzroy, 5.18.15 
 
 At p. 257 I mention that accurate levellings through the coast ranges 
 would be interesting. I am informed, whilst the last sheet of this work 
 is going through the press, that a line of railway is projected from 
 Iquique to the principal Nitrate works : thus we may soon expect to get 
 a section through the coast range. "^' 
 
 ' 
 
 » Mr. Griffin, in his Prospectus of a line-of-screw Steamers from Kurope to Chile, 
 says, during 1855, upwards of 5000 tons of valuable silver ore was shipi>ed to Eurojx- ; 
 of Bar Silver a Million sterling. 
 
276 
 
 REGISTER OF EARTHQUAKES, BAROMETER AND THERMOME- 
 TER, KEPT AT THE BOLSA, TALPARAISO, 1853. 
 
 8 A.M. KOON. 4 P.M. 
 
 January 1st . 62° 29.83 64° 29.90 65° 29.86 
 
 15tli . 65 29.86 67 29.90 68 29.86 
 
 " 30th. 64 29.88 65 29.90 66 29.91 
 
 .February 1st . 64 29.83 67 29.85 69 29.83 
 
 15th . 68 29.58 67 29.87 72 29.83 
 ** 28th . 6Q 29.85 66 29.88 69 29.88 
 
 March 1st . 64 29.85 6Q 29.87 66 29.83 
 
 15th . 6o 29.95 71 29 dS 73 29.90 
 
 " 30th . 62 30.00 64 30.01 63 30.01 
 
 April 1st. 62 30.02 69 30.05 70 30.07 
 
 15th . 60 30.06 61 30.08 64 30.07 
 
 « 30th . 68 30.18 62 30.18 67 30.16 
 
 May 1st . 68 30.09 62 30.10 64 30.08 
 
 " 15th . 58 30.05 56 30.05 64 30.06 
 
 June 1st . 60 30.09 62 30.10 64 3008 | 
 
 " 15th. 59 29.91 6L 29.96 62 29.94 
 
 Julv Ist . 56 30.06 60 30.04 63 30.97 
 
 "" 15th . 56 29.95 58 29.97 62 29.96 
 
 August 1st . 58 29.88 58 29.26 60 29.95 
 
 15th . 52 30.05 58 29.97 62 29.96 | 
 
 September 1st . 58 30.08 64 30.10 66 30.06 
 15th . 58 29.80 62 29.92 64 29.91 
 
 October 1st . 63 29.90 66 29.97 70 29.93 
 
 15th . 64 29.94 66 29.97 70 29.93 
 
 November, 1st . 62 29.88 70 29.91 72 29.91 
 15th . 64 29.85 68 29 85 70 29.81 
 
 December 1st . 68 29.92 74 29.92 76 29.91 
 15th . 70 29.84 74 29.82 74 29.84 
 31st. 63 29.72 G6 29.70 70 29.70 
 May 6th, 1854. Very strong Norther, with rain ; many vessels 
 driven on shore ; at 4 p.m., 29.62 ; temp., 60°. 
 
 UJiere is but little variation in the climate. During what is called 
 th^'inter, the thermometer occasionally falls for a few hours to 52° ; 
 but the mean throughout the year, at noon, is about 65°. In the 
 evening and morning it is 60°. 
 
277 
 
 Earthquakes Observed at Valparaiso is 1853: — 
 
 January 
 
 6 . 
 
 2.29 
 
 p.m. 
 
 , stronsf earthquake. 
 
 February 
 
 28 . 
 
 7.38 
 
 (( 
 
 earthquake. 
 
 INIarcli 
 
 IS . 
 
 1.42 
 
 (( 
 
 (( 
 
 April 
 
 4 . 
 
 5.40 
 
 a 
 
 u 
 
 May 
 
 16 . 
 
 11.20 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 June 
 
 19 . 
 
 2.48 
 
 li 
 
 u • 
 
 July 
 
 5 . 
 
 
 
 lightning, thunder and hai] 
 
 (( 
 
 18 . 
 
 5.20 
 
 11 
 
 earthquake. 
 
 <( 
 
 22 . 
 
 12.48 
 
 a 
 
 (( 
 
 September 18 . 
 
 6.00 
 
 a 
 
 u 
 
 October 
 
 15 . 
 
 10.15 
 
 ii 
 
 (( 
 
 December 10 . 
 
 2.15 
 
 (C 
 
 very strong. 
 
 <( 
 
 22 . 
 
 1.30 
 
 a.m. 
 
 li 
 
 It is worthy of remark that only one shook is noted as occurring 
 at a.m. — all the rest p.m. 
 
 I am told, that during the Spanish rule in Chile, a postman, named 
 Molina, going across the Cordillera to Uspallata, an earthquake caused 
 a large mass of rock to fall on him, and he and his mule were flattened 
 under it. There is now an inscription on tlie stone : " Aqui estii 
 aplastado el correo Molina." 
 
278 
 
 CUEEENT BOTTLES. 
 
 In Xovcmber, 1853, on my way to South America, I had as a fellow- 
 passenger, Lieutenant Hooper, E-.N., lately returned from the Arctic 
 region ; his constitution was broken, but it was hoped that a trip to 
 the West Indies might re-establish him. This did occur, and I heard 
 that he died shortly afterwards. 
 
 On his voyage from Southampton to St. Thomas's, he threw over 
 sealed bottles containing the Admiralty papers, with the view of fur- 
 thering our knowledge of oceanic currents. 
 
 During my passage across the Carribean Sea, along the Pacific, and 
 round Cape Horn to Europe, I followed his example. 
 
 1853. : 
 
 Mark. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Long. 
 
 
 
 Dec. 5 
 
 I. 
 
 15°48']S'.^ 
 
 67° 55' W., 
 
 on board Steamer, " Teviot," 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 Capt. Sawyer. 
 
 6 
 
 II. 
 
 13.45 
 
 70.51 
 
 99 
 
 ?? 
 
 23 
 
 III. 
 
 5.50 
 
 79.50 
 
 
 " Lima," 
 Capt. Bloomfield. 
 
 24 
 
 ly. 
 
 2.31 
 
 80.45 
 
 it 
 
 11 
 
 25 
 
 y. 
 
 0. 40 S. 
 
 81.05 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 1854 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dec, 22 
 
 A 
 
 26.50 
 
 82.00 
 
 J> 
 
 bark " Pickwick," 
 Capt. Graves. 
 
 1855. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jan. 1 
 
 B 
 
 29.52 
 
 80.00 
 
 11 
 
 
 4 
 
 c 
 
 32.40 
 
 76.20 
 
 5) 
 
 
 23 
 
 D 
 
 33.26 
 
 79.40 
 
 running between Juan Fer- 
 nandez and Mas Afuera. 
 
 26 
 
 E 
 
 36. 52 
 
 84.05 
 
 11 
 
 
 29 
 
 E 
 
 41.08 
 
 79.55 
 
 91 
 
 
 31 
 
 a 
 
 44.17 
 
 79.16 
 
 11 
 
 
 Eeb. 2 
 
 H 
 
 47.00 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 49.39 
 
 80.25 
 
 19 
 
 
 5 
 
 J 
 
 54. 23 
 
 79.17 
 
 11 
 
 
 7 
 
 K 
 
 57.02 
 
 72. 13 
 
 11 
 
 
 8 
 
 L 
 
 57.30 
 
 68.00 
 
 >» 
 
 off Cape Horn. 
 
 9 
 
 'M 
 
 56.31 
 
 63. 04 
 
 19 
 
 
 10 
 
 N 
 
 56.02 
 
 60.00 
 
 It 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 54.53 
 
 59.00 
 
 19 
 
 
 12 
 
 P 
 
 52.51 
 
 56.00 
 
 11 
 
 
 13 
 
 Q 
 
 5L10 
 
 52.45 
 
 11 
 
 
 14 
 
 E 
 
 49.10 
 
 52. 30 
 
 11 
 
 
 16 
 
 S 
 
 47.38 
 
 48 40 
 
 11 
 
 
 18 
 
 T 
 
 45.23 
 
 43. 39 
 
 11 
 
 • 
 
279 
 
 1853. 
 
 Mark. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Lonjx. 
 
 
 20 
 
 U 
 
 41. 21, is:^ 
 
 43. 15, W. 
 
 on board bnrk " Pickwitk" 
 
 22 
 
 Y 
 
 38.41 
 
 41.15 
 
 yt 
 
 24 
 
 W 
 
 36. 22 
 
 37.19 
 
 tt 
 
 26 
 
 X 
 
 34.54 
 
 31. 4i 
 
 )} 
 
 28 
 
 T 
 
 33.50 
 
 26.36 
 
 }} 
 
 Mar. 2 
 
 Z 
 
 33.20 
 
 22.48 
 
 )* 
 
 4 
 
 Zi 
 
 31.45 
 
 21.40 
 
 )) 
 
 6 
 
 Z2 
 
 29.50 
 
 19.20 
 
 }) 
 
 8 
 
 Z3 
 
 28.30 
 
 19.10 
 
 tt 
 
 10 
 
 Z* 
 
 26.37 
 
 16.45 
 
 t1 
 
 12 
 
 z^ 
 
 25.49 
 
 18 19 
 
 )» 
 
 14 
 
 Z6 
 
 20.13 
 
 18.30 
 
 )} 
 
 16 
 
 Z7 
 
 14.10 
 
 22.00 
 
 }) 
 
 18 
 
 Z8 
 
 8 43 
 
 23.00 
 
 tt 
 
 20 
 
 Z9 
 
 3 37 
 
 23.51 
 
 V 
 
 22 
 
 Zio 
 
 03 
 
 24.28 
 
 On the Equator. 
 
 24 
 
 212 
 
 3 52 N. 
 
 24. 33 
 
 it 
 
 26 
 
 213 
 
 6 08 
 
 25.50 
 
 it 
 
 28 
 
 213 
 
 9 16 
 
 28. 39 
 
 if 
 
 30 
 
 2U 
 
 13.07 
 
 31.43 
 
 ** A 
 
 April 1 
 
 Z15 
 
 17.25 
 
 34.30 
 
 if 
 
 3 
 
 216 
 
 21.27 
 
 35.44 
 
 >» 
 
 6 
 
 217 
 
 24.11 
 
 36.50 
 
 ti 
 
 8 
 
 218 
 
 29.40 
 
 37.06 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 219 
 
 34. 03 
 
 37.00 
 
 »> 
 
 13 
 
 220 
 
 36.38 
 
 36. 48 
 
 • 
 
 it 
 
 14 
 
 231 
 
 40.54 
 
 31.24 
 
 » 
 
 16 
 
 232 
 
 42.32 
 
 28.00 
 
 } 
 
 19 
 
 233 
 
 42.29 
 
 25.30 
 
 9 
 
 22 
 
 234 
 
 42.34 
 
 21.30 
 
 1 
 
 24 
 
 235 
 
 44.15 
 
 19.30 
 
 tt 
 
 28 
 
 226 
 
 44.28 
 
 15.26 
 
 • 
 
 The following is communicated hy the Adjniralty. — 
 
 Z 7. — Bottle thrown over-board, March 16, 1855, in latitude 14° 
 10' S. ; longitude 22° W., from " Pickwick," from Valparaiso to Liver- 
 pool, T. Graves, Comr., in strong S.E. trades, course !N. Found about 
 25th November, 1855, at Inhambupe, 60 miles N. of Bahia, Brazil. 
 
 Z 21. — Bottle thrown over-board, April 14th, 1855, in latitude 40°, 
 54' N. ; longitude 31°, 24' W., from " Pickwick," from Valparaiso to 
 Liverpool, T. Graves, Comr., in S. & S.S.AV. breezes. Found 26th 
 May, 1855, 1^ leagues W. of St. Matthew's, in Terceira. Influenced 
 by a N.W. wind, which had thrown it in a S. direction 200 miles in 
 42 days, or nearly 5 miles per day. 
 
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