COURSE I -*VTS' Jyj_SOji;BlAKE_MAN-] *• / / ELEMENTARY COURSE GEOGRAPHY: DESIGNED FOR PRIMARY AND INTERMEDIATE GRADES, A COMPLETE SHORTER COURSE. WILLIAM SWINTON, AUTHOR OF ''COMPLETE COURSE IN GEOGRAPHY," "WORD-BOOK SERIES," "LANGUAGE SERIES,' "OUTLINES OF HISTORY," ETC. "Geography is the peg upon which the greatest quantity of useful and entertaining scientific information may be suspended." — Huxley. IVISON, BLAKEMAN, TAYLOR, AND COMPANY, NEW YORK AND CHICAGO. SWINTONS GEOGRAPHIES. Sj^^ijzfon's GeogvcLijlhicctl Cozwse coinprises two hooks : — 1 -ELEMENTARY COURSE IN GEOGRAPHY; Designed as a Class-Book for Primarv and Intermediate Grades, and as a Complete Shorter Course for Ungraded Schools. 128 pages 8vo. 2— COMPLETE COURSE IN GEOGRAPHY; Physical, indus- trial, and Political ; with a Special Geography for each State in the Union. Designed as a Class-Book for Intermediate and Grammar Grades, i 36 pages 4to. *.,,* These two text-books do not bear the usual relation of a Primary to a Gram- mar-School book ; that is, the Elemext.\RY is not a mere condensation of the Complete. Each is an independent book, individual in its plan and method, and constructed with philosophic reference to the mental capacity of youth. They may therefore be used cither separately or together. COPYRIGHT, 1875. IVISOX, I!!,.\KEM.\N, TAYI.OIi, AND COMPANY. PREFACE A BRIEF examination of this text-bouk will show what it might require a somewhat lengthy explanation to set forth : namely, that in plan and place it iliiiers to a considerable degree from any geographical school- book lieretofore iu the market. The author will have failed, however, in rightly interpreting the tendency of geographical instruction as exemplified in our larger cities if it does not meet a want deeply felt. The Elementary Geography is designed to be truly a primary manual ; so that it may be begun just as soon as any text-book instruction ought to be begun. But it does not stop here, for the matter is grailually toneil up, and a sufficiency of matter given, to make it coverall the ground occupied by so-called "Intermediate Geographies" or "Shorter Courses." Personal inter- course and an extended correspondence with teachers and school superintendents leave no doubt in the au- thor's mind that there is a positive call for a text-book which shall be tit for use during one or two years of our Primary and .ine or two years of our Grammar School course. And if the author is able to look with any confidence to a favorable reception for a geography of this type, it is because he has heard the desire for such a book' expressed a thousand times. There are many features of the Elementary Geog- raphy which will come to view only on that minute examination which a text-book receives in the class room. In the mean time there are two aims which have been so prominent in the author's mind, and which liave so moulded the method and matter of this book, that a specific mention of them here may be permitted. First. To supply teachers with a detailed and prac- tical guide in the difficult but needful labor of com- bining effective oral instruction with the task-work assigned to the pupil. Such a combination is de- manded by the latest Coiirses of Study in most of our large cities ; but, so far as the author knows, this is the only text-book by means of which the teachers of Primary classes can do the work marked out in these Courses of Study. It will be seen that the Elemen- tary Geography is in a large degree objective and inductive in its method. The mode of unfolding a geographical topic is somewhat as follows : — 1. In place of enunciating a principle in generalized abstract terms, a series of questions leading up to the principle and addressed to the perceptive faculty of the young scholar is asked, — (juestions the answers to which will be supplied by the ])Upirs own senses. 2. Then, wlien the mind of the pupil is awakened, comes the oral work of the teacher, — explanations, illustrations, suggestive (jheries, etc. Tlie character of this work is indicated in explicit terms at the exact point where it should come in. 3. Finally, the pupil having by an easy inductive process formed a true conce])tion (though perhaps still without ability to put it into language), the principle is enunciated. At this point a specific question is asked and the answer is given ; and as this is the part of the lesson to be memorized, the answers are printed in bold-faced type so that the pupil can make no mis- take about the matter. Secondly. To unite, in the descriptive geography of countries, reading and recitation matter. The author was led to adopt this plan as a compromise between two extreme methods of treatment. The one is the hard, curt, matter-of-fact style of question and answer, which characterizes most primary geographies. The other style, the opposite of this, is exemplified in a few class-books that have appeared as the result of a reac- tion from the Gradgrind method : it consists in pre- senting to the pupil flowing descriptions and animated narratives. These, though charming as mere reading lessons, fail in leaving that precise and definite knowl- edge which in our public schools must be obtained as a necessity in examinations for promotion. In this manual it is sought to combine the defi- niteness of tlie question-and-answer method with the attractiveness of the reading lesson. They belong together, and their union should help to make the study of geography both enlivening and profitable. The selection of the right kind of matter for the reading lessons has been no easy task. The author has, how- ever, aimed to give what was at once useful and interesting ; and he feels confident that the prominence given to' industrial topics is quite in place in a text- book designed for American youth. In conclusion the author would say that the Ele- mentary Geography is in no respect a condensation of his Complete Course, and that either may be used without the other. ■WILLIAM s^vI^•TO^^ Cambridge, Mass., August, 1875. 54 * CONTENTS Part I. -PRIMARY LESSONS. Section 1. THINGS AROUND US . Lesson I. What we are to study " II. Local Geography . " III. Local Geography " IV. To TELL Direction " V. To TELL Distance " VI. Review and Test Questions " VII. Lines and Angles "VIII. A Picture and a Plan . " IX. Plan of the School Grounds " X. Maps of Countries " XL The Horizon " XII. Shape of the Earth "XIII. Size of the Earth . " XIV. Our Planet .... " XV. Review and Test Questions Section II. LAND AND WATER . Lesson I. The Earth's Surface " II. The Continents . " III. The Oceans " IV. Peninsulas and Capes . " V. Bays, Gulfs, and Seas " VI. An Isthmus and a Strait " VII. Plains, Mountains, and Valleys "VIII. Some Things about Plains . " IX. Islands and Lakes . " X. Rivers " XL History of a River . " XII. Review and Test Questions Section III. OUR WORLD . Lesson I. On what the Earth turns . " II. North and Sotuth Poles . " III. The Equator " IV. Situation North or South " V. Review and Test Questions " VI. Hot Weather and Cold . Lesson VIL Climate — A Journey . " VIII. Zones of Climate " IX. Globe Exercise on Climate " X. Climate by Height . •' XI. Plants " XII. Plants useful to Man " XIII. Animals . . . . " XIV. Animals by Zones " XV. Review and Test Questions Section IV. MAN ON THE EARTH Lesson I. Races op Men " II. Wants of Man . " III. Our Wants : Food " IV. Our Wants : Clothing " V. Our Wants : Shelter . " VI. Occupations of Men " VII. Kinds of Occupations . "VIII. Divisions of Countries Part II. -DESCRIPTION OF COUNTRIES. NORTH AMERICA 34 Nature of North America ... 34 Lands North of the United States . . 39 Lands South of the United States . 45 THE UNITED STATES 53 General Description .... 53 New England 59 The Middle States 65 The Southern States 75 The Western States 81 Pacific Highlands and Slope ... 91 SOUTH AMERICA 95 EUROPE 101 ASIA 113 AFRICA 121 POLYNESIA 125 GENERAL REVIEW 127 LIST OF MAPS PAGE MAP OF COUNTRIES BY CLIMATE . . 25 HEMISPHERE MAP 33 NORTH AMERICA 35 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, AND THE WEST INDIES 52 THE UNITED STATES 54, 55 NEW ENGLAND 58 MIDDLE STATES 67 SOUTHERN STATES 74 TEXAS AND NEW MEXICO .... 79 PAGE CENTRAL STATES {JFestern Division) ... 82 CENTRAL STATES [e astern Division) . . 83 PACIFIC STATES 90 SOUTH AMERICA 94 EUROPE 100 BRITISH ISLES 105 CENTRAL EUROPE 107 ASIA 112 AFRICA 120 POLYNESIA 125 GEOGRAPHY. I N T II () L) U C T ION. GEOGRAPHY IN A CUP OF COFFEE. tS- This Lesson ia designed merely to be read aloud in the class. Alicf and Ralph sat one raoining at brc ikfast with their parents and their Uncle '^ John Uncle John was cip- taiii of a meichant ship, and foi thirty years had followed the sea. The children loved to hear him tell stories ; for he had been all round the world, and had seen many strange sights. His stories were not generally what are called " sailor's yarns " : he was fond of tell- ing things that were useful and true; and sometimes he surprised the children hy bringing up a subject that tliey thought was not at all interesting, and then showing them that it was just as wonderful as any fiction. " Here 's this cup of coffee your mother has just poureil out for me," said Captain John ; " there is a good deal more in t/iat than you suppose. Where did it come from, Alice ? " " From the kitchen," replied Alice. " Ha ! ha ! " laughed the sailor ; " there 's a matter- of-fact little housekeeper for you ! But did the coffee ff7-oio in the kitchen 1 Molly the cook knows the coffee came from the grocer's, and most likely that is all she cares about it ; but you, Alice, who will one day be mistress of a house, my dear, and be cheated by the grocers, unless you learn something about the goods you buy, ought to know better." " O Uncle ! " cried Ralph, " I have seen bags of coffee at the store marked 'Old Java'; and I know there is an island called Java near the coast of Asia : that 's where it comes from ! " " Perhaps it did come from Java," rejilied the Cap- tain; "but labels do not always tell the truth, and most likely it was Rio coffee, because almost all our coffee comes from Rio." [He pronounced the word ree'o.] " You don't know where Rio is 1 " he asked. " Why, Rio Janeiro, the capital city of Brazil, in South America. See here," said the Captain, taking his fork and marking on the table-cloth as if he were tracing a map : " here is the great seaport of New York. Three years ago we sailed from here to Rio for a cargo of coffee, taking out New England calicoes and hard- ware in exchange. This is the course we held, — a southerly course down the Atlantic, past these islands where oranges and bananas grow — " Map to illustrate the Geography in a Cup ol Cofiee, GEOGRAPHY IN A CUP OF COFFEE. " 'riuil 8*lfie West Indies," interruptiMl Ealph. " Yes ; iiiid across the line — " " Tlie line ! What line % " inquired Alice. " \Vliy, the Equator," replied the Captain. " Not that there is any real line on the sea or the land eitlier ; but when ships pass through the ijlace where tlie Equator i.s, we call it crossing the line. The sailors have a great deal of fun when they cross the line. Some of them dress up oddly and get into a boat, and then pretend to hail the ship. One of the sailors represents Neptune, who was said by the Greeks to be the god of the sea. They give a little present to the captain, and dance on the deck, and have very rough sports. Perhaps you know that for a lon Flcklng the Coffee Berry was saying, the coffee-bushes, — and handsome bushes they are ; about as large as small plum-trees, with leaves of dark, shining green, and white flowers, — the coffee- bushes were full of ripened fruit. Get me a coffee- bean, Ralph. Y''ou see this kernel ; it has a flat side, eh 1 Now, there was a twin-grain that fitted this one, and the two, as they grew on the bush, were shut up in a soft red pulp like a cherry. The negroes gather these berries in deep baskets, and lay them out on large flat stones, where the grains are spread out to dry after the red juicy part is rubbed off. In Brazil there are thousands of these plantations, where great quantities of the dried coft'ee are put up in bags and sent to Rio Janeiro to be shipped to all parts of the world." " Well, Uncle, you returned to New York with your cargo. What did you do with it then 1 " " Yes ; it was taken by a wholesale merchant, who sold it by the bag to retailers; and if this coft'ee," said Uncle John, taking a sip, — " if this coffee did not come in my ship, it came the same way in some other." " Now, Uncle," said Ralph, " as you have been all over the world, and know where everything grows, please tell us where the sugar we put in our coffee to sweeten it conies from." " AVith pleasure, my lad. Many plants contain sugar, but not enough to pay for getting it out. In France and Germany millions of pounds of sugar are made from the common sugar-beet ; but most of our sugar is made from the sugar-cane." " I have seen a picture of a field of sugar-cane, and the negroes working in it. Uncle," said Alice. " Probably it was a scene in the island of Cuba, one of tlie West Indies. Half of all the sugar used in the world comes from there. Or it may have been a scene in Louisiana, which you know is one of the United ^1^^?:; GEOGRAPHY IN A CUP OF COFFEE. bagar Mm Stutes, through which runs the great Mississipin l\iver. New Orleans, not far from its mouth, is a place where a great deal of sugar is sold. But wherever it was, a field of sugar-canes in blossom, with the jointed stems rising twelve or fifteen feet high, is one of the prettiest sights I ever saw." "What is the difference, Uncle," asked lialph, "be- tween brown sugar and white sugar ? Do tlu^y come from ditt'erent kinds of cane 1 " " Not at all : let me tell you. When the cane is right for cutting down, it is stripped of its tops and leaves, cut up into short pieces, tied into bundles, and taken to the mill. Here the canes are crushed be- tween iron rollers, somewhat as apples are in making cider ; and the juice is taken and boiled into syrup in large shallow pans. Next it is stirred in coolers until it grains, or becomes granulated. Then it is put into hogsheads baving holes bored in the bottom, and these are placed endwise over a large cistern and left to drain. In this state it is brown sugar, and the drainings are molasses. Now, white sugar is merely brown sugar refined, or boUed over again, and worked white." " Why does n't the sugar-cane grow here ^ " asked Alice. " For the simple reason," replied the Captain, " that the sugar-cane is a very tender plant, and will grow only where there is little or no frost. When you come to study geography you will know what I mean when I say that the sugar-cane thrives only within the tropics, or on their borders." The Captain now lifted his silver spoon, and, looking at it, said : " As you bave set me to talking, I may as well tell you that this spoon, with which we stir our cottee, has a family history. AVe get the .spoon from the jeweler's, to be sure, as we get our coffee from the grocer's ; but what of the metal before the sdversmith wrought it into this useful shape ? I think that more than likely it came from here [pointing on Ins imaginary map to near the Pacific coast of the United States], in the far western part of our country. In those mountains which we call, after the Spaniards, the Sierra Nevada, or Snowy Eange, are the richest bilver-mines in the world. And some time I will de- scribe to you how the ore is taken out from mines deep down in the earth, — how it is crushed by the giant force of machines called stamp-mills, — and how it is moulded into bars, and made ready for coining into money or for making into silver-ware." " Can't you teU the children about the cups we are drinking from," said the Captain's sister, a little proud- ly. " You gave me this set of cups and saucers ten years ago, when you came home from a voyage to China, and the children have often asked me about them." " Well," continued the Captain, " these did come from China, though most of the ware called China ware has nothing Chinese about it but the name. Nor indeed is there any need of our going to that far-off land for our crockery, when such excellent ware is made in our own country. Still, the name reminds us that the Chinese first tauglit us the art of making cups and saucers, which, as you know, are made of a fine white clay, ornamented and baked, but requiring great skill in making. This queer, ingenious people, though they use but little coft'ee, have for hundreds and perhaps thousands of yeare been drinking tea. From them we learned the use of the fragrant herb, and all the world has still to go to the Flowery Land, as they call their country, for its tea." " Now, children," said the father, " you see your uncle has shown you that for this simple cup of coffee we have dra.wn on a large part of the world." " Yes," continued the Captain, " if we could at one view see all the hands, besides Molly's, that have been at work in getting this cup of coffee ready for us, we should see a great multitude. The agriculturist, the navigator, the miner, the artisan, the merchant, have all had a part in the work. Would n't it be a sight indeed to see them all at work at one time getting up a cup of coffee ! What a panorama it, woidd be ! Now, children, is n't there more geography in the cup of coffee than yuu had any idea of 1 " PEIMAEY LESSONS. Part I. -PRIMARY LESSONS To THE Teacher. — A brief examination of the arrangement of tlie matter in these Lessons will enable the Teacher to explain to the pupils what is runuired of them in preparing a Lesson. First, it will be noticed (see Lesson IV. etc.) that certain answers are printed In heavy-faced type. These form the only part to be committed to memory. Second, there are oial questions, the answers to which, the pupUs will be able to give in their own language. Third, tliere are suggestions to the teacher ; these are in smaller type, and enclosed in brackets. IL — LOCAL GEOGRAPHY. [For City Classes.] 1. What Ls the name ul' the city in which you live! 2. In what county i.s it! . 3. In what State! 4. Is this city situated on the sea-coast, or on a river or lake ! 5. Can any mountain be seen from this place ? 6. Is it a large city or a small one 1 7. Do you know the number of people living in it t 8. What is the name of the principal street in this city ? 9. In what street is our school-house situated t 10. In what street is your home'! 11. Point in the direction of the City Hall? — of the Post-Office. 1 2. Does any railroad pass through this city 1 1 3. Have you ever seen any other city except your own 1 1 4. How did you travel to that city ? l.'i. Is it a larger or a smaller city than your own'! 16. How far is it to the city which you visited] 17. Can you tell the name of any railroad that ends in (or passes through) your city 1 18. What place in the country did you ever visit! 19. How does the country diifer from the city? 20. Give a short account of the longest journey you ever made, — telling how you went, what places you visited, and what you saw-. Exercise. — On slates or paper, write a short geographi- cal de.?(-ription, by filling the blanks in the following sen- tences:— I live in the city of , -county, State of This place is sittiated on the River. It is a city, containing, I believe, inhabitants. The name of the principal street is Our school is situated in Street. Among the public buildings in this city are , , etc [name of the city] is noted for ..... , etc. Sect. I. THINGS AROUND US. I. -WHAT WE ARE TO STUDY. 1. What is thix stadj/ which ire are noiv to take up? We take up the study of Geography. Teacher. I will pronounce, and you may spell, — Geog- raphy. I will spell, and you may pronounce, — G e i> graph y. 2. Where do you live '! Is it in a city, or is it in the country '! T. Geography tells how many people live in the same place with you, and how they make their living. 3. What is the name of the State in which you live '! T. Geography tells us about the different parts of oiu' State, and how we may travel from one place in it to another. 4. Do you know the name of any other State '! T. Geography tells about all the States in our country. 5. What is the name of Our Country 1 Do you know the name of any other country besides our own '! T. Geography tells about our own coimtry, and about all other countries in the world. 6. Did you ever see an island ! T. Geography tells about all the islands in the world. 7. Did you ever see a mountain 1 T. Geography tells about the great mountains of the world, some of them several miles high and thousands of miles long. 8. Did you ever see any part of the ocean 1 T. Geography tells about the ocean, which is so large that steamships may saU on it for weeks without coming to land. 9. Did you ever see a lake '! T. Geography tells about lakes. 10. Did you ever see a river '] T. Geography tells about the rivers of all countries ; anil this is very mteresting, because most of the jjreat cities of the world are built on the banks of rivers. 11. Did you ever see a map 1 T. Geography tells us how to use niajis, and these show us all the countries and places in the world. 12. Whid does Geoc/ra/ihi/ tell uhoiit ? Geography tells about the outside, or surface of the earth, on ■which ■we live. in. — LOCAL GEOGRAPHY. I For Country Classes.] 1. What is the name of tiie town (or township) in which you live! 2. In what county is it? 3. In what vState'! 4. How far is it from your liomc to the school-house? LOCAL GEOGEAPHY. TO TELL DIRECTION. 5. Point in the direction of your home. 6. What I'iver, mountain, or hill, lake or pond, is there in this place? 7. Does any railroad jiass through this place '! 8. To what markets do the farmers in this neighbor- hood send their jiroduce ? 9. Wliat towns near lun-e have you ever visited '( 1 0. Name any town near this. 1 1 . What city have you ever seen? 12. How does it differ from this place 1 1 .3. Tell the names of any cities in this State. 1 4. How far is it from this place to the nearest city 1 15. Give a short account of the longest journey you ever made, — telling how you went, what places you visited, and what you saw. Exercise. — On slates or paper, write a short geograph- ical description, by filling the blanks in the following sen- tences : — I live in the town (or township) of ..... .... county. State of .... The name of our village is ... . Other villages are The principal river in this town is called Most of the people in this place make their living by ... . There is a railroad depot at .... The trains run to [name of nearest large city]. IV. — TO TELL DIRECTION. 1. Point toward the nearest church. Point toward the post-office. Point toward the river (if any near by). [The teacher may explain that by 1 " anting toward a plare we show where It is ; then inquire li'iw we may icU a I'lrson where a place ii .some distance Kiiii us is. Let the ; - Mcher give the ninie DIRECTION, :iiid define it.] 2. Ilotv do you tell where one place Ix n'ith rei/nrd to antither place ? We tell where one place is with regard to another by stating the direction of the one from the other. 3. What inords do we vse to name the dirertions I To name the directions we use the words North, South, East, West. 4. Did you ever see the sun rise or set? Point to where you saw the sun rise or set. Let any scholar who has seen the sun rise stand up with his right shoulder toward the place where it rose. Now point to the right. In that direction is east. 5. Where is east ? East is the direction w^here the sun rises. 6. Where is jcest / West is the direction w^here the sun sets. 7. Where is north? North is the direction before us when the right arm is stretched toward the east. 8. JVkerc is south I South is the direction behind us when w^e are facing toward the north. 9. Point half-imii beticven the north Half-way between south and west is southwest. [Tlie pupil may now be told that these names are the names of the points of the compass. Tell the class what a compass is, — if possible, show one. A compass is a bo.x which has a card in it marked with these names of directions and other names of intermediate directions. Hung on a pivot above this card is a tnagnelic needle, which has the wonderful property of always pointing toward the north.] 13. Did you ever see a pocket oompa.ssi A sur- veyor's comjiass ? A mariner's compass i C^^ The teacher wiJl do well to place this diagram on the black- board and drill the pupils on it. Exercise. — 1. Point to the east, — to the west, — to the north, — to the south. 2. In which wall or walls are window-s ? 3. On which wall is the map hung '/ 4. Which walls have blackboards 1 5. Name some one in the room who stands east from you, — south from yon. 6. Point toward your home : in what direction is it \ 7. In what direction is the school-house fi-om your home ? 8. Let a pupil who lives north — south — east, etc. from here rise. f). [To a pupil.'] From the middle of the room walk north. [To a second pupil.] From the middle of the room walk south [and so on, sending one pupil to each of the eight points of the compass]. 10. One pupil will stand facing north, and eight pupils will form a ring around him ; each of the eight pupils will tell where he is with regard to the one in the center. 11. Let the names North, Northeast, SotUh, Southeast, etc. be given to eight pupils ; then let a ninth, facing north, call out the names, and let each pupil place himself in the proper position without hesitation. PEIMARY LESSORS. TO TELL DISTANCE. is its direction from lieve ? 6. What place do you know ten miles south [or east, etc.] from here i 7. Reckoning a railroad train as going at tlie rate of 25 miles per hour, what is the distance of the longest journey you ever took by the cars ? VI. — REVIEW AND TEST QUESTIONS. Measuring Distances 1 Ho« txi 1^ it to jour home ^ What do you sup- pobe is the distance acioss this room? What is the length of your desk? What is the length of this pen- cil ? What is your height 1 2. IIoio may we tell how far one place is from an- other ? We tell how far one place is from another by tell- ing the distance from the one place to the other. 3. What measure do carpenters use ? Did you ever see a foot-rule? How many inches in a foot? 4. What measure do dry-goods clerks use ? Did you ever see a yardstick 1 How many feet in a yard ? [The exercise may be enlivened by the teacher's placing on the blackboard two marks at various distances apart, as a foot, eighteen inches, a yard, seven feet, etc., and then calling on the pupils to guess the distance ; also by referring to the length in inches of various objects, the pupils guessing and then meas- uring. ] 6. When we wish to tell a person how far it is from one city to another, do we not state how many miles it is from the one city to the other? Do you know how many feet there are in a mile ? \The teacher will tell.] How many feet in half a mile ? In a quar- ter of a mile ? 6. What is the length of your ordinary steps, or paces f If it is 18 inches, how many steps, or paces, would it take to make a yard ? At this rate, it would take how many steps, or paces, to make a mile ? 7. Could you tell the probable distance between the school-house and your home by counting tlie number of steps ? Could you tell it by the time that it takes you to walk it ? At what rate do you walk at your usual gait ? Exercise. — 1. What is the length, and what the breadth, of the school-room in yaccs ? — infect? 2. How far is it from your home to the school-house ? 3. About how long is the longest street in the place where you live ? 4. Men- tion a city, town, or village three miles from here. 5. What About what have we been studying aU the week ? What is the study called that tells us about the sur- face of the earth ? What is the surface of the earth ? What are the names of the four principal directions ? What are the names of the four middle directions ? What do you mean by points of the compass ? What is the opposite direction from east ? — from west ? What is the opposite direction from south ? — from north ? Point to the ceiling : in what direction is that ? Point to the floor ; in what direction is that ? What do we mean when we speak of the distance of pla fron othe 12. Name all the measures of distance that you know. VIL — LINES AND ANGLES. Teacher's Note. — If the pupil has had no elementary training in drawing lines, angles, and common geometiical figures, some days' practice slioidd now be spent on the matter. It will not be necessary to give formal definitions, as the ability rapidly to recognize and reproduce the given line, etc. is all that is of practical importance. The teacher will do well to begin by drawing the lines, etc. on the blackboard ; then, by a conversational lesson, elicit what the pupils know about them. 1. Lines. — Lines may be straight or curved. Which is the longer 1 — the snorter ? Mark two points on the slate, and see if it is possible to draw any shorter line than a straight line. 2. Parallel Lines. — Lines may be drawn exactly the same distance apart. They are parallel lines. Farallel Lines. Draw two straight lines that are parallel. Draw two carved lines that are parallel. If you were to make these two lines very long, would they ever meet? 3. Lines by Direction, — A line may be drawn straight up and down, straight across, or slantingly. The first is called a vertical, the second a hori- zontal, and the third an oblique line. HOW MAPS ARE MADE. Oblique. Horizontal. Vertical. 4. Angles. — Two lines that come together, but run in different directions, form an opening called an angle. Draw angles, some with very small openings and some with very large openings Put together a horizontal and a vertical line ; these two lines will form a square comer, and such an angle is called a "right angle." 5. Triangles. — Figures having three sides are called TRIANGLES. Draw three triangles of different shapes. 6. Circles. — A curved line may be drawn in such a way that it bends equally in every part. In this way we form a circle. The line is called the cikcumfer- ENCE ; a straight line drawn from one side to the other is called the diameter. The center is the point which is exactly the same distance from every part of the circumference. 7. Sphere. — Any thing which is exactly round like an ivory ball or a soap-bubble is called a sphere oi globe. 8. A Hemisphere i.s the hulf of a sphere or globe. 9. Circumference and Diameter. — The circumfer- ence of a sphere or globe is its measure around ; the diameter is its measure throuyh. VIII. — A PICTURE AND A PLAN. [An oral le.sson, soiiiewliut as follows, will be the most inter- esting mode of developing this subjeet.] Here is a picture of the inside, or interior, of a school- room. Tell me the various objects you see represented. — A Plctore. In this picture ex-cry part of it is really equally far off and equally near to us ; but this does not seem to be so : the part opposite our eye appears to be the farthest off, and the different objects in the school-room are shown as in the various positions in wiiich we should see them should we stand at the door and look in. Such a view is said to he in perspective. Now, if we could lift the roof off the school-room and look down, what part would be under our eye ? The ground, or floor, an," all the objects on it. Correct. And if a drawing of the school-room were made as we should then see it, we should have what is called a (jroiind-plrtn, as given here. Q O t r ^ o o r " 1 U L' r L 1 1 [ i . ) O 1 O 1 r o ? [It will ;iiM interest if tlie te.iilier reproduces tins on the blackboiird. She will do well, by questioning, to elicit from the pupils how the ground-plan is to be drawn ; as, " How shall I draw the walls ? " By four lines. " How shall I draw the windows ? " B)' notches in the lines representing the walls, etc.] Exercise. — Copy on slates or paper the flan of the school-room. For additional practice, the pupils may be required to draw a plan of their school-room. They should PRIMARY LESSONS. be shown that it is necessary to draw it to some definite scale. Thus, suppose that the room is shown to be 40 X 30 feet: pupils will readily understand that it would be im- practicable to draw lines 30 or 40 feet in length. Let the scale be 1 inch to 5 feet ; then the line representing the longest side of the school-room will be 8 inches in length, and that representing its width 6 inches. IX.— PLAN OF THE SCHOOL-GROUNDS. [The teacher may develop the subject orally somewhat as fol- lows.] We have learned liow to draw the plan of the school- room. Now we shall take something larger, the school- grounds, and try to make a plan of them. Suppose the school-grounds look as we see them rep- resented in this picture. We wish to make a map of them. Picture of the School grounds First we must find out, by measuring, the length and breadth of the school-grounds. Say that we find the length to be 70 yards and the breadth 50 yards. Of course we cannot on the slate or blackboard make lines 70 or .50 yards long ; so we must draw it to some sca/e. It is easy to understand what is meant by a scale in maps. We have all seen a photograph of a man who was six feet tall ; but was the figure in the photo- graph si.x feet in length 1 No ; perhaps it was only three inches. Now if the man was six feet (72 inches) in height, and the picture only 3 inches, we may say that the picture was on a scale of 3 inches to 72, or 1 inch to 24. It will be convenient to draw the map of the school-grounds on a scale of one incli to 10 yards. And hence, as they were found to be 70 yards long and 50 yards wide, our lines representing the longest sides will be 7 inches, and those representing the breadth, 5 inches. When we drew the plan of the school-room we did not make pictures of the objects on the floor ; we represented the objects by Unes and marks. We draw the map of the school-grounds by using similar signs. Flan of the School-grounds. [The teacher should require this to be copied. Also have it drawn on the blackboard on an enlarged scale.] Exercise. — Let the school-grounds be measured by some of the pupils before or after school, and a plan or map of thLin be drawn on the blackboard by the teacher, un- der the direction of the pupils. It should be drawn on a ■-( lie adapted to the size of the blackboard, and then copied by the pupils on the slates on some reduced scale, say ons louith ol that on the blackboard. X. — MAPS OF COUNTRIES. [It will be easy for the teacher now to impart a coirect idea ol wh^t 1 map is. Maps are plans of the land and water. As in drawing the plan of the school-room and school-grounds we lepresented the windows, desks, walks, etc. by lines which do not look much like the things themselves, so we represent mountains and rivers and towns by signs that we can easily recognize when we see them.] 1. Can you draw a map ? No. Can you 1 you 1 you '] Why, we reaUy drew a map when we made the pla7i of the school-room. 2. What is a map ? A map is a representation of any part of the earth's surface as it would be seen by a person looking down from a great height. 3. What are the points of direction on maps ? The top of the map is north ; the bottom, south ; the right-hand side, east ; the left-hand side, west. [The teacher will do well here to forestall certain eiroiieous ideas which many pupils are apt to get in regard to maps. As a map is a representation of a portion of the earth's surface as it would appear to a person elevated at a distance above it, the map should, when used for the first time, be laid upon the floor or upon a table, with the top in the direction of the north side of the school-room. In this way the learner will not fall into the notion that north is in the direction of the ceiling, because the top of the map is in that direction.] Exercise. — Let a wall map be hung in sight of the class and a lively exercise had in pointing out direction on it. THE nOinZOX. — SHAPE OF THE EARTH. Horizons by Height. XI. —THE HORIZON. 1. Point toward the sky. Were you ever out in the open country, or on a lake or ocean, where you could see all around you 1 Was there a place where the sky seemed to come down to the earth (or water) 1 2. Did the sky seem to come down to the earth at the same distance all around you? Then the line where the sky and earth seemed to meet was a circle. 3. How far do you think you can see straight be- fore you in the open country 1 Do you suppose that a man six feet high can see farther than that ? Do you think that if you were to go on top of a high building you could see farther than if you were on the ground l Who wll see the sun rise first, — a shep- herd on the hill-top or a ploughman in the plain below 1 Why does the shepherd see farther 1 [Let the teacher now give the name hokizon, and define it as the line where the earth and .sky seem to meet. I will pronounce, and you may spell, — Horizon. I will spell, and yon may pronounce, — Horison.] 4. ]\'//n( /.s f/ie horizon ? The horizon is the line where the earth and sky seem to meet. Exercise. — In the drawing at the top - C^t-. of this Lesson we see three men, one on .:-V -_j* the level ground, a second on a hill-toji, 'KzaaE and a third on the top of a high moun- tain. Notice where the lines leading from the eye of each touclies the earth. Tlici] is the horizon for each. *- 1. What part of the church will the observer on the level ground see, — the -- spire or the building itself ? Which spec- tators will see the whole building ? 2. Will the observer on the level ground see any part of the sailing vessel or of the steamer 1 Why not ? .3. Which part of the sailing vessel will the observer on the hill-top see? Which spectator will be able to see the hull as well as the masts of the sailing vessel ? Why is hetible to see the hull ] XII. —SHAPE OF THE EARTH. Teai'HEu's Note. — Children know prac- tically oidy wimt is within llicir ouii hori- zon. Hence to enlarge this liorizon, so that tlicy may be able to imagine other horizons than their own, is to lay the foundation of sound geographical knowledge. 1. Did you ever travel some miles away from here? Did the sky still appear to come down to the earth 1 Was it the same horizon you saw at home, or a different one? The hori- zon you saw at home appeared to be the end of the earth : but was it ? 2. If we travel a whole day, docs tlie sky still seem to close around us 1 In changing our place, as we take a long journey, do we change our horizon 1 Hut is there a horizon still around us? 3. If a liy were to alight on an apple hung by a string, and were to walk all over it, would it ever come to the end of the apple? Why not? Do you suppose we could ever travel so far that the line of the horizon would be the end of the earth 1 [Develop orally somewhat as follows : — Wc may change our horizon day after day, but still we do not come to the end of the earth ; though, in olden times, many very wise men be- lieved that if they went far enough they would come to the end of the earth. About three hundred and fifty years ago a navi- gator named Magellan set out from Spain and sailed westward across the Atlantic Ocean, and then across the Pacific Ocean, and continued to sail in the same general direction till, after more than three years, liis ships arrived at the very port from which they had set out. This was the first time the earth was sailed around, or circumnavitjated ; and it proved that the earth is round.'\ 10 PiaMAEY LESSONS. 4. JV/i(it Ix the shape of the earth ? The earth is round. 5. Tehou>liihere, and that our eartli is a great gloLe. Showing a terrestrial ylolc : now, here is a small globe that represents the shape of the earth. It is called a terrestrial globe, whicli means a globe of the earth ; but we may call it the school globe.] ^W The importance of introducing at the earliest stage an arti- ficial globe as an aid to geographical study cannot lie overstated. 6. What is the exact shape of the eartli I The earth is round, nearly like a globe, or sphere. XIII. — SIZE OF THE EARTH. 1. Wliat distance do ymi walk every day to school \ How far is it from tlie most eastern part of your State to the most western % [Let the teacher tell.] How far is it from the most nortliern point of your State to the most southern I [Let the teacher tell.] 2. If you were to make a journey in the cars quite across our country, from New York to San Francisco, what would the distance be'? [Let the teacher tell.] [We have learned that in shape the world is round like a ball. It would be very interesting to know the .si;* of our earth, or terrestrial globe, would it not ? The teacher may then show that we shall tiiid out its size by measuring around it and measuring through it. Recall the definition of circum- ference and diameter. Then state that learned men have dis- covered ways of finding out the length of the circumference and of the diameter of our globe, the earth. They find that it is nearly 25,000 miles in circumference and nearly 8,000 miles in diameter. This is the SIZE of the earth.] 3. What is the size of the earth ? The earth's circumference is nearly 25,000 miles, and its diameter nearly 8,000 miles. 4. If the earth were all dry land, and one were to attempt to walk around it, journeying at tlie rate of twenty-five miles a day, how many days would the journey require ? A railroad-train, moving constantly night and day, at the rate of twenty miles an hour, wotdd take how many days to go round the globe '? XIV. — OUR PLANET. [For Reading.] 1. We have learned about the shape of the earth, and its size : it is a great globe. The earth seems to be at rest. It is firm under our feet. Yet it is all the time moving very rapidly indeed. 2. Did you ever blow soap-bubbles 1 A soap-bubble floats in the air. So does a balloon. Our earth floats in the heavens much the same as a soai)-bubble does in the air. But the earth does not stay still while float- ing. It is all the time swimming througli space. In wliat direction "i Toward what 1 3. You have seen one of the brilliant stars called planets. We may notice that they change their place in the sky, while the fixed stars do not change their place. Astronomers who watch the planets know that they move around the sun in a great, sweeping circle. Some planets wheel around the sun in a few months, otliers take several years. 4. (Jur earth is a planet, and wlieels, or revolves, around the sun. We do not feel it, but we and all lliat is on tlie eartli are really sweejnng through the lieavens at the rate of 1,000 miles every hour. 5. Do you think you could make a soap-bubble turn around while it floats in the air? You might perhaps blow it so that it would turn round. Y'ou could also make a toy balloon turn round by twisting the string. Our earth turns constantly round in this way before the sun. The light of the sun makes day in the part of the earth where it sliines ; the other part is in the shadow, and we say it is night. Every part of the earth is tlius brought round by turn so as to receive tlie sunlight. It takes 24 hours, or one day, for the earth to turn completely round, or rotate. G. Now, how long does it take the eartli to revolve, or move, around the sun 1 It takes 3G5 days. When you learn more about Geography, you will understand that it is owing to the earth's revolving around the sun that we have the change of seasons. 7. Thus we see that the earth is constantly moving, and that it has two motions. It turns round on itself and wheels around the sun. Did you ever see a top spinning round on the peg, and at the same time mov- ing in a circle around some object on the floor ? This will help you to understand the two motions of the earth. 8. There is another thing now that I shall ask you about. Some pupils are puzzled to understand how it is that, since the earth is round and floats in space, the people on the other side of the earth from us do not fall downward. This is easily explained. What is doii'u ? Down is always toward the center of the earth. So you see there is no more reason why they should fall downward than that we should fall upward. IFor Recitation. 1 1. What is the earth .? The earth is a planet of the solar system. 2. III)!/' muni/ motions has the earth ? The earth has two motions: it turns around every 24 hours, and it revolves around the sun in 365 days. DIVISIONS OF LAND AND WATER. 11 XV. — REVIEW AND TEST QUESTIONS. I. When we draw an object as it appears to us when we look at it, what is the drawing called? 2. When we represent a building as it would appear to us if we looked down upon it, what do we call the drawing? 3- When we represent the school-grounds, or the whole city [or town] or State, as it would appear if we looked down upon it, what do we call the drawing ? 4- Which part of the map shows direction North ? South ? East? West? 5- What is the horizon ? 6. What is the shape of the earth? What object repre- sents the shape of the earth ? 7- What is the name of the navigator who first circum- navigated the earth ? 8. Do we often read of persons making a tour round the world ? How long, do you suppose, would it take ? 9- What is "measure around" called? lO. What is "measure through" called? II. Give the earth's circumference and diameter. "■ What two motions has the earth ? Sect. II. -LAND AND WATER. I. —THE EARTH'S SURFACE. (For Reading.) 1. The earth's surface is its outside. We are now to learn of what the earth's surface consists. Where do people live and build their houses ? You say on the land, and that is riglit. The solid land is the dwelling- place of man. 2. Now, where do fislies live, and on what do ships sail 1 You say that fishes live in the water and ships sail on the water, and that is right. This shows us that the earth's surface consists of land and water. 3. There was a time, many ages ago, long before man was created, when the whole face of the earth was covered with deep waters. The dry land was gradu- ally raised up, and plants and animals appeared. Perhaps you will now un- ^B^^^^^Si^^^^" \ derstand what I am going to tell you. AU the land on the ^^^^^^^^~ V^ T ^i earth's surface is ^^^^HhE t^' merely part of the ^^^^^^B~ P/L/~ crust of the earth which has become pushed up above the surrounding western HemUph, water; and if the bed of the ocean were laid bare, we sliould .see hollows and heights such as we observe on the land. 4. Tlie laud on the earth's surface does not consist of one mass, but of two very large parts and many hundreds of smaller parts. The two large parts are called coiitiuents, for the reason that each part is not broken up into islands, but is continuous land. Our own country is on one of these continents, called America. America is also called the Western Continent, or New World. The other continent is called the Eastern Con- tinent, or Old World. All the parts of land smaller than one of the two continents are called islands. 5. Around the two continents rolls the "deep and dark-blue ocean." This immense body of water is the (ireat Sea. It is very large, three times as large as all the land on the eartli, so that, after all, only one quarter of the earth's surface has been raised above tlie water. 6. The lands are fixed and solid, but the Ocean is flowing and moving ; hence it is really one body. Still, tlie lands partly divide the Ocean : they form a sort of rim around portions of it. To these portions of the Great Sea, or Ocean, different names are given ; hence we speak of tlie Atlantic Ocean, the Pacific Ocean, etc. (For Recitation.] 1. Of whnt is the earth's surface made vp ? The earth's surface is made up of land and ■water. 2. WJidt is shiivm in. this picture? The two halves, or hemispheres, of the earth's sur- face, w^ith the land and w^ater upon each. 3. II(ja' much of the earth's surface is laud, and how much UHiter ? About one quarter of the earth's surface is land, and three quarters are -water. 4. Of what does the laud of the earth's surface con- sist ? The land of the earth's surface consists of two very large parts, called Continents, and of smaller parts, called Islands. 5. What are the names of the two continents 1 One is called the Eastern Con- tinent, or Old World ; the other, the 'Western Con- tinent, or Ne-w 'World. 6. What is the inline of the f/reai body of water ? The great body of w^ater is called the Ocean, or Sea. PlU]\rAi;Y LESSON.S. II. — THE CONTINENTS. Teacher'.s Note. — Tlie best mode of introducing young pupils to the study of the land and water surface of the earth is to exhiliit to them tlie ur- lifidal globe. Ignorant as they are of the principles of map-projection, the young nearly always get confused or erroneous notions from the ordinary "M.ap of the Two Hemispheres." In order to avoid this, and as the best substitute for an artificial globe, four glohular maps are here given. They represent the artificial globe turned so as to show, first the two great land- masses of the earth, and next the two water-hemispheres. 1. What does the Western Con- tinent consist of? The Western Continent con- sists of twro Grand Divisions, called North and South Amer- ica. 2. Wh((t grent parts, or Grand Divisions, does the Eastern Con- tinent contain ? The Eastern Continent con- tains three Grand Divisions, called Asia, Africa, and Europe. Exercise. — 1. [/r/Z/t optn hook.'\ Which is nearest the North Pole, North America or South America ] AVhich is nearest the South Pole ? 2. In what direction from South America is North America ? In what direction from North Ajuerica is South America ? 3. Which extends farthest east, North America or South America? Which extends farthest we.st ? 4. Where is North America broad- est l Where is South America broadest I In what direction do North and South America taper I 5. What ocean east of the Ameri- can continent ? What ocean west \ 6. Do we live in North America or South America ? 7. Which part of the Old World appears to be largest ? Which ap- pears to be the second in size ? Which seems to be the smallest ! 8. Which of the three Grand Di- visions extends farthest east ? Which extends farthest south ? Which part of the Old World is Europe ? j^" Let the teacher ask the same ques- tions, with variations, using the school- globe, or the wall-map of the hemisphere. The Extern Hemisphere, or Old Worli THE OCEAZS^S. 13 in. — THE OCEANS. [Kecall to the ijupils' minds that wc have learned that the great body of salt water which forms three quarters of the surface of the earth Is called the Ocean. But the Ocean is not all in one gieat body, because the Western Continent and the Eastern Continent divide the Ocean into several parts. Show this on the globe or hemisphere-map.] 1. With open book : Point to the Western Continent. Point to the Eastern Continent. Point to the water between the two. There is a name marked on this great body of water ; what name is it ? [Correct; this is the Atlantic Ocean. All the people in our country who came from England, Ireland, and Scotland, or from Germany or Erance, had to cross this ocean in ships to come to the United States. This ocean is veiy broad, and it takes a swift steamer ten days to cross it.] 2. What name is marked on the Ocean between the western part of the A\^estern and the eastern part of the Eastern Continent ? [The Pacific Ocean is much broader than the Atlantic Ocean. It is the largest ocean on the surface of the earth. When people in our country visit China, they start from San Francisco and cross this ocean. The tea which we drink is brought in steamers that cross the Pacific Ocean from China to San Francisco. 1 1 takes about three weeks to make the \ nyage.] 3. W/iiif oci'diif have ve learned We have learned about the Atlantic OceEiu and the Pacific Ocean. is^m 4. Whfit other ocean can you The Pacific Ocean. The Indian Ocean. 5. Whirr ix this ocean i The Indian Ocean is to the south of Asia. [These are the three great oceans on the surface of the earth. You will also read about the Arctic Ocean and the Antarctic Ocean ; very little is known about these seas, which lie near the Poles. You will learn more about them hereafter. 14 PRIMARY LESSONS. ''^^ ^-^^s- Bird's-eye View of the Atlantic Coast from Boston to Philadelphia. IV. — PENINSULAS AND CAPES. E;^^ By means of a trayful of sand and some plastic clay very instmctive objectrlessons, which will impart to the pupils a vivid notion of the divisions of land and water, may be given. 1. Have you ever been at tlie sea-shore 'i Did you find the edges of the land, wliere they toucli tlie water, even nr jagged and irregular ? 2. U'/iiit is meant hy the coaxt, or fhore ? The coast, or shore, means that part of the land Twhich borders on the water. 3. Uluit do )iv see in the jnctiire ? We see the sea-shore, or coast, along the Atlantic Ocean from Boston to Philadelphia. 4. Wltid is shown in the other draining ? A map of the same coast. 1^^ The teacher will do well to put the map-sketch on the black- board on a larger scale. 5. With open book : Point to wliere the land juts out or extends into the water. Point to where the water runs into the land. [Pupils should be shown that it is very convenient to have names for the parts of the land that jut out or project into the water, and also for the parts of the water" that run into the land. Now, a part of the land which projects into the water, so that the water nearly surrounds it, is called a Pen- IN.SUI.A. I will spell, and you may pronounce, — Pcnhufula. I will pronounce, and you may spell, — Peninsu! a . j 6. What is a peiiiiisnla ? A peninsula is a part of the laud nearly sur- rounded by -water. 7. Is an island entirely surrounded Ijy water] Is a peiunsula entirely surrounded by water? r L A A/ T / C O C £ A N 1. A Bay ; Massachusetts Bay 2. A Bay : Cape Cod Bay. 3. A Cape ; Cape Cod. \. A PeninBOla : Cape Cod ?e: 6. A Bay ; Buzzard Hay. Map of the aame Coast. C. A Sound : . A Bay : New Vo Long Island Sound. 8. Is a peninsula the same as an island ? Is it nearly the same as an island % How might a peninsula be made into an island ? 9. Witli open hook : Point to any peninsulas on the map of the coa.st from Bo-ston to Philadelphia. [Let the teacher now show on the blackboard the difference between a peninsula and a cape, making it plain that a cape is a mere point or tongue of land extending into the water.] 10. What is a cape ? A cape is a point of land extending into the ■water. 11. Tlie portion of land nearly surrounded by ^\'ate^, and numbered 4, is a peninsula; what is its name? The points of land marked 3 and 8 are capes; what are their names ? G^^ At the top of the next page is a picture and a map of a pen- insula. Pupils may copy the map. BAYS AND GULFS. — ISTHMUS AND STRAIT. 15 V. — BAYS. — GULFS. — SEAS. 1. A Poninsirfa is laiul nearly surrcmnded by water : now, point out on the Eird's-eye View of the Coast a place where the water runs into the land. From the number on the map can you tell what the name of the body of water is i 2. How many bays do you find on the map t Point to each on the Bird's-eye View. Trace the line where the land and water meet. Is the land all around the bay t Is the bay entirely enclosed by the land, or only partly enclosed ? [Let the tcaclier now (1) show on the wall-map Hndson Bay and other bays; (2) the Gulf of Mexico, Gulf of California, and other gulfs ; (3) the Caribbean Sea, Okhotsk Sea, and other seas. It will be easy to bring the pupils to draw for themselves the conclusion that there is something in common between bays, gulfs, and seas, namely, that they are all more or less enclosed by the land. The term harbor, also, may be introduced, and defined as a small bay in which ships may lie at anchor.] 3. What is a hai/, gulf, or sea ? A bay, gulf, or sea is a part of the ^vater more or less surrounded by the land. 4. Have you ever seen a bay ? — a gulf 1 5. Do you live in a seaport city 1 What is the name of the harbor 1 What do you find there t 1^" Pupils may copy the map of the bay. VI. — AJSf ISTHMUS AND A STRAIT. [Let the teacher show on the wall-map the peninsula of the Moreu, the Spanish peninsula, etc. ; then (luestion as follows.] 1. Point to the peninsula on the map. Point to the mainland with which it is united. ' What joins the peninsula to the mainland 1 Point out the strip of land that joins the peninsula to the mainland. 2. What joins your head to your body 1 Is not the neck smaller than either the head or the body ? [As the head is joined to the body by the neck, so the pen- insula is joined to the mainland by what we may call a neck of land. The name given to su(di a part of land is Istu.mus, and this word in Greek means neck. I will spell, and you may jironounce, — Isthmus. I will pronounce, and you may spell, — Isthmu s.] 3. What -is an isthnuis ? An isthmus is a narrow neck of land connecting twro larger bodies of land. [The teacher will do well to point out on the map the Isthmus of Panama and the Isthmus of Suez, stating that these are the two most famous isthmuses in the world, and telling why.] 4. With open hook : See if you can find on the map of the coast (page 14) any narrow passage of water. Does it not correspond to an isthmus ? [The teacher should make sure that the pupils see the cor- respondence. Then give the word Strait, meaning narrow passage. ] 16 PKIMARY LESSON,S. 5. What is a strait ? A strait is a narro-w passage of -wrater connecting two larger parts of vsrater. 1 Picture of a Strai* W//at (ithcr itiiiiiex tire \ometime'' ii^J fai btiait ^ A channel, ■which is a m^ide strait, and a sound iirhich is a shallo'w strait. VII. — PLAINS. — MOUNTAINS. — VALLEYS. [The aim in this lesson should be to call out the pupil's personal perception of the differences in elevation presented liy the surface in his own locality, as a preparation for the definition of the three relief-forms, — plains, mountains, and valleys. The skillful teacher will, of course, vary the questions, so as to put to the best use the features of local geography.] 1. Ls the surface of a pond or lake in calm weather level, or are some parts higher than others 1 Did you ever see any place where the surface of the laud was nearly as level as a still pond or lake? 2. When you walk out into the open country near here do you notice that the j^round is all on the same level, or are some parts of the surface higher than rairies. Perhaps some of the pupils who study this book live in a prairie country. Those who do need not be told that a prairie is an immense plain or common that reaches fjr miles and mUes. Long grass grows on it. It is like a waving sea of grass. And in the spring it is covered with a profusion of beautiful wild-flowers. 2. In the great prairies or " Plains " in the far west- ern part of our country you may see great herds of buflalo, which feed on the grass. Sometimes the prairie takes fire and burns the grass for many miles. All living creatures then flee in dismay, for there is scarcely anything in the world so terrible, or so out of the power of man to control, as a prairie on fire. An Oasis in the Desert 3. In some parts of the world there are vast sandy plains. These are called deserts. One of them is in Arabia ; but the gTeatest of all is in Africa. It is called the Saha'ra, which means " the ocean without water." As there is neither rain nor dew in the desert, you will not wonder that no green thing can grow there. There is no grass to tread upon. You have nothing but the hot, burning sand under your feet. The camel can cross the desert, for he can go for days without water ; but no animals live in the desert, for Lassoing Wild Cattle on the Pampa& 5. In South America there are some very large plains which are called llaiios [lan'i/oce] and others which are called pampas. During the hot weather the llanos are so parched that they are almost like deserts, but every year they are flooded by the rains and covered with long grass, like the prairies. On the pampas there grows a very beautiful sort of grass called pampas grass. The flower is feathery, like a reed, and of a silvery-white color. Perhaps you may have seen some of it. 6. The wild horses gallop about these great South American plains, and vast herds of wild cattle roam over these pastures. The people go out on horseback to catch the cattle, and this they do by means of a long rope or strip of leather with a slip-knot at one end. This is called a lasso. When a man has eaten all he has at home, he has only to ride out, with his lasso in his hand, among the wild cattle. He can soon throw his lasso over the horns of 'one of them, and bring it to "round. IX. — ISLANDS AND LAKES. 1. What island have you ever seen? Is it surrounded by the sea, or by the waters of a river or lake 1 2. Do you live on the Western Continent, or on one of the islands belonging to ifi IS PEIMAEY LESSONS. 3. Name any islands you have ever lieard of. What is the largest. i.sland you have heard of? 4. Do you think the English live on an island ? Do you know the name of a large island from which we obtain oranges and sugar '] 5. What is a». island ? An island is a portion of land entirely surrounded by -water. 6. You have seen a ])ond ; have you ever seen a large pond, called a lake ? What was there all around the lake 1 An island is land surrounded by water ; what is a lake 1 7. Is a lake in the sea or on the land? Then is it not an inland slieet of water? _ 8. What is a lake 1 A lake is an inland sheet of water. [The teacher may give ,nn oral explanation of what is meant by tlie liead of a lake and the fool of a lake. ] 9. What is the difference between an. island and a lake ? An island is land entirely surrounded by water, and a lake is w^ater entirely surrounded by land. lE^" Pupils may copy the maps of the island and the lake. Map of the same Itake. X. — RIVERS. 1. What river flows through or near this place 1 Is it a large or a small river ? 2. Is a river water or land ? Is a river in the sea or on the land ? 3. Is a river standing water or running water? What does it run into ? 4. What is a river ? A river is a stream of -water flo-wiug into some other body of -water. 5. What is the source of a river ? The source of a river is w^here it rises. 6. W/iat is the month of a river ? The mouth of a river is -where it flows into some other body of water, or empties. 7. Do you know where the source of the river near here is ? Do you know where its mouth is ? [It will be well to call attention to the difference between a main river and the branches that feed it. Show the re- semblance to the trunk and branches of a tree. Call out any local names for brooks and rivulets. E.xplain TribularyS\ 8. Does the river near here flov/ into some other ri^x-r ? tS" Pupils may draw the map of a river which has two branches and flows into a bay. HISTORY OF A RIVER. 19 XL — HISTORY OF A EIVER. FFor Reading.] ^ '^k •Stii-iaa^ River from Source to Month. 1 Every scholar lias seen a river ; but perhaps very few have ever seen a river from its begin- __ ning to its end. Lot us inquire into the history of a river by tracing tlie course of the one sliown in the picture. 2. How far can we follow it up as a silver thread? We can follow it into the heart of the hills. Now, the beginning, or source, of a river is always a spring in the hills or mountains. Who knows how such a spring is fed 1 It is fed by rain or snow falling on the tops of the hills or mountains. 3. The rain or snow falls on the hill-tops, and part of the water sinks into the soil and rocks through little chinks or crevices, so that at last the water fills up any hollow it finds. , When the water has filled such an underground basin, it bubbles out in a spring, and runs down the hdlside, — for you must remember that water always seeks the lowest level. It runs down the hill- side in rills or rivulets. These, coming together, form streams called brooks, creeks, or branches, and these in their turn unite to form the larger stream called a river. 4. Returning to the picture, we see that the tiny stream foUoivs t/ie slope of the land, bending several times around the foot of the mountains. Then we see a place where it fills a hol- low in the land, thus forming a lake. From the foot of the lake the river again flows on. It is soon joined by anotlier stream, whicli, as it contrih utes its water to tlie first river, is called a tributary, as we have already learned. The ^j t^ere faiis : a draws op vapor i united current, always following the slope of the land, in a little while falls over a precipice, thus forming a waterfall, or cataract. It then flows onward, till at last it joins the arm of the sea. 5. But this is not the wliole story of the river. You have read that the river at last Tills into the ocean. Now you will learn somc- hing quite strange. The river not only flows i^p" '"to the ocean, but it comes up from the ocean. G. You liave read that the spring, whicli is the source of the river, is made by water trick- ling into the soil on hills or mountains. This water comes from the rain that falls on the hills and mountains. But where does the rain come from? 7. The heat of the sun is all the time drawing up from the surface of the sea a great deal of moisture in the form of vapor, or mist. When the vapor be- comes cooler it takes the form of clouds. These clouds are like cisterns, and they let fall their water in rain or snow, when they are blown to where it is colder, as against the chilly tops of mountains. 8. Perhaps you do not understand why the clouds must touch something colder before they will give out their water. You will understand by an illustra- tion or two. You have seen drops of water gather on the outside of a pitcher of ice-water, and you have seen moisture settle on the inside of the win- dow-panes. The water which settles on the outside of the pitcher of ice-water or on the window-pane comes from the air in the room, and it settles on the pitcher and the window because the surface of the pitcher and the window is colder than the air. Some- times in summer the ground at night grows colder than the air, and then the dew settles down in drops upon the grass ; but no dew wiU faU when the ground is warmer than the air. When the vapor thus falls in water it is said to be condensed. 9. Now we know why it is that the mountain-tops condense the vapor which is carried against them in clouds, — it is be- cause the mountam- tops are colder than •he cloud.s. And we ilso see how it is that the river comes from the sea and goes back to the sea, thus per- forming a wonderful round of circulation, to fulfill the wise pur- pose of the Creator. uds to the mountain-tops. 20 PRIMAKY LESSONS. The Earth's surface is divided into and XII. — REVIEW AND TEST QUESTIONS. -By Size /Continents. 1 Islands. r Plains. By Height i Valleys. '^ Mountains. f Peninsulas. -By Form J Capes. l- Isthmuses. I Atlantic. Pacific. Indian. Arctic. '- Antarctic. C Seas. Waters partly inland J Gulfs or Bays. I Straits. ~ Waters wholly inland. f Lakes. 1 Rivers. I. QUESTIONS ON THE TABLE. 1. What are the two great divisions ot the earth's surface ? 2. How many parts are land and how many water ? 3. What are the two great divisions of land called ? 4. What are the names of the two continents ? 5. What is the difference between a continent and an island ? 1. Plains and valleys are both low giound: what, then, is the difference between them ? 2. What is a mountain ? 3. What are the three divisions of land with regard to shape ? 4. What is the difference between a peninsula and a cape ? 5. What is an isthmus ? 6. What division of water corresponds with an isthmus ? 1. Wliat names are given to the five oceans ? 2. What three divisions of water are partly inland ? 3. What three div'sions of water are wholly inland ? 4. With what division of land does a gulf or bay correspond ? 5. What is the difference between an island and a lake ? 6. What is a river ? What is its beginning called ? Its ending? II. QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. 1. What continent do North and South America form ? 2. What three Grand Divisions in the Eastern Continent ? 3. What ocean between the eastern part of the Western Con- tinent and the western part of the Eastern Continent ? 4. What ocean west of North and South America ? 5. What ocean east of Asia ? 6. In what direction from Asia is the Indian Ocean ? 7. Point to the Arctic Ocean, — to the Antarctic Ocean. 8. Whiit is the largest island named on the map ? 9. Point to a sea between Europe and Africa ; it is called the Mediterranean Sea. 10. Do you see a narrow passage of water joining the Medi- teri'anean Sea with the Atlantic Ocean ? What is a narrow passage of water joining two larger bodies of water called? The name of this passage is the Strait of Gibraltar. 11. Do you see the narrow neck of land joining North and South America ? What is a narrow neck of land joining two larger bodies of land called ? The name of Ihis neck of land is the Isthmus of Panama. AXES, POLES, AND EUUATOK. 21 seot. 1 1 1. -our world. L — ON WHAT THE EARTH TURNS. 1. W/ifit have we learned about the earth ? We have learned that the earth is a planet, that it turns around every 24 hours, and that it revolves around the suu in a year of 365 days. [In explaining what is meant by the earth's axis, it will be well to recur to the subject of day and night. Let the teacher cause the school globe to rotate in front of the light ; it wiU then be easy for the pupils to answer such questions u these that follow.] 2. When I place this globe before the light, how much of it receives the light] Wliich half is in its own shadow? Now, as I turn the globe, is there not always one half which is in tlie light, while the other half is in the shadow 1 3. If we suppose the earth to spin round in front of the sun, how much will have daylight at one time 1 What of the opposite half of the earth 1 4. But is it not the sun which appears to wheel round in the heavens, and not the earth which turns round in front of the sun? Do we not speak of the sm\ rising &.m\ seltiay ? In wliat direction is sunrise? — sunset ? [Let one of the pupils cause the school globe to rotate before the light ; then let another carry the light around the station- ary globe, showing that in either way every point is in succes- sion illuminated. Inquire: "Which is the easier method of lighting every part of tlie globe by turn ? Is it not, then, more likely that the earth turns round in front of tlie sun than that the sun wheels around the earth ? " Announce this rotation as a fact about which there can be no doubt. State that the earth turns round from west to east, thus causing th» sun to S8»m to rise in the east and set in the west. ] 5. What causes day and night ? The earth turns around, one half of its surface be- ing always toward the sun ; this half has then day and the other night. 6. //"('' nfteii ill"! the eiirth turn completely around ? The earth turns completely around in twenty-four hours. 7. M'hi/ does the run apjiear to rife in the east and set in the ivest ? Because the earth turns round on itself from -west to east. 8. On what does a wheel turn 1 [The earth does not turn on an axle, as a wheel does. ] 9. On what does a top that is set spinning turn ? [The earth does not turn on a peg, or pivot, as a spinning- top does.] 10. On what does a soap-bubble which you blow so as to make it revolve turn, or on what does a small round india-rubber balloon turn when you cause it to revolve? Have these any axle to turn on, like the wheel ? Have they any peg, like the top ? [You do not know what the balloon or the soap-bubble, turns on ? Well, each turns on itself. Still, can you nut think of a line on which it moves ? This line, since you merely imagine it, is an imaginary line. The earth turns on an imaginary line. This is called the earth's axis.] 11. On what does the earth turn round, or rotate ? The earth turns round, or rotates, on its axis. 12. What is the axi.'^ of the earth ? The axis of the earth is the imaginary line on w^hich the earth rotates. IL — NORTH AND SOUTH POLES. [If the teacher has made it plain to the pupils that the axis of the earth is the imaginary line on which the earth rotates, it wUl be easy for them to understand that there are two points which do not move at all, but may turn on themselves. The teacher should guard against the juipil's forming a material con- ception from the word "[lole," by stating that this is a Greek word meaning turning-point.] 1. What are the Poles of the earth ? The Poles are the ends of the earth's axis. 2. What pupils have ever seen tlie North Star ? .■"PjUPQ/- [Let the teacher put the pupils in the way of observing the North Star. "'-th F" Then tell them that there is a part of the earth where, if we were there, we should see the North Star shining directly above our heads. This point directly under the North Star is called the North Pule. It is the most northern of tlie two turning- points of the earth's axis. 3. What names are given to the Poles ? The North Pole and the South Pole. 4. What is the Xorth Pole ? II The North Pole Is the end of the earth's axis near- est to the North Star. It is the most northern point on the earth. 5. What is the South Pole ? The South Pole is the opposite end of the earth's axis, and is the part of the earth farthest from the North Star. PKIMAEY LESSONS. "6. What, llteii, is realty meant by direction North and tioidh I North is tOTward the North Pole; South is toward the South Pole. NyfE. — As far as we know, no liunian being lias ever yet lieen at either the Korth or .South Pole. Many brave explorers liave sailed northward into the icy seas to reach the North Pole, but have been driven back by the cold, unable to force their way to it. Other gallant captains have never returned, hav- ing perished in the regions of eternal snow and ice. In another part of the book the pupil will find an account of tlie Polar Expeditions of Franklin, Kane, and others. III. — THE EQUATOR. [The best preparation for understanding what the Equator is, and vhal it is for, is to begin by pointing it out on the scliool- globe. Sucli questions as the following may be asked.] 1. What is the shajje of tlie school-globe] "What does this globe represent 1 Turn the globe once : on what does it turn ] 2. Place your finger on the most northerly point of the globe : what is that point called '? AVhat i.s the l)oint directly opposite called? 3. Put your finger half-way between the Poles, on the black line which extends entirelj- around the globe. This circle is called the Equator. 4. Is this circle any nearer to the North Pole than it is to the South Pole, or is it just midway between the two ] [This line is called the EqU-ITOR, because it dii-idi-s thr siirfare of the earth equally br.tinccti the North and South Pole. That half of the earth's surface which is between the Equator and the North Pole is called the Northern Hemisphere ; the other half is called the Southern Hemisphere.] 5. W/iat ix the E'piiitor o» the sehool^o/ohe i The Equator is a circle around the globe, niid'way between the Poles. 6. What dejea it represent / It represents the earth's sur- face as divided into a Northern and a Southern hemisphere. [You must not suppose tliere is any such line drawn on the earth itself. Still, we may think of, or imngine, such a line ; and I will tell you why it is very useful to imagine such a line, and why we mark it on maps and globes. The sun shines on tlic earth in such a way that tliere is a broad belt lehere the iveatjter is very hot all tlie year round, and the Equator is just ill tlie middle of this belt.'] 7. What does the Equator marl- ? The Equator, half-way between the Poles, marks the middle of a broad belt around the earth, where the sun is very hot all the year round. IV. - SITUATION OF PLACES. CFor Reading.] 1. If a fly should aliglit on an orange, and we wished to tell a person exactly on what part of the orange the fly is, do you think it would be easy to do so? Certainly it woidd not, for wo have nothing to go by in telling where the fly is. 2. When we wish to tell a person where a particular house or building in a city is, we say that it is in a certain street, between such and such streets. Thus you have often heard persons making a statement something like this : " The post-oftice is on the right- hand side of Main Street, between Pine and Poplar." In like manner, to help us tell the location of places, all school-globes and maps have certain lines drawn up and down and across them. 3. The half of the earth's surface which is between the Equator and the North Pole is called the Northern Hemisphere ; the other half, between the Equator and tlie South Pole, is called the Southern Hemisphere. Now, you will notice that there are several circles drawn around the school-globe, both to the north of the Equator and south of it, as in this di- agram. They are drawn parallel with the Equator, and are called parallels of latitude. By means of these lines we can tell the latitude of a place, tliat is, its distance from tlie Equator toward the North Pole or toward the South Pole. 4. I will tell you how this is done. We suppose the distance fi-om the Equator to the North Pole to be divided into 90 parts, called degrees, and the same from the Eipiator to the South Pole. If a school-globe or a map were large enough, we might draw so many of these jiarallel circles that each one of the 90 degrees would be between two circles, but generally on globes the space between two circles represents ten of the 90 degrees. Each degree is a distance of nearly 70 ordinary miles ; hence, as from the Equator to either Pole is 90 degrees, the distance is about 6,300 miles. 5. We reckon latitude from the Equator, where latitude is 0, that is, where it begins, and count north- ward to the North Pole 90 degrees. We count the same number from the Equator to the South Pole. A place or a country which lies to the north of the Equator is said to be in north latitude, and one whieli Parallels of Latitude. ABOUT THE WEATHER. 23 MeridlanB of Longitude. lies to the south of the Equator is said to be iu south latitude. 6. It is not enough that we are able to speak of a place as north or south from the Equator : we must have the means of denoting its position east or west. For this purpose we draw a number of semicircles from the North to the South Pole, called Meridians. With these we measure longitude, which means lo- cality east or west from some fixed point. 7. But ea-st or west from what ? We must fix upon some meridian as the starting-point for reckoning. On many American maps the meridian of Washington, the capital of our coun- try, is chosen ; but the meridian most used is that of Green wicli, near London, where there is a famous naval observatory. Calling the meridian of Greenwich zero, we count lon- gitude eastward 180 degrees, that is, lialf-way round the globe, and also westward the same distance. v. — LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. 1. What is the latitvde of a place ? The latitude of a place is its distance in degrees north or south of the Equator. Note. — A degree (marked °) is the 360th part of any circle. The 60th part of a degree is called a minute (marked ')• 2. How is latitude reckoned 1 Latitude is reckoned thus : North latitude, from the Equator, where the latitude is zero, to the North Pole, which is iu 90° north latitude ; South latitude, from the Equator to the South Pole, which is in 90° south latitude. 3. What is ike longitude of a place ? The longitude of a place is its distance east or west from some given meridian, called the jii-st meritlian. 4. Hoiv is longitude reckoned ? Longitude is reckoned from the first meridian botli eastward and westward 180°, or half-way around the globe. Note. — The length of every degree of latitude is 69 J miles. The length of a degree of longitude is not uniform : it is 69J miles at the Equator ; but the degrees constantly lessen from the Equator to the Poles, where they cease to have any length. Direct aod Slanting Rays. VI. — HOT WEATHER AND COLD. L Wliere does our heat romt' from ? Our heat comes from the rays of the sun. 2. Is not the weather sometimes very hot where we live, and sometimes very cold l What is our hot sea- son called ? What is our cold season called ? 3. Wliich is the hottest time of the day, — noon or morning or evening % [The teacher may explain that the reason why it is hotter at 'noon than in the morning or evening is the reason why it is hotter in summer than in winter ; and the reason why it is hotter at noon and in summer than it is in the morning and in winter is tlic reascm why in some parts of the world it is 11.1 va lis very hot and in other parts always very cold.'\ 4. When do the sunbeams E _?._..2^— 1 ^ 1 _^_:.,..__.^..4..-^^-. - Tropic qf Caprvcom Mercator Map. showing Countries by Climate. 2G PKIMAIiY LESSONS. X. — CLIMATE BY HEIGHT. [For Reading.] L We have not leanii'd all about climate merely because we have learned that places at or near the Equator are hottest, and that tlie heat becomes less and less according as we go toward either Pole ; for it is not always the case that places in the Torrid Zone have a scorching climate. In some parts of the Torrid Zone it is quite mild, in other parts it is cold, in stiU other parts there is perpetual snow. 2. You may noti<;e on the map of .South America (see page 94) the Andes Mountains, in the western part. Now, on their summits, right at the Equator, lies snow which never melts. Could any part of the world be hotter than the scorching plains of Equatorial Africa? Surely not; and yet Mount Kilimanjaro', which is crossed by the Equator, wears a white crown of snow all the year round. How is this % 3. We have, most of us, climbed a mountain in sum- mer-time. Even though the weather was quite hot at the foot of the mountain, we found, if the mountain was a lofty one, that when we reached the summit the air was cool. If we had taken a thermometer with us, we sliould have noticed that the heat, or tempei-ature, as it is called, was many degrees less than in the plain be- low. Perhaps some pupils have been to the top of Mount Washington, which is in the White Mountains of New Hampshire. Those who have done so know that in the hottest July day the air is so chilly that fires and overcoats are needed to keep one comfortable on the chilly summit. 4. This shows us that, as we ascend heights, the air becomes cool, cooler, cold, colder, till at last we reach the line of perpetual snow. This is a regular rule, or, as men of science say, a law of nature. And it will greatly help us to understand about different countries if we remember this rule. It will help us, for instance, to understand how in Mexico, a country to the south of us, the coast has the burning climate of the Torrid Zone, while the interior, wliich is a high table-land, enjoys everlasting spring. How strange it is that, by ascending a mountain three miles high, we can, even at the Equator, pass through all climates, from that of the Torrid to that of the Frigid Zone ! CFor Recitation.] 1. What effect has height, or altitude, on the climate of a place ? Heat always becomes less as we ascend heights. 2. On ivhat two things, then, does the climate of a place greatli/ depend ? The climate of a place depends greatly on latitude, or distance from the Equator, and ou altitude, or height into the sky. XI. — PLANTS. [Di'velop orally suniewliat as follows : 1 will name a grain, corn : yon may name another. 1 will name a vegetable, poUUucs: you may name another. 1 will name a tree, tlic 2nne-trce : you may name another. Corn grows from the ground ; what else glows from the ground ? Things that grow from the ground are called plants. All the plants found iu a country are called the vcgclatiou of that country.] 1. What are plants ? Plants are all things ■which grow^ from the ground. 2. Name all the kinds of grain that ;;ro\v in the State in which you resiele ; — all the kinds of vege- tables. Name the kinds of fruit that grow in your part of the country ; — the wild berries. 3. Name all the kinds of trees growing in your part of the country. Name live garden flowers, — five wild flowers. Name two kinds of grasses which the farmers raise. 4. What kinds of fruits from the Torrid Zone have you ever eaten % What spices have you tasted % From wliat countries do we obtain our coffee ] Do tea and coffee grow in this country ? [The question whether all kimls of plants can grow where we live should now be raised. " Can we grow oranges here in the open air ? No. Where, then, — in a hot-house ? Yes. We can grow oranges in a hot-house, because there is a great amount of heat in the hot-house, and the orange-tree is a plant that will not Hpen without a great amount of heat." Now state that there are some parts of the world whicli we may call natural hot-houses, and of course in these countries oranges will grow in the open air.] 5. It is very hot in the great desert in Afrii;a, yet scarcely anything grows there ? Can you think of any reason for this? Can we make flowers grow in our gardens or grain in our fields, unless they get water 1 Q. What two things are required in order that plants mall groin i Plants require heat and moisture. 7. Wliat rule regarding the growth of plants can you give ? The hotter and more moist a country is the more rapidly do plants grow^. 8. In wliat zone are the hottest parts of the earth? What kind of vegetation may we expect to find there ? 9. Where are the coldest parts of the earth ? Do you suppose in the Arctic Region there can be many plants ? Do you suppose there can be any large plants ? 10. In which zone do we live ? In our part of the world do many different kinds of plants grow? Can we raise all kinds of plants ? M''hy not ? 11. Whrit of vegetation in the Torrid Zone ? The Torrid Zone is noted for its luxuriant vege- tation, especially in those parts where rains are abundant. PLANTS. 'The Palm. The Maliog.-iny. The India-rubber. The Banian, etc. Food Plants . {Nutmeg. Cinnamon. I'cpiioi'. Cloves, etc. Rice. Banana-s. Dates. Cocoa-nuts. Sugar-cane, etc. 12. What of vegetation in the Temperate Zones ? The Temperate Zones produce a great variety of useful plants, such as are found in our own country. Forest Trees. ' The Pine. The Oak. The Kim. The Maple. The Beech, etc. Clnthing-mak- | iiig riants. 1 Cotton. Fla.x. Hemp, etc. Wheat. Corn. Food Pl.ints. \ liye. Potatoes. Garden Vegetables, r Apples. Pears. Fruits . . J Peaches. Plums. I- Grapes. 13. What of vefjetatloii. in the Frigid Zones ? The only vegetation of these icy regions consists of a few mosses and dwarfed w^illows and birches. Xn. — PLANTS USEFUL TO MAN. CFor Readlng.J 1. How many plants there are which are useful to man, and in how many ways they are useful ! First we have plants which supply us with food. Among these the ruost important are the grains, as wheat, corn, rice, etc. Next to the grains are tlie roots and vegetables we eat. Such are the potato, Irish and sweet, the yam, so much used in hot countries, together with the beet, rad- ish, onion, cucum- ber, asparagus, to- mato, cauliflower, pease, beans, etc. 2. The fruits of the earth likewise minister to the wants of man. You have all eaten the common fruits that grow in the Tem- perate Zone, such as apples, pears, and peaches ; and no doubt you have eaten various tropical fruits, as the orange, banana, pineapple, etc. Fruits are a great arti- cle of food in hot countries. Thus the date, which is the fruit of a palm-tree, is to the people of Africa what corn and wheat are to us ; the banana is the chief arti- cle of food in the hot countries of America ; and the bread-fruit tree supplies the islanders of the Pacific Ocean with their principal sustenance. 3. Many plants furnish condiments and spices used Plants by Zones. in the preparation of food, as sugar, the oil of the olive, pepper, mustard, ginger, cinnamon, allspice, and va- nilla. From other plants drink.s, or bev- erages, are made. Some of these are not alcoholic, as tea, coffee, and chocolate ; others are alcoholic, as wine, ale, whis- key, gin, brandy, etc. From still another class of i)lants we derive our ilrugs and medicines, — cam- phor, opium, myrrh, senna, sarsaparilla, rhubarb, quinine, jalap, ipecacuanha, and many others, — but, as the names are long and the thirigs not agreeable, we need say nothing about them. 4. Plants used for clothing-material and in the arts come next in importance. From the cotton plant we get our cotton cloth, and from flax we obtain linen. The various woods are used in building our houses and ships and in cabinet-work. Among the more valuable woods are oak, teak, cedar, mahogany, rosewood, laurel, and satin-wood. We obtain dye-stuffs from indigo, madder, brazil-wood, logwood, etc. ; perfumery from various flowers and leaves ; india-rubber from the india- rubber tree ; and tobacco from the tobacco plant. 28 PKIMARY LESSONS. r/,v Xni. — ANIMALS. [The tea(;lier will find this a good opportunity to engage the pupils in a conversational lesson on wliat they know in regard to the natural history of such foreign animals as they have seen. The subject may be developed somewhat as follows : Everything that walks, or creeps, or runs, or flies, or swims, or eats, is called an Animal. There are many thousand different kinds of animals on the earth, and in the air and sea. Some of them, such as the elephant and whale, are very large ; others are so small that they cannot be seen without a microscope. Let the teacher now give tile classification of animals into beasts, birds, fishes, etc.] 1. Each pupil may name some animal that lives in this part of the country, and at the same time tell whether it is a beast, a bird, a fish, a reptile, or an insect 1 2. Pupils may write on their slates a list of the names of aU the animals which tliey have seen in menageries, or public parks or gardens, but whicli do not belong to our part of the world. 3. What animal in Arabia and Africa takes the place of the horse 1 What great animal takes the place of the horse in India 1 What ani- mals do the Esqui- maux use to draw their teams ? 4. Wliat animals in tliis part i)f the country are used for food? What kinds '^ -- of fish do we catch here for food ? What other animals that are used as food have you ever heard of? 5. Do you know of any animals from which we obtain material for clothing 1 What are our boots and shoes made off What is silk 1 What is fur ? {Elephant. Rhinoceros. Hippopotamus. Girafie, etc. r Ants. - . Flies. Insects . . < I Scorpions. '^Tarantulas, etc. r Gorilla. r Ostrich. ■ i Parrot. L Humming-bii'd, etc. r Lion. Beasts of ! Tiger. I Leopard. '^ Hyena, etc. r Crocodile. Reptiles. < Boa-constrictor. L Anaconda, etc. Z^ \ The Ape. L Orang-outan What can you tell about the animals of the Frigid 2. Zones? The Frigid Zones are remarkable for their scarci- ty of auimal life. Sea Animals. Whale, Seal, Walrus. ff^'v >"^N ^!^i^^'^^''ints : what article are these made of ? Is cot- ton an animal substance or a vegetable substance? Does cotton grow in this part of our country? In what part of the United States does it grow? [Let the teacher briefly describe the process of carding, spinning, and weaving.] 7. Are linen goods as mucli used as cotton goods ? What plant is linen made from? Is flax grown in your State? Have you ever seen it growing? [The teacher may give some information regarding flax and its manufacture into linen.] v. — OUR WANTS: SHELTER. 1. W/iat is a third ivaiit which we feel and which must be supplied ? The want of shelter. 2. Do you know of any large building that is now going up in this place ? Wliat is used in its construc- tion ? Name as many things as you can think of that are used. [Tlie teaclier may give pupils the term b^iildmg-iimtcrial slie will also do well to put tlie following table on the black board, and treat the topic orally.] TABLE OF BUILDING-MATEKIAIS. f Wood. Vegetable J q„i^„„ _.^„^i Li„e„ oioths. I Caoutchouc and Gutta-percha. Mineral 1 ^"'^'^' Stone, Iron. \ Lead, Glass, Paints. Animal ■ Skins. VI. OCCUPATIONS OF MEN. [For Reading. J 1. If we were like some savage tribes, we should have very few wants, and these would be easily sup- plied. Suppose wo lived in a country wher', bread- fruit or banana-trees grow in plenty and without any care from man, we should only have to pluck the fruit to get what food we wanted. In such a coun- try the people can go almost without clothing, and ivs for shelter they can build huts of as simple a kind as the nest a bird builds of straw and twigs. 2. In a land such as this a family might live with- out needing the help of any other persons. Every man would be his own farmer, mechanic, and builder. 3. But in our country, and in all other countries where the people are powerful and rich and wise and free, it is very diiferent. For first, all great nations live in climates wliere nature does not furnish ready to hand what we need for our food, clothing, and slielter. We have to exert ourselves to procure what will supply our wants. And, secondly, in the strong- est and most intelligent nations the wants of people are much more numerous than the wants of .savages. Just think how many things we require in order, in the first place to Hue, and in the second place to live comfortably ! 4. In a civilized country a man instead of being liis own farmer and mechanic and builder, as in sav- age countries, does only one thing. Some persons raise grain and vegetables and fruit and cattle. AU they raise over and above what they want for them- selves they sell. Other persons are busy making cot- ton and woolen cloths, boots and shoes, f;irming tools, and many other things. The farmer needs these things, and those who make them need the farmer's grain and beef and pork. We shall learn about the various oc- cupations in the next lesson. VIL- KINDS OF OCCUPATIONS. 1, ^Yhat is agriculture ? i " "^^---^ _— '-;?^ Agriculture is the oc- . -;.*■: ^^ cupation of people that raise grain, vegetables, fruit, or other crops. Note. — All farmers are ngricuUurisls. The raisini; of horses, cattle, or sheep is generally a part of agricul- ture, and is called grazing. 2. Have you ever seen a farm ? Do you know any farmers? Are there any agriculturists near the place where you live? 32 PKIMAEY LESSONS. Manufactories A machine shop ? A foundry ? A blacksmith's shop i A furniture factory ? 3. What is viantifac turinrf i Manufacturing is th occupation of peopl Tvho make articles o use or ornament, eithe by hand or by the aic of machinery. Note. — Machinery i generally moved by wind water, or steam. 4. Are there any manufactories in or near tlie place where you live ? What articles are made tlierc 1 Have you ever seen any of the following A cotton factory ? A shoe sliop ? A woolen mill ? A flour mill ? I A saw mill ? [ A tannery ? 5. What is commerce ? Commerce is the oc cupation of people whr exchange the produc of one country, or pai of a country, with those of another. 6. W/iat ((re exports i Exports are the pro ducts sent out of a country. 7. What are imports ^ Imports are the products brought into a country. 8. Are there any miyohants or traders in your place '>. What articles do they buy or sell 1 9. )Yhat is mining ? Mining is the occu pation of people who obtain from the eartl coal, iron, gold, or oth er minerals or metals. 10. Have you eve seen a stone-quarry Have you ever seen au\ of the following kinds ol A coal mine ? A gold mine ? An iron mine ? A silver mine ? A lead mine ? A copper mine ? 11. What other occupations can yon. name ? Many people are engaged in other pursuits, such as lumbering, fishing, building railroads, quarrying stone, teaching, practicing law and medicine. 12. Do you know of any persons who are lawyers'? — doctors ? — ministers ? — teachers ? — musicians ? — painters f — editors ? Is either of your parents, or are any of your brothers or sisters, or relatives, engaged in any of the occupations named in this lesson 1 VIII.— DIVISIONS OF COUNTRIES. 1. [7^0/- Ciji/ Classes.^ What is the name of this iti/ ? Do you know what county it is in? What "^/'I'c is this county in 1 2. [For Country Classes.'\ What is the name of this town [or township'] 1 Do you know what county it is in 1 What State is this county in 1 [It will be well for the teacher here to draw out the distinc- tion between divisions like hills, valleys, lakes, and rivers, on the one hand, and states, countries, cities, etc., on the other. Did man make the first? No, they are there naturally: then we may call them natural divisions. But do you think a coun- try or a state is a division made by nature ? Istt not a division made for their own convenience by the people living there ? You are right ; these divisions are nuide by man, and they are called political divisions.] 3. Can you think of any reason why it is conven- ient to divide up a State into counties and towns, and to have names for each division '! You may have a relative living in some distant part of this State : how could you tell another person where that relative lived, iiidess you could name the city or town or county 1 4. Wliat are the principal political dirixio/is ? The principal political divisions are Towns (or Townships), Cities, Counties, States, and Countries or Nations. 5. In what country do we live 1 Look on the map of North America (page 35), and tell what country is north of the United States. Tell what country is south of the United States. [Here let the teacher e.xplain that in some countries the peo- pli- choose persons to make laws, and other persons to do the \ irious kinds of public business. This is the case in the United Mates. We say that a country in which this is done is a Ee- I ublican government, or a Republic.^ 6. What is a Bepiihlic ? A Republic is a country in which the people choose persons to make their laws and carry them out. 7. What is the chief officer who carries out the laws called ? The chief ofBcer is called the President. [Continue the oral development somewhat as follows : In some countries the people are governed by a king or queen. The king or queen is not chosen by the people, as the President in our country is, but rules by right of birth. Sometimes the king is called an Emperor, and in this case the country, instead of being called a kingdom, is called an Empire. This kind of government is called a Monarchy. England is a monarchy ; the Queen of England is Victoria. Germany is an Empiie ; the Emperor is named William I.] 8. Wliat is a. Kingdom ? A Kingdom is a country in w^hich the people are under a king. KEVIEW STUDY OF THE HEMISPHKKE MAP«. 33 ^5 -5 -i i: s 4; ■- -' ■*' '■o ~ g ^ § 5 t ? c: ■§ -S -5 «,. ~ '^ "s ^ ?=^ ? -. ■< -*^ sC; 5'< ■? V =-■ ^t1 ^ c; ? 8 :iv ? - -~ ^ "- •'■- '^ . •». =- ^ ■$ ^. "^v -^ v * '^ •- '^ '^ ^ ^- -^ jt b.^ "^-S '^ ^ ■?: M =: ^^ 1. ll-'hat two Grand Di three Oiand Divisions of island in the Eastern Hem 5. Wliat ocean between A Grand Diiiision ' I . Which 0/ the two ( Northern Hemisphere ? or in the Soutlicrn Hem Old World is eirtirelv in in the Southern Heniisph in the Southern Ihmisplu NOKTH AMEIilCA. PART II. -DESCRIPTION OF COUNTRIES. NORTH AMERICA. Tcj riiii Teachek. — The attention of tlie teaehev is called to tlie fact that in the descriptive text of countries each lesson is divided into two parts, — one part for reading, and the other for recitation. It is earnestly recommended that the reading lessons be read aloud in the class. They may form the basis of occasional conversational exercises, and onxie a week the pupils may Ije ' required to take niie of the more interestiiii; les3on^s, and witli closed books w rite out an abstract from memory. NATURE OF NORTH AMERICA. LESSON I EARLY HISTORY. [For Reading. I I. Situation. 1. W\' are iiuw to Inarn about the ditfereiit coun- tries iu the worid, and we shall begin with the part in which i.s our own cuiintiy, — tlte United States. Tlds part of tlie globe is called Xorth America. It i.s joined to Soiitli America by a narrow neck of land, and the whole is named America, m- tlie Xew "Wurld. II. History. 2. It might piu zle one to think wh}' it is called tin New World, unle.^ lie were told th only four centuii. ago tlie people of Eu rope did not know that there was a con tinent beyond tin Atlantic. Youha\i all road tlie story ot Columbus. He be lieved the earth to be round, and In thought that b\ sailing ivestwar from Europe ovci the Atlantic Ueean he would come 1 1 the East Indies. He was quite right in this ; but wdiat he did not guess was that a great continent was just in the way. So Columbus never reached the East Indies, but he discovered America, and the islands which he first found have ever since been called the West Indies. 3. We cannot help thinking that the New W^orld should have been called after Columbus. But nobody gave much thought to the matter at the time, and it was by a kind of accident that it afterwards took the name of America. This word is deri\-ed from Americus Ves- piicius, the name of an Italian who, a few years after the voyage of Columbus, visited the coast of South America and wrote a descrijitiou of it. III. Settlements. i. When it w^as told in Europe that there was a Xew World beyond the Atlantic, many persons has- tened over to see this wonderful country. The Span- iards were the leaders in this. They said that all the i.i-wlv fmnnl lands lielunged to them, because Columbus had taken possession ( if the islands for the king and queen of Siiain. In a short time the vSpaniards had settled on all I he large islands, and they then began [>> explore the niain- lai'onnd the Gulf ijf ]\Iexico. At first all the people they met were like the natives of the isl- a n d s , — d a r k - skinned savages. But when they land- '■i\ on the coast of the country wliieh \vr call Mexico, they und that the land w as inhabited by a civilized race, and learnecl that in the interior were large cities and great store of gold and silver. So a daring sol- dier named Cortez fitted out a small army wdiich con- quered the country. In this way the Spaniards went on seizing and settling in different parts, till they had all the southern se«ion of North America, all the West Indies, and some rich countries in South America. 5. For about a hundred years the Spaniards were "'■ ^.' "I V>, V-:.-.. 9 i* '"*■■%■• *\\. ■ <. Pt.Con^epC ""iH-. NOETH 1 AMERICA. 1 Inch - JOO Miles 4'3 Longitude West ^■Gracj. J oio^ ^- i from 'W^shtDKtqn IjS Oopyiiaht.lRTB.by Ivison Blakeiii.in.Tiis lur"* Co. New York 36 NOETH AMERICA. almost the only white people in America. Then several other nations of Europe began to think it was not right that the Spaniards should own all the New World. The English were by this time a great seafaring people, and from time to time English ships crossed the Atlan- tic and tried to plant colonies on the coast of America to the north of where the Spaniards had settled. These attempts and various others all failed, till finally, about the beginning of the 17th century, a party of English- men formed a settlement in Virginia, at a place which they named Jamestown in honor of their king, James I. This colony took root and flourished. 6. About the same time Henry Hudson, an English sea-captain, who was in the service of a great trading company in Holland, discovered the noble river which in his honor we call the Hudson. The Hollanders, or Dutch, immediately claimed the region round about as theirs ; so they sent out people and founded New Amsterdam, which afterwards became New York, as well as other places along the river and on the coast. Soon afterwards (in 1620) the Pilgrim Fathers, about whom you have read, landed still farther to the north, and began the settlements which were afterwards called New England. 7. The French were not behind the English in claim- ing their share of the New World. The French navi- gators explored the country to the north of New Eng- land, and about the time when tlie English landed in Virginia a French settlement was made on the St. Lawrence Eiver at Quebec. In course of time the French made other colonies up the St. Lawrence and along the Great Lakes, and carried their trading and mis- sionary posts into the great Valley of the Mississippi. 8. We thus see that by the early part of the 17th century four European nations had colonies in Nortli America, — the Spanish, English, Dutch, and French. But in the next century the Dutch were forced to give up their part of the country to the English, and a few years before the breaking out of the American Revolu- tion the French also were conquered in a long war, and compelled to yield to the English. 9. Our own country in the early days consisted of thirteen English colonies. They occupied the Atlantic coast from Maine to Georgia. In 1776 the.se colonies declared their independence, and they won it after a long war. They became the United States of America. But the English people who lived alijng the St. Law- rence did not separate from England, and so that part of North America and most of the great region stretch- ing to the Arctic Ocean is still under British rule, and is called British America, or Canada. 1 0. Now it is very easy by lookiiig at the map to see who are the owners of North America. Our coun- try occupies tlie middle part. The British hold all that lies to the north of us, except Alaska. Our southern neighbors are the Mexicans and the people of Central America and the West Indies. IFor Recitation.! 1. Of what does North Ammca form a part ? It forms the northern Grand Division of the We.stern Continent. Map, — {See page 35.) 1. What Grand Division forms the southern part of the Western Continent? 2. What is an isthmus? 3. What isthmus joins North and South America ? 2. Bii vham was A7)u:rii:a discovered and ivhen ? America was discovered by Christopher Colum- bus in 1492. 3. If'hat part did he first discover ? The islands between North and South America, called the West Indies. 4. Uliat white people were the first to settle in America? The Spaniards were the first white settlers. 5. In what parts did they settle ? The Spaniards settled in the West Indies, in the southern part of North America, and in South America. 6. IVhatpart of North America vxis settled by the English? The shore of the Atlantic Ocean north of where the Spaniards settled. 7. What were the first English settlements ? Jamestown, Virginia, founded in 1607 ; and Plymouth, Massachusetts, founded in 1620. 8. IVTiat other people made settlements in early times ? The Dutch and the French. 9. lVh.at part of North America does our country occupy ? The United States occupies the middle part of North America. .|y|2ip, —{See page 35.) 1. What country north of the United States? 2. What country south of the United States? 3. Is Central America north of Mexico or south of it ? 4. Where are the West nidies ? LESSON II. SIZE, MOUNTAINS, AND PLAINS. [For Reading.: I. Size of Nortli America. 1. Let us first try to form an idea of the size of North America. If a person starts from New York City, on the Atlantic coast, and travels westward in the railroad-cars, night and day, it will take him seven days and nights to reach San Francisco, on the Pacific coast. He will then have traveled across our country from east to west, and will have made a journey of more than 3,000 miles. Now what is the distance in the other direction, or from north to south 1 There is a great river which flows from north to south through nearly the whole of the United States. This is the Mississippi. It rises in a beautiful lake called Itasca Lake, far up in the most northern part of our country. If you were to drop a chip in here, it would float a distance of 2,800 nules before reaching the mouth of the Mississippi. GENERAL DESCRIPTIOiSr OF NORTH AMERICA. 37 2. This shows that our own country is very large, and yet it is only a part of North America. We mif'ht take the map of the United States and place it over the region of North America lying north of the United States, and it would no more than cover it. The part of North America which is soutli of the United States is narrower. Still, tliis part is about one third as large as the United States. Thus we see that North America is a very extensive region. 3. The waters of the ocean surround North America. If we were to sail to the eastward we should be sailing on the Atlantic Ocean, and should by going far enough reach Europe or Africa. On the other hand, if we were to sail from the western coast of America we should cross the Pacific Ocean, which would bring us to China and Japan and other eastern parts of Asia. II. Great Mountains of North America. 4. The greatest mountains of North America are in the western part. The greatest of all are called the Rocky Mountain System. These mountains are called a si/stem, because they are not one long, narrow, un- broken row, but consist of a great number of ridges of various heights. These often cross one another, and form a wide-spreading higliland several hundred miles in breadth. From north to south the Rocky Moun- tains stretch the whole length of North America, over four thousand miles. 5. In the eastern part of North America is another series of mountain chains and ridges. Perhaps you have heard of the Green or the White Mountains, of the Catskills, the Blue Ridge, or the Cumberland Mountains. Now, these mountains aU belong to this mountain system which is called the Alleghany, or the Alleghanies. The Alleghanies are much shorter tlian the Rocky Mountains, because the eastern coast of North America is very much shorter than the west- ern coast. They are also much lower, the highest peak of the Alleghanies being only one third as high as some of the lofty summits of the Rocky Mountain'^, III. Central Plain. 6. The part of North America between the Rocky Mountains on the west and the Alleghanies on the east consists of plains and valleys, which extend from the frozen coast of the Arctic Ocean to the warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico. The southern part of this great plain is called the Valley of the Mississippi. This takes in not only the region along the Mississippi River, but the vast country through which aU the many branch-streams of the Mississippi flow. It is the second largest river-valley in the world, besides being one of the most fertile, and many great States of our Union are here. 7. The northern part of the Central Plain is called the Arctic Plain. This borders upon Hudson Bay and the Arctic Ocean, and is quite unlike the Mississippi Valley, for it is a cold, barren, -desolate region. [For Recitation. 3 1. JVhat is the size of North Ainerica ? North America extends fi-om north to south about 4,500 miles, and from east to west about 8,000 miles. |y|3p, — (Sfe page 3j) 1. What ocean east of North America? 2. What ocean west? 3. What waters on the north? 4. What gulf on the south? 5. There is a very large bay in the northern part : what is its name ? 6. What gulf at tlie mouth of the St. Law- rence River? 7. There is a gulf west of Mexico : what is its name? 2. ll'hat is the greatest mountain system in North America ? The Eocky Mountains are the greatest. 3. What mountains are in the eastern part ? The Alleghanies are in the eastern part. nnap. — (S« page S'>) 1. In what direction do the Rocky Moun- tains extend ? 2. In what direction do the AUeghanies extend? 4. IFhat is the level country between the two great moun- tain-walls called ? The Central Plain. 5. How is the Central Plain divided ? It is divided into the Mississippi Valley in the south, and the Arctic Plain in the north. LESSON III. RIVERS, LAKES, AND CLIMATE. [For Reading.] I. Great Rivers of North America. 1. There are many very large rivers in North America. The three largest are the Mississippi, the Mackenzie, and the St. Law'rence. 2. The Mississippi, meaning in the Indian lan- guage the " Father of Waters," is the longest river on the globe. We have seen that a chip thrown into the source of the river in Itasca Lake would float a distance Itasca Lake, — Source of the MlBriiwippL New Orleans, near Uouth of tbe MississippL of 2,800 miles before it reached the Gulf of Mexico. But if you look at the map you will see that, while this is the length of the river which has the name Ivlis- sissippi throughout its whole course, yet the mighty stream is really much longer. If we should embark on a steamboat at New Orleans, which is a large city near the mouth of the Mississippi, we might saU for 38 jSrOETH AMEEICA. several tlays up stream, and after going about 1,200 miles, to a little above the city of St. Louis, we should find the Missouri mingling its muddy waters with the clear Mississippi. Conthiuing up the Missouri, we might steam on and ou in a northwest direction for 2,500 miles more, or about as far as the sea-voyage from the United States to Eui'ope, tiU we reached the very heart of the liocky Mountains. Here is the true source of the Mississippi ; and, measuring from here to its mouth, the Father of Waters is more than 4,000 miles in length. 3. The St. Lawrence Hows tlirough the country that borders on the nortliern part of the United States. The weather here is cold in winter, and the river is frozen for about five months every year ; stQl it is a very useful river, because in summer hunl"\ it is a stream two miles wide. And so it keeps on its course for several hundreil miles, broadening still more when it has passed the ancient city of Quebec', till at last it mingles its waters with those of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 4. The Valley of the St. La%^Tence and the shores of the Great Lakes are the home of nearly all the people of Canada. And they have their best friend in the river. It not only makes their soil fertile, but it is the I great natural highway on which their trade is carried on. You sec floating down stream vast rafts of timber which will be put into ships at Quebec and sent to Europe, and hundi'eds of vessels laden with grain to feed the people of England. But in the winter months the great river is in the grasp of the Ice-King. It is then all frozen fast, and vessels nnist wait till spriiig comes to break uji the ice. III. On the Great Lakes. .5. Canada is not divitletl into States, as our country is, but in place of Stattis it has divisions which are called provinces. And first is the one which borders on the Great Lakes : it is called Ontario. You see that on the American side of tlie lakes are New York and Pennsylvania and Ohio and Michigan ; so pupils who live in any of these States will know very well wliat kind of climate this part of Canada lias, for it is (juite like the cluuate of tlieir own States. G. The peoj)le of (Jntario are mostly descendants of settlers from England, Scotland, and Ireland. Tliey are intelligent, go-ahead folk, — good farmers and skillful mechanics and busy merchants. They have excellent common schools and fine colleges and universities. Their largest to\vn is Toron'to ; it is on Lake Ontario, and is a handsom<', finely built citv. IV. Valley of the St. Lawrence. 7. The province of Quebec extends on both sides of the St. Lawrence River from the Ottawa Eiver to the < ndf of St. Lawrence. You will see by the map that the river St. La-\vi'ence in its way to the ocean runs to the north of east ; and of course the farther north it extends the more it goes into the cold zone. And, in f ict, the winters in this part of Canada are very cold. 8 I will tell you about the seasons. The summers lie very hot; then comes the fall, when the leaves turn, and the forests glow with colore which no painter I ould put on his canvas. Follows the six months' \\ inter. Everything now changes. A great blanket of snow, six feet deep, covers the fields and the roads. The river-trade ceases. Wheels give place to run- ners. You think it must be dreary 1 No : not at all. The dry keen air is wonderfidly bracing, and 1 enjoyment. What Canadian Sleighing Scene. * coasting and sleighing ! And what fun and laughter as, wrapped in warm buffalo-robes, they skim along over the smooth hard snow to the merrv tinkle of the bells ! 40 NOETH AMERICA. CFor Recitation.] 1. JVhat country lies north of the United States ? British America. 2. JF]wt other name is given to most of this country ? It i.s called the Dominion of Canada. Map. — iSrc pufic i^o.) 1. What parallel forms the boundary between the United States and Canada in the western half? Ans. The 49th par- allel of latitude. 2. What waters ai'e the boundary in the eastern part ? 3. What river carries off the water of the Great Lakes ? 4. Into what does the St. Lawrence flow? 3. JFhcre is the most thickly settled part of Canada ? The most thickly settled part is in the Valley of tlie St. Lawrence and near the Great Lakes. 4. ]Vhat names are given to the divisions of Canada ? Tlie divisions of Canada are called Provinces. 5. What is the LaJce and what the River Province ? The Lake Province is called Ontario ; and the Eiver Province, Quebec. Map. — (5*'6 ?*«?« '^^. ) The Ottawa River separates these provinces ; into what does the Ottawa flow? 6. llliat is the climate of Canada ? The western part has a climate like our northern States, but the Valley of the St. Lawrence has very cold winters, and the St. Lawrence Eiver is frozen over for five months every year. 7. Jlliat of the occupations and trade of the Canadians ? The Canadians are occupied in agriculture, lum- bering, and manufacturing; and they ship great quantities of wheat, butter and cheese, lumber, furs, and pot and pearl ashes. LESSON II. CANADA (CoxTiOTEB). CFor Reading.] I. The Habitans. 1. Tlio Valley of the St. Lawrence was first settled by the French. And to a large degree the names, tra- ditions, population, and manners and customs are still French. This is seen most in tlie country parts, among the small farmers, called habitans. Woidd it not look queer for gentlemen to wear the knee-breeches and cocked hats and ruffles whicli our forefathers wore two hundred years agol Yet something hke this you see in Canada, for the French Canadian habitans are in speech and dress and ways of thinking very much what their ancestors were before they came over from Normandy two or three centuries ago. Tliey speak a sort of old-fashioned French, saying, // fait fret, for // fait frold (" It is cold "). You would smile to see the men in their blue bonnets, like nightcaps, and the women in their white Xorman caps, and both men and women wearing wooden shoes! They are a gay, pohte, simple-hearted folk, generally quite ignorant, and caring little for all the great new things that are setting the world astir. 2. Of course you must understand this as a descrip- tion of the peasants. The educated people are quite different. And you must not think that all Canadians belong to the French race ; for though these form the largest part, yet there are many thousands of English, Scotch, and Irish Canadians. These are a highly in- telligent, progressive people, and have built railroads and telegraphs, and estalalished excellent schools, and are making Canada a very prosperous country. II. Cities. 3. Montreal is the largest city in this province, and the largest in all Canada. The name means roi)al mount, so called from a noble wooded mountain at the base of which it is built. It is a busy, money-making place. There are few cities in America that can show hand- somer houses and stores and cliurches than Montreal. Its docks and its wharves, which are well worth seeing. are crowded with ships, and the city sends more grain over the sea than any other American city except New York. A splendid iron bridge, two miles long, here crosses the St. Lawrence. 4. The city of Quebec also is in this province. This is an interesting place, because it is walled, — and cities with walls are rare in America. You may have read of the great fight between the French and English on the Plains of Abraham, — the battle in which Wolfe died in the arms of victory, and which won Canada for the British. It was fought more than a hundred years ago. The Plains of Abraham are on a high bluff back of the city of Quebec. III. Around the Gulf. ^ 5. We have read about the Lake Province (Ontario) and the Eiver Province (Quebec) ; and now we must learn a little about three other provinces, which we LANDS NORTH OF THE UNITED STATES. 41 may call the Gulf provinces, because the Gulf of St. Lawrence washes their shores. 6. First is New Bruns'wick. There is noble scenery liere. There are also vast forests, and on this account a great business of tlie people is getting out logs and sawing them into lumber in the numerous saw-mills along the river-banks. Many are engaged in fishing for cod, mackerel, and salmon in the neighboring waters. Others, again, raise grain and make butter and cheese. They are principally English-speaking people here. The largest city is St. John. It has a fine harbor. 7. Nova Scotia means New Scotland; but its old name was Aca'dia. It was a Frencli colony, where dwelt a happy, peaceful people ; but, during one of the wars between the English and the French in the last century, the English army burned the Acadian villages, and, kidnapping the simple peasants, scattered them in other colonies. English settlements were then planted there, and the name was changed to Nova Scotia. 8. It is a land beautiful with forest, hill, and lake, and enjoys a deliglitfui climate, milder than the other parts of Canada. The principal occupations of tlie people are nuning coal, fishing, and farming. Did you ever hear of Halifax 1 This is the chief city of Nova Scotia. It has a very fine harbor, and almost any time you may see English men-of-war there. 9. Prince Edward Island is the next province of Canada. You might easily guess what must be the leading business of the people here. Fishing'? Yes. This is carried on to a great extent IV. Government. 10. The five provinces which you have read about — with two others which are so thinly inhabited that we need not take any heed of them — form the " Do- minion of Canada." But you must remember that this is not an independent country. The people are under the government of England. Still they are quite free. They make their own laws ; only, in place of calling the body of men wdiom they choose to make the laws by the name of Congress, they speak of their Parlia- ment. They do not elect any President as we do ; but, instead, they have a Governor-General, who is sent out by the queen of England. CFor Recitation.] 1. By whom was Canada first settled ? Canada was first settled by the French. 2. IVliat is the largest city in Canada ? The largest city is Montreal. 3. llHiat old city m the lower part of the St. Laxv-renci .' The city of Quebec. 4. Jlliat large city on Lake Ontario ? The city of Toronto. Mlkp.—(Scc jiac/e SS.) 1, On what lake is Toronto ? 2. On what river are Montreal and Quebec 7 3. Are there any large places far back from the river ? 5. What three provinces are near the Gulf of St. Lawrence ? The Gulf provinces are New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island. 6. What are the chief occupations ? The chief occupations are farming, dairying, lumbering, and the fisheries. Map* - {^■'-■'.' ;>"f;c .S'.; ) 1. On which state in our country does New Brunswick border ? 2. Which of the Gulf provinces is a peninsula ? 3- Where is Halifax ? 7. U'hat of the government of Canada ? Tlie provinces are colonies of England ; but they are nearly independent. They are united in a confederation, and Iiave a Parliament to make their own laws. 8. Jlliat is the capital of the united provinces, or Dominion of Canada ? The capital is Ot'tawa. LESSON III. NEWFOUNDLAND AND THE FUR COUNTRY. [For Reading.] I. Description. 1. The large island of Newfoundland is in the GuK of St. Lawi-ence, and it belongs to the English. It does not form part of Canada, but is a British prov- ince by itself. It is an almost barren land, with small firs and birches for its only vegetation. The cold, gray coast is shrouded nearly always in thick fogs. Great icebergs, borne by the ocean currents from the Ai'ctic lands, float by ; and many a good ship striking against these in the mist has gone to the bottom, -mth. aU on board. II. The Fisheries. 2. Yet Newfoundkmd has great wealth, — not the wealth of mines or forests or of the soil, but the wealth of the waters. Ofl' the coast are elevations in the ocean extending hundreds of miles. Tliese are called the Banks of Newfoundland, and they are the feeding-place of immense shoals of codfish. Any summer you may see hundreds of American and French and English smacks engaged in taking the.se fish. Cod fisbmg on the Banks of Newfoundland. 42 NORTH AMEEICA. 3. The Ijest coiltisliiug season is in the early sjjring. From February to April the crews of the fishing-smacks are employed from morning till night in boats contain- ing from two to four men each. Sometimes a good fisherman will catch several hundred cod in a day; but it is hard work, as they are caught with a hook and line, and some of them are very heavy. They often bite so fast that a boat is loaded in two or three hours. On the shore, stages or platforms are set up. Here the fish are cured, that is, are cleaned, salted, and di-ied. They are then tied in bundles and put in warehouses, to be shipped to all parts of the civilized world. 4. The only town of any size in Newfoundland is St. John's. The great business here is curing fish and extracting oil from them. At Cape Race in Newfound- land is the American end of a telegraphic cable which goes from Ireland all the way under the Atlantic Ocean. 5. We have learned only about the settled parts of British America. Now you must know that all the A'ast country north of these settled parts, to the Polar Sea and westward to beyond the Rocky jMountains, belongs also to the Dominion of Canada. The name given to this is The N^orthu'est TerritQry. But a few years ago it was called the Hudson Bay Territory. 6. More than two hundred years ago the king of England gave to an English company, called the Hud- son Bay Company, the authority over all this region. The business of the Company was to employ people to hunt for furs. For the whole country around Hudson Bay and far north to where the Frigid Zone begins is covered with vast forests which arc the home of valu- Fur bearing Ammals of British America able fui bearing animals. Among these aie the sable, ermine, marten, and beaver. 7. The Company employs hundreds of hunters — Indians and Canadians and half-breeds — to trap or shoot these animals and bring in the skins to the trad- ing-stations called forts. Agents of the Company, gen- erally Scotchmen, stay here, and when the hunting season is over and the trappers come in with their furs, the agents take the furs and give the hunters in ex- change things which they want, as cloth, powder, knives, tobacco, and rum. It is a very paying business for the Company, for they generally give a twonty-five-ccnt knife for three martens' skins worth twenty-five dollars. 8. The Company was long the king of all this great territory. But a few years ago the English government took away its power, and gave the authority over all the land to Canada. Still the fur business is very largely carried on. You may notice on the map the name Fort York, on Hudson Bay. This is the principal trading-station, and is visited every summer by ships from England to bring supplies and take away furs. [For Recitation.] 1. What can you say of Xcirfoiindlaud ? Newfoundland is a large island in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. It is dreary and barren; but is noted for the cod-fisheries on the Bunks. It forms a sei)arate British province. lyi £ip. — { ^^ P^S^ 3^) 1- What is tlie principal city in Newfound- land ? 2. Where is Cape Race ? 2. What name is given to the yrcat extent of country north of the settled imrt of Canada ' ■ The country north of the settled part is called the Northwest Territory, formerly Hudson Bay Territory. 3. To whom does it belong ? It belongs to England, but is under the rule of Canada. 4. Jf'hat kind of a country is it ? Much of it is cold and barren ; but it contains great forests, and is noted for its large fur-trade. Map. — iSeepagtSo.) 1. Where is Hudson Bay ? 2. What laige river flows into this bay ? 3 Are the names of any cities found in the counti-y drained hy the Mackenzie River? LESSON IV. THE AECTIC REGIONS. [For Reading.] I. The Northwest Passage. 1. Did you ever read the accounts of the exploring expechtions to the Polar regions of North America, made by the brave Englishman Sir John Franklin, or by the Americans Dr. Kane and Captain Hall ? If you read the newspapers at the present time, you will learn about other parties wliich are now engaged in explor- ing those regions. Perhaps you may ask what people wish to do by going on long, dangerous joiu-neys to these icy lands. I will tell you. 2. You know that when Columbus sailed on his fhst voyage he wished to reach the eastern part of Asia, called the East Indies. He found the New "World LANDS NORTH OF THE UNITED STATES. 43 wliile on his way, and never reached India. But im i still wished to sail to Eastern Asia; so the navigalci wlio came after Columbus tried to see how they couli pass around America so as to sail to Asia. A Per tuguese navigator named Magellan found that he couli do this by passing very tar to the south and sailiiiL; around the southern end of South America. But it was a very long voyage to cross the Pacific Ocean, and people were disappointed because it was so much farther to India than they had supposed. 3. Then navigators began to ask if they could not go around America by its northern end. If they could do tliis it would save several thousand miles in the voyage from Europe to Eastern Asia. It was thought that a way might be made for ships to sail along the extreme northern coast of America and come out into the Pacific Ocean. This was called the " Northwest Passage." 4. First one brave man and then another wont to try. This was long ago, — two or three hundred years since. They found out a great many straits and bays, and they named them after themselves. There is " Baffin Bay," and " Hudson Bay," and " Davis Strait." 5. The brave men always met with an enemy that made them turn back in the end. I mean the cold. It is the Icy Zone, and the sea is frozen over. If the ice melts a little, there are stiU great dangers. There are huge floating hergs, or mountains of ice, and if. these were to come against the ship they would knock it all to pieces. Then there are great floating fields of ice called floes. Dm-ing the few weeks of summer a ship may find a channel between these great ice-fields ; but soon the frost comes on again and the ship is " nipped " in the ice, and has to stay there tiU the next short summer comes and thaws it out. And sometimes the ships never get out at all. This was the case with the ships of the brave Captain Franklin who, some years ago, went on a voyage to the Arctic Eegion. He and all his party — one hundred and twenty-nine souls — perished in the ice and snow. 6. Thanks to all the searching, and the brave cap- tains who have gone in ships to look for it, a Northwest Passage through the icebound straits and islands which lie to the north of the American continent has been found. But it turns out not to be of any use, for ships can very seldom go through on account of the ice- blockade. III. Polar Explorations. 7. Besides trying to find a Northwest Passage, there is another thing that has led many brave navi- gators to the far-off frozen lands of North America. This is the wish to reach the North Pole. Now, you know of course that there is no such object as the North Pole. It is merely a point on the earth's surface, and a navigator would know that he was there only by observing with his instruments and seeing that he was in north latitude 90 degrees. 8. The most interesting expeditions toward the North Pole have becm made by the American explor- ers. Dr. Kane, Dr. Hayes, ami Cajjtain Hall, luich of these explorers sailed up Baffin Bay and then up a narrow jiassage called Smith Sound and Kennedy Channel, between Greenland and the land to the west. When the ships could go no farther on account of the ice, small parties of men took sledges drawn by Esqui- maux dogs and succeeded in reaching within about 500 miles of the North Pole. 9. Now, what do you suppose lies beyond the places which they reached 1 People were very much surprised when these explorers came back and told that they at last got to the end of the icy land and saw stretching beyond a great njien sea. The tides ebbed and flowed in this sea. The climate was much milder here, and bears, birds, and seals were found in abundance. Hence it cannot now be doubted that around the North Pole is a great body of water which never freezes, and which is called the " Open Polar Sea." It is very likely that we shall soon learn more about this sea, and also that the North Pole itseK will be reached, because new ex- peditions, better fitted out than the former ones, have lately been sent to tlu; Arctic Region from various countries in Europe. [For Recitation.] 1. UHiat is the Arctic Region 1 The Arctic Eegion is the most northern part of British America, within the Frigid Zone. fl\np, — (SeepageZi.) 1- At what circle does the Frigid Zone be- gin ? Ans- At the Arctic Circle. 2. In what latitude ia this? Ans. North latitude 66i°. 3. What ocean or sea north of North America ? 4. Are there any islands beyond the mainland? 5. What bay on the east? 6. What strait between America and Asia? 2. IVliat can yoii tell about the Northwest Passage ? The Northwest Passage is a channel around North America from the Atlantic to the Pacific. It was sought for a long time, and it has been proved that there is such a passage; but it is of no iise, because nearl.y always blocked up by ice. 3. IJliat can you saij about polar expeditions ? Many expeditions have been sent out by differ- ent countries to reach the Nortli Pole. No party has ever reached that point ; but it is believed that around the Pole is an open sea. 44 NORTH AMERICA. LESSON V. GREENLAND AND ALASKA. [For Reading.] id. " ^^ 1 Look it the map and obseive the region named Lib'ixdcr It is a rugged ind dubohte coast. To the eist of Labrador I'? a great inlet of this ocean leading northward. On the other side of tlie inlet, named Davis Strait and Baffin Bay, is Gieenland. Esquimaux spear ni, tli-> Walrus n r^ l i 2. Greenland belongs to the Danes, who long ago made a number of small settlements along the western coast. You may notice the names of some of these on the map, and among them Upernavik \oop' er-nav-ilc\, which is one of the most northerly places inhabited by man. Greenland is believed to be an island, though no trav- eler has ever explored it far enough north to teU ex- actly. It is a desolate country, and one of the cold- est on the face of the earth. Snow and great slow- moving ice-rivers called glaciers cover the land, while huge icebergs float in the waters. The summer lasts only a few weeks, and for months the sun is not seen. Yet this dreary country has a wealth of its own, — the wealth of the waters. Cod and herring and whale abound, as do also eider-ducks and other water- fowl, while great herds of seals fn.nuent the shores. Esqulmaus Dress and Huts- 3. The native inhabitants of Greenland are called Esquimaux [es'A-e-mo], and they are found in all the northern parts of America. They are quite a different race from the North American Indians, and resemble the inhabitants of the polar regions of Asia and Europe. Tiie native Esquimaux, except those who have been improved a little by the missionaries, are a filthy, de- graded, and ignorant people. They live in small oven- shaped huts built of blocks of snow. Their chief food, and the one best suited to tlie climate, is the blubber of the whale and seal, togetlier with dried fish, oil, and bear's meat. They are clothed, men and women alike, in skins from head to foot. The princi- pal occupations of the Esquimaux are spearing seals from their canoes, which they handle with great skill, or scudding over the frozen ground, in sleds drawn by teams of dogs, in pursuit of wild animals, which they kill for their skins and flesh. II. Alaska. 4. Do you think any part of the United States lies in the for northern icy region? Yes, we have a posses- sion there ten times the size of the State of Pennsyl- vania. Look on the map of North America (page 35), and you will see that in the northwestern part is a large territory shaped somewhat like a closed hand with the index finger pointing toward Asia ; and between this long hnger and Asia are a number of islands that seem like stepping-stones from the New World to the Old. 5. This territory is called Alas'ka. It used to be- long to Russia, but in the year 1864 was bought from that country by the United States. As Alaska is as ixc north as Greenland, you may think, perhaps, that it is as dreary and barren as that country. But this is not the case ; for while Greenland has scarcely any vegetation, there are large forests in Alaska. 6. Two races inhabit Alaska, — Indians, and a peo- ple called Aleuts', who resemble the Esquimaux. The occupations of these two races are quite different. The Indians, who live on the mountains, hunt the fur- bearing animals found in the forests, just as they do in the fur country around Hudson Bay. The Aleuts, who live on the coast and on the islands, are occupied in killing the fur seals, which come up from the sea in groat numbers to bask in the sun on the different island.s. 7. The few white people who live in Alaska are soldiers kept there by our government, and a small number of persons employed by American trading com- panies. The only place that can be called a town is Sitka. [For Recitation.] 1. To whom does Greenland belong ? Greenland belongs to the Danes. Map. — {See pnge 3-'.) 1. In what direction from the mainland of North America is Greenland ? 2. What water between the two? 2. WTiat can you say about it ? It is a great barren island inhabited by Es- quimaux. 3. What territory in the Arctic Region belongs to the United States ? The territory of Alaska, valuable for its furs and fisheries. LANDS SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES. 45 ■i.-'i^:- Collecting the Cochineal Insect. The Table-land of Mexico. Grand Square, City of Mexico. LANDS SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES. LESSON I. MEXICO AND THE MEXICANS. [For Reading.] L From the frosts and snow.s of Canada we now go to a land where it is always summer, — a land of rich forests and bright flowers, inhabited by a people who difler greatly from us in language, manners, and mode of living. This country is called Mexico, and a glance at the map will show that it lies south of the west- ern part of the United States. The people wlio live here are called Mexicans. I. History. 2. At the time when America was discovered by Columbus, Mexico was inhabited by a native Indian people called Az'tecs. They were far above the wild Indians of North America or the peacefiU savages whom the Spaniards had met in the "West Indies. They had large cities, adorned with grand temples and palaces. They cultivated the soil with skill, and made cot- ton cloth and earthenware and vessels of gold and silver. 3. Under the leadership of a bold but cruel cap- tain named Cor'tez, a band of Spaniards sailed from the West Indies in 1519 to take this country. They were few in number, but they had cannon and guns, horses and coats of mail, so the natives with their bows and arrows were no match for them. After much fighting, the Spaniards reached the capital where the king Montezuma lived. Several battles followed in which the Spaniards were successful, so that after a few years they became masters of the whole coun- try. 4. Mexico now belonged to the king of Spain. After that time large numbers of Spaniards moved to Mexico, for the land w^as rich in gold and silver. I\lany mingled with the natives, who, as time passed, adopted the language and religion of the Spaniards ; and though many years ago the Mexicans declared their indepen- dence of Spain, yet they have kept the Spanish lan- guage, dress, manners, and customs to this day. II. Nature of the Country. 5. If we were to journey into Mexico, following the route taken by the Spanish conquerors, from the sea- coast at Vera Cruz [ya^/rah-kruoz^ to the capital city of Me.xico, we should pass first across a belt of low land. The people call this part the tierra caltente [te-aii-'rah kal-e-en'tij], or hot region. These low, hot lands are found all along the coast, both on the shore of the Golf of Mexico and of the Pacific Ocean. 6. We can be at no loss to understand why the weather here is very hot, for the southern half of Jlex- ico is \vithin the Torrid Zone, and the northern half is very near it. The climate in the low lands is not only very hot but exceedinglj' unhealthy, and that terrible disease, yellow fever, is very common. The plants of the low lands are tropical. Here are forests of palms and mahogany-trees ; and on the plantations the people cultivate the coffee-plant and the cacao-tree, the banana, indigo, sugar-cane, and cotton. 7. As we leave the coast the country becomes broken and rugged, and we find ourselves going up a steep and precipitous road, with towering mountains on the one hand and gloomy gorges on the other. At last, after ascending a series of mountain terraces we reach a broad table-land. This is what is called the plateau of Mexico, and forms the greater part of the surface of the country. It is from a mile to a mile and a half abo'i'e the low plains on the coast. 8. The name " table-land " might lead you to think that the country here is quite flat. But this is not so. Many parts are ridged by great mountain-chains. These 4G NOETH AMERICA. form a part of the Eocky Mountain system of North America, and the main ehain bears the name Sierra Madre [se-ai/'ah viah'dni>i\, which means in S^ianish viother-chain. 9. When we liave reached the table-land we find that the climate is very different from that of the 1o\f coast plains. We left the Torrid Zone a little while ago, and now we are in a temperate climate. If you remember that heat always grows less and less as we ascend above the sea, you will have no difiiculty in accounting for the fact. The weather on the plateau is delightful, being neither hot enough to be oppressive nor cold enough to pinch with frost. In fact, there are in Mexico only two seasons, — the rainy season, which commences in June and lasts till November; and the dry season, during the other months. 10. Journeying across the Mexican plateau toward the City of Mexico, we pass in turn over vast parched plains and great grassy prairies. The eye is much struck by a kind of vegetation which is found all over the table-land. It consists of different kinds of a thorny plant caUed the racfiis ; these are of aU shapes and sizes, and some of them are very useful. Wo notice also many fields of Indian corn, for. this grain forms the principal food of the Mexicans, and occasion- ally we pass a stock-farm, or rancho. Tlie houses strike ns as quite peculiar ; for they are very low and are built of sun-dried mud, called ado' be. They are covered ^vith tiles, and have no chimneys, for the winters are not cold enough to mak^ fires necessary. III. The Capital. 1 1. When we have made half the journey across the Mexican plateau we reach the City of Mexico, the capi- tal of the country. It is no wonder that the compan- ions of Cortez were filled with surprise and delight when the ancient city (wliich occupied nearly the site of the present capital) burst upon theii- view, for a grander scene cannot be imagined. Think of a lovely oval-sliaped valley, dotted with gardens, orange-groves, and sparkling lakes, and sur- rounded by moun- tains glittering in eternal snow. Two l'ku] : on which coast is Vera Cruz ? — Acapulco ? street Scene in Mexico. LESSON II. MEXICO (Continued). [For Reading.] I. Products. 1. The plants and flowers of Mexico are very numerous and very beautiful. The weU-known dahUa and several of the fuchsias are native to this country. So also is a beautiful convolvidus, the root of which fur- nishes the medicine called jalap, — a word derived from Jalapa, a town near wliich the plant grows wUd. 2. We have already learned that the cactus species is very iilentiful. One of the most interesting plants of this species is the cochineal cactus, which is much cultivated for the sake of the cochineal insect which feeds upon its leaves. These insects are scraped from the plants into bags, killed by boiling water, and then dried in the sun. Their tiny bodies, when rubbed to powder, yield a brilliant crimson dye called cochineal. You may see a picture of cochineal picking, on page 45. ■3. Another valuable plant is the aga've, or American aloe, which is very common in Mexico. Its leaves, which are from six to eight feet long, supply the natives with covering for the walls and roofs of their dwellings ; its fibers furnish a strong thread or twine which is made into ropes, la.ssos, and nets ; its roots are eaten as food ; and from its juice a hquor is made called pulque, of which the Mexicans are very fond. It is somewhat like cider, and when " hard " enough it intoxicates. 4. One of the most useful trees of Mexico is the cacao-tree, from which cocoa and chocolate are ob- tained. It produces a cucumber-shaped beny, six or eight inches in length, within which are many seeds LANDS SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES. 47 about as large as an almontl. At the proper time the fruit or berry is cut open, and the seeds, which arc about an inch long, arc taken out and '2.) 1. What ocean north ? 2. What sea is partly enclosed between the West Indies and South America? 3. In what zone are most of these islands ? 2. Illiut is their climate ? The climate is tropical, marked by great lieat and moisture. There are but two seasons, — the rainy and the dry. 3. Uliat are some of the commercial products ? Some of the commercial products are sugar, tobacco, coffee, and cotton ; oranges, bananas, and pineapples ; ginger, allspice, and indigo. 4. What of the popidat.ion ? The white population consists of Spaniards, English, and French, with their descendants ; three fourths of the people are Blacks ; there are also many people of mixed descent. LANDS SOUTH OF THE UNITED STx\.TES. 61 LESSON V. THE LARGER ISLANDS. I. Cuba. L Tlie i.-^land t of sugar. It is s world is made there. In tlie tirst chapter of this book you read .some account of iiow.sugaris made. In the picture here given you see a sugar - plantation, and the men cut- ting the canes, bu Hilling them up, and hauling them off to the mill to be crushed. Tiiere are hun- dreds of great sugar- plantations all over the island of Cuba ; and if you were to visit the seaport of Ha- vana, you would see the wharves piled high with huge hogsheads of sugar ready to be shi| United States and other parts of the world. 2. In Havana you would also have pointed out to ! Havana rest tlie bones you very large factories where million.s of cigars are I discoverer of America, made every year. You may have heard the expression " a fragrant Havana." This means a Havana cigar, for the finest cigars which oranges. Tliese are of the finest quality. Bananas are another fruit which we receive from Cuba and other West India Islands. The Ijanana is a great article of cultivation, not only in these islands, but in all parts of the hot belt of America. It is, in fact, a principal article of food there. The people Ihid it very eco- ^^^,^ nomical to grow, ■d t( the i bor is guarded Iiy a I will interest vou t(j because it pro- duces so plenti- fully. The same space of ground which will yield only ^/t/rt/ypounds of wheat or one hundred pounds I if jiotatoes will afford four thou- sand pounds of bananas. -1. Havana is tlu! capital of Cuba, and here lives the person who governs tHe island f.ir the king ..f Spain : he is rallcl the Ca],- tain-(ieneral. It is a hanil.siinie city. The en- trance to the har- fortress named Jloro Castle. It know that in the Cathedral of f Columbus, the illustrious gentlemen smoke are made there. Perhaps you may think that as this tobacco all passes off in .smoke, it is no great matter. But I am going to tell you a curious fact. We, the people of the United States, spend every year more money on cigars than we do on books. And another thing of importance to remember : we pay more money to the mer- chants of Cuba for sugar and cigars and other things than we do to those of any other country (except Great Britain) for all the goods we buy. 3. We shall not forget that we also receive tropical fruits from Cuba when we think of Havana 5. The island of Porto Rico [rtU-o] also belongs to Si)ain. Like Cuba, it is inhabited by Sjianiards and ne- groes, and produces the same arti- cles for which (.'uba is noted. The Banana-Tn II. Jamaica. li. The island of Jamaica belongs to the English, who took it from the Spaniards more than two hun- dred years ago. The wealthy peo- ple are English plantei*, who live in fine style. These are not very numerous, however ; and there are only about twelve thousand whites on the whole island. The negroes and mulattoes number half a mil- lion. These were once slaves, but many yeare ago the British Parlia- ment made them all free. The capital and principal city is named Kingst'in. There are many sugar- 52 NUKTH AMEEICA. plantations in Jamaica. Besides sugar, the people make large quantities of molasses, which is a liquid drained from brown sugar through holes in the casks. They also make a great deal of Jamaica rum, which is distilled either from sugar or molasses. 7. The fragrant pimento-tree grows in great abun- dance in Jamaica. The unripe berries of this plant, dried in the sun, form what we caU allspice, or Jamaica pepper. Another condiment which we owe to this island is Jamaica ginger. It consists of the dried root of a rush-like plant, and is much used in cooking and as medicine. III. Hayti. 8. The island of Hayti was discovered in \VJ'2 l.)y Columbus, who called it Hisjianio'la, or Little Spain. Here, at Isabella, was founded the first Spanish colony in the New Worlil. It is a country of splendid forests and rich tropical \erdure ; but it is in a backward state. 9. This island is peopled by the Blacks, who rule themselves. They have two republics, — one called the Republic of Hayti and the other the Domini'can Republic. The soil is so fertile that all kinds of plants grow easily. But agriculture is carried on in a very rude way. The principal articles that are shipped from Hayti are coffee, sugar, cacao, cotton, and tobacco. IV. Other Islands. 10. We have now read about four islands, — Cuba, Hayti, Jamaica, and Pc^to Rico. These islands are quite the largest in the West Indies, and on this account are often called the Greater Antilles. There are more than a thousand other smaller islands and islets. These belong to various European nations. There is mnch that is interesting about these islands, but you must find this information in books of travel. [For Recitation.] 1. What four larfie islirnds uiy cuHrd the " Ch'eater An- tilles " .? ' The Greater Antilles are Cuba, Hayti, Porto Eico, and Jamaica. H\»p. — l,Sec mapbdou:) 1. Whicli is the largest island? 2. What circle just north of Cuba? 3. Meastire by the scale of miles the length of this island. 4. Is it as large as your State or larger? 2. Fm- H-hat arc Cuba and Porto Bico noted ' They are notetl for the production of suuar, tobacco, and tropical fruits. 3. To whom do Cuba and Porto Rico belong ? To the Spaniards. 4. mat is the capital ? The capital of Cuba is Havana. 5. For wh-at is Jatnaica noted ? Jamaica is noted for the production of sugar, molasses, rum, allspice, and ginger. 6. To whom does it belong ? To the English. 7. JFhat governments are in Hayti ? In Hayti are two negro republics. Map, — (See irmphdow.) 1. Where is Jamaica? 2. In what direc- tion from Cuba is Hayti ? 3. Which is the most eastern of the Greater Mexico. Centhal Amekica, AND THE AVest Indies. SCALE. 1 Inch^'jm Miles TOBAYAG CEXTKAX<^r^v-E8lCA v>. ; lioniritudp from A y^ ^ THE UNITED STATES. 53 THE UNITED STATES, GENERAL DESCRIPTION. LESSON I. WHERE OUR COUNTRY IS. CFor Recitation.] 1. Why is Our Country called " The United States " ? Our Country is called " The United States " be- cause it consists of a number of States united under one general government. 2. JFhat part of Xortli America does Our Country occupy ' The United States occupies the middle part of North America, and extends from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. 3. nimt country on tlie north, and xchat other country to the south of the United States ? North of the United States is the Dominion of Canada, and south of it is Mexico. 4. IFhich parts of its houmdary are formed by the ocean ? The Atlantic Ocean forms the whole eastern boundary, and the Pacific Ocean the whole western boundary. About one half of the southern Ixjuu- dary is formed by the (iulf of Mexico, which is a part of the Atlantic Ocean. 5. iriiat can you say of the sea-coast of the United States ? The long line of sea-coast is indented with many bays, gulfs, and harbors. To Draw the Outline Map. Te.^cheu'.s Note. — In the case of young pupils the teacher should show them, by reference to the map of the United States on the ne.xt two pages, or to a wall-map of the United States, that the sketch given below i.-* such an outline or skeleton of the United States as they might draw on their slates if they left off everything except the boundary lines. The judicious teacher will, of couree, not impose on pupils the task of drawing this at once. It should Vie tiiken up only in connection with the text. Thus during the week spent on Xew England, pupils should learn to draw the New England coast ; and so with the Jliddle States, etc., till the entire boundary circuit of the United States has been made. It will be well at the same time for the teaclier to begin on the blackboaid a skeleton-map on a large scale, to be filled up as the lessons advance, and made tbe ba-sis of suitable questioning. Ontllne Map showing the Coafit-Llne and Boundaries of tbe United States. THE UNITED STATES. A, • View of the Surface of the United States LESSON I I. DIVISIONS OF OUR COUNTRV. [For Recitation.: 1. What are the principal mmmtains of the United States ? The principal mouutaius are the Alleghany Mouutaius in the East, and the Rocky ani^l Sierra [sc-ai/ra] Nevada Mountains in the West. 2. JVhat three great natural divisions of the United States are made by the Alleghany and Rocky Mountains ? The Alleghany and Rocky Mountains separate the United States into three great divisions, — tlie Atlantic Slope, Pacific Slope, and Mississippi Valley. 3. What is included in the Atlantic Slope .? The Atlantic Slope includes all the land sloping from the tops of the Alleghany Mountains to the Atlantic Ocean. 4. Into what do the. rivers in this division ftmv ? The rivers in this division How into the Atlantic Ocean. 5. What is included in the Pacific Slope ? The Pacific Slope includes all the land sloping from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean. 6. Into what do the rivers in this division flow '. Most of the rivers in this division flow into the Pacific Ocean. 7. What is included in the Mississip2n Valley ? The Mississippi Valley includes the great region between the Alleghany and the Rocky Mountains. Map Exercise. — 1. Compare map given above with the map of the United Sfaites (pages 54, 55), and point out the Alleghany Mountains. 2. Are these mountains in the eastern or we.stern part of Our Country ? 3. Point to the Rocky Mountain.s. 4. Point to the Sierra Nevada Moun- tains. 5. AVhich are farthest we.st. the Rocky or the Sierra Nevada Mountains ? 6. Point to the great Mississippi Val- lev. 7. What mountains on the east of it ? — on the west of it ? LESSON III. GREAT RIVERS OP THE UNITED STATES. CFor Recitation.] 1. Describe the greatest river of the United States. The Mississippi, the greatest river of the United States, rises in Lake Itasca, in the Central Plain of North America, and flows into the Gulf of Mexico, receiving in its course many large tributaries. 2. How are the other principal rivers of the United States divided ? They are divided into four clas.ses : 1. The riv- ers flowing from the Alleghany Mountains.into the Atlantic Ocean ; 2. The rivers flowing from the Alleghany Mountains into the Mississippi ; 3. The rivers flowing from the Rocky Mountains into the Mississippi ; and 4. The rivers flowing from the Rocky Mountains into the Pacific Ocean. Map Exercise. — 1. The following are six large rivers flowing from the Alleghanies into the Atlantic Ocean : the Connecticut, the Hudson, Susquehanna, Potomac, James, and Savannah rivere. Tell by looking on the THE i;xitj:d states. map of the United States in what State each empties into the Atlantic. See how many of the.se rivers you can find in the bird's-eye view of surface on the previous* pagf, and on the river map given below. 2. The largest river flowing from the Alleghany Moun- tains into the Mississippi is the Ohio : point it out on the map of tlie United States, on the bird's-eye view, and on the river map. Name three of the largest tri1>utaries of the Ohio. 3. The largest tributaries of the Mississippi flowing from the Rocky Mountains are the Missouri, Red, and Arkansas rivers. 'Trace them on the three maps. Name any large tributaries of eacli of these rivers. 4. The Rio Grande flows from the Rocky Mountains : where is its mouth ? 5. The largest rivers flowing from the Rocky Mountains into the Pacific Ocean are the Columbia and Colunido. Trace the course of each on the different maps. LESSON IV. CLIMATE AND OCCUPATIONS. 1. Uliat of the diniale nf Our Hountnj ? Our Country is iu the Temperate Zone and has a temperate climate. In the northern part the winters are Ions ami colil, but in tlie soutliern part snow seldom falls. 2. ll'hal of agriculture in the United States ' Agriculture is largely can-ied on. The farm- products in tlie North are grain, fruits, and vege- tables ; in the Soutli are cotton, sugar, rice, and tobacco. All parts of the country raise great num- bers of horses, i^attle, sheep, and hogs. 3. What of mining ! In the mountains of tlie Atlantic Slojic Ihcn^ are rich mines of coal and iron ; in the mountains of the Pacific Slope are mines of gold, silver", and quicksilver. In the uigioii near the Great Lakes are mines of copper and lead. 4. ]\'Jiat nf manufacturing ? ^Manufacturing is most largely carried on in the ea.stcrn section of our country. 5. IVhat of commerce f The United States carries on an immense com- merce. The leading exports are cotton, tobacco, beef and pork, petroleum, gold and silver. The leading imports are cotton, woolen, silk, and linen goods, fancy goods, and groceries, including coft'ee, tea, etc. 6. Hon- mny the United Stntra lie conveniently divided 1 The United States may be dix'ided into five sec- tions, — New England, the Middle States, the SoTithern States, tlie Western or Central States, ;ni 1 llif Tfnckv ^Inmiiain or racilic States. Outline Map showing the Rivers of the United States. NfeW ENGLAND. 59 NEW ENGLAND New England Coast and Mountain St.L:uLr:, LESSON I. THE NEW ENGLAND STATES. [For Reading.] I. The First Explorer. 1. More tlian two hundred and fifty years ago the famous Captain John Smith, whom you have read about in your histories as being the chief man in settling Virginia, made a voyage from England to a then almost unknown jsart of tlie coast of America lying far to the north of Virginia. He wrote that he came " to take whales, and also to make trials of a mine of gold and copper." 2. Captain Smith made a landing at an island near the coast of what we call the State of i\Iaino. But as he did not meet with success in the search for whales, lie left his ships and with eight men in a small boat began to explore the neighboring coast. Yon must re- member that this was several years before the landing of the Pilgrim Fathers. Smith not only explored tlic coast, but he made a map of it, and to the whole region he gave the name of New England. This name it still bears, after many generations havf! passed away. II. First Settlements. ;!. Oulj' fmr years after Captain Smith's visit, the Mayflower brouglit to tliis same coast a band of Pil- grims who sought free homes in the New World. They made a settle- ment (1()2()) at the place which Smith called Plymouth \plim' uthi, and which is still called by that name. In spite of many sufferings, they thrived in their new home. Their children prospered after them, and spread out to seek new land ; and as many other fomUies came over year by year in ships to New England, the Indians were gradually driven off, and the country was settled by white people. 4. This was the time when our countiy was under the king of England. As time passed there came to be several settlements or colonies in New England, and they were aU under the power of Great Britain, which was called the " mother country." Then came the time, about a hundred j'ears ago, when these colonies said they wanted to live without being under English rulei-s. MAP STUDIES. ^P* At tlie first recitation, the tcaclier will allow the pupils to answer with open books ; at the see(}nd, they may be required to anmoer from m^nwry, or from an outline inap. Position and Area. — 1. By what is this section bounded on tlie north ? — the east ? — the south ? — the west ? 2. Name the three States that include the northern part of New England ; — the southern part. 3. Which State is the largest? — the smallest? 4. Which three are nearly equal in size ? 5. Which four border on Massachusetts? 6. Which three border on New York? 7. Which has no sea-coast ? Mountains. — 1. In what part of New England is there a range of mountains ? 2. In what State is Mt. Wash- ington ? 3. In what State are the White Mountains ? Rivers and Lakes. — 1. Which is the longest river ? 2. Tell where it rises, in what direction it flows, and where is its outlet. 3. What river rising in Massachu- setts flows through Rhode Island ? 4. Name two rivers in Maine. 5. What lake with a hard Indian name in New Hampshire ? 6. What large lakes in Maine ? 7. What large lake borders on Vermont ? Bays and Sounds. — 1. What is the largest bay on the coast ? 2. Which bay is situated farthest east ? 3. Where is Long Island Sound? 4. What small bay south of Rhode Island ? Capes. — 1. Where is Cape Cod ? 2. Where is Cape Ann? Of what State is each of these cities ( ArorsTA. Boston". mu r. •* 1 9 I o S Pkovidesce, The Capital? , Coxcord. j ^^^^^^^_ (^ Moxtpe'lier. Haktford. In what State is each of these I Boston. Lowell. I Providence. Manchester. Principal Cities ?....-' New Haven. Burlington. I AV'0RCE.STER. PoETL-iND. {woosHer\. 60 THE UNITED STATES. Along with the other English colonies in America they declared their independence, and, after a long war, won it. 5. There are now in New England a great many more peoj)le than there were when the United States began, a century ago. And not only are there many more peo- ple, but things have changed iii every way. It would take too long to tell all the ways in which the New England of to-day differs from the New England of a hundred years ago, so we shall be satisfied with trying to learn something about the New England States as they are at present. 6. First we should inquire what kind of a country New England is, because, as we have already learned, the things which people do to make a living depend very much on what kind of a country they inhabit. CFor Recitation.] 1. IJ'liat section of our country are we now to learn about ? We are to learn about New England. 2. Hoto did it come to be called New England 1 It was first called New England by Captain John Smith, who made a map of it. 3. Where were the first settlements made in New England. ? The first settlements in New England were made at Plymouth and around Massachusetts Bay. Map. — (.See pcu/c SS.) Point to Plymouth on the map of New Eng- land. Point to Massachusetts Bay. 4. JFhat of the shx of New England comixircd with other sections ? New England is the smallest section of the United States. Wl a p. — (See page 58 ) Point on the map of the United States (pages 54, 55) to New England. Are there not single States in some parts of the United States which appear to be as large as the whole of New England ? Which ones ? 5. Jfniij is New England an important section ? New England is important on account of its manufactures, wealth, and population. LESSON II. NEW ENGLAND {Contimdep). T -,. . [For Reading.] I. Climate. ^ 1. If you look at New England on the map of the United States, you will see that it is one of the most northern parts of our country. Hence ^s^^= -^ve may expect the winters there to be cold. You would not be dis- appointed in this. The winters last four or five months, so that the chil- dren have plenty of coasting and skating. But the winter cold fur- idshes business as well as fun. The thick ice on the ponds and lakes is cut into great blocks and stored away till summer, when it is used by the people or shipped off to be sold in the hotter southern parts of our country. II. Occupations on the Sea-coast. 2. The New England States are, all except one, seaboard States ; that is, they border on the sea-coast. From this fact we may expect that some New-Englanders will be engaged in fishing. And this is the case. The sea otf the coast, and especially farther north, on the " Banks " of Newfound- land, abounds in mackerel and codfish, and in the fishing season hundreds of vessels are fitted out in the seaports to catch these fish. Catching these fish and selling them — some fresh, but most of them dried and salted — are a great business in New England. III. Surface of the Country. 3. Now let us look inland from the coast. It takes only a glance at the map to show us that the face of the country is hilly and mountainous. Not that it is all of this kind, for you see that it is mostly that half which is away from the coast that is very hilly or mountainous. Still, we may say that on the whole New England is a hiyldand country, with a s/ope toward the ocean and a low coast plain. IV. New England Farming. 4. A rugged country is not usually a good farming region, and persons living in such a country generally try to engage in some other kind of employment which is more profitable. Not but what there are many fine farms in New England, for there is fertile soil spreading out from most of the streams. And then the New-Englanders are good farmers, and by tilling their fields very carefully they raise better crops than poor farmers do from the best soil. But if you were asked what is the most important business of the New England people, you would not say agricul- NEW ENGLAND. 61 tun\ What the most important business is we shall soon learn ; but first we must finish what is to be said about tlie mountains. V. Lumberiug. 5. Some of these mountains arc eovcrc^l with for- ests of pine-trees, and hemlock, and other kinds of trees. This is the case in the hilly region in the northern half of the large State of Maine, and also in New Hampshire. On this account great numbers of persons are lumbermen. lu wnter they go into the forests and fell the trees, cutting them into logs. These they draw over the snow-covered ground to some stream, and when it thaws in spring the logs float down to places where they are sawed into boards in great saw-mills. VI. Pasture-Mountains. 6. But tliere are other kinds of mountains ; and if wc should travel in the cars from New Hampshire to Vermont we should see a wonderful change in a very short time. In place of rugged highlands covered with forests we should see nicely rounded hills, some green with grass and others clothed with evergreen trees. The very name " Vermont " tells us this, for the word means green mountain. We may naturally suppose that these mountain-pastures must be good places for sheep and cattle and horses. And so they are, — so good that in this State of Vermont sheep and cattle raising and making butter and cheese bring the people in more money than any other business that they follow. [For Recitation.: 1. U'liat kiiid of clinuite has New EiKjlaTul ? It has hot summers and cold winters. 2. Hotv many of these States are seaboard States ? All the New England States are seaboard States, except Vermont. Map. — {Slc patje ^S.) What ocean on the eastern coast of New England ? 3. JFhat occupation is followed by many Neiu England people who live on the sea-coast ' Many New-Englanders are engaged in fishing for cod and mackerel. 4. Name some ports at which fishing-smacks are fitted out. Eastport, Newburyport, Gloucester [glos'tci-], Marblehead. Wl a p. — (See page 5S. ) Point to each of these places on the map of New England. 5. What other occupation connected villi the sea can you nanu ? Ship-building, whicli is largely carried on in Maine and JMassachusetts. 6. Mliat kind of surface has this section ? With the exception of a lowland part along the coast,' the surface of New England is generally hiUy or mountainous. 7. Is (ujTiculture carried on in this section ? It is, but not so largely as in the southern and western jjarts of the United States. 8. IVhat state is noted for its dairy-products ? For dairy-i^roducts Vermont is noted. 9. JVhat can you .sa.;/ of the forests ? In many parts of Maine there are large forests, from which great (quantities of lumber are taken. LESSON III. NEW ENGLAND (ContixoedI CFor Readin^.l How Cotton Cloth is mode. I. Manufactaring. 1. Let us look again at the map of New England. Follow the rivers up to where they rise in the high- land part. These streams are not great slow-moving currents ; they are mostly short, and they run rapidly down the slope from the mountains. These furnish water-power, by which we mean that the current of the smftly moving streams is used to turn the wheels of mills, — mills for sawng planks, and weaving cloth, and making paper, and doing a thousand other useful things. 2. Now we can see what is the greatest business in New England. It is manufacturing. Some of the States are more engaged in this than others, hut in all many peo- ple are busy in mills and factories and machine-shops. The making of boots and shoes by ma- chinery is one of the greatest trades. Probably in the various factories enough are made to supply every man, woman, and child with three pairs of boots ' How Boots ajid Shoes : 62 THE UNITED STATES. or shoes every year. You ^yill see on the page before this a picture of how boots and shoes are made in the great shops of New England. Another very great busi- ness is weaving all kinds of cotton and woolen cloths. At the beginning of this lesson you will see a picture of how this is done. Some of the largest cotton and woolen mills are on the Merrimac River, and it is said that the water-power supplied by it moves more .spin- dles than are moved by any other stream in the world. 3. You must not think that weaving cotton and woolen goods and making boots and shoes are the only kinds of manufactures. They are merely the largest. But there is hardly any article, from an anchor or a steam-engine down to a pin, that is not made by the ingenious and industrious Nevv-Englanders. II. Trade. 4. The people of New England carry on a large com- merce, because they make a great many more things than they can use. They make them to sell. These goods are shipped by water or by railroad to all parts of our country and to other lands, and the people re- ceive in return articles which they want, but cannot grow. For instance, they ship cotton goods to the Southern States, and receive from those same States the raw cotton which they work up in their mills. 1. IFhat advantage has New England for manufacturing 1 The rapid mountain-streams supply much water- power for running the machiuery of mills. 2. ^Vliat important manufactured articles can you name ? Cotton and woolen goods, boots aud shoes, machinery and farming-tools. 3. JVhat eight large -manufacturing cities can you name ? Lowell, Manchester, Worcester, Lawrence, Fall Eiver, Bangor, Providence, Hartford. Map. — (■*« ?i3e f'S ) Point out each of these places on the map of New England. ^ -- _^ ^?^_-- _ On what river are Concord, Manches- ter, Lowell, and Law- rence ? 4. fFhat of the commerce of New j^:^ England ? £. The commerce - i of New Eng- land is large, -j^ ' ^' f ■>- and the princi- ~t_J^ pal exports are manufactured articles, togeth- er with lumber, fish, ice, aud OTanite. 7 i LESSON IV. NEW ENGLAND (Continbed). [For Reading. 3 I. Scenery. 1. There are many parts of New England v^here the scenery is very tine. The White Mountains are famous, and are visited every summer by thousands of tourists. In other parts there are lovely lakes embosomed among the hiUs. Then there are parts of the coast that are grand and rocky ; while the islands off the .shore fur- nish fine sea-views and cooling ocean breezes. But, after all, nothing more interesting meets the eye in a New Eng- land landscape than one of the thousand pretty towns or villages that dot the valleys or nestle in the hills. II. Great Cities. 2. Boston, the capital of Massachusetts, is the me- tropolis of New England. It is one of the most ancient towns in the United States, and has more the appear- ance of a European than of an American city. It is not only a great manufacturing and commercial center, but is famous for its literary, artistic, aud benevolent institutions. 3. Portland is the largest city of Maine, and is noted for having one of the best harbors on the Atlantic coast. It is connected by railroad with jSIontreal, and in win- ter, when the St. Lawrence Ptiver is frozen, Portland is the outlet for most of the Canadian produce. 4. The chief city of New Hampshire is ]Manchester, which is very largely engaged in manufacturing cotton, woolen, and hnen goods, machinery, etc. The chief city of Vermont is Burlington, called the " Queen City of Vermont." It is beautifully situated, and is one of the greatest lumber markets in the country. 5. Hartford also claims the title of " queen city," • — • the " Queen City of New England." It is the capital of the State of Connecticut, and is famous for its manu- factures, and its benevolent and educational institutions. Providence, next t; to Boston the if^^St largest city in A;- New England, is - SS^S^ a city of mills and manufactories. Cotton and wool- en good.?, jewelry, silver-ware, loco- motives, and many other arti- , ' • ' ' cles are made here. It is a beau- tiful, wealthy, and ^^^_g^p' enterprising city. "^- City of Boston. Map. — (•'^«'' P«?« '''* ) For a recitation lesson let the pupils tell from the map the situation of each of these cities. SPECIAL GEOGHAPHY FOR I\'EW ENGLAND CLASSES. 63 SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY FOR NEW ENGLAND CLASSES. L-MAP STUDIES. f^~ These questions relate only to the State in which the pupils of the class reside, and are designed solely for New England classes. Position and Area. — 1. What is the name of your Stati; ? 2. Ill vvliat jiait of this section of the United States is it situ- ated ! 3. How does your State compare in size witli the otlier States of this section? [See table, page 64.] 4. Bound your State. 5. It is crossed by what parallel or parallels of latitude ? 6. By what meridians ? 7. Area of your State in square miles ? 8. Popul.ition 1. [Sec tiible, page 64-] Mountains. — 1. By what mountains, represented on the map, is this State crossed ? 2. What is the name of the highest mountain in your State ? [Answer by Uie tcaclier.] 3. Do you know the names of any mountains not represented on the nuip ? Rivers. — 1. What is the largest river of this State ? 2. Where does it rise and into what does it ilow ? 3. What is the second river in size ? 4. What boundary rivers has your State ? 5. Are there any small rivers that you know of not represented on tlie map ? Lakes. — 1. If your State has any large lake, name it and tell in wliat part of the State it is. 2. Name any small lakes. The Sea-coast. — [For all except Vermont. ] 1. Name any bay or bays along the coast. 2. Which of these bays is tlie largest ? 3. Name any capes, points, or heads. 4. What islands lie olf the coast ? 5. Name any important seaport oi- sea]iorts. Cities. — 1. What is the capital of this State and where is it situated ? 2. What is the largest city ? 3. Name any other large or important cities. 4. Name the capital of each New England State. 5. Name the largest city in each New England State and tell something about it. Counties, etc. — 1. In what county do you live ? 2. Wliat is the name of the county seat ? 3. What counties lie next to yours ? 4. Name as many counties as you can. 5. Is th name of the place in which you live down on the map ? 6. If the place in which you live is not represented on the map, near what large place do you know it to be ? 7. What railroad or railroads passes througli this city [or town] ? 8. Do you know where the e.xpress trains run to ? History. — [To be givcu bij teacher.] 1. At what place was your State first settled '! 2. In what year ? 3. In what year did it become a State ? ^^ Pupils may now be required to draw on the blackboard an outline laap of their State. II. -LOCAL GEOGRAPHY. ^W Questions exclusively for New England classes. 1. AVhat are the principal farm-products raised in your State ? 2. What kinds of live-.stock are kept ? 3. Wliat do you know about the lumber-trade of your part of tlie State ? 4. Do you know of any grauite-iiuarries or marble-quarries in your part of New England ? 5. Do you know of any places where lime is made ? 6. Name any fishing-towns on the coast that you hav8 seen or heard of. 7. What kinds of fish are caught by the lishennen ? 8. What manufacturing towns or cities have you seen or lieard of in your State, or in other New England States ? 9. Is the machinery of the mills moved by steam-power or by water-iiower ? 10. Do you know of any places where any of the following ■ articles are manufactured : Cotton cloth ? woolen goods ? boots and shoes ? leather? fmniture? wagons? p.iper ? farming- tools? a.xes ? scythes ? watches ? pins ? b\ittons ? nails ? locomotives ? iron machinery ? stoves ? pianos ? tin-ware ? wooden-ware ? A^ote for pupils. — If you cannot answer these questions, a.sk your older brothers or sisters, or youi' parents ; and then, if you cannot find out, )'our teacher will tell you. III. - DESCRIPTION OP THE STATES. tS^ The Description of States, thoU!;h designed for New England classes, may be taken at the discretion of the teacher by other pupUs sufficiently advanced, or by way of review. MAINE. Description. — Maine (Me.), or the " Pine-Tree State," occupies mure than half the surface of New England. Its greatest length is about 250 niiles ; greatest breadth, 190 miles. The coast is rocky and has luany good harbors. The central and north-western parts are broken and mountainous. The highest mountain is Mt. Katah'din. There are many large rivers and lakes in this State. The advantages possessed by this State are its great forests of pine and hemlock ; its many large rivers and its iminerous good luuiiors. The principal occupations are lumbering, manufac- turing, ship-building, and the fisheries. The chief cities aie : — Portland, tlie largest city, wliicli lias a tiuc liarbor. Augusta, the capital. Bangok, on Penob'scot River, is engaged in the lumber-trade. L?:wisTON and Auburn, on the Audroscog'giii, engaged in manu- facturing cotton and woolen goods, lumber, etc. Bid'deford and Saco [saw'hi], on Saco River, manufacturing places. Bath, on the Kennebec River, noted for ship-building. NEW HAMPSHIRE. Description. — New Hampshire (N. H.), or the " Gran- ite State," is a highland State. The AVhite Mountains are noted for their grand scenery. Mt. Washington is the loftiest summit in New England. The Merrimac, Connecticut, and Piscat'aqua are the most important rivei-s. The advantages of this State are its water-power, its forests, and its pasturage. 64 The principal occupations are manufacturing, iarmiug, anddairy- ini;. ■ The chief cities are : — Manchestei the MerrimaCj tl largest city, (famo for cotton and \\ ool manufactures. Concord, the caj i tal, a manufactuu city. Na.sh'ua on tl I Merrimac, anil Do\ Lit on Coclie'co Ili\ l i largely engaged ni manufacturing. Portsmouth, at tlie mouth of Piscat acjua River, noted for its fine liarbor. THE UNITED STATES. Cotton-MillB of Providence. VERMONT. Description. — A^^nuuUt (Vt.), or the " Green Mountain State," is noted lor its niountaiii-cliain, called the Green Mountains. The State has no sea-coast ; but Lake Champlain, more than one hundred miles long, is on the western border. The advantages of this State are its line farming and pastnre lands, and its marl>le-(|uarries. The principal occupations are farming, raising sheep, liorses, cattle, making butter and cheese, manufacturing, and quarrying marble. The chief places are : — BuKLIXGToN, on Lalfe Champlain, the largest city. JIoNTPELiER, wliich is the capital. Rutland, noted for its marble-trade. St. Albans, noted for its manufacture of cars and its tr.ade. Brattleboro, on the Connecticut, an important manufacturing place. MASSACHUSETTS. Description. - Massachusetts (Mas.s.), or the " Bay State," is one of the richest and most populous States in the Union. The western part is mountainous, the central and north- eastern parts are hilly, and the southeastern part is gener- ally low and level. The coast has many bays and fine harbors. The principal rivers are the Connecticut, Merrimac, and Housa tonic. The advantages of this State are its facilities for man- ufacturing anil cunnnerce. The principal occupations are manufacturing, agri- culture, the iisheries, sliipping granite and ice, and general coinmerce. The chief cities are : — Boston, the capital, largest city in New England, and, next to New York, the greatest seaport in the United States. Worcester, a great manufacturing city. Lowell, at the junction of the Concord and Merrimac rivers, .and Lawrence, on the Merrimac River, lead- ing places for cotton and woolen manufac- tures. Cambridge, near Boston, a manufac- turing place and seat of Harvard Univer- sity. Lynn, on Massa- clmsetts Bay, famous lor the manufacture of shoes. Fall River, noted for its cotton-mills. RHODE ISLAND. Description. — 11 h d e Island (R. I.), though the smallest State, is one of the most prosperous and thickly settled, manufacturing, farni- The principal occupations ing, and traile. The chief cities are : — Providence, the largest idace, and the second city in New Eng- land, famous for its great cotton and woolen mills, and its manu- facture of hardware, plated ware, and other articles. It is one of t)ie capitals. Newport, the other capital, noted for its healthful climate and fine .sea-bathing. CONNECTICUT. Description. — Connecticut (Comi.) has beautiful scen- ery, varied by hill and dale. The Coimecticut River runs through the State from north to south. The advantages of this State are its good soil, its water-power, and its nearness to the great commercial metropolis. The principal occupations are farming, and manufac- turing useful articles, as hats, boots, shoes, carriages, combs, axes, buttons, pins, clocks, and many other things called " Yankee Notions." These are sold in almost all parts of the \\orlil. The chief cities are : — Hartford, on tlie Coimecticut, the capital and a great maim- facturing jilace. New Haven, tlie largest city, and the seat of Yale College. Bridgeport, ~| Norwich, [ ^^jj engaged in varied manufacturing. Waterburt, New London, AREA AND POPULATION OF THE NEW ENGLAND STATES. Names. Area in square miles. Population (1870). Maine 35,000 627,000 New Hanipsliire 9,300 318,000 Vermont 10,200 332,000 massaohusetts 7,800 1,457,000 lihodc Island 1,306 217,000 Connecticut 4,700 537,000 THE MIDDLE STATES. 65 THE MIDDLE STATES, LESSON I. DESCRIPTION OF THE STATES. [For Reading.] I. History. 1. Suppose you were to look at a map of the United States for the first time. You are asked to tell which Delaware Water Gap. - *,,^-^ are the Middle States. : You say, " Here are States on the cast, — they are toward the Atlantic Ocean ; and liere are States on tlie west, — they are toward the Pacific Ocean. The Middle States must be those between the Eastern and tlie portage r ge. Western States : they are those States in the great Valley of the Mississippi and its branches." 2. This ought to be quite correct ; but it is not. For when we speak of the " Middle States " we speak as our forefathers spoke. When the early settlers came to America, they made their homes near the sea-coast, where they landed. Thus it came to pass that the thirteen English colonies which became the United States, one Imndred years ago, were all planted on the strip of country which lies between the Atlantic Ocean and the Alleghany Mountains. This was nearly all the land which Our Country occupied at the time Washington was President ; for though a few bold pioneers had climbed the mountains into the region beyond, — the region which is now Ohio and Ken- tucky, — yet they seemed to be quite lost in the wil- derness. 3. We can understand that, in those early days, it was natural enough for people to give the name Mid- dle States to those that lay between New England and the States on the southern part of the seaboard. The Middle States were New York, New Jersey, Penn- S3'"lvania, and Delaware. These States seemed to be a division or section by th(imselves, because not only (lid they lie between tlio Northern and the Southern States, but the peojjle who settled them were quite ditleront from the people who settled the Northern or the Southern States. The first settlers in the Mid- dle States were Hollanders and Swedes, and English Quakers, while New England was settled by the Puritans, and the Southern States almost entirely by English people. II. Natural Features. 4. Through the Middhi Atlantic States sev- eral mountain-ranges stretch from northeast to southwest. These arc ranges or chains of the great Alleghany Mountain system, about which wo read in the description of North America. The Alleghany Mountains are not so lofty as the giant ranges toward the Pacific Ocean ; but they are more beautiful. The Eocky Jloun- tains are generally bare of vegetation ; barren- ness and desolation reign around. But the rounded summits of the Alleghanies are clothed in majestic forests, while charming green valleys lie between the hills, and pic- turesque cascades tumble over the rocky ledge.'*. Pcrluips you may thinlv that, as the Alleghany Ue^f ilountains extend through the Middle States, *^^^ these moimtains must be like a wall separating one part from the other. But this is not the case. A way has been found to make rail- roads over the mountains. And now the screaming locomotive, guided by science, darts into the recesses of the hiUs or slowly puffs its way up the siuumits, thus making an easy pathway from the east- ern to the western parts. 5. On tlie eastern side the mountains slope down through a foot-hill region into a plain which reaches to the sea-shore. This is called the Atlantic Plain. It is a mere strip at the mouth of the Hudson Eiver ; but more southward it widens very much. To the west the mountains slope toward the Great Lakes and the Ohio Eiver. We tlius see that there are three divisions of the surface in the Middle States : (1) the Atlantic Plain; (2) the Mountain region; (3) the Western slope. 6. Most of the large rivers of the iliddle States rise beyond the mountains. How do they make a channel through the rocky barrier ? In the course of ages they have worn for themselves channels through the moun- tains. Tlius the Hudson breaks fhrougli at tlie High- land, the Delaware at the Delaware AVater Gap, the Potomac at Harper's Ferry ; and at all these places the scenery is very grand, witli the frowning mountain- walls towering many hundred feet on each side of the stream. C6 THE UNITED STATES. III. Farming. 7. As the Middle States are nearer tlie Equator than New England, they have a milder climate than tliat section, and the farmers can grow a greater variety of grains, vegetables, and fruits than can be raised in New England. Wheat, rye, oats, corn, orchard fruits, berries, grapes, and garden vegetables all do well in the Middle States. Tobacco is grown to some extent in all the Middle States, but only Virginia and ilaryland raise it in large quantities. 8. Still we must not form the idea that farming is the leading business of the people in these States. Much of tlie country is too mountainous to be cul- tivate!], and in many parts the soil is poor. Besides, as we shall soon see, there are other occupations which the people can follow more profitably than they can follow farming. It wUl show you that agriculture is not the chief business of the Middle States when I tell you that in none of these States till we get south of Maryland do the people raise grain enough to sup- ply their own wants, and hence they have to import it from the West. 9. There is another thing which may be noticed in regard to farming in the Middle States, which is, that farmers are not so much engaged in growing wheat and corn as they are in the Western States ; but, instead, they raise vegetables and fruits and make butter and cheese. You may notice that in these States there are on the coast many large cities, like New York and Philadelphia and Baltimore, — cities each with from half a million to a million of population. Now the farmers in the country find it very profitable to raise vegetables and fruits for the great masses of city peo- ple, who are too busy as merchants and mechanics and laborers to produce ihe food they need. The growing of vegetables and fruits is called market-gardening, and this is a sveat business in the Middle States. [For necltation.J 1. Jl'hich are the Middle States ? The Middle States are New York, New Jer.sey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, and West Virginia. 2. Why are they called Middle States ? Tlie name Middle States was given to them when our whole country was only a narrow strip along the Atlantic Ocean. Map. — {Sa' parjc C7.) 1. What ocean east of the Middle States? 2. Is irennsylvania on the sea-coast? 3. What large river gives it easy communication with the ocean? 4. One of the States in the southern part has no sea-coast ; which one is it ? 5. Which is the most northern of the Middle States? — the most southern? 3. What mountains extend throuyh the Middle States ? The ranges of the Alleghany Mountains. lyjap, — (.Ste jjogc ';r ) l. in what direction do the Alleghany Moun- tains extend ? 2. Aie they nearest the coast in the northern or in the southern part ? 3. In what part of New York are the Adirondack Mountains ? — the Catskill Mountains ? 4. Is the Blue Ridge an east- ern or a western ridge ? 4. IFIiat of the surface east of the Alleiihany Mountains ? The surface east of the Alleghany Mountains slopes to a low region called the Atlantic Plain. 5. IFhat of the surface west of the mountains ? The western part slopes toward the Great Lakes and the Ohio River. 6. In what direction do most of the rivers flow ? Most of the rivers flow in a southerly or south- easterly direction into the Atlantic Ocean. 7. What of farming in this section ? Farming is carried ou more tlian in New Eng- land, but less than in the Western States ; and great attention is given to market-gardening and the production of butter, cheese, and wool. |\n a p. — (.Sec page 67. ) 1. Which is the most northern river in this section .' — the most southern ? 2. What large rivers between the Hudson and the James ? 3. What river flows into Delaware Bay ? 4. What large rivers flow into Chesapeake Bay? MAP STUDIES. Jli^=" y//. the first recitation teachers will allow pupils to aiiswcr Willi, open book. At tlie second recitation, cither from outline maps or from m.cmorif. Boundaries. — 1. Name from the map the States of this section. 2. What great lake and river on the north ? 3. What country on the south ? 4. What section of States on the east ? 5. What ocean on the east ? 6. What States on the south ? 7. What States on the west ? Mountains. — 1. What mountain-chains cross this sec- tion ? 2. In what direction do they extend ? 3. Where are the Adirondacks ? — the Catskill Mountains ? Rivers and Lakes. — 1. What two large lakes lie be- tween this section and the Dominion of Canada ? 2. What gi-eat boundary river is the outlet of Lake Ontario? 3. What short boundary river flows north from Lake Erie into Lake Ontario ? 4. What celebrated falls on this river? 5. What lake between New York and Vermont ? 6. What boundary river between Ohio and West Virginia ? 7. In what State is the Hudson River, and into what does it flow ? 8. Of what States is the Delaware River the boundary, and into what bay does it flow ? 9. In what State is the Susquehanna, and into what bay does it flow? 10. Of what States is the Potomac the boundary? 11. What two rivers unite and form the Ohio River? Bays. — 1. Where is New York Bay ? 2. Between what States is Delaware Bay ? 3. In what two States is Chesa- peake Bay ? 4. What two large rivers flow into this bay? Capes. — 1. What two capes at the mouth of Delaware Bay ? 2. What two at the mouth of Chesapeake Bay ? 3. What cape or sandy point near New York City ? Of what State is each of these cities / Ai.EANY. ANNArOLIS. I H.\rjtisBunG. Richmond. The Capital ■. t,.e^-tox. CuAnLEsroN. I DovKr.. In what State is each of these New York. Buffalo. PllILADF.I.PHIA. PiTTSBUr.GH. Chief Cities ?...•{ Brooklyn. K f-waiik. Baltimore. Richmond. '' WA.sHiNnTON. Wheeling. THE UNITED STATES. LESSON II MIDDLE STATES ( For Read ng : I Coal Mining 1 \\ e liLii iKitliui^' about luimii, in Ntw EnL,ldn(l , hut in the Muldl States this is a very great business. Ihe ranges ot the AHeghanies contain two treasures, — a mineral, anil a metal more valuable to man than gold or silver. These are the mineral coal and the metal iron. (Joal and iron are found in immense quantities in Pennsylvania, and most of the Middle States are abundantly supplied with one or the other, — New York and New Jersey with iron, Maryland, Virginia, and West Virginia with coal. Still, we may say that the State of Pennsyl- vania is the great center for the mining of coal and iron, and it was here that the business began in the United States. 2. The two principal kinds of coal are anthracite, or hard coal, and bituminous, or soft coal. Anthracite is what is burnt in stoves and grates in most of the Eastern States. Bituminous coal is used in the East and very largely in the West, where it is found in great beds. Besides being employed for heating, it is used in iron furnaces and steam-engines. Bituminous coal is found in many parts of the world ; but anthra- cite is found scarcely anywhere except in Pennsylvania, and that State furnishes three fourths of all the anthra- cite used in the world. 3. A curious history is that of how hard coal first came into use. In the year 1791, at the time Wash- ington was President, a lonely hunter, whose hut was in the great uninhabited forest along the Lehigh Eiver, in Pennsylvania, was returning home after a long and unsuccessful chase. He sat down to rest at the foot of a fallen tree, and while doing so saw certain strange- looking black stones at the roots of tlie tree. Philip Ginter, for that was the hunter's name, carried some of them to the nearest settlement, and from there they were sent to Philadelphia to see what the men of sci- ence Would sav about them. The men of science .said Preparing Coal for Market they were " stone coal," but a kind of coal which would not bum. Those who sought to have it used were called swindlers. 4. At last, after several years, the owner of a wire-manufactory in Philadelphia was persuaded to try it. Two loads were brought to the place, and the firemen spent half a day in the attempt til burn it without success. At 111 "in they closed the furnace doors and went to their dinner, in dis- gust with " stone coal " ; but wlii'ii they came back they were astduished to find the doors red- and the furnace in danger of I ting. Now any child knows t the door of a stove must be closed and the damper opened, or the blower must be put on the gi-ate, before a fire of hard coal can ha made to burn ; but the wisfst men did not know the fact till this accident taught them. After this, hard coal soon came into use. 5. There are now tens of thou.sands of persons in the Middle States who are employed in mining anthracite and bituminous coal. In connection with coal we must not forget petro'leKm, or coal-oil, which is used so much as a fluid to burn in our lamps, and for many other purposes. It is a dark-colored oil, thicker than com- mon oils, and is produced by nature in the great coal- beds. To get it, wells are sunk into tiie earth in the same way in which artesian wells are sunk, and the oil rises to the surface. Petroleum is found in large ipian- tities in Pennsylvania and West Virginia, and in these later years it has been largely exported. II. Iron Mining. G. Iron ore is a hard substance dug from the ground. A part only of this substance is iron ; but by smeltinf/, the pure iron is separated from the other parts. The ore, brought from the mines in reddish stony lumiis, is put into a furnace called a blast-furnace, with layers of coal, — first a layer of coal, then one of iron, then another of coal, and so on. When the furnace has bpcome very, very hot, the melted iron, together with the impure substance called slag, flows down to the bottom of the furnace. But the metal, being the heavier, sinks lower than the slag, which floats upon the surface of the melted mass and is raked otf. The iron is then drawn off below and is made to run into rude molds of sand, where it is cooled. This is what is called cast-iron, or ^yig-iron.. As the contents of the blast-furnace are removed, fresh coal and ore are fed from above, and the smelting goes on day and night, for years sometimes, or until the furnace is out of rejiair. THE MIDDLE STATES. 09 3. What other mineral substances are found in the Middle States ? Petroleum, zinc, plumbago, and salt are found in the Middle States. Extracting the Ore. Working the Iron. 7. The cast-iron is very / hard and brittle, so that it cannot be wrought liy the smith on his anvil. To make it fit to be drawn into bars and hammered into different shapes, the cast-iron, which is still quite impure, is melted over and over again. It is then beaten by very heavy hammers worked by steam, or pressed between great rollers, till it takes the shajie of what moclianics call har-iroii, or wrougld-iron. 8. In many places in nearly all the Middle States one may see numbers of blast-furnaces ; and a very inter- esting sight tliey are, especially at night, when they look like volcanoes, witli their great volume of smoke and blaze of fire issuing from the top. The greatest iron-making city in our whole country is Pittsburgh in Pennsylvania. 9. Besides coal and iron, several other metals and minerals are found in the Middle States. Among these are zinc, in New Jersey ; slate, in Pennsylvania and Virginia ; and lead and plumbago, in Pennsylva- nia, 'i'hen there is that very important mineral, salt. Tliis is obtained in great quantities from salt- springs, whicli are found in New York, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia. It is thought that the brine in tliese springs comes from vast underground deposits of rock-salt. The brine is poured into great shallow vats, and the water evaporated by the heat of the sun, leaving the pure salt. Syracuse in Now York is the largest salt-manufacturing place in the Union. [For Recitation.] X. llliat mineral and, metal arc found in large quantities in most of the Middle States ? The mineral coal, and the metal iron. 2. In what State are these found the most plentifulbi ? Coal and iron are most alxiudant in Pennsyl- vania. Map. — 1- Find on the map (paac G7) the follo^ving great coal- mining places in Pennsylvania : Scranton, Mauch Chunk, Carboudale, Pottsville. 2. Find in Maryland the city of Cumberland, a gi-eat coal C'-'uter. 3. In what mountains are aU these coal-fields? LESSON III. MIDDLE STATES (Contixued) [For Reading.] Manufacturing, etc. 1. The business of manufacturing gives work to hundreds of thousands of persons in the Middle States. The rajtid streams flowing from the Alleghany Mountains fur- nish a vast supply of power to turn the wdieels of mills and factories. And besides water-|)ower, the manufac- turers are able to use steam-power, because coal is so handy to them. 2. It would take a whole page of this book just to name the articles that are made in the busy mills, fac- tories, foundries, and worksliops of the Middle States. When you think of tlie great abundance of iron ore in this part of our country, you will suppose that every kind of iron-ware must be made here. And this is quite right. All sorts of iron articles, great and small, are manufactured in these States, — locomotives, boilers, railroad iron, shafts, castings, stoves, and every descrip- tion of hardware. Even steamers are now built of iron, and the city of Wilmington, in the little State of Dela- ware, is quite noted for iron ship-building. 3. The manufacture of different materials for cloth- ing forms another important branch of industry. It includes cotton and woolen goods, knit goods, ready- inaart of the State it is. 2. Name any small lakes. The Sea-coast. — [For all except IVcsl Virginia.'] 1. Name any bay or liays slong the coast. 2. Which of these bays is I tlie largest '. 3. Name any capes, points, or heads. 4. What ! islands lie otf the coast? 5. Name any important seaport. Cities. — 1. What is the capital of this State and where is it situated ? 2. What is the largest city ? 3. Name any other large or important cities. 4. Name the capital of each of the Middle States. 5. Name the largest city in each of the Mid- dle States, and tell something about it. Counties, etc. — 1. In what county do you live ? 2. What is tlie name of the county seat? 3. What counties He next to yours ? 4. Name as many counties as you can. 5. Is the name of the place in which you live down on the map ? 6. If the place in which you live is not represented on the map, near what large place do you know it to be ? 7. What railroad or railroads pass through this city [or town] ? 8. Do you know where the express trains run to ? History. — [To be yircn by teacher.] 1. At w'hat place was your State first settled? 2. In wliat yi'ar ? 3. In what year did it become a State ? Agricultural K^" Pupils may now be required to draio on the blackboard an outline map of their State. II. -LOCAL GEOGRAPHY. iir^" Questions exclusively for Middle States classes. 1. How many in this class have been in any of the Middle States, other than the one in which they live ? 2. What is the surface of the country in that part of the Middle States in which you live ? 3. What are the principal forest trees ? 4. What kinds of lumber are sawed from them ? 5. What are the most important farm-products of that part of the Middle States in which you live ? 6. What kinds of live-stock are raised ? 7. What arc the dairy jiroducts ? 8. Do you know of any places especially noted for any of the following articles ? (Wheat. Tobacco. Apples. Grapes. Rye. Potatoes. Pears. Strawberries. Barley. Hay. Peaches. Blackbeiries. Oats. Butter. Cherries. Cabbages. Corn. Cheese. Plums. Onions, etc. 9. Are there any coal or iron mines in your State ? 10. Can you name any places that have been built up in the mining region ? 11. How is coal obtained ? 12. Are there any stone-quarries near where you live ? 13. What canals in your part of the country ? 14. What articles are transported over them ? 15. Name any seaports or lake-ports that you know of? 16. What articles does your part of the country send to New York, Philadelphia, or Baltimore ? 17. What do you get in return ? 18. Do you know where the great oyster-beds of this section are ? 19. What places are famous for .shad ? 20. Name any places that you have seen or that you know of that nuike any of the following Flour. Clothing. Leather goods. Lumber. Steam-engines. India-rabber Tobacco. Locomotives. goods. Woolen goods. Railroail iron. Furniture. Manufac- Cottou goods Farm-tools. III. - DESCRIPTION OF THE STATES. fc^ The description of States, though designed for classes in the Middle States, may be taken at the discretion of the teacher by other pupils sufficiently advanced or by way of NEW YORK. Description. — New York (N. Y.), or the " Empire State," is the first State in the Union in population, wealth, and commerce. The northern and eastern pnrts are hilly or mountainous; the western part slopes to the Lakes. The Hudson, the largest river, is famed for its beauty. The advantages possesse 1 by this State are its fertile soil, central position between the Great Lakes and the Atlantic Ocean, fine navigable rivers, and its grand harbor of New York. The principal occupations are agriculture, dairying, manufacturing, and commerce. The chief cities are : — New Yohk, the largest city in America, and tlie commercial emporium of tlie New World. It lias about 1,000,000 inhabitants. Brooklyn, opposite New York, a place of residence for people doing business in New York City. Buffalo, on L.ike Erie, noted for its trade and manufactures. THE MIDDLE STATES. ■■.i RoCHPSTER, Oil the Gcneset- River, a city of mills anil mannfac- tories, ami of great nurseries for fruit trees anil oniameiital trees. Troy, on the Hudson River, largely engagctl in inanufacturiiig. Albany, on the Hiulson, the capital of the State. NEW JERSEY. Description. — Xi-w Jei>ey (N. .1.) lii's lietwet'ii New York, Peiin.sylvaiiia, and the Atluiitii- Oci-aii. In the northern part are hills, but most ol' the State beloni,'^ to the Alhintic Phlin. The advantages of this State are its good soil, its min- eral wealth, and its situation between the coal-helds of Pennsylvania and the ureal ronimereial center, New York. The principal occupations are market-ganleniu;^', niiuini; ii"ii and zini', and manui'acturhig. The chief cities are : — Newark, famous for the manufacture of intlia-ruliber poods and leather goods, clothing, jewelry, etc. Jersey City, on the west shore of New York Bay, a great man- ufacturing and commercial place. Patekson, on the Passaic River, wliere are many locomotive and steam-engine works, cotton and silk factories, etc. Trenton, on the Delaware, is the capital. PENNSYLVANIA. Description. — Pennsylvania (Penn.), or the '' Keystone State," comes next to New York in population. The cen- tral region is crossed by various ridges of the Alleghany Mountains ; the western p;u-t slopes to the Ohio valley and the e;istern part is in the Atlantic Plain. The advantages of this State are, its rich mines of coal and iron and other minerals, its abundant water-power, excellent soil, and facilities for commerce. The principal occupations are raining, manufacturing, agriculture, and commerce. The chief cities are : — Philadelchia, on Delawaie River, the second city in poimlation in the Union, and in manufactures the first. Pittsburgh, at the junction of the Alleghany and Monongahela rivers, the center of the bitumious coal-trade and the great iron working city in the country. Scrantox, noted for its coal and iron trade. Reading, on the Scliuylkill, noted for extensive iron-works. Harhisbukg, on the Susquehanna, the capit.al of the State. DELAWARE. Description. — Delaware (Del.) is, except Rhode Island, the smallc.-l State in tlie Union. P.eing wholly in the Atlantic Plain, it is a level country. The advantages of this State are its good soil, its nian- ul'arturiiig facilities, and its fine water communicatian. The principal occupations are market -gardening, man- ufacturing, and ship-luiikling. The chief cities are : — \Vu.MINOTON, on tlie Delaware, the largest city, noted for its manufactures. Dover, a small place, the capital of the State. MARYLAND. Description. — Maryland (Md.) is very irregular in shape and surfai-e. Chesapeake Bay extends northward into the State, divid- ing it into two parts, — the penin.sula and the mainland. The eastern part is low and level ; the western part is crossed by the lofty ridges of the AUeghany ilountains. The advantages of this State are its tine climate, good soil, abundance nf cnal, and facilities for comniuniaition. The principal occupations are growing wheat, tobacco, and other farm products, cual-niiiiing in the western .sec- tion, together with manufacturing and commerce. • The chief cities ;ue : — Balti.mori;, tlie largest city, a great market for flour, tobacco, and oysters. Ci .MBERLAND, the center of the coal-trade. Khedkrick. a prosperous place ni a fine farming country. AXNAl'OLIS, llie capital, the seat of the U. S. Naval Academy. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. Description, -lb.- |ii-triit of t'olutubia is a small territory (t;4 .sipiaie mile.^) whicli belongs not to any State, but to the government of the United States. The importance of the District comes from the lact that in it is Washington, the capital of the United Stiite.s. VVashixoton is a large and fine city, containing the public build- ings in which the govenimeiit business of Our Country is carried on. The national legislature meets in the Capitol, which is thought to be the finest public building in the world. Tlie President of the United States lives at tlic White House in \Va.shington. VIRGINIA. Description. — Yiigiiiia (Ya.) is south of Maryland, from whii li it is separated by the Potomac River. The eastern section lielongs to the Atlantic Plain ; the western pait is crossed by the Blue Ridge. The advantages of this State are its fine climate and good soil, its wealth of coal and other minerals, and its great facilities for commerce. The principal occupation is agriculture, though min- ing and manufacturing — for which the State is finely adapted — are on the increase. The chief cities are : — RicuMONn. on James River, the largest place and the capital, noted for its iron-works and tobacco warehouses. Norfolk and Ports.moi:th, the ]irinci)ial seaports. PiCTEitsmiiii, on the Appomatto.\ River, a manufacturing city. WEST VIRGINIA. Description. — West Virginia (W. Va.) was a part of ^'ill:inia until 1862, when it was made a separate State. This State is crossed by the main ridge of the Alle- glianies. The western part slopes to the Ohio valley. The advantages of this State are its coal and iron, its oil-wrlls ;iii,l -.ilt--]uings. and its tine mimntain-pa.sture.s. The principal occupations are farming and mining. The chief cities are ; — Wheeling, on the Oliio River, noted for its iron-works. Charleston, the capital. AREA AND POPULATION OF THE MIDDLE STATES. Names. Area in square miles. Population (1870.) ' New York ' «,000 4,387,000 Sen .lersev 8,320 906,000 PeiinsvlTania 46,000 3,5'22,000 Jlarvlanil "l'^^ 781,000 Delaware 2,120 125,000 Virainia 38,348 1,225,000 West Virginia 23,000 442,000 74 THE UNITED STATES. THE SOUTHERN STATES. THE SOUTHERN STATES. LESSON I. DESCRIPTION OP THE SOUTHERN STATES. [For Reading.] I. Situation. 1. We now go iVora the .section wliere the chief business of the I'eople is making things to the sec- tion wliere the principal business of the people is to groiv things, — Off Chariest Lo ku t Mountain f^Qn^^ t]ie land of the mine, the factory, and the foundry to the land of the cotton, sugar, and rice field ; from the States where people are gathered in great cities to the States where cities are few and small, and people live on broad plantations. It is the Southern section of the Unitetl States about which we are now to learn. 2. The map shows us that in the southern part of the Atlantic coast are JS'ortli and South Carolina, then Georgia, and then Florida. But v>-e notice that, while the great peninsula of Florida lias A the Atlantic Ocean on its eastern tjA . coast, its western shore is laved by ^^ the warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico. Following westward along the Gidf of Mexico, we see four States, — Alabama, Mississippi, Lou- ^-•'' isiana, and Texas. North of Louisi- ^— ana, and on the west side of the Mississippi : ^ liivcr, is Arkansas, while east of the Missi.s- sippi is Tennessee. Hence we may describe the soutliern section of Our Country as including the South Atlantic and Lower Mississippi States. II. Early History. 3. In the story of the firsit settlement of this part of Our Country there is many a romantic chapter. Per- haps you have read about that old Spanish dreamer Ponce de Leon [poii'lhay day hy-ihi'], who had heard from -the Indians of a certain fountain the waters of which kept the person who drank it ever young. He sailed from the West Indies to find this fountain, and, though he found it not, he discovered a new land which he named Florida. This was in the early times, only twenty years after the discovery of America. Some time after this (l.')6.')) the Spaniards planted a colony MAP STUDIES. ^!^^ At the first recitation the teacher will allow the pupih to an:ftffc r/*. ) On what body of water do Alabama and Mis- Bissippi border? 2. Where is riee most largely grown 1 Eice is most largely grown in South Carolina aud Georgia. 3. Which State j^roduccs most sugar ? Louisiana is the greatest sugar State. 4. What are two other products of the Southern States ? nice and tobacco are other products of the South. LESSON III. SOUTHERN STATES (CosTnioED). [For Reading.] I. Wealth of the Forests. 1. Along the soutlierii seaboard, from North Caro- lina to Mississippi, are great pine forests which stretch for many miles inland from the sea-shore. These pine woods yield great quantities of what are called " naval stores," that is, tar and pitch, and also of turpentine and rosin. ' 2. Turpentine, which is the sap or juice of the pine- I tree, is obtained by digging out, in the trunk of the How Turpentine Is procured. tree near the ground, a hollow place or cavity, which will contain about a quart. These cavities are made in the winter, and in the spring the sap begins to flow aud tills them. It is tl.'en taken out and put into casks ; it there thickens into a jelly-like state, and is ready for use. 3. Tar, also, is made from the pine-tree, but in quite a different way. A great hollow is made in the side of a bank of earth, and within it billets of pine wood and roots of the pine are piled up and then covered with earth so as to keep out the air. The pile is then tired, and the tar runs down into a cast-iron pan at the bo"t- tom, and from there flows through a pipe into barrels. Pitch is obtained by boiling down tar, and rosin by distilling turpentine. 4. Besides yielding pitch, tar, rosin, and turpentine, the forests of the Southern States supply great quanti- ties of valuable timber, as live-oak, white-oak, and pine. This is much used in building ships aud making masts, and for many other purposes. II. Other Products and Pursuits. 5. Cotton, tobacco, rice, and sugar are said to be the great staples of the Southern States, which means that they are the articles most largely raised for sale. But the Southern people raise other things besides these. Thus you may find, in almost all parts of the South, great fields of corn, wheat, oats, sweet-potatoes, pease, beans, etc. These the people raise for their own use, and also to some extent for sale. 6. Then there is another business which is followed quite largely, especially in the western part of the Southern States, as in Texas and Arkansas, and also in Tennessee. This is stock-raising. You find great pastures or ranches, on which are thousands of head of cattle. These are shipped alive on the cars or by steamer, and are carried even as far eastward as Boston, where they are slaughtered for beef. The raising of sheep, horses, mules, and hogs is also an important business in the South. ' 7. This section has, besides, considerable mineral wealth. Thus, in Virginia, West Virginia, North Caro- lina, Tennessee, and Alabama are rich mines of coal and iron. In Virginia, Louisiana, and Arkansas is groat abundance of salt. And, although in most of the Southern States the growing of the great fann-staples is the chief business, yet mining is carried on to a considerable extent in some of the States. III. Cities. 8. In States largely engaged in manufacturing and commerce, people gather together in cities and towns much more than they do in States where farming is the chief business. For this reason there are not many large cities in the South. 9. The largest city of the Southern States is New Orleans in Louisiana. It is on the Mississippi Eiver, 100 miles from its mouth. New Orleans is the gi-eatest cotton market in the world. It is also the largest sugar market in the United States. It is called, on account THE SOUTHERX STATES. 79 of its shape, the " Cres- cent City." At its levees, or wliarves, are constantly found ves- sels loading with cot- ton, sugar, and other products for Europe and other parts of the wori.i. 5^^ Some description of the other Southern cities will be found in the Specia Geography, next page [For Recitation.] 1. IVTiat vciluahli articles are obtained from the pine woods ? Pitch, tar, turpen- tine, and rosin are largely made in the "^ ^ pine forests along the coast of the Southern States. 2. If^Iuit other valuable material is obtained Southern forests ? city of New Or from the Live-oak and oth- er timber for ship- building. 3. Xanu sorne of the farm - products of the Soutlurn States. Corn, wheat, oats, swee t- potatoes, pease, beans, etc. 4. What of stock-rais- Stock -raising is largely carried on, •specially on the jdains west of the — -- Mississippi. 5. Has the South any minerals ? Many of the Southern States are rich in coal, iron, salt, and other minerals. Map, — (See page 7i.> As an exercise, let the pupils locate each of the cities named in the Special Geography, next page TEXAS, NEW MEXICO. ETC. 1 Inch - t75 MiUs Longltndo West from Wwhington THE UiS"lTED .STATES. SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY FOR SOUTITERX STATES CLASSES. DESCRIPTION OF STATES. NORTH CAROLINA. Description. — North Carolina (N. C), though mnimtain- OU9 ill tht- western part, belongs chiefly to the Atlautio Plain. The advantages of this State are its pine forests, ami a soil tavniiil.li- i.ii the cultivation of grain, tobacco, etc. The leading occupations are agriculture and the pro- duction ni limber and of pitch, tar, and turpentine. The chief cities are : Wilmington, the principal seaport. Raleigh, the capital SOUTH CAROLINA. Description. - South Carolina (S. C), or the " Palmetto State," li.is a low coast and a hUly " niidiUe country'' ; it is mouiit;ii;)i>us i)i the west. The advantages of this State are a soil and climali- suited to the cultivation of cotton and rice ; and raising these products is the chief occupation of the people. The chief cities are : Charleston, the best harbor in the South Atlantic States. Columbia, the capitaL GEORGIA. Description. — Georgia (Ga.) is tlie most populous and tlimri-hiiig ot i lie Southern States. The natural advantages of this State are its facilities for raising cotton, rice, and other farm pAducts, its supply of coal and iron, and its water-power. The leading occupations are agriculture, mining, and manufacturins:. The chief cities are : Savannah, an important shipping-point. Atlanta, the capital, noted for its iron-works and machine-shops. FLORIDA. Description. — Florida (Fla.) is a long peninsula with a level surface. The climate is hot and moist, fitting it for the cultivation of cotton, sugar, and other semi-tropical products. It has valuable timber. The principal occupations aie the raising of c/im, cot- ton, oranges, and the getting out of timber. The chief places are •. Jacksonville, the largest city. TALLiVHASSEE, the capital. Kett West, strongly fortified, and noted for its naval station. ALABAMA. Description. — Alabama (Ala.; is mostly level, except in the northern part, where the Alleghany Mountains end. Its advantages :ire good «>\\ and mineral riches. The principal occupations are cultivating, inanufac- titring, and -hipping cotton ; mining coal and iron, etc. The chief cities are : Mobile', an important shipping place on the Gnlf of Mexico. MONTGOMERT, the Capital, a flonrtshing city. MISSISSIPPI. Description. — Mississippi (Miss.) is generally level : along the rivers it is liable to overflow. Advantages and Occupations. — The soU of this State is finely adapted to the cultuic of cotton, and Missis- sippi ranks as tiie leading cotton State in the Union. The chief places are : \"ic.isbci;g and X.vrcHEZ. shipping-points on the Mississijipi. .Iacksc>n, the capital. TENNESSEE. Description. — Teimessee (Tenn.) is mountainous in the east, hilly or rolling in the middle, and level iu the Its advantages are its fine soil and its mineral wealth. The principal occupations are mining and stock-rais- ing in the eastern part, and agriculture in the middle and western parts. The chief cities are ; Nashville, the iviinial, and priiicijial city of Middle Tennessee. Memphis, a great cottoii and gr:iin market on the Mississippi. ARKANSAS. Situation. — .\rkansas (.\rk.) is west of the Mississippi, and iiorlli of Louisiana. Advantages and Occupations. — This State has a rich soil ; farming and stock-raising are the chief pursuits. Little Rock is the capital and largest city. LOUISIANA. Description. — Louisiana (La.) occupies the low, level ivL:ion :i].)iig the lower course of the Mississippi. The advantages of this State are its fertile soil and its facilities for transportation. The principal occupation is the cultivation of cotton aid the sugar-cane. The chief cities are : New Orleans, the capital, the greatest cotton and sugar ship- pin,!;-place in the United States. BaVon Rouge [roiah], on the Mississippi River. TEXAS. Description. — Texas (Tex.) is the largest State. The advantages of this State are its fertile soil, its fine L;ra7iiig grounds, and its minerals. The chief occupations are agriculture and stock-raising. The principal cities are : Galveston, the largest city and seaport. Austin, the capital. AEEA AND POPULATION OF THE SOUTHERN STATES. Names. Area in square miles. Population (1870). \orth Tarolina 60,704 1,071,400 South CaroliDs 34,000 705,000 Georfria 68,000 1,884,000 Florida 59,300 188,000 Alabama 60,722 997,000 Mississippi 47,156 82S,000 Tennessee 45,600 1,258,500 Louisiana 41,346 727,000 Arkansas 52,198 484,500 Texas 274,356 818,000 THE WESTERN, OK CENTRAL STATES. THE WESTERN, OR CENTRAL STATES LESSON I. DESCRIPTION OP THE WESTERN STATES. tFor Reading.] I. General Description. L There i.s a part of uur country wiiicli may be called tlie granary of the Uniteil States. It is a vast region where the fertile soil enables the farmer to raise such plenty of corn and wheat that he has not uiily all lie iieetls for liini- .>;flf. 1ml iiioH! tlian cnoiijih, .so that hi' .sends it to feed the |.i-.il.le of the Eastern States. Ill' al.so sends his corn and wheat to load thousands of ves- .scls which carry the f.'Kiin from the seaports on the Atlantic cna.st t4^th(! countries of Eii- ropi^, whose peo])le have not land enou^li to grow what they ne(» ;:::;' ,) Idled with a busy people, who, in cloing things that are new and large, go before the people of most other parts of our coun- try. They are noted for their enter]irise in founding cities and building railroadsand othergreat ]iublic works, and for their intel- ligences and lo\(' of education. It will help you to understand why this is so when I tell you a little about the historv of theses States. MAP STUDIES. Note. — On account of the great extent of tlie Westeiu States, the nieip of tliis section is presented in two divisions, — the Eastern Division, including the Central Stati'.s east of the Mississippi ; and the Western Division, including the States west of the Mississippi. {,See next two pntjes.) 1. Central States East of the Mississippi (pige 83). Position. — 1. What three of the Great Lakes form the northern boundary of this division of the Western States ? 2. Which one of the Great Lakes is entirely within the United States? 3. What two States in this division are farthest north ? 4. Which State is farthest east ? 5. Which is the most southern State of this division ? 6. Beginning at the north, name the States which border on the Mississippi River. Surface. — 1. Looking at the map, do you think the surface is generally level or mountainous ? 2. What mountains in the southeastern part of Kentucky ? 3. What part of Michigan is mountainous? 4. Which part of Wisconsin is mountainous ? Rivers. — 1. What great river forms the western boun- dary of this division of the Western States ? 2. What is the largest tributary received by the Mississippi in this division ? 3. What other large tributary of the Missis- sippi flows through the State of Illinois ? 4. What two rivers, flowing through Tennessee, enter the Ohio River ? In what State is each of these ( Cincixxa'ti. Chic.\'c.o. Principal Cities? \ Louisville. Detooit'. t, IXDI.iXAP'OLIS. MiLWAU'kEE. Of what State is each of these ( CoLEMnCS. Sl-KINCEIEU). The Capital ? -; Fua.nkfoc.t. Lansinc. Inmanai'olis. JlAni.soN. 2. Central States West of the Mississippi (page ?2). Position. — 1. What States are included in this divis- ion? .Ins. Minneso'ta, Iowa. Missouri, Kansas, and Nebraska. 2. What country north of this section ? 3. What great river forms the largest part of the eastern boundary ? 4. Which are the two most southern of the five States ? Surface. — 1. Are there any mountains in Minnesota? 2. In which part of Minnesota is the ridge caled "The Height of Land"? .3. What mountains in Missouri? 4. Looking at the map. do you think Kansas and Nebraska are mountainous or level States ? Rivers. — 1. In what State does the Mississippi rise ? in what lake ? 2. A great tributary of the Missis- sippi flows southwestward through Missouri : what is its name ? 3. What tributary does the Missouri receive from Nebraska ? — from Kansas ? In what State is each of these i' Mixxeap'olis. Leavexwouth. Principal Cities ?... -i Vivm-Qvv.[du-bti.l-c'\ O'maha. t St. Louis. Of what State is each of these r St. Paul. Tope'ka. The Capital?... < Des Moines [ffe moi'ji]. Lixcolx. I Jefferson City. t.Keimcy yebrnska' ^"'""r' ^ "^ T'7"T=1 '""^jI 6^- \* '^) "^ S' tieavenwarilvl >r;.,„„rlsj(i Vi 3 LLeavenworthli 8.3 S ECT IP N 5. Ce]'oiiai States Eastern Drv7si05J" '« Anjanc Canton ol THE UNITED STATES. Blap of the MlBslssippl Valley. II. Settlement. 3. Many years ago the Atlantic States became quite thickly settled, and people began to ask about the great unoccupied country west of the Alleghany Moun- tains. At the time when Washington was President, there were beyond these mountains only a few adven- turous pioneers in the Ohio country, with here and there a log fort in which were some soldiers to protect the western border of the country against the Indians, who swarmed in the land. 4. But soon after American independence was won, the wave of emigration began to sweep over the moun- tains, and into the great valley of the Mississippi Eiver. This was the time when the " West " began to be settled, — when all over that region long lines of slow- moving wagons were seen carrying the families and goods of hardy settlers on their way to make new clearings in the forest and break up the prairies into fertile fields. As they advanced onward the Indians were driven before them to seek new hunting-grounds in the farther west. 5. The people prospered in their new homes, and as time passed new States were formed, till now the whole of the " Great West " — that is, all the country between the Alleghany Mountains and the Mississiiipi Eiver — is quite well settled, though not so thickly as in the Eastern States. Now, it will not be hard for you to ainderstand that, as the people who moveil West were the most enterprising people, drawn from all parts of the country, and as they went from old States where there were set ways of doing things to a new region where they had to depend very much on their own wits, they soon learned to do things which had never been done before. This is what is meant when we say that the Western peoi)le are independent and enterprising and in- ventive. III. Situation. (). The Wp.stern States might better be called the Central States, for they are situated in the Mississippi Valley, which is the great central part of our country. If j'ou will look on the map of the United States you will see the State of Kansas, which is among the tvestenimost of the Wesier7i States. And yet Kansas is only the half-way house in the .journey across the United States, from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast. In fact, the name "Western States" was given to this section at a time when it was really the farthest west that people had settled. But now that the Rocky Mountains and beyond to the Pacific Ocean contain great States, you can see that Central States is the proper name for this part of our broad country. 7. This section is so very large that the pupil must look long and often at the map of the United States so as to be able to form an idea of its vastness. The map of the Valley of the Mississippi given on this page wiU further help the pupil. The Central States occupy the whole of this great region, except the cotton country about which you have learned, and which is in the southern part of the Mississippi Valley. IV. The States. 8. In this va.st region, you will see by the map of the United States (pages 54 and 55) that there are three rows or tiers of States : — I. ^Micliigan — Wisconsin — Minnesota. IT. Ohio — Indiana — Illinois — Iowa — Nebraska. III. Kentucky — Missouri — Kan.sas. THE WESTERN, OR CENTRAL STATES. 85 [For Recitation.] 1. What of the iiame JVestern States ? The Western States received their name when they formed the extreme western part of our coun- try ; they still bear it, though they now occujjy a central position in the United States. 2. JVliere is this section situated "i This section occupies the middle and northern parts of the Mississippi Valley and the region near the Great Lakes. 3. For what is this section noted '!■ This section is the granary of the United States. 4. For v;hat are the people distinguished ? The people are distinguished for their enterprise and intelliii Valley. It is an old citj', having been founded by the French nearly two hundred years ago. In addition to the American popu- lation are many descendants of the original French set- tlers, and also gi'eat numbers of Germans. St. Louis is very largely engaged in the manufacture of iron-wore, and is likely to become the greatest iron city in the United States. The Mi.ssissippi at this point is spanned by a splendid steel bridge. St Louis is noted for its fine schools and for its literary and benevolent institutions. 8. Cincinnati, on the Ohio River, is the center of trade for the Ohio Valley. It is one of the most beau- tiful cities in the Union, and is known as the " Queen City of the West." It is surrounded by handsome hills on which are many elegant residences. Cincinnati is noted for its many great pork-packing establishments. A fine suspension bridge across the Ohio connects Cin- cinnati with Covington, Kentucky. UFor Recitation.] 1. What minerals are found in the Western States ? The Western States are rich iu coal, iron, cop- per, and lead. 2. IPltat nf lumbering ? Lumbering is largely carried on, especially in the great iorests of the North. 3. What of mamifacturing ? The Western people are more engaged in agi-i- culture than in manufacturing, yet in Ohio, Illinois, and some other States this is a great business. 4. In what does the great trade of the West consist ? The commerce of the West consists in exchang- ing corn, wheat, tobacco, beef, ])ork, etc., for the manufactures of the East and for imported articles. 5. Naitie the three principal cities of the Jf^est. Tiie three largest cities of the West are Chicago, St. Louis, and Cincinnati. Hflgip, — (Seepages 5?. SC.) Give the location of each of these cities. 88 THE UNITED STATES. SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY FOR WESTERN CLASSES. I. -MAP STUDIES. t^" These questions relate only to the State in which the pupils of the class reside, and are designed solely for Western classes. Position and Area. — 1. What is the name of your State ? 2. In what part of this section of the United States is it situ- ated ? 3. How does your State compare in size with the other States of this section ? [&e table, ])agc SO. ] 4. Bound your State. 5. It is crossed by what paraUcl or parallels of latitude ' 6. By what meridians ? 7. Area of your State in srjuare miles ? 8. Population ? [Sec tabic, page 89. ] Surface. — 1. Is your State a prairie State, or has it any niountaiiis ? 2. What is the name of the highest mountain in your State? [Ansiccr by the teacher.'] 3. Do you know the names of any mountains not repre.sented on the map ? Rivers, — 1. What is the largest river of this State ? 2. Where does it rise and into what does it flow ? 3. What is the second river in size ? 4. What boundary rivers has your State ? 5. Are there any small rivers that you know of not represented on the map ? Lakes. — 1. If your State borders on any large lake, name it and ti'U in wliat part of the State it is. 2. Name any small lakes. Cities. — 1. What is the capital of this State and where is it situated ? 2. What is the largest city ? 3. Name any other large or important citie.s. 4. Name the capital of each of the Western States. 5. Name the largest city in each Western State, and tell something about it. Counties, etc. — 1. In what county do you live ? 2. What is the name of the county .seat ? 3, Wliat counties lie ne.xt to youis ? 4. Name as many counties as you can. 5. Is the name of the place in which you live down on the map? 6. If the place in which you live is not represented on the map, nearSvliat large place do you know it to be ? 7. Wli.it railroad or railroads pass through this city [or town] ? 8. Do you know whei'e the express trains run to ? History. — [To be given hij teacher.] 1. At what place was your State first settled ? 2. In what year i 3. In what year did it become a State ? iJ^=" Pupils may now be required to clraio on the blackboard an outline map of their State. 11. -LOCAL GEOGRAPHY. 0^^ Questions exclusively for Western classes. 1. What are the principal farm-products raised in your State ? 2. Wliat places do you know of that have a large steamboat trade ? 3. What railroads cross your section of the Western States ? 4. How far do you live from Chicago, St. Louis, or Cincinnati? 5. Are there any coal, iron, lead, or copper mines near your part of the West ? 6. Do you know of any towns or cities near you that have a large trade in grain or lumlwr ? 7. Where is the pine lumber used in your place obtained ? 8. Do you know of any places that have pork-packing or beef- packing establishments ? ■ 9. Flouring-mills or saw-mills ? 10. Do you know of any places where any of the following articdes are manufactured : Cotton cloth ? woolen goods ? boots and shoes ? leather ? furniture ? wagons ? paper ? farming-tools ? a.'ces ? scythes ? watches ? pins ? buttons ? nails ? locomotives ? iron machinery ? stoves ? pianos ? tin-ware ? wooden-ware ? Note for Pupils. — If you cannot answer these questions, ask your older brothers or sisters, or your parents ; and then, if you cannot find out, your teacher will tell you. III. DESCRIPTION OF THE STATES. KENTUCKY. Descriptive. — Kentucky (Ky.) hus a varied surface. The t)hiu lii^'cr forms its northern, and the Mississippi its western bnundary. The principal occupations are raising com, wheat, to- bacco, hemp, cattle, sheep, and horses, and manufactruing flour, hemp, tobacco, and whiskey. The chief cities are : Louisville, the largest city, noted for its trade and manufactures. Covington and Newport, opposite Cincinnati, noted for tlieir manufactures. Frankfort, the capital. OHIO. Description. — Ohio (O.) lies between the Ohio River and Lake Erie, and has a varied surface. Advantages and Occupations. — This State has a fer- tile soil and rich mines of coal and iron. Agriculture and manufacturing are the principal occupations. The chief cities are : Cincinnati, the largest city, noted for its extensive trade and manufactures. Columbus, the capital, a gi-eat man\ifartnrinc place. Cleveland, noted for its lake- trade. ,- ' ~^>^ Toledo, largely - - .'^- engaged in manu- facturing and com- merce. , ■^1= INDIANA. Description. — • Indiana (Ind.) is one of the prai- rie States. The advan- tages of this State are its fertile soil and its rich mines of coal and iron. The principal occupations are agriculture, mining, and commerce. The chief cities are ; Indianapolis, the capital and largest city, noted for its manufac- tures and trade. THE WESTERX, OU CENTKAL STATE.- 8!) EvANSViLLE, Foi!T Wayne, and Tebbe Haute, important nianu facturiiif; [ilai-fs. ILLINOIS. Description. — llliiinis (111.), siliiati'd bctweeii Imliaiia and the Mi.ssissi]i]ii, is mainly a low plain, cillier lovcl ur luululatin^. The principal occupations are aj^riculture and .stock- raisiiif,', workini,' """~°^^'" tlic rii-li mine.'; Ill' '•'■aland lead, and ni.inul'arlniin;,'^ The chief cit- - -' Lot ,K '-'~f^^^^ --'r' ^'' -}^'*Sir.: '* iJ'Jj. Chicago, ontl city in size, noti^d for its manufactures and lar; Chicago, tlie lar- gest city, noted for it.s immense trade. Spkingfield, the I'apital, abu.syman ufaeturin^ and com- mercial city. QuiN'cv, tlie .sec- MICHICAN. Description. — Michigan (Mich.) con.sists (if two penin- sula.^, lall'd the Upper Peninsula and the Lower Peiiin.'iula. The Ui>per Peninsula is rug,^'ed and mcjuntainuus, the Lower is {generally Irvil. The advantages of this State are its fertile soil, rich co]iper mines, and vast forests. The principal occupations are ai;ri';ulture, luml«'iinL;, and miiiiuL;. The chief cities aie : Di'VPROiT, the largest city, engaged in manufacturing and com- merce. Lansing, tlie capital. Grand Rapids, tlie second city in .size, noted for its numul'acture of wooden-ware, iron-ware, and flour. WISCONSIN. Description. — Wisconsin (Wis.) consists of a prairie rei,'ion in the south, and an undulating and hilly ivijioii in the nortli. Advantages and Occupations. — This State is rich in its soil, its forest.s, and its mines of lead and iron. Fanning and stock-raising, lumlieiing and mining, are the chief pur- suits. The chief cities are : Milwaukee, the largest city autl commercial metropolis. Madison, the capital. Fond-du-Lac, the second city in size, noted for its grain trade and manufacture of wooden-ware. IOWA. Description. — Liwa (la.), lying between tfic Mississippi and the Missciuri, is a prairie State. The principal occupations are raising wheat, corn, and stock, and working the mines of lead and iron. The chief cities are : DrBnjrE, tlie largest city, noted for its trade and manufac- tures. Bes Moines, the capit.al. Davenpout, the second city in size, largely engaged in trailc ami in iiianufactnring cotton and woolen goods, sawed lumber, etc. MINNESOTA. Description. — Minnesota (Min.) is a table-land in the northern sc.ction. and has a jirairie surface in the soutli. The principal occupations are raising wheal and oats, Ininliering, and manufacturing sawed lumber and flour. The chief cities are : ;5T. I'AL'L, the capital and largest city, noted for it* trade in Hour, lumber, and furs. Minneapolis, the second city in size, noted for its great manu- factuiv of lumber. MISSOURI. Description. — Missouri (Mo.) is level or rolling in the noil linn scctinu, and miiuiitainoiis in the southern section. Advajitages and Occupations. — This SUite has a fer- tile .soil, ..111(1 is rich in irnii. coal, lead, and other iiiiiinals. Agri- ciiltuir, nulling, and /: maiiufac-turiug are the , ,^i,' . \ The chief cities air : w^' * i^ ~ ^"^^^^^ St. Loris, the largest Vr^-' '-i Z - ._.^ '_}-j'.-'y" city, noted for its iron 'tesy' ^ "• -. manufactures and its great \J;?i-:' V^, eoninicrcc. Jefferson City, tlie capital. Kansas City, the seconil city in size, noted for its large trade and its great bcet-iiackiiig establishments. KANSAS. Description. — Kansas (Kan.) is a great undulating piaiiic. 111' jilaiii. The principal occupations are agriculture in the eastern sectiiiu, and stock-raising mi the grassy ]ilains of the west. The chief cities are : IjKAVENsworth, largest city, and jirincipal trading and mjnufac- turiiig place. Tope'ka, the capit,al. Lawrence, the second cil}' in size, a railro.ad and triuling center. NEBRASKA. Description. — Xeluaska (Neb.), like Kaiis;t.s, is an un- dulating plain. The principal occupations are the raising of grain, fruit, and stock. The chief cities are : Omaha, the largest city, and chief trading center. Lincoln, the capital. Nebrask a City, the second place in size, carries on a large river t rade. AREA AND POPULATION OF THE WESTERN STATES. St. Lonis. Names. Area in square miles. Population (1870). Kentucky 37.680 1,321,000 Ohin 39,964 2,665,000 Indiana 33,800 1,680,000 Illinois 55,410 2,539,000 Michi:.'an 56,451 1,184,000 Wisconsin 5.3,924 1,054,000 Inwa 55,045 1,194,000 Jlinnesot-l 83,531 439,000 Missouri 65,350 1,721,000 Kansas 81,318 364,000 Nebraska 75,995 122,000 90 THE PACIFIC HIGHLANDS AND SLOPE. 91 THE PACIFIC HIGHLANDS AND SLOPE. LESSON I. THE PACIFIC HIGHLANDS. CFor Reading.: I. Settlement. 1. The great region between the Rocky Mountains and tliu Pacific Ocean is naturally divided into two .sec- tions, — the Pacific Highlands, extending from tlie Rocky Mountain.s to the Sierra Nevada Range ; and tlie Pacific Slope, i'ruiu the Sierra Nevada Range to tlie Pacific Ocean. 2. Less than thirty years ago tlic Rocky Mo\intain Region was a wilderness, inhabited oidy by wamlering tribes of Indians ; for of white men only a few very (hiring pioneers and ex- l)lorers had ventured into its mountain fastnesses. But ater the discovery of gold in California, in 1848, men began to search for tlie precious metals in the country east of California. After a while mines of sil- ver were found in Nevada richer than any known in tlie world before. Almost at tlie some time great de- posits of gold were dis- covered in Colorado, in the Rocky Mountains. Af- ter this people went on finding more and more gold and silver, which brought many settlers to tliose parts ; and govern- ments called Territories were formed throughout the whole section. Some of these Territories have grown so rapidly that they are now States, and the others will be States when they have population enough. 3. As the States on the Pacific Coast grew in pros- perity, and mining towns sprang up in the Rocky Mountain Territories, it was thouglit that a railroad was needed to connect the Pacific coast with the Atlantic States. Accordingly, an iron track across the continent, from Omaha, on the Missouri River, to San Prancisco, was begun, and in 18(59 this great work was completed. Now we may go from New York to San Francisco in seven days ; and the miners of the Rocky Mountains can easily ship their gold, and receive in return tlie supplies they need. 4. The vast region of the Pacific Highlands is occu- pied by two States, Colorado and Nevada, and several Territories. Of the Territories you may see on the map The Yosemite Valley. a row of tliem that are crossed by the main cliain of the Rocky ^Mountains, — namely, Monta'na, Wyoming, and New Mexico. Then to the west of the main chain, and in wliat is called tlie great interior plateau, you see another series of Territ(U'ies, — namely, I'dalio, Utah, and Arizo'na. There are two other Territories, lying east of the Rocky Mountains, wliich may as well be taken along witli the Pacific Highlands. These are the Indian Territory and Dako'ta Territory. 5. The Rocky M(miitaiiis are famous for the grandeur (if their scenery. I am sure you must have heard of the magnificent peaks and " parks" of Colorado. In the valley of the Madison River, one of the head-streams of the Missouri, in Montana, there is a wonderful region called the " Fire-Hole Ba- ~ ■ sin," that contains many hundredsof boiliiigsprings and spouting geysers, far exceeding those of Iceland - J in size and grandeur. The ; - " ' grandest geyser in the world, called the " Grand Geyser," throws a stream of hot water to a lieight of 300 feet. " Old Faith- ful " spouts every houi-, and throws up a heavy body of water IGO feet high. 6. The Canon [kan\i/oii^ of the Yellowstone, in Montana, is hardly less wonderful. It is a great mountain-rent, wliich has perpendicular basaltic walls, from 1,000 to 2,000 feet in height. For a distance of 2.5 miles along this mighty chasm the river rushes and dashes with fear- ful velocity, making in one place a leap of 450 feet, forming one of the grandest of waterfalls. The rocks, in many places along the canon, are worn into fontastic shapes resembling ruined castles with minarets and .spires. A section of this magnificent mountain-region, nearly as large as the State of Connecticut, has been set apart by Congress as a "National Park." It will certainly be the grandest park in the world. II. Resources. 7. The Rocky Jlountain region is rich in gold and silver ; hence mining is a leading occupation there. But it is not the only occupation. The greater part of tlie eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains is a fine grazing region, and as time passes, more and more people are taking to stock-raising. In other parts, as 9-2 THE UNITED STATES. in the young and thriving State of Colorado, is excel- lent farming land. 8. The great plateau occupied by Utah, Nevada, Idalio, and Arizona is almost rainless. The reason of this is, that the moisture in the clouds blowing from the Pacific Ocean is condensed by the Sierra Ne- vada Mountains, so that the winds passing over the plateau are dry winds, and scarcely any rain ever falls. You may readily suppose, then, that vegetation must be scanty here. And so it is. But to make up for its poverty in this respect, nature has veined the moun- tains of the plateau region with the richest silver mines on the globe. III. Indians. 9. Tliis region is the home of most of the Indians still found in this country. A few of the tribes are Indian Life In the Rocky MonnUlna. somewhat civilized, but most of them have the same habits as their ancestors, and some tribes are ferocious, murdering savages. IV. Cities. 10. Denver, the capital of Colorado, is the largest city in the Rocky Mountains. It is a young city, but has had a wonderful growth. Salt Lake City is the capital of Utah, and the center of the religion called Mormonism. This religion allows a man to have many wives, — a practice which is called polyr/ami/. Salt Lake City is situated on the Jordan Eiver, which empties into Great Salt Lake. The place is large, and beautifully laid out. Trees line the streets, through which streams of water are constantly running, and gardens surround the houses. Virginia City is the largest place in the State of Nevada. Here you may visit some of the greatest silver mines in the world. [For Recitation.] 1. What States and Tcrritnries are found in the Pacific Hiiildaiids ? The States of Colorado and Nevada, and tlie Territories of Montana, Dakota, Indian Territory, Wyoming, New Mexico, Idaho, Utah, and Arizona. 2. lUiat are the principal occupations of the inhabitants ? Mining and stock-raising are the chief kinds of business in this region. 3. IFluit are the largest cities in tins section ? The largest cities are Denver and Salt Lake City. IVIap.— (S« page 90) 1. Montana is south of what country? 2. What division south of Montana 7 3. What State east of Colorado ? 4. What division west? 5. What country south of New Mexico? G. Between what four States or Territories is Idaho ? 7. Where is Ne- vada ? Utah 7 Arizona ? 8. What large lake in Utah ? 9. What large rivers rise in the Paciflc Highlands ? LESSON II. THE PACIFIC SLOPE. I. Description. 1. We have learned about the Rocky Mountain Re- gion, or Pacific Highlands ; and now we are to learn about the Pacific Slope. Here are the States of Cali- fornia and Oregon, and here is Washington Territory. 2. Probably every person has heard or read some- thing about Cslifornia. We think of it — do we not ? — as a sunny land, a favored spot, rich in gold and bright flowers, dowered with tlie most beautiful climate, and yielding the vine and the olive and the orange. 3. California is the largest, wealthiest, and most pojiulous of the Pacific States. It is about twice as large as the New England States, and a little larger than all the Middle States. The most striking natural feature of California is the Si'erra Nevada Range, which extends the whole length of the State. That part of California which lies on the eastern slope of the Sierra Nevada ilountains is dry and barren. West of the Sierra Nevada Mountains is the California Basin, in- cluding the valleys of the San Joaquin [wah-i:een'] and Sacramen'to rivers, famed for their fertility. II. Climate. 4. Tliough California is in the Temperate Zone, it has only two seasons, the rainy and the dry, the former corresponding to winter, the latter to summer. The " rainy season " begins in December and ends in April. During the rest of the year not a drop of rain falls ; the sun shines bright and hot, without any curtain of clouds ; the heat, except along the sea-coast, is intense, and the hills and valleys present a very barren aspect. But in January, soon after the first rains, the whole face of the country is covered with green grass and a profusion of brilliant wild-flowers. III. Mining. 5. It was its gold that first made California famous ; and, though farming is now a greater business than mining, yet working the precious metals is still an important source of wealth. Besides the gold mines, there are rich deposits of quicksilver ore. At New Almaden is a quicksilver mine that is said to be the most valuable of the kind in the world. THE PACIFIC IIKIHLAXD.S AND SLOPE. 'J 3 IV. Agriculture. 6. If one were to visit Calii'ornia for the first time in the .summer season, when the soil is all parched, he would say that it must be very hard to grow anything in such barren-looking ground. But what a mistake ! For after the .soil has been soaked by the winter rains it yields most abundantly. All the grains and fruits of the Temperate Zone flourish finely, and the common vegetables, such as beets, cabbages, potatoes, etc., reach a wonderful size. 7. Wheat is the great crop raised for export. A few years ago every barrel of flour nscd in California had to be taken there. Xow California is the foremost wheat- growing State in the Union. Wine is another impor- tant product of the Golden State. Extensive vineyards have been planted in all parts of the State, and millions of gallons of wine are exported to other parts of the United States and to foreign countries. The southern part yields not only the vine and aU the fruits, gi'ains, and vegetables of the Temperate Zone, but a variety of semi-tropical fruits, as the orange, lemon, olive, and tig. V. Scenery. 8. California is noted for its grand scenery. The Yosemite [i/o-sem'{-(i/] Valley and Falls, the Big-Tree Groves, Lake Tahoe, and the Geyser Hot Springs are visited by tourists from all countries. The Yosemite Valley, in the central part of the Sierra Nevada Range, is a great cleft, or chasm, in the mountains, several miles long, with perpendicular granite walls from 2,000 to 4,000 feet in height. Over one of these walls a small mountain-stream falls a distance of 1,.300 feet. VI. Cities. 9. San Francisco is the largest city and the great commercial emporium of the Pacific Coast. The city is situated on a small peninsula between the Bay of San Francisco and the Pacific Ocean. The entrance to the harbor is called the " Golden Gate." The inhabitants of San Francisco have been drawn from all parts of the world. One part of the population attracts the atten- tion of strangers, — namely, the Chinese, of whom there are several thousand in this city. They are employed as operatives, cooks, and laundry-men. 10. Sacramento, in the central part of the State, is the capital. Oakland, on San Francisco Bay, ten miles from San Francisco, is the second city in the State. It is a favorite place of residence for San-Franciscans, and is the pleasantest city in the State. VII. Description of Oregon. 11. Do you remember that the great plateau east of the Sierra Nevada Mountains is a nearly rainless region, and why this is so 1 Xow notice that the greater })art of Oregon and Washington is east of the Cascade Range, and what will you suspect? That the whole of the eastern part of Oregon and Washington — which includes rather the larger part of each — must be bar- ren ; because scanty rain always means scanty vegeta- tion. The contrast between the region east and that west of the mountains is wonderful. On the one side is desolation, on the other the most exuberant fertility. VIII. Resources. 12. This is a region of the grandest primeval forests, and all the navies in the world might be built from its towering ])iues and stout oaks, .\lready the timber and lumber interest is of great importance in AVashLng- ton and Oregon, but it must largely increase. 13. For the Kiising of wheat and other cereals the sou cannot be surpa.ssed. The Willam'mette A^alley in Oregon is particularly celebrated as an agricultural dis- trict ; and the people not only produce grain enough for themselves, but have a surplus to send abroad. JIuch attention is also given to fruit-raising. 14. While farming and lumbering are the principal occupations in this region, the enterprising Oregonians and Washiugtonians arc fast liuilding up various kinds of manufactures, as those of cotton and woolen cloths. Hour, furniture, boots and shoes, etc. Those pupils, therefore, who live in the older States and think of this North Pacific country as a mere wilderness, "Whore rolls tlie Oregon, and liears no sound Save Ills own dashiiiK»," must learn that this is no longer the case ; for now the shriek of the steam- whistle and the hum of the factory are heard throughout this busy and progressive land. IX. Cities. 15. Portland is the largest city of Oregon. It is finely situated near the junction of the Willammette with the Columbia (or Oregon) River. A very large trade is carried on here. There are no large places yet in Washington ; but thriving towns, among which are Olympia and Seattle, are growing up on Puget Sound. [For Recitation.} 1. What two States and om- Trrritory arc found on tlu- Pacific Coast ? The States of CalifVirnin ami Oregon, and Wa,sb- iugton Territory. 2. Jn or plateaus of the mountain-region. Here are vast fertile tracts at a height of many tliousand feet above the ocean. Here, also, are most of the large cities, while on the coast are only small seaports. III. Climate. G. All the countries of the Andes are in the Torrid Zone, except Chili, which is in the South Temperate Zone. But you will easily understand that, owing to the great ditt'erences in height, there must be great diflerences in the climate. In the region of the Andes, spring, summer, and winter are seated on separate thrones, which they never quit. The heat is always scorching in the plains, and the cold is ahvays intense among the higher ridges, while the plateaus between the two enjoy a constant spring. [For Recitation.] 1. How do you describe South America ? South America is the southern half of the Western Continent, and is joined to North America by the Isthmus of Panama. N\ap. — (.^"^ page 01,.) I. What ocean east of South America? 2. What ocean west? 3, What islands between South and North America? 4. What isthmus joins North and South America? 2. Jl'hat great mountains in the western part of South America ? The Andes Mountains. Map. — (■'''C V"!"^ '■''*) 1- In what direction do the Andes extend? 2. Do they consist of one range or of more than one ? 3. What ocean are they near ? 3. Of what 2)a-rts docs the Andes region consist ? The Andes region consists of a coast-plain, high phiteaus, and still higher ranges. 4. IVhat of the climate ? The climate is very hot in the plains and low valleys, temperate on the table-lauds, and very cold on the hioh mountains. LESSON II. THE ANDES COUNTRIES (Contixued). [For Reading.] I. Vegetation. 1. The lower valleys of the mountain- region and the plains that slope to the eastward of the Andes pro- duce various tropical plants, — palms, tree-ferns, bana- nas, cacao, indigo, etc. On the mountain-sides and [ilateaus are the trees, grains, and other plants of the Temperate Zone, with many kinds of cactus. But vegetation grows scanty as a greater and gi'eater height is reached, until, on the snow-covered summits, nothing whatever grows. 2. Three of the most important vegetable products of the Andes region are cincho'na, cacao, and coca. The cinchona is the tree from which the medicine called quinme is obtained. It is native to the Andes region, and grows on the mountain slopes. About the cacao-tree you have already learned in studying the geography of Mexico. You remember that it is the tree that jdelds the bean from which cocoa and chocolate are made. Coca is a shrub from six to eight feet high, the dried leaves of which are chewed by the natives, just as tobacco is chewed in our country, or opium in China. 3. It is an interesting fact that tlie potato is a native of the countries of the Andes ; and this root, w-hicli is now grown and eaten so largely, was unknown till it was introduced from Peru or Chili. When it was first taken to Europe nobody would eat it, and it was de- spised and forgotten till the reign of the French king, Louis XIV. The king had large pieces of ground planted with potatoes, and he went about with tlie flower of the potato in his buttonhole. Nobody dared to laugh at the king ; and when he said potatoes were to be eaten, people began to find out how good and wholesome they were. By degrees it was more and more liked, and now there is no common vegetable so highly thought of II. Animals of the Andes. 4. The most interesting of the animals found on the highlands of the Andes is the llama. It has been called the " small camel," and is greatly used as a beast of burden. This animal is about the size of a stag ; so it is not large or strong enough to carry a man ; but it can bear a load of from fifty to a hundred pounds. There are silver-mines up in the mountains ; and the llama goes backwards and forwards, bearing loads of .silver ore. These animals move in long files of five hundred or a thousand, marching in perfect order and in obedience to the conductor. 5. The alpaca is smaller than the llama, and looks somewhat like a sheep. It has a long, soft, fine fleece of a silky luster. A great deal of this is sent to our country for the manufacture of shawls and other deli- cate fabrics. As related to the alpaca we may also COUNTRIES OF THE ANDES. 97 name the vicuna [ve-lvoriyah], a beautiful, graceful creature, with tlie habits of the antelope. The wool of this animal is even finer than that of tiie alpaca, and is of greater value. Still another animal belonging to the high Andes of Chili and Peru is the ehinchil'la. It is an elegant, active little animal, and is covered with a fur which is very thick and soft and of a grayish color. This fur is greatly admired for winter clothing, and is made into muffs, mantels, trimming.s, etc. On the rocky heights of the Andes is found a vast bird, called the condor; it is the largest of the vulture tribe. III. Mining and Transportation. 6. The Andes Mountains arc a great treasure-house of minerals. Hidden in their rocky ledges are veins of silver and gold and copper. The Indians used to work the mines long before the Spaniards came. And after that they were worked much more, for the thirst for the precious metals was the Spaniards' passion. 7. Carrying goods from the high table-lands, where most of the cities and people are, to and from the sea- I)orts on the Pacific Ocean, is a great labor. The roads are very steep, and the traveler is safe only on the back of the sure-footed mule or of the equally sure-footeil Indian. The usual way of transporting goods is on the backs of pack-mules or of llamas. In recent times, however, the people of the Andes have done a good deal to improve their means of transportation. They have been building good roads and bridges, and rail- roads even have been constructed from the sea-coast to the plateau. IV. The Republics. 8. In this mountain region are five countries, — beginning with Colombia on the north, and ending with Chili on the south. You may easily remember If )-4j±'^ the name of the countr\ ''?" ' which IS directly south of Colombn by thinking of the Equator, which cross- es it, and remembering that the Spanish for Equa- tor is Ecuador [(d-q)iah-dor''\. To tlie south of Ecuador is Peru, the ancient land of the Iiicas ; and to the south of Peru is Bolivia, called after a famous general named A PeruTian Scena Bolivar, who finight for the liberty of South America against the Spaniards, many ycai-s ago. Bolivia joins on to Chili. All the countries of the Andes are repub- lics, like the United States. V. Commerce and Cities. 9. From Colombia the principal articles .shipped by way of trade are coflee, cotton, tobacco, and dye-woods. Tlie largest city in this country is Bogot;i', and the principal seaport Cartage'na. 1 0. From Ecuador the principal articles shipped by way of trade are cacao, cotton, and Peruvian bark. Its largest city is Quito, which is on the Equator. It is situated 10,000 feet above the ocean, and enjoys con- stant spring, though the summits of the Andes which surround it are covered with snow all the year round. 1 1. From I^eru the principal articles shijiped by way of traroduds ? Great quantities of fine wines are made ; the sugar-beet is cultivated for making beet-sugar ; wheat, olive-oil, silk, and dried fruits are impor- tant products. 3. In tchat kinds of manufadurinrf does France excel ? France excels in the manufacture of liroadcloths, silks, velvets, and all articles of art and fashion. 4. Name the largest cities of France. Paris, the capital, is the second largest city in Eiirope ; Lyons, next in size to Paris, is the seat of the silk manufacture ; Marseilles is the largest sea]>ort ; Bordeaux is noted for its wine trade; Havre is the seaport of Paris. Hflap. _(.sVf npposilr pnijt) 1. What waters north of France? 2, What bay west? 3. What mountaina separate it from Spain? 4. From what countries is it separated by the Alps? - the Jura? — the Vosges ? 5 What large river flows into the English Channel 1 — into the Bay of Biscay ? — into the Mediterranean Sea 7 6. On what rivers are these cities : Paris 7 — Rouen ? — Bordeaux 7 — Lyons? 7. Where is Marseilles? LESSON V. GERMANY AND AUSTRIA. [For Reading.] I. Description. 1. The middle part of Europe is occupied mainly by two countries called Germany and Austria. These countries are quite separate in their government. Ger- many is ruled by the German Emperor, and Austria by the Emperor of Austria. Yet these two lands are con- nected in many ways. 2. Only a few years ago the great German-land con- sisted of many separate kingdoms and states. Most of these were very small, but had very long names. You may try to say this one, — Schwartzburg-Sondershausen. The strongest of all the countries was Prussia, and in the course of time this country became so very powerful that many of the smaller states united with it, and in 1871 there was formed what is called the German Em- pire. It was easy for these difi'erent small countries to come together, because all the people spoke the German language, and most of them had the same way of thinking. And it was well that these different king- doms and dukedoms and principalities did unite, for in (;l■;l;.\lA.\^ and AfsTRiA. 107 this way a very great nation was formed, — a nation having as many millions of people as the United States. 3. The exact name of Austria is tlie Austro-Ilun- garian Monarchy, which means tliat the country is made up of Austria and Hungary ; but beside these, various smaller states belong to this kingdom. Hun- gary was formerly a nation by itself, though now the Emperor of Austria is also the king of Hungary. It has been stated that Austria and Germany are closely connected. The Austrians, properly so calleil, are in fact true Germans and speak the German language, though their nation is no part of what in our time is called Gtrnmny. But we have seen tliat Hungary also forms a part of the Austro-Hungarian Monarciiy. Xow, the Hungarians are not Germans, but belong to quite a distinct race called the Magyars, and speak a language very different from the German. Still anotlier part of this monarchy consists of a fragment of the old kingdom of Poland ; and here the people are neither Germans nor Hungarians, but are related by blood and speech to the Russians. Thus we see that the Austro- Hungarian Monarchy, ov, as we may call it, Al'stri.v, unites within itself various peoples who ditier very much in race, language, religion, manners, and customs. II. The Rhine and the Danube. 4. The most famous river of Germany is the Khiue, which, issuing from the Swiss Al|)s, flows in a general northerly direction into the North Sea. The sun ny slopes of its bank.s are covered witli vine- yards or dotted with pretty hamlets, while on thetopsof the lofty rocks are .seen many ruins of c:astles, tliat were built in oLl en times when people of that in. were always rol.)bing and fighting each oth- er. Along the Rhine are situated some of the m<).-;t lloitujsiiiii;^ (iities of ( ierinany ; among theseare Stras burg, which is strong- ly fortified, and (,'o- ,' 1 1 1 1 i- Scene on the R<.u.e. logue, celebrated tor its grand catliedral, and li^r the manufacture of cologne- water. CENTRAL EUROPE V." ' SCALE OF MILES EUROPE. 5. Austria iilso has a famous rivei- : it is called the Daiiulie, and is, after the Volga, the largest river in . Europe. It has been j'^' "";?~I1" j?'"^^'- 'W' - \ sung by poets as the y^\^ '~\' s ■' '■- ^^^^ /.J "beautiful blue Daii- • r ' - -r-"'; _ ' -. r- ube," but it is neither blue nor very beautiful. Still, it is of great im- portance to Austria, be- ing the chief highway of trade in that coun- try. You may see on the Danube large num- bers of queer-looking craft, con.sisting of great arks propelled by very wide paddle-wheels : these are much used for transporting goods from one jiart of the country to another. Navigation on the Dannb«. III. Industries. G. Agricultui'e is the principal occupation both of the Germans and Austrians, three fourths of them being engaged in tilling the soil. The grain most extensively grown is rye, from w'hich the bread eaten by the com- mon people is generally made. The vine grows along the Ehine, in kSouthern Germany, and in Hungary. "Wheat, barley, oats, potatoes, and all kinds of vegetables and fruits grown in the northern section of the United States, are cultivated in Germany and Austria. 7. Flax is grown in Northern Germany, and linen is an important article of manufacture. Many parts are covered with forests of oak and beech, on the mast of which are fattened immense numbers of hogs. German hams and sausages are celebrated all over the world. On the plains of Hungary in Austria great herds of cattle and horses are raised. Germany has iron, coal, zinc, lead, and copper mines. Austria is also rich in all these metals and minerals, and she has besides valu- able mines of ipiicksilver. Near Cracow are mines of rock-salt which are the largest in the world. 8. The principal manufactures of Germany and Aus- tria are broadcloths and linen goods, silk goods and leather goods, fine China and glassware, toys, and wine and beer. IV. Institations and People. 9. Germany is distinguished for its numerous uni- versities, and for its good system of primary education. Parents are compelled by law to send their children to school, between the ages of five and thirteen years ; and every young man is forced to do military duty for a certain time, during which he is required to pursue some study. These two laws enable the government to bring a vast army of trained and educated men into the field in case of war, and make Germany the foremost military power of Europe. 10. The land in (xermany is mostly owned l:/y a few wealthy nobles. Hence the peasants and working classes are poor. Great numbers of Germans come to the United States, where land is cheap and wages are high. Most of these take up land in the Western States, where, on account of their thrift and industry, they are always welcome settlers. [For Recitation.] 1. What can you say about Germany ? The German Empire consists of states and king- doms, united under one general government. The Kingdom of Prussia iis the largest state, and the King of Prussia is the Emperor of German)^ 2. What can you say of Atistria ? Austria consists of several states and provinces, of which Austria and Hungary are the largest, united under one government. 3. What of the industries of Germantj 1 Germany is an agricultural country, producing grain, flax, and live-stock. In the mountain-re- gions there are valuable mines, and along the Ehine are e.xtensive vineyards. 4. What of the industries of Austria ? Austria is largely engaged in agriculture, pro- ducing wheat, wine, wool, silk, and live-stock ; it has also rich mines of gold, silver, (quicksilver, iron, and rock-salt. 5. TFIiat are the capitals of these countries ? Berlin is the capital of Germany, and Vienna of Austria. Each has about 1,000,000 population. IVIap, ~(.*c;)a(;c JO?.) 1. Bound the German Empire. 2. In what part is Prussia? 3. What tliree rivers flow into the North Sea? 4. What river flows into the Baltic ? 6. Locate Berlin ; — Bremen ; — Hamburg ; — Cologne. 6. Bound the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. 7. What mountain-chains has it? 8. What great river flows east- ward? 9. Locate Vienna ; — Prague ;-- Pesth. EUSSIA. 109 LESSON VI. RUSSIA. [For Reading.] I, Description. 1. lUissia is larger tliaii all the other countries of Europe put togctlicr, and oi' cuiirso, being so extensive, its various parts diiler very much iu climate and pro- JJ" ^ , \ iluctions. The northern part is a great dreary region, with a winter lasting for seven or eight months. In the central section is a large district covered with for- ests. Bears, wolves, and other wild animals are found, and often not a house is to be seen for miles together. The forests yield great quantities of timber for ship- building ; and tar, pitch, turpentine, rosin, and pota.sb are largely made and exported. In the plains of the Volga, Don, and Dneiper [nee'y^er] are excellent farm- lands. Southern Eussia is a region of steppes, which aflbrd food to great herds of half-wild horses and cattle. II. Industries. 2. The people of Eussia are engaged chiefly in agri- culture and grazing. They raise rye, wheat, oats, flax, and hemp. Mines of gold and platinum are found on the Asiatic side of the Ural Mountains. Iron is the metal most extensively worked in Eussia ; but the country has no coal-beds, and hence Eussia is not largely engaged in manufectures. The only articles in which Eussia can successfully compete with other coun- tries are leather, soap, sheeting, cordage, and tar. 3. Eussia has a large traffic with Central Asia and China. This is carried on by means of sleighs which run over the snow-covered ground, and of caravans which cross the deserts. Great quantities of tea are brought in this way from China to Eussia, for tea is a great national beverage among the Eussians. 4. A peculiar feature of the internal trade of Eussia are the great fairs held at certain places. The chief of these, and also the largest in the world, is that of Kijni Novgorod [nezk'ne nov-(/o-rod'], a city situated on the Volga. They are attended every year by as many as two hundred thousand people, drawn together from all ])arts of Kuropo and Asia. Ill- Government and Civilization. 5. Eussia is governed Vjy an Emperor, who has the sole power to make laws, lie is called the Czar, a corruption of the name " Cassar." During the present (tcntury Eussia has had a number of very able Czars ; iind as tlie Czar is all-powerful, these rulers have been able to advance the country very much. At the present time railroads are in proc:ess of building, education and literature are taking root, and there is a stir of real life and progress in Eiissia. The greatness of some nations, like Spain and Italy, is in Ihn past : the greatness of Eussia is in the fiUtcre. IV. Cities. 6. St. Petersburg, the capital of Eussia, is situated , farther north than any other great city of the world. It is built on the perfectly flat banks of the Neva, near where that river falls into the (Julf of Finland by four mouths. The islands thus formed arc covered with the mansions and gardens of the wealthy. These islands and the opposite sides of the river are connected by bridges of boats in summer, and by the ice in winter. 7. Moscow is one of the oldest cities of Eussia, and was the capital before St. Petersburg was built. From the intermixture of palaces and huts Moscow is more like an Asiatic than a European town. The most strik- ing feature of the place is its many-colored domes and spires. In the center is the Kremlin, — a group of ])al- aces and churches, monasteries, arsenals, and museums. CFor Recitation.] 1. JUiat of the Russian Empire ? The Empire of Russia consists of European Pais- sia, together with extensive possessions in Asia. It ranks next to the British Empire in the extent of its possessions. 2. Describe European Russia ? European Paissia is the largest country in Eurojic. It is a low, level plain, thinly settled, and in the north is covered with forests. 3. JVhat can you tell about its resources and industries ? Russia is au agricultural and stock-raising coun- try. It exports great quantities of wheat, wool, liides, tallow, leather, and hemp. It has also rich mines of gold, silver, and platinum. I^ap, — (,9tT jmgc inn.) i. What part of Europe does Russia occu- py? 2. N.-une the seas and gulfs that partly surround it. 3. Where are the Caucisus Mountains? 4 What large lakes in the northwestern part? 5. Into what does the Volga flow? 6. Name a. river flowing into the Black Sea; — into the Sea of Azov. 7. On what parallel of latitude is St. Petersburg 7 8. Where is Moscow ? — Odessa ? — Arch ■ angel ? 110 EUROPE. LESSON VII. SMALLER COUNTRIES.— NORTH EUROPE. [For Reading and Recitatit SWISS cuaiet in tue Alps. E:^ The text on the minor coun- tries of Europe being brief, the teach- er may have it read over at first, and recited ou review. I. Sweden and Norway. 1. Sweden and Norway are two countries governed by one king. They occupy the nortliwestern peninsula of Europe, a land of mountains and lakes, waterfalls and fiords, or deep bays. These countries are in the cold belt of Europe, and hence fivrming is carried on only in the southern part. But they are rich in great pine forests, in mines of the finest iron, and in the boundless wealth of the sea. The people are hardy, thrifty, and intelligent. 2. Stockholm, the capital, contains many handsome public buildings, but the streets are mostly narrow, crooked, and ill-paved. In common with other north- ern cities, it presents its gayest aspect in winter, when the inhabitants move about in sledges, and engage in various amusements on the ice. II. Denmark. 3. In Denmark the air is moist, which gives the country green meadows. Hence cattle-raising and the making of butter and cheese are the most important occupations. The Danes are also very fond of the sea, and goods are often carried from one country to another in Danish ships. Copenhagen, the capital, is a busy commercial city, and is noted for its fine palaces, public buildings, and museums of art. III. Holland or the Netherlands. 4. Tlie name Holland means literally the holloio land, just as Netherlands signifies the nether or under land ; and these names tell us that the country is low and flat. In fact, much of the land is so depressed that it was formerly overflowed by the ocean at high tide ; but it has been reclaimed by building great em- bankments called dikes. .5. Holland is a grazing rather than an agricultural country : it imports grain, but exports immense quan- tities of butter and cheese. By far the larger portion of the land is ilevoted to pasturage, and dairy hus- bandry, which is brought to great perfection, forms the chief source of the national wealth. The internal trade is carried on almost entirely by means of canals, which in Holland serve the purpose of roads elsewhere. They run througli the principal streets of the cities, and ex- tend in a complete network over the whole country. In winter the people skate from place to place on the ice wliich then covers the canals. The farmers' wives skate to market with butter and eggs in baskets on their heads, and even the children often skate to school. Amsterdam is the largest city of Holland. IV. Belgium. C. Belgium, like Holland, is a small and generally level country. The soil is fertile, and so highly culti- vated that Belgium has been called the " Garden of Europe," Belgium is very rich in coal and iron. The most important manufactures are those of woolen and linen goods, lace, carpets, glass, etc. Brussels, the capital, is a kind of small Paris. v. Switzerland. 7. In the great mountain chain of the Alps is a small nation, which is interesting to us, because, like our own country, it is a republic. The name of this country is Switzerland, and doubtless you have read something about it, because it is very famous for its majestic mountaips, lovely lakes, and grand waterftills. 8. The summits of the Alps are always covered with snow. In the valleys between these lofty mountains the snow is very deep. Sometimes a mass of snow that can no longer cling to the steep slope breaks away, and, getting larger as it rolls, comes down with a loud noise into the plain. The pine-forest cannot stop this im- mense snow-ball : the tall trees snap like little sticks. Now and then a quiet village has been buried in the snow. The French call such a falling mass an ava- lanche. The snow and ice of these high valleys are partly melted in the summer time, and slowly move, like rivers, lower down. These ice-rivers are named glaciers, and may be seen in many Alpine valleys. They push downwards till a warmer air turns all the ice into water. Some of the largest rivers in Europe have their sources in the glacieiis of the Alps. 9. Switzerland is chiefly a pastoral country, and no- where is the produce of the dairy carried to greater perfection. The making of watches, musical-boxes, and jewelry is the favorite form taken by the manufac- turing skill of the people. The Swiss are brave, and love their country and liberty. They have good schools, and are generally well educated. Map, — IScc page 100.) 1. What waters partly surround Norway and Sweden ? 2. In what direction do the mountains extend ? 3. What and where is the capital ? IVIap. — (SVc jwjc 107.) 1. What country south of Denmark? — north? 2. What sea west? 3. What and where is the capital? 4. Bound Holland. 6. Wliat river flows through it? 6. What and where is the capital ? 7. Bound Switzerland. 8. Locate Berne ; — Geneva ; — Basle. SOUTHERN EUKOl'K. ..ij^uajiT^ri" ^ ■ ; .', e. LESSON VIII. SMALLER COUNTRIES. SOUTH EUROPE. [For Reading and Recitation.] 1. The Snnny Lands. 1. Tlie soutlu-rn sliore of Europe i.s laved l.iy the Mediterranean Sea, and into this sea jut three penin- sulas,— (1) the Spanish peninsula, (2) Italj-, (3) Greece and Turkey. These are sunny lands, enjoying a most beautiful climate, and producing the finest of fruits. Two of them were the homes of the most famous na- tions of ancient times, — namely, Greece the land of poets and orators and artists ; and Eome, which, by its valor in arms, was, at tlie time of the birth of Christ, mistress of the whole civilized world. But things are very much changed now, for people who were mere barbarians at the time when Greece and Rome were in their glory are now tlie leaders in civilization. II. Spain and Portugal. 2. The Spanish peninsula, though one by nature, is divided between two nations, — Spain and Portugal. In the coast plains and the river valleys of Spain are vineyards, mulberry plantations, and groves of the olive, orange, lemon, and fig. The grapes are made into the sherry wine for which Spain is famous, and the mul- berry-leaves are used to feed the silk- worm. In the plains of Portugal grains and fnut abound, and from this country we receive port wine, so called after the town of Oporto. In the mountain land of Spain are the fine-wooled merino sheep. The mountains also contain rich mines of quicksilver and lead, but these are not much worked. .3. Spain suffered long from bad government ; Init the country is now a monarchy, and we .shall all be glad to see it become a great nation as in the olden days. ^Madrid is the capital and largest city of Spain ; and Lisbon is the capital and largest city of Portugal. III. Italy. 4. The greater lumtbcr of the Italians till the ground, and take care ol' their vineyards and olive ])lantations and mtdberry groves. Every pupil must have heard how skilled the Italians arc in the fine arts, especially in music and painting. Until recently, how- ever, they were not a very enlightened people, and their land was cut up among many small nations ; but v.- w all Italy is one country, and the people are improving in every way. Rome is the capital of Italy, the home of art, and the residence of the Pope ; Naples is situated on a beautiful bay, on one side of which is the famous volcano of Vesuvius ; Venice is built on many islands, and some of its streets are canals, where you may see persons sailing about in f/t Co, New YoA ASIA. 113 ASIA. LESSON I, INTRODUCTION. 1. If'luit general dcscripiion of Asia can yon give ? Asia is the largest of the (iraiul Divisions, con- taining one third of the land surface and one half of the inhabitants of the globe. 2. What arc its chief natural features ? The northern part is a vast plain ; the central and southern parts consist of elevated table-lands crossed by lofty mountain-ranges, and of three great peninsulas, extending southward. In Asia there are many large rivers ; and as it extends through three zones, it has every variety of cli- mate, from torrid to frigid. 3. Wliat can you tell about the races and civilization of Asia ? There are three races living in Asia, — the Mon- golian, Malay, and Caucasian. The inhabitants are not so far advanced in civilization as the people of Europe. 4. In xdiat does the commerce of Asia consist ? The commerce consists in exchanging tea, cot- ton, silk, gems, and spices for manufactured arti- cles and silver coin. LESSON II. THE CHINESE EMPIRE. [For Reading.: I. Situation, Numbers, Race, and History. 1. In the ea.stern ])art of Asia is a vast region, as largo as the whole of the United States. This is what is called the " Chiiie.se Empire." It contains several countries, but tlie most interesting is China itself, or, an- swer questions with open hook ; at the second reeitiition t/ic pujyils should be required to answer from memory or from the outline m/ip. Boundaries. — 1. What ocean north of Asia? — east? — south ? 2. What Grand Divisions west ? 3. What sea between Asia and Africa? 4. What seas between Asia and Europe ? Peninsulas. — 1. What great peninsula in the south- west ? 2. What one east or this ? 3. Wliat one east of Hindostan'? 4. What one in the northeast ? , The Coast-line. — 1. What great sea between Arabia and Hindostan ? 2. What bay between Hindostan and the Eastern Peninsula? 3. What sea north of Bor'neo ? 4. What sea northeast of the China Sea? — northeast of the Yellow Sea? — northwest of the Japan Sea? 5. What strait separates Asia from North America? {Sec vmp of North Jmcricn, pnije J'l.) 6. What isthmus connects Asia with Africa? 7. What cape south of Hindostan? Islands.— 1. What island south of Hindostan ? 2. Wliat four large islands between Australia and Asia ? 3. Which of these four is the largest ? ''. Whr group of islands east of the mainland of Asia ? Mountains. — 1. What are the three most northern ranges of mountains ? 2. Between what countries are they ? 3. What great mountain-range north of Hindostan ? Rivers. — 1. What three rivers flow into the Arctic Ocean ? 2. What three into the Paciiic ? 3. Into what arm of the Pacific does the Amoor flow? — the Hoang-Ho ? — the Yang-tse-kiang ? — the Mekong? 4. What three flow into the Bay of Bengal ? 5. What one into the Arabian Sea ? 6. What one into an arm of the Arabian Sea? 7. In what mountains do the rivers flowing into the Pacific Ocean rise ? 8. In what mountains do the Indus and Ganges rise ? Of what country is each of these cities ( Peking. TiiiiK.n.vx'. ) T,i,-Tr. B.AXOKOK'. C,\B001,'. In what country is each of these f Peking. Calcutta. ToKio. Shanghae'. Canton. Nankin. Bombay. Mandf.'lay. The Capital? - ToKio. t C'ALCUTI'A. Largest Cities ?. . Where is each of these r BOMIIAY. Principal Seaports ? "i CAicrrrA. I \-ALt '- Sing Hong-Kong. Shanghae. Manila. 114 ASIA. 3. Next as to the race. The Chinese belong to the Mongolian race, one of the five great divisions of the human family. They are of a hrownisli yellow color, are without beard, and have ahuorid-sliaped eyes set obliquely in their heads. But it is not needful to de- scribe this people very closely, as there are numbers of them in our cities and towns, so that most pupils have seen a Chinaman for themselves. 4. China is one of the oldest of civilized nations. By tliis is meant that several thousand years ago, when the people of Europe were still savages, tlie Chinese liad a regular government, and a written language, and a knowledge of many of the mechanical arts. They had invented the mariner's compass, gunpowder, and the art of printing, many centuries before these be- came known in Europe. But we cannot say that the Chinese are a civilized people according to our standard, for they are not progressive : their way of doing things and thinking about things is to-day just as we find it described in their books to have been 2,500 years ago. II. Chinese Farming. 5. Most of the people of China are engaged in tillin;^ the soil ; and, of course, as they are so veiy numerous, each fivmily must occupy a very small patch of ground. No foot of land is left unused : the Chinese farmer will cut terraces on the side of a hill one above the other, and grow his rice upon them, using a water-wheel to force the water up to the highest ten-aces ; or if he has no land at all he will build a raft on the river, cover it with soil, and grow his vegetables there. 6. What are the plants most cultivated 1 First in or- der are the food-plants. The grain most cultivated is rice. This is the great food of the people, as bread is with us. The national beverage is tea, and both plant and name are Chinese. From time out of mind the Chinese have been in the habit of drinking tea ; but only about two hundred years ago it was introduced into Eurojie. Since then its use has become universal throughout tlie civilized world. We see, then, that the culture of the tea-plant must be a very important and extensive in- dustry in China. The tea-plant is an evergreen shrub, growing five or six feet high, the leaves of which are gathered, and dried in shallow pans placed over char- coal fires. Both black teas and green teas are gatliered from the same shrub, the difierence arising from differ- ent seasons of gathering and the various ways of drying. 7. The dress of the common people of China is almost entirely of cotton cloth. Hence we judge that the cotton-plant must be largely grown in China ; and this is the case. But the richer classes alwaj's wear lobes of silken stuffs; and from this we may judge that the manufacture of silk must be another important business in China. In fact, the art «of rearing silk- worms, which feed on mulberry-leaves, and of unravel- ing the threads of cocoons, was first practiced by the Chinese. The houses of tlie common people are gener- ally made of bamboo ; and not only the houses, but the furniture as well, and nearly everything else in the house. So, too, are the ordinary boats, and, what you might not suppose, the very paper on wliich the Chinese write. III. Other Occupations. 8. Fishing is quite an occupation in China. The land is too valuable to give up to the grazing of cattle ; hence the Chinaman eats little or no meat, but he draws on the wealth of the waters, for with a little fish added to his rice he is a happy man. The Chinese have more ways than one of catching fish. Sometimes they will dive into the water and catch them with their hands ; at other times they use a bird called a cormorant which they train to catch fish ; but the more common way is by means of a peculiar net as shown here. Chinese Fistdng. 9. The Chinese are a great manufacturing people, if we use the word manvfactm-iug in its original sense of making by band, for almost all their industries are carried on in this way. But when tve speak of manu- facturing, we mean making by the use of machinery ; and in this sense the Chinese are not a manufecturing people, for improved machinery is unknown in China. JAPAN. 115 10. The priucijial articles wliieh China contributes to the world's trade are teas and silks ; also nankeens, laces, porcelain and lacquered ware, ivory-work, and fire-crackers. The Chinese have no railroads ; you may ask, then, how goods are carried from one place to an- other. The rivers are mucli used for this purpose, as are also the numerous canals. But, as a general rule, goods are carried susiiendcd from bamboo poles slung across the shoulders of porters. IV. The People. 11. There are very many things that might be .said about the ways of the Chinese, but there is room to speak of oidy a few hero. The men tie up their hair into a long tail which hangs down over the back. The girls of the wealthier families are kept with their feet bandaged from infancy, so that when they grow up their feet are mere stumps, on which they can barely hobble along. The Chinese eat with chopsticks, in ])laco of knives and forks. There are schools for boys in all the villages, and almo.st every Chinaman can read and write, but the girls are not thought to be worth educating. The Chinese are exceedingly industrious, thrifty, and imitative ; but they are often treacherous, knavish, and immoral. They are great opium-smokers. V. Cities. 1 2. There is no country in the world v.'here there are so many large cities as in China. The capital, Peking, is in the north, and has nearly as many inhabitants as London. There are several other cities with more peo- ple than New York ; but the seaports of Canton and Shanghae are better known than most interior cities, because till lately the jealous Chinese would not let foreigners go into the heart of their country. Hong Kong in Cliina belongs to the English. [For Recitation.] 1. Of what does the Chinese Empire consist ? The Chinese Empire consists of China Proper, together with various provinces, all united tinder one government, the head of which is the Emperor of China. 2. fFliat can yoii, say of China ? China is the oldest and most populous country on tlie globe. It contains 400 millions of inhabi- tants, or one third of all the people in the world. 3. IVhat of its civilization ? The Chinese are not a progressive people, having made little advancement in the arts and sciences for 3,000 years. They make but little use of ma- chinery, and railroads and telegraphs are unknown. 4. IFhat are the chief eoyports ? The chief exports are tea, silk, and porcelain-ware. |yi3p, — {^ec -pain 112.) 1. In what zone is most of China ? 2. What tiiree .se.as east of China? 3. Mantchoo'ria, Mongo'lia. and Thibet' be- loni; to the Chinese Empire : tell where each is. 4. What river rising in the Peling Mountains flows into the Yellow Sea ? 5. Describe the Yangtse-Kiang. 6. Where is the capital? 7. Locate Canton; — Hong Kong. LESSON III. tFor Reading.: I. Besemblance to England. 1. Olf the western coast of Europe is the island king- dom of England ; olf the eastern coa.st of Asia is the island kingdom of Japan. We thus see that there is a certain likeness between the situation of Japan and of England. But the resemblance between the two coun- tries goes farther. Japan and England are situated in about the same latitude. The two countries are of about the same size, the island of Niphon corresponding to the island of Great Britain, and Jesso to Ireland. They have nearly the same number of inhabitants, — about 3-5 millions each, or only a little less than the poj)ulation of the United States. II. Japanese and Chinese. 2. The .Japanese resemble the Chinese in some. re- spects, but tlilier widely from them in others. Like the Chinese they belong to the Mongolian or Yellow race. They are somewhat smaller than the Chinese, but are at the same time handsomer. The Japanese are lithe and agile ; they are polite, g.ay, and talkative, and may be called the Frenchmen of the Mongolian race. One curious point of resemblance and of difference is this : the Japanese ivrite in the Chinese charactere, while their spoken language is quite di.ssimilar. liut there is a still more curious point of resemblance and dilference. 3. Japan, like China, kept itself aloof from other nations for ages. There was a law punishing with death all who traded with foreigners or had anything to do with them. But a few years ago the United States government sent a naval expedition to Japan under Commodore Perry. He persuaded the Japanese to open certain of their ports for trade. Soon after this a great change came over the Japanese authorities and people. The government was reformed, and various improvements were introduced. More recently railroads and telegraphs have been constructed ; the best Ameri- can and European engineers and teachers have been in- vited over, and many Japanese young men are every year sent to be educated in our colleges. In a word, Japan is quickly becoming a civilized country, thus leaving China far behind ; and to-day the Japan- ese are altogether the most advanced and progressive people of the Mongolian race. ni. Industries. 4. The Japanese are skillful and diligent tillers of the soil. They raise rice, the principal article of vege- table food, cotton, silk, tobacco, te^i, and all kinds of fruits and vegetables suited to their climate. They excel in horticulture, floricultiu-e, and landscape gar- dening. We are indebted to them for one of our rarest flowers, the japonica, and for many varieties of beautiful 116 ASIA. lilies. Tlifcy ;u-(! also much engaged in tlio fisheries, and lish is with them the chief article of animal food. 5. The Japanese maimfacture tine porcelain, lacquered ware, cabinets, and boxes. Their silks and crapes are beautifully delicate. They are expert workers in steel and bronze, and make a great variety of paper goods. With the introduction of improved machinery Japanese manufiictures must take a great stride forward. IV. Manners and Customs. G. Though the Japanese are rapidly adopting mod- ern improvements and inventions, they still retain their own manners, customs, costume, etc. The Jap- anese dress consists of one or more loose gowns, with long wide sleeves, and fastened at the waist with a belt. The houses are low, with large piazzas and pro- jecting roofs. The people have no chairs or beds, but squat on straw mats and sleep on rugs. The general mode of travelling is as shown in this picture. TraveUn^ In JapajL V. Cities. 7. The capital of Japan is Tokio, formerly called Yeddo. Here is the residence of tlie Mikado, as the Emperor of Japan is called. Tokio has nearly the same number of inhabitants as New York, about one million. Yokohama, the chief seaport for foreign commerce, is connected with Tokio by a straight road or street sev- enteen miles in length. This street is lined on both sides with a continuous succession of tea-houses, gar- dens, and shops, in which are displayed for sale all kinds of Japanese wares. [For Recitation.] 1. Where is the Empire of Japan ? Japan occupies a group of islands east of Asia. 2. Hoio does this country rank ? Japan ranks as the most progressive country of Asia. The Japanese are rapidly adopting the in- ventions of civilized nations. 3. Name the chief exports. The chief exports are tea, silk, lacquered ware, and bronzes. Map. — (Scf jwffc il2) !■ What is the largest of the Japan Isles? 2. What parallel of latitude crosses this island? 3. What large island north? 4 What is the name of the southern island ? 5. What sea between Japan and China ? 6. In what zone are the Japan Isles situated? 7. What and where is the capital ? LESSON IV. THE EAST INDIES. [For Reading.] I. Divisions. 1. It is likely that most pupils have heard of the " East Indies " ; but it may be they have not a very clear idea of what these countries are. Looking at the map of Asia, on page 1 1 2, we see the great central penin- sula called India, or Hindostan. This is ruled by the British ; and so also is the large island of Ceylon. To the eastward of India is another peninsula in which are tlie countries of Burmah and Siam. This is the East- ern Peuiiisuln, sometimes called Farther India, and con- tains Indo-China. It contains several native kingdoms; but the British have a great deal to do with all these countries, for they own most of the west coast. Look- ing to the southward and eastward of the Eastern Penin- sula we see several large and many smaller islands, and we read the names Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Celebes, and Pliilippine Islands. Here the Dutch, the Spaniards, and the Portuguese have important possessions. Now we understand what is meant by the East Indies ; for, as we have seen, the region includes India, the Eastern Peninsula, and the neighboring islands. II. Kaces and Government of India. 2. Tlie name Hindostan means literally the land of the Hindoos. But who are the Hindoos and to what race do they belong? They are a people of a brownish olive complexion, but they are not Mongolians ; neither are they Malays, like the inhabitants of the Eastern Peninsula and the islands. They are, in fact, Cauca- sians, and hence belong to the same branch of the human family to which we belong. Asia was the original home of all the people of Europe, and very many centuries ago the ancestors of the Europeans dwelt in Asia together with the ancestors of the Per- sians and Hindoos. 3. In India there are more people than in any other country in the world except China. You remember tliat China has ten times as many inhabitants as the United States : India has five times as many, or about 200 millions. India is more than ten times as large as the British Isles, and contains six times as many people ; and yet it is ruled by the English. The queen of England sends out a Governor-General to In- dia, and by means of a small army he keeps the whole country under control. III. Nature of the Country. 4. India is in the hot belt of the earth, being much nearer the Ecpiator than China. In the south is a table-land called Deccan, and north of this is a great plain, including the valleys of the two great rivers, the Indus and the Ganges. These rivers rise in an im- mense mountain-chain which forms a lofty wall across the northern part of India. The summits of these THE EAST INDIES. Hi mountains an; always white with snow, and hence the natives call them the Himalay'as, a word which means " tlie abode of snow." One of the peaks, named Mount Everest, is the king of mountains, the loftiest summit on the globe: it towers to a height of i>}, miles above the level of the sea.* 5. On account of the hot, moist climate, the vegetable productions of India are rich, splendid, and varied. We iinil there the immense banyan-tree, palms of vari- ous kinds, such as the sago and the cocoa-nut palm, the fragrant sandal-wood, the bamboo, the teJk, and the varnish trees ; while, under cultivation, the soil yields all the tro]ucal products, — cotton, rice, oiiium, sugar, indigo, the mullierry-tree, and the various spices. You may remember the description already given of the tliii:kets of vegetation in the selvas of t".;3 Amazon, and this will help you to fancy the wild luxuriance of an Indian junffle, only we must people the jungle with the largest and fiercest of wild animals, — the tiger, elephant, rhinoceros, and bua-constrictor. IV. Industries. G. The industry of India is chiefly agricultural. The grain most grown is ric(i, tlie princi- pal food of the com- mon people. Cot- ton is e.xtensively cultivated, and next to the United States India pro- duces more cotton than any other country. The cot- ton goes to Eng- land, and then I'e- turns in the shape of cotton goods, which form the common clothing of the people. The silk culture is car- ried on to a great extent. So, also, is the culture of the poppy, a plant from which opium is obtained. Great quantities of this drug are sent to China, where opium smoking is the besetting vice of the people. Among other vegetable products of India are coft'ee, sugar, indigo, gums, resins, and balsams. 7. Manufacturing is not largely carried on. Still, the Hindoos make fine cotton, silk, and woolen fabrics. The Opium Poppy. * Tlie height of Mount Everest is 29,002 feet. They were the first teachers of the Europeans in the art of weaving, and our English word calico is derived from Calicut, the name of a town in India. No doubt you have heard of the famous C;ishmerc shawls : these are woven by hand, from the wool or hair of a goat found in the Vale of Cashmere, in the Himalaya Mountains. 8. Tlie commerce of India consists principally in sending out raw produce, — chiefly cotton, rice, indigo, and opium, — and in importing manufactured articles. The merchants of our Eastern States ship to India car- goes of ice, and receive in return gunny-bags, indigo, saltpeter, and linseed. v. The People. 9. The great mass of the people belong to the Hin- doo race, and though dark-skinned they are Caucasians. The people for thousands of years have been divided into four castes, or classes. These castes '.. ^■,' .,,-■., are forbidden to inter- marry, toeat together, or to associate in any wa}'. The highest caste consists of the Brahmins, who are the priests and schol- ars. The religion of the country is called Brahminism. Tho Hindoos be.lcvc that after death tho soid may pass into tho body of an animal : • ' " ■' A Hindoo Boy. hence they kill no animal, and will eat no animal food. Among the higher classes the dead are burned instead of buried, and it is thought the proper thing for a widow to have herself burned to death on a pile along with the dead body of her husband. The common people of India are poor, ignorant, and superstitious. Only the wealthier classes are educated, and women are not educated at aU. VI. Cities. 10. Bombay, on tho Arabian Sea, is the great com- mercial city of India. It is the cliief seaport of tho French and English lines of steamers by way of the Suez Canal. Calcutta, on the Bay of Bengal [ben-r/aivr], is the second commercial city, and the residence of the British Governor-General of India. VII. Ceylon. 11. To the south of India is the large island of Cey Ion. It belongs to the British. Tigers, elephants, and other -wild animals live in the jungle or long grass ; but Ceylon is now being covered with coffee-plantations. Along the shore are millions of cocoa-nut trees, and many spices are brought from this hot, moist country. Sometimes their pleasant odor is smelt far off at sea. lis ASIA. On the western shore of Ceylon' is the Gulf of Manaar, ■whore pearl-divers seek for pearls in the oysters at the bottom of the sea. The capital of Ceylon is Colombo. LESSON V. PERSIA, ARABIA, TURKEY, ETC. VIII. The Eastern Peninsula. 12. The Easti-ru Peiiuisula is east of the Bay of Ben- I. Divisions, gal. Most of the west coast belongs to England. The rest of the country is divided among three native states or kingdoms, namely, Burmah, Siam, and Anam. The climate is very moist and hot. Among the vast for- ests of the Eastern Peninsula are found wild elephants, tierce tigers, and serpents twenty feet long. Curious monkeys abound, and among them is the orang- outang. Most beautiful birds are also found, such as the peacock, golden pheasant, and parrot. The vege- table productions are like those of India. In addition, we have in these countries the tree from which gutta- percha, now so much used in making various articles, I is obtained. Bangkok in Siam is the largest city in the Eastern Peninsula. Half of the population live on floating bamboo-rafts, arranged like streets. IX. East India Islands. 13. The four great islands of the East Indies are Borneo, Sumatra, Celebes, and Java. Besides these are various smaller islands and groups. The principal E\iropean nations having settlements for trade ou these islands are Holland, Spain, and England. 1 -1. S]iices are the most famous product of the East India Islands. The Moluccas are celebrated for cloves and nutmegs ; Sumatra and Java, for black pepper, "inj'er, and camphor. Java is noted for its coffee and gutta-per>;ha ; the Philip])ines, for tobacco. Sugar, cotton, rice, sago, and indigo are cultivated on all the East India Islands. In addition all kinds of tropical trees, plants and fruits grow luxuriantly, as bamboos, the india-rubber tree, the camphor-tree, the mangrove- tree, ferns, magnolias, ebony, teak, sandal-wood, and hundreds of varieties of cabinet woods. CFor Recitation.] 1. Jrhat can ynu sa'j of India, or Hindostan ? India is a British possession, and is inhabits by -200 millions of Hindoos, who are partly civi' ized. The chief e.xports are cotton, silk, iudig and opium. 2. JFhat can you say of the Eastern Peninsula ? The Eastern Peninsula is principally occupied by three countries, — Burmah, Siam, and Anam ; but the English have settlements on the west coast. The products are like those of India. 3. IFhat are produced in the East India Islands ? In the East India Islands are produced coffee, tobacco, spices, and cabinet woods. Hflap.— (.S.-c)«!(7c JK.) 1. Wliat waters partly surround Hindo- stan? 2. What mountains north? 3. Name its greatest rivers. 4. Where is Bombay? — Calcutta? 5, What waters partly surround I the Eastern Peninsula ? 6. Name three rivers here. 7. What are the principal divisions ? 8. Locate Mandelay ; — Hue [hu'u] ; — Singapore. CFor Reading.! 1. Western Asia is occupied by three countries, — Persia, Arabia, and Turkey in Asia, or the Asiatic part of the Turkish Empire. It is true that between Hin- dostan on the east and Persia on the west there are two other counU'ies named on our map, — Afghanistan' and Beloochistan'. But it would make little difference if there were no such names at all ; for these countries are not inhabited by civilized nations. The people who live there are fierce, wandering, warlike tribes, each under its own chief, much as our Indian tribes are. Their main wealth consists in their herds of horses, goats, and camels. It is different with Persia, Arabia, and Turkey, — for these are the seats of settled nations. II. Persia. 2. Persia is mostly a great table-land. The climate is quite hot, and, as very little rain falls, most of the country is a desert. Still there are very delightful valleys in Persia, and the fruits that grow there are very fine. There are large fields of roses, tulips, and other flowers ; and the attar of roses comes from these pleasant valleys. Indeed, wherever the people can get water to irrigate their soil, it is exceedingly fertile. 3. The Persians are skilled in the manufacture of silk and woolen goods, as you may have seen by the richly ornamented shawls brought from that country. They also export dried fruits, perfumes, drags, and gums. The Persians are mostly Mohammedans : and they generally wear the Oriental costume, which you see in the picture here given. The country is governed by a king, or Skah. The chief towns, Is- WsEi; ' 111.*!'% pahan and Teheran, are situated amid groves and gardens, while all around is a sandy waste. III. Arabia. J 4. Arabia is the ' '.'leat peninsula lying 1 let ween the Red Sea jud Persian Gulf. It I is surroundeil on three sides by the ocean, but the country is bordered by mountain ranges which shut ott' the rain-clouds. Hence the interior is mainly a high barren plateau, and resembles Africa in climate and productions. The only fertile parts are the coast val- leys and the small oases of the deserts. Persian Costmne. PERSIA, ARABIA, AND TURKEY 119 5. There is no central government in Arabia. A strip along the sea-coast of the Red Sea belongs to Turkey. Here are two cities, Mecca and Medina, which are called sacred cities, because the former was the birthplace and tlie latter the burial-place of Ma- homet, who founded the religion which j)revails not onl}' in Arabia but in all Western Asia. The greater part of Ara1)ia, however, is divided into the pasture ranges of numerous tribes, each under its own chief or sheik. The wealth of the Bedouins consists in their herds of horses and camels, and their flocks of sheep. The manners, customs, and dress of the civilized Arabs are similar to tliose of the Turks. The exports of The people in these parts cultivate the soil and have cities of eonsiilerable size. But must of Central Asia consists of great plains called steppen. Tlie people who live here are called Tartars, and there are many tribes of them. The Tartars are Mongolians, like the Chinese ; but they are not like the Chinese in their habits. Tliey are very fierce, and love war and fighting, where- as the Chinaman is not at all a lighter, but chooses to live in his own comfortable home. The Tartars wander aljout and live in tents as our Red Men do. Their wealth consists in their camels, sheep, cattle, and wild horses. Ai ibia are coffee, gum, spices Iioims md piiK Du you e\ei heai of Moehx coIIlc ' It comts lioni the town of AIoi hi in Viibii IT. Turkey in Asia. 6. Turkey in Asia includes .some of the most inter- esting countries of ancient liistory. Here were Pales- tine, or the Holy Land, Phoenicia, Syria, and Assyria. This region was once densely populated and highly cultivated, and it contained many great and llimrisbing cities, but now it is thinly inliabited and much of it is a desert. The climate is generally warm, excepting in the mountain-regions. Among the natural ]n'oductions is a variety of rich fruits ami very valuable plants. The amount of foreign trade is considerable. It is carried on chiefly with Mii-hiiid and other European countries, from various pints U[)iin the coasts of Asia Minor and Syria ; and with the countries to the east- ward of Turkey by means of caravans which cross the Syrian and Arabian deserts. Smyrna, Treb'izond, and Beyrout are the^ principal seats of maritime trade. The cities of Aleppo, Damascus, and Bagdad are the chief centers of caravan traffic. V. Central Asia and Siberia. 7. Central Asia is a strange, wild, and little explored region. In the country which you will find called Turkestan on the map are several settled states called Khanates, because each is under a ruler called a Khan. Tartar Life on th« Steppes. 8. Siberia is a vast country, as large as the whole of the United Statics, but it has not as many inhabi- tants as the State of New York. It lielongs to Russia. The climate is inten.sely cold, and winter reigns for nine or ten month.s. The natural productions are of two kinds, — metals and furs, both of great value. The commerce of this region is principally with China. The Russian and Chinese traders meet at Kiakbta, to the south of Lake Baikal. [For Recitation.! 1. Give an account of Persia. Persia is a jjlateau with fertile valleys which yield grain and fruits. It is governed by a Shall, and the capital is Teheran. 2. Jiliat can \iou my of Arabia ? The west coast of Arabia belongs to Turkey; but most of the country is inliabited by wandering Bedouins. 3. What does Asiatic Turkey iucludc ' A.siatic Turkey includes Asia Minor, Syria, and Mesopotamia. I^ap, — (S,,' pigr. lis). 1 Boun-l Persia and name its capital 2. Bound Arabia. 3. Where is Mecca ? 4. What four seas border on Asiatic Turkey 1 5. Locate Jerusalem ; — Smyrna. AFRICA SCAXE 1 Inch "900 Miles 12 2 "Wasliiu^^toil Ooi.jriKlit. l«75Tj.vlvison,3JhAeman, Tujlu. .t Co .TS't- iv York. AFEIGA, 121 AFRICA. LESSON I. INTBODUCTION. CFor Recitation.] 1. JFhat of the size and rank of Africa ? Africa ranks next to Asia in size, but it is tlie least important of the Grand Divisions, be- cause it is tlie seat of no great civilized na- tions. 2. Describe ih outline and sur- face. Tlie coast- line of Africa i little broken 1 1 \ seas, bays, i < i gulfs. Itissni rounded by a rim of moun- tains bordering the oceans, and the interior is a table-land of moderate ele- vation. The northern part is a desert called the Sahara. 3. ll'hat are the three great rivers? The three great rivers are the Nile, the Niger, and the Zambezi. African Warfare. 4. IP'luU can you say about the climate of Africa ? Tlie greater part of Africa being in the Torrid Zone, the climate is hot. The central regions have abundant rains. 5. TcU about tlie vcrjetation and animals. Afri(!a has a scanty vegetation, but is distin- "uished for the number and isize of its wild animals. The most noted of these are the elephant, rhi- noceros, hip- op o t a m u s , giraffe, lion, hyena, ostrich, and gorilla. 6. Uliatof Afri- can commerce ? The com- merce of Africa is limited. In the north it is carried on across the desert regions by means of caravans of camels. The articles of export are gold, ivory, ostrich-feath- ers, dates, gums, drugs, and negro slaves. 7. Jllio are the inhabitants of Africa ? The greater part of the inhabitants belong to the Negro race. In the countries bordering on the Mediterranean, and in the extreme south, a few millions belong to the (Jaucasian race. These are civilized ; but the negi'o tribes are for the most part in a barbarous or savage condition. MAP STUDIES. ^P" At tlie first recitation, teachers will allow pupils to answer questions v-iih open books ; at the second recitation pupils should be required to answer from the oatliiic map or from memory. Boundaries. — 1. What sea and Grand Division on the north? 2. What Grand Division, sea, and ocean on the east? 3. What oceans on the south? 4. What ocean on tile west ? The Coast-liue. — 1. What two seas border on Africa? 2. What two oceans ? 3. What two gulfs ? 4. What two straits ? 5. What channel ? 6. What is the most eastern cape ? — the most southern ? — the most western? 7. How is Africa connected with Asia? Mountains. — 1. What mountains are in the north ? 2. What mountains bordering the Gulf of Guinea ? 3. What country in the eastern part is mountainous ? 4. V/here are the Snow Mountains? Lakes and Rivers. — 1. Where does the Nile rise and into what does it flow? 2. Into what does the Niger flow ? 3. What great river flows into the Indian Ocean ? 4. What lake in Central Africa ? 5. What two lakes have their outlet into the Nile ? 6. What lake south of these ? 7. What lake flows into the Zambezi? -8. What is the largest river of South Africa? Of what country is each of these cities Ti;nis. Ai.niEHs'. C.\i'i-; Tow.v. r C'.viRO [ki'ro]. The Capital ? -J .M.vr.occo. t Tiiir'oLi. Where is each of these I .\LF.x.\Nr)r,iA. Yt.7,. Large Cities Timbuctoo. Kiiartoom. AFIUCA. LESSOr4 II. CFor Reading.: I. History. 1. Egypt is the most interesting and important coun- try of Africa. It is tiie oldest nation of which we have any recorded historj', for the Egyptians 'were a higlily ci\il- ized people at the time of Abraham, moie than 2,000 year^ before the biith of Christ. Their ancient histoiy is found cut in stone or painted on their tombs, in a kind of writing called hieroglyphics. The Egyptnns were skilled in aichi tecture and in many aits. They built the grandebt temples ever elected by man, and the mighty struc- tures called the Pyramids are still the wonder of the world. 2. Moreover, the Egyptians are an interesting people, not only on account of what their ancestors did centu- ries ago, but because they are now making great ad- vances in many ways. For a long time Egypt was kept down by the Turks, but now the country is nearly independent of Turkey, and the sovereign of Egypt, called the Khedive, has shown himself anxious to improve, elevate, and educate his people. Perhaps you may have read something about the Suez Canal. The Isthmus of Suez joins Africa to Asia; in 1869 a canal 85 miles long was made across this iienk of land for ships to go from the Mediterranean into the Eed Sea ; so that now vessels may -sail from Europe to the East Indies by a much shorter way than by going all around Africa. II. The Nile. 3. The most striking natural feature of Egypt is the Nile, which flows from south to north through a narrow valley, varying in width from five to twelve miles. About 100 miles from the sea the river divides into two main streams, enclosing a low, fertile plain called tlie Delta, because it is of the shape of the Greek letter A, or delta. If it were not for the river Nile, the whole of Egypt would be a hot and arid desert, for rain scarcely ever falls there. The Nile rises every summer, and, overflowing its banks for two or three months, leaves on tlie surface a coating of very fertile soil. The time when the river is rising is one of great anxiety to the people, for, should it rise too high, their mud villages would be washed away and their cattle drowned ; while, if it falls short of the average rise, a scarcity or famine is the result. 4. Agriculture is the principal industry carried on in Egypt. The people raise grains, cotton, flax, hemp, and beans. These are the staple products ; but to- bacco, sugar, indigo, and dates are also largely grown. The commerce is considerable, for, in addition to the products of the country, large quantities of gold-dust, i\ory, ostrich- feathers, etc., are brought from the inte- rior of Africa to be sent to Eu- rope. III. People Cities and Scenes In Cairo .'') Egypt has 000,000 in- ibitants, of \ liiim the great '11 ijoiity belong to the Arab rat e , the rest are Turks (the ruling race), Copts, or descendants of the ancient Egyptians, Jews, and Greeks. The pre- vailing religion is Mohammedanism ; and the costumes and customs of the people in the cities of Egypt are like those seen in Oriental cities generally. We see grave-looking men, bearded and turbaned, and wearing long loose robes; we see the ladies with their faces muffled, riding on the backs of donkeys ; we see the mosques and bazaars ; we see also the streets lined with little shops, where the merchants sit on cushions, with their goods arranged on shelves behind them. Cairo and Alexandria are the principal cities. [For Recitation.] 1. }Vliat can you say of Egypt ? Egypt occupies the narrow but fertile valley of the Nile, and is the most progressive country of Africa. 2. JVlmt of Egyptian agriculture ? The valley of the Nile is fertilized by the annual overflow of the river, and agriculture is carried on by irrigation. The chief products ate rice and other grains, cotton and dates. Ma p.- (*<•;""''! ^20.) 1. What Bea north of Egypt? 2. What sea east 7 3. Where does the Nile rise ? 4. In what direction and into what does it flow'! 5. What is the capital of Egypt ? 6. Name the principal seaport. THE BAEBARY STATES. 123 LESSON III. THE BAEBARY STATES. CFor Reading.] I. General Description. 1. Tiic northern part of Africa is diviJod among four countries, namely, Marocco, Algeria, Tunis, and Tripoli. These are often called the Barhary /States, because the native inhabitants were named Berbers. Thougli an African race, the Berbers are not negroes. And indeed in olde times this part of Africa was the seat of several highly cultivated nations. The chief of these was Cartilage, the great rival of Eomc. The ruins of tlie city of Carthage are still seen near the modern city of Tunis. 2. The Atlas Mountain range extends east and west through these States, sloping on the north to the Mediterranean and on the south to the Great Desert. All the grains and fruits of Southern Europe flourish here. The northern slopes of the Atlas Mountains arc covered with dense forests of pine, oak, cork-oak, and wild olives ; the southern slopes, with palms and gum- trees. The mountain-slopes and valleys on the south side of the Atlas Eange are known by tiro name of " The Land of Dates," because of the abundance of the date-palm, the fruit of which is one of the chief articles of food for the people. II. People and Occupations. 3. In addition to the Berbers there are found in the Barbary States numerous Arabs, who lead a wandering pastoral life, and also many Moors. The Moors are a mixed race ; they live in the cities and are engaged in trade and manufactures. Agriculture and raising horses, camels, and siieep are the chief occupations. The na- tive productions of Northern Africa include wool, gum, beeswax, dates, olive-oil, and goat-skins. These are exported, and the manufactures of Europe introduced in their place. A very valuable leather calleil "mo- rocco leather " is prepared from the skin of the native goats. 4. !Marocco is the largest of these countries, and has a ])opulation nearly as largo as that of the State of New York. It is ruled by a Sultan. The largest place is Marocco, an old Moorish town, surrounded by a wall, and having low, flat-roofed houses, built with courts and gardens in the center. Algeria belongs to France, and the principal city, Algiers, is an important seaport. Both Tunis and Tripoli are subject to Turkey. [For Recitation. 3 1. IVIiat are the Barhary States ? The Barbary States are four countries west of Egypt, and bordering on the Mediterranean Sea. Algeria, the most important, is a possession of France ; Tripoli and Tunis beloug to the Tui'kish Empire ; Marocco is an independent country. 2. What of the occupatio7is and prothicts ? The people of these countries arc engaged in lierding cattle, goats, sheej), camels, and horses, and in the caravan trade with the negro tribes of Central Africa. The articles of export are dates, goat-skins, leather, wool, and articles from Central Africa, such as gold-dust, ivory, and ostrich-feath- ers. 3. ]l'hat arc the principal cities ? The principal cities are the capitals of these countries. Map. — (Sec pace ISO.) 1. Which of tho four Barbary States bor- ders partly on tlio Atlantic Ocean and partly on the Mediterranean Sea? 2. What and where is the capital? 3. What country east of Marocco ? 4. What mountain-ningo south of Marocco and Algeria ? 5. What and where is tho capital of Algeria? C. Locate Tunis aud name its capital. 7. Locate Tripoli and name it3 capital. LESSON IV. THE SAHARA AND CENTRAL AFRICA. (^^ Tho following lesson, after being read aloud in the class, may bo assigned .as a composition exercise. I. The Sahara. 1. To tho south of the Atlas ^Mountains is the Great African Desert. Sahara it is called by the Arabs, mean- ing " the sea without water." And in fact it resembles the ocean in its waves of sand, in its unbroken horizon, in its green oases, like islands, and in its silence and solitude. The Sahara is tho most ])arched, sandy, and desolate waste on the face, of the earth. It is of vast extent, being nearly as large as the whole of Europe. 2. The Sahara forms between Northern and Central Africa a barrier which it would be utterly impossible for man to cross without the aid of the camel, that useful animal of burden, justly termed the "ship of the desert." There are frecjuontly no other traces of a path across the sandy waste than the whitened bones of men and camels that have perished along the great caravan routes of travel, from thirst, sand-storms, or sickness. The oases are thickly covered with date- palms, which offer their grateful shade and sweet fruit to the weary caravans, while tho clear springs afford delicious draughts of water both to thirsty men and patient camels. The Arabs say of the date-palm, that " it keeps its feet in water and its head in fire." II. Central Africa. 3. "Why do men risk their lives in crossing the Great Desert in caravans ? They do so for the .sake of gain. In the middle part of Africa is a region called Soudan, Negro-land, or ' Central Africa. It stretches from the Sahara southward to beyond the Equator, and is almost as large as our own coimtry. It has a tropi- cal climate, abundant rains, a fertile soil, and a great variety of valuable and useful productions. It is to obtain these products that the caravans cross the Great Desert. 124 AFEICA. 4. The inhabitants of this region are principally negroes, intermixed with Arab and Moorish races, who are for the most part in a condition of superior social advancement to the negro tribes, and are conse- quently the ruling people. The negroes are generally heathen: the remainder of the population, Mohamme- dan. The negro populations of Central Africa are, at best, but partially civilized. They Hve in villages and village In Central Africa. have settled habits ; they cultivate their fields, weave cotton cloth and dye it with bright colors ; and thej' maiio iron weapons and implements. Many of their towns are of considerable size, and the native kings display a rude kind of splendor. The commercial products are gold-dust, ivory, and ostrich-feathers, to- gether with slaves. The merchants engaged in the trade of this region are principally !Moors, who form caravans for the purpose of crossing the Desert. 5. The part of Africa near the Equator is sometimes called Equatorial Africa. Much of it has never been explored by white men, because, though many attempts have been made to penetrate it, they have all failed. In this region are included certain large lakes, second in size only to the Great Lakes of our own country. You will find on tlie map, Albert Lake, Victoria Lake, and Lake Tanganyika \tan-gan-ye' -lca\ all of wliich have become known to the world only during our generation. 6. These regions are the haunts of three liugo, thick- skinned animals, — the elepliant, the rhinoceros, and the hippopotamus. Elephants are found in herds of from one to three hundred, all over the wooded regions of Equatorial Africa. The negroes liunt them for their flesh, and to obtain their huge tusks, which form one of the chief articles of African barter. The rhinoce- ros has a hide so hard and thick that, like a coat of mail, it will flatten a rifle-ball. It is hunted for its hide, which is made into sliields and harness, and for its flesli, which is eaten. The teeth of the hippopota- mus furnish very fine ivory, and its huga body is greedily devoured. The beautiful long-necked giraffes are eagerly pursued for their flesh and their hand- somely spotted skins. LESSON V. MINOR COUNTRIES OP AFRICA. [For Reading and Recitation.: I. Divisions. 1. In addition to the countries and regions of Africa already described, there are several minor states and sections. These may all be grouped in two divisions : 1. The colonies and settlements of European nations ; 2. The petty native states. II. The West Coast. 2. On the West Coast of Africa are found the regions named Seiiegambia, Upper Guinea, and Lower Guinea. These are subdivided into numerous petty states and kingdoms, inhabited by various negro tribes, who are in a condition of semi-barbarism and are frequently at war with one another. Several Ern'opC'in nations have trading stations along the coast. The commerce of Western Africa consists in exchanging gold-dust, ivory, palm-oil, gums, ostrich-plumes, dyewoods, and slaves for guns, gunpowder, tobacco, liquors, gaudy cotton cloths, linives, beads, iron, and copper. 3. Sierra Leone is a settlement founded by the British as a place of refuge for liberated slaves taken from captured slave-ships. Liberia is an independent negro republic, founded by the United States in 1820 as an asylum for negro slaves that became free before the general emancipation which resulted from the war of 1861 - 65. Monrovia is tho capital. III. South Africa. 4. South Africa is the seat of two British colonies, of two small Dutch republics, and of the native terri- tory of Kaifraria. On the West Coast it extends north to the Orange Eiver, and on the East Coast to the Tropic of Capricorn. 5. The two English colonies are Cape Colony and Natal. The principal occupations are the raising of sheep and cattle. Cape Town is the principal city of Cape Colony. The Orange Republic and the Transvaal Eepublic are two small states founded by settlers from Holland, and now independent. IV. The Eastern Coast. 6. The coast of Eastern Africa, from tlie Equator soxithward to Dclagoa Bay, exhibits a general resem- l)lance to that on the opposite side of the continent, — that is, low, hot, and moist, plains along the coast, backed by high grounds in the interior, v,'ith a luxuri- ant vegetation and an unhealthy climate. The native population is chiefly negro. The commercial products include gold-dust, ivory, gums, beeswax, ostrich-feath- ers, and slaves. IVJap. — (See jjaje 120.) 1. In what zone are SeneRambia, Upper Guine.a, and Lower Guinea? 2. What gulf south of Upper Guinea? 3 In what zone is Cape Colony ? 4. Wliat cape at the extreme Eouth- crn point of Africa? 5. What large river flows into Mozacibique Channel? 6. Where is the city of Zanzibar ? H'KAMA. OCEANIA. i ■;*,Nt ISLANDS """."""i is. ^i 3.<,sScE?'. -V E A \ \fjei^ I S O O T H „ I I AUSTHALASIA PAND OLYNESIA ^f&MANIA 1 Inc\ = 1000 i^i/fj 123 West from THE ISLAND 'WORLD. [For Reading.) I. General Description. 1. < )i'eania i.s the name given to the i.sland of Aus- tralia and the thousands of small islands in the vast Pacific Ocean. The name Australasia is sometimes ap- plied to Australia and the neighboring islands, while under the head of Polynesia (meaning man;/ Islands) are included the numerous islands in the eastern part of the Pacific Ocean. II. Australia. 2. Australia, the largest island on the globe, is sur- rounded by the Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean. Tt is nearly as large as Europe, and is sometimes called a continent. It was discovered by the Dutch about the time of the settlement of the United States by the Eng- lish, and was then named New Holland. 3. Australia resembles .\friea in tlic general drjniess (if its climate, and in liaviiig few rivers, and no great inland seas and bays. It has a rim of mountains round tlie coast, but the interior generally consists of broad l)lains. The forest vegetation is peculiar. The great plains of the interior are treeless, or else covered with Map Study. — 1. What tropic crosses the central part of Australia? 2. Measure by the scale of miles the breadth of Australia. 3. What island north of Australia? 4. What gulf in the northern part ? 5. What division in the eastern part ? 6. Locate Melbourne ; — Sydney ; - Adelaide. 7. What island south of Australia ? 8. Name a town in Tasmania. 9. What two large islands in New Zealand? 10. Where is Auckland, the capital? 11- In what direction from Australia is New Caledonia? 12. Near what meridian are the Feejee Islands? 13. What group of islands is shown in the northeast comer of the map ? 14. On what island is Honolulu ? li>6 OCEANIA. hard, thorny shrubs, heaths, ferns, and net- tles. Thi.'^ vege- tation is known as " the bush." The common trees of the ea.st- ern and south- ern coasts are the gum - tree (E Ileal i^p't us) and the acacia. These trees are evergreens,with hard, narrow leaves, glossy on both sides, and turned edgewise to the sun, so that they cast very little shade and evaporate less moisture ^ „ The Kangaroo. than the broad- leaved vegetation of the tropics. This peculiarity c.f the foliage gives a very sombre appearance to an Aus- tralian forest. 4. The native animal life of Australia is even more scanty than the vegetation. The few animals belong mostly to the mamqnals, or pouched animals. The kangaroo is the largest and most numerous animal of this class. It jumps on its hind legs ten or fifteen feet at a bound, and leaps as fast as a hoi-se can run. The emu, on the dry interior plains, corresponds to the os- trich of the African deserts. Among other singular animals of Australia are black swans, white eagles, and the Ornithorhyn' cus. The latter is a ^'ery odd animal, having the bill of a duck with the body of au otter. 5. Australia is occupied by several British colonies. It is rich in gold, and produces more of the precious metal than any other country except California. It is also a good country for farming, and is particularly well adapted to the raising of cattle and sheep. The trade is carried on principally with Great Britain. Austra- lia exports gold, copper, and wool, and receives in exchange the cotton and woolen goods, iron and hard- ware of England. It has a line of steamship communi- cation with San Francisco, and a line with England by way of Panama and New York. Melbourne is the largest city i!i Australia, and a very fine city it is. in. New Zealand. 6. About a tliousand miles from Australia are two large and mountainous islands called Xew Zealand. They are separated by Cook's Strait, and are occupied by several British colonies. Xortli Island is very fertile. The na- tives, called Mao- ries, are a clever people, and have learned the use of the plough and many other things tiom the English. Jlany of them can lead quite well. The sources of some of the rivers are \\ arm springs ; and the water gushes fiom the ground \\ arm enough to 1 oil au egg. Eartli- (juxkes often o( cui South I^-hnd has mountains so loft\ that glaciers aie found in its high valleys. The British colonists of New Zealand are engaged in farming and sheep-raising. Wool is the chief article of export. Auckland and Wellington are the large.st cities of the northern island of New- Zealand. Nelson is the largest city of the southern island. IV. Polynesia. 7. The jji-incipal groups of islands forming Polynesia are the Sandwich, Society, Friendly, Feejee, Marquesas, and Caroline Islands. Some of the islands are vol- canic and mountainous, others are of coral formation. The people of Polynesia are light-colored tribes belong- ing to the Malay race. Many of them have been con- verted to Christianity by the labors of American and English missionaries. 8. The cocoa-nut palm is found all over Polynesia, and is of the greatest use to the inhabitants. It needs no culture, pruning, or attention of any kind, while it is the staff of life to the islanders. They repose beneath its shade, eat its fruit, and find a beverage in the milk of the nut. Their huts are thatched with the leaf-stalks, of which also they make baskets for catching fish, while the leaves furnish bonnets and the leaflets fans. The larger nuts, thinned and polished, supply drinking-cups, the dry leaf-stalks are used for firing ; and the fibrous husk of the nut is twisted into fi.shing-lines, cords, and uiatting. The trunk itself is sawed into posts to uphold their dwellings, and paddles for their canoes are made of the middle rib of the leaf. Hardly less important is the bread-fruit tree, the fruit of which supplies a nour- ishing and pleasant food. 9. The Sandwich Islands form the most interesting of the Polynesian groups. For many yeai-s past the Sandwich-Islanders have been civilized. There is now a single monarchical government, limited by a legi-slative a.sserably. They have convenient towns, roads, a small fleet, a wTitten language, and a regular business in vic- tualing ships, and in exporting odoriferous sandal-wood, coffee, sugar, oil, etc. Honolu'hi is the cajjital. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEAN. 127 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEAN. I.— THE OCEANS. 1. Divisions. — There arc three great divisions of the waters that surrouiKl the globe — the Pacific, the Atlantic and the Indian oceans. Note. — The Arctic Ocean is ii mirtlicrly coiitimmlion of the Atlantic, and tlie Antarctic Occiin is a sontiicrly continuation of tlie three great oceans. 2. Area. — The Pacific Ocean has an area of 70 million square miles, or one-third of the entire sur- face of the globe ; the Atlantic Ocean is half the size of the Pacific, and the Indian Ocean is two-thirds as large as the Atlantic. 3. Depth. — The average depth of the ocean is estimated at from two to three miles ; its greatest depth, at five and one-half miles — corresponding to the greatest height of mountains. 4. Movements. — The chief movements of the waters of the sea are waves, tides and currents. II.— OCEAN WAVES. 5. Waves. — Waves are undulations of the water without progressive motion. They are caused by the winds, and are of all sizes, from a gentle ripple to billows forty feet high. The apparent advance of waves is owing to the communication of an undulatory movement to successive portions of water. The ap- parent advance of great waves in heavy storms is from 50 to 100 miles an hour. 6. Tides. — The tides are a regular rising and fall- ing of the waters of the ocean. They are caused by the combined attraction of the sun and moon, to- gether with the earth's rotation on its a.xis. 7. Ebb and Flood Tides. — Flood tide is the period of rising water ; ebh tide, the period of falling water. High water is the high level at the time of the close of flood tide ; low icaier is the low level at the time of the close of the ebb tide. There are two flood and two ebb tides every twenty-four hours. 8. Spring and Neap Tides.— When the sun and the moon act together on the earth — that is, when the three bodies are in a straight line, which happens twice a month, at the time of the new and the full moon — very high tides are produced. These are called spring tides. W^lien t\u\ sun and the moon .act in opposition — that is, when they arc so situated with respect to the earth that their attraction acts at right angles, which occurs ill the first and third quarters of the moon — the flood tide is unusually low. These are called niaj} tides. 9. Highest and Lowest Tides. - The highest spring tides occur in March and September, and the lowest neaj) tides occur in June and December. 10. Time and Height of Tides. — Were the globe entirely covered with an ocean of uniform depth, the- tidal wave would move round the earth with unvary- ing regularity in time, height and velocity ; but, owing to the shape of the continents and the different depths of the ocean, the time, height and velocity of the tides are different at difl^ercnt places. The height of tide-water varies from a few inches to thirty and even seventy feet. III.— OCEAN CURRENTS. 1 1 . Definition. — Marine, or oceanic, currents are deep and broad streams that move regularly through the sea in certain unchanging directions. 12. Causes. — They are produced by the unequal temperature and density of the ocean waters in the equatorial and the polar regions, together with the effect of the trade winds and the earth's rotation. 13. Warm and Cold Currents.— The cold waters of the polar regions are constantly flowing towards the equator, partly to supply the deficiency of water caused by the greater evaporation from the surface of the tropical seas, and partly from the tendency of colder and heavier water to displace the hotter and lighter water of the equatorial regions. The warm waters of the tropics, as they are displaced by the deep cold currents from the polar regions, move off" in surface currents toward the poles. 14. Classes of Currents. — Currents may be divided into three main classes — equatorial, polar and return currents. 15. Equatorial Currents. — Then- arc three great equatorial currents- the Pacific, the Atlantic and the 128 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEAN. Indian, moving westward ar6und the globe. They include the belt over which the trade winds blow, a zone of about 25° on each side of the equator. They take their name from the three great oceans through which they flow. Their velocity is from two to three miles an hour. 16. Causes of Direction. — As the polar currents approach the tropical regions, they fail to partake immediately of the increased velocity of the earth near the equator, and so fall behind — that is, begin a general westward movement, which is increased by the prevailing tendency. 17. Atlantic Equatorial. — This current begins off" the western coast of Africa, and moves at the rate of two or three miles an hour westward across the Atlantic, until it strikes the eastern coast of South America, near Cape St. Roque. Here it divides, one part flowing through the Caribbean Sea into the Gulf of Mexico, whence it emerges as the " Gulf Stream," a return current ; and the other flowing southward as far as the mouth of the La Plata, where it is turned back and becomes a return current. 18. Pacific Equatorial. — Beginning off" the west- ern coast of South America, this grand current flows westward for 10,000 miles, until it reaches the East India Islands. There, one stream forces its way through into the Indian Ocean, one main branch turns northward and becomes a return current along the Coast of Asia, called the Kuro-Siwo ; another branch turns southward along the eastern coast of Australia. 19. Indian Equatorial, — This current moves across the Indian Ocean, flows southward along the African coast as for as Cape Agulhas, and is then de- flected easterly as a return current. 20. The Gulf Stream.— The Gulf Stream is the northerly return ocean-river of the Atlantic Equa- torial Current. It is 3,000 miles long, and from 30 to 120 miles wide, and moves with a velocity of from two to four miles an hour. Its heated waters flow out of the Gulf of Mexico, along the eastern coast of the United States. Near the Banks of Newfoundland, it divides into two branches, one turning southeasterly across the Atlantic, and the other continuing northeasterly, j flowing past the British Isles and the coast of Norway into the Arctic Ocean. 21. The Japan Current. — The Japan Current, or Kuro-Siwo, is the northerly return stream of the warm waters of the Pacific Equatorial Current. It flows along the coast of Asia, past the Japan Islands, and then divides. The northern branch flows through Behring Strait into the Arctic Ocean. The southern branch sweeps south of the Aleutian Isles, along the western coast of North America, to the southward of California, and then becomes merged in the Equa- torial Current. 22. The Arctic Current. — This cold current moves southward along the coast of Greenland, doubles Cape Farewell, unites with the Baflin Bay Current, and continues southward until it meets the warm waters of the Gulf Stream. One branch then flows close to the coast of the New England States, between the Gulf Stream and the land, as for south as the latitude of New York ; the other branch be- comes a deep under-current, which flows eastward of the Gulf Stream, and pours its euld waters into the tropical seas. 23. Antarctic Currents. — The currents from the south polar regions are less marked than those from the Arctic Ocean, but there is a general northward drift of the waters of the Antarctic Ocean. The Peruvian, or Humboldt Current, moves north- ward along the west coast of South America; and the Cape Horn Current doubles Cape Horn and flows northeasterly across the Atlantic. 24. Smaller Currents. — Among the minor cur- rents are the Monsoon currents in the Indian Ocean, and many local currents caused by the numerous lines of islands and coral reefs that break the regular flow of the great equatorial currents. 25. Uses of Currents, — The great system of cir- culation carried on by marine currents, preserves the equilibrium, density and purity of oceanic waters. The Salter and denser water of one region flows as an under-current to one part of the sea, while the lighter and fresher flows back as a surface current. 26. Equalizers of Temperature. — The heated waters of the tropical regions drift off from the equa- tor, and raise the temperature of the ocean in the higher latitudes. The cold streams from the polar regions cool the hot seas lying near the equator. 27. Effect on Climate, — The influence of these interchanging currents extends to the lands near which they flow, softening the extremes of climate. The Gulf Stream renders the climate of the British Isles and the western coast of Europe much warmer than it would otherwise be, and the Kuro-Siwo pro- duces a similar effect on the Japan Isles and the northwestern coast of America. GENEEAL KEVIEW QUESTIONS. 139 GENERAL REVIEW QUESTIONS. I. [Tfie answers mil be found on pages 37, 38.] 1. What is the size of North America ? 2. What is the greatest mountain-s}-stem in North America ! 3. What mountain-range in the eastern part ? 4. What is the Central Plain ? 5. Name the three largest rivers of North America. 6. What are the five Great Lakes of North America f 7. What of the climate of North America ? II. \_See2iagcs 40-45.] 1. What country north of the United States ? 2. Name the pro\-inces of Canada. 3. Wliat is the largest city of Canada ? 4. What is the capital of Canada ? 5. What can you say of Newfoundland ? 6. To whom does Greenland belong ? — Alaska ? III. \_See pages 45 - 50.] 1 . .State the situation of Mexico. 2. What of its surface ? 3. What is the goveniment of Mexico ? 4. How is Central America divided ? 5. What of the products ? 6. Of what do the West Indies consist ? 7. Mention the principal commercial products of the West Indies. IV. [See pages 53-57.] 1. What part of North A7neric3 does Our Country occupy ? 2. What are the principal mountains of the United States ? 3. What are the three natural divisions of the United States ? 4. What of agriculture in the United States ? 5. Where is mining carried on ? 6. What art the principal exports and imports of Our Coun- try ? 7. What are the five sections of the United States ? V. [See paijes 59-64.] 1. Name the New England States. 2. How does New England compare in size mth the other sections ? 3. What of its importance ? 4 What are the leading occupations or industries of New Engl.ind ? 5. Name the largest city in each New England State. 6. Name the capital of each. VI. [Seepages 65-73.] 1. Name the Middle States. 2. What of their farming ? 3. What of their mining ? 4. What of their manufacturing ? 5. What of their commerce ? 6. Give the largest city in each of the Middle State.?. 7. Name the capital.of each of the Aliddle States. VII. [Sec pages 76-80.] 1. What of the climate of the Southern States ? 2. What plant for clothing material is largely grown ? 3. Where is rice grown ? 4. "\\niere is the sugar-cane cultivated? 5. What articles are produced from the forests ? C. Name the largest city of each Southern State. 7. Name the capital of each of the Southern States. VIII. [Sec pages 81-89.] 1. Name the Western States. 2. 'Where is tliis section situated ? 3. For what is it noted ? 4. What are the principal gi-ains raised ? 5. AVhat of grazing and stock-raising ? (i. What minerals are found in this section ? 7. Name the capital and largi'st city of each of the Western States. IX. [Sec pafjes 02, 93.] 1. Name the States and Territories of the Pacific Highlands. 2. What are the principal occupations ? 3. Name the two largest cities. 4. What two States and one Territory are found on the Pacific coast ? 5. Give an account of California. 6. What of Oregon and Wiishington Territory ? 7. Name the largest city and capital of California ; — of Ore- gon ; — of Washington Territory. X. [See pages 95-97.] 1. How do you describe South America ? 2. What great mountains in the western part ? 3. Name the countries of the Andes. 4. What are their principal exports ? 5. What form of government have they all ? 6. Name the largest citj- in each of the states of the Andes. 7. Of what does the population consist ? XI. [Sec 2'agcs OS, 99.] 1. Give a description of Brazil. 2. Wliat of its vegetation ? 3. What are its leading exports ? 4. What is its largest city and seaport ? 5. What large country in the valley of the Orinoco ? 130 GENERAL EEVIEW QUESTIOXS. 6. Where are the colonies of Guiana ? 7. What three countries in the valley of the Plata ? XII. [Seepages lUl-104.] 1. How does Europe rank among the Grand Divisions as re- gards size and importance ? 2. What are the five principal nations of Europe ? 3. What kingdom occupies the islands of Great Britain and Ireland ? 4. How does England rank ? 5. What of the manufactures of England ? — its commerce ? 6. What are the occupations of the Scotch ? — the Irish ? 7. Name the largest city in England ; — Scotland ; — Ireland. XIII. [ScejmgcslOi-lOS.] 1 . AVhat arc the leading products of France ? 2. Name its four largest cities. 3. Of what does the German Empire consist ? 4. What are the leading industries of Germany ? 5. Of what does Austria consist ? 6. What are the leading industries of Austria ? 7. Name the capital of Germany ; — of Austria. XIV. [Srejxigcs 109, 110.] 1. Of what does the Empire of Russia consist ? 2. What are the principal articles exported by Russia ? 3. What is the capital of Russia ? 4. In what does the wealth of Sweden and Norway consist ? 5. What are the principal occupations of the Danes ? 6. What does the word Holland mean ? 7. What are the principal occupations of the Dutch ? XV. [See pctges no. 111.] 1. What are the leading manufactures of Belgium ! 2. How do the S\viss people make their liWng ? 3. What are tlie three southern peninsulas of Europe ? 4. What countries in the western peninsula ? 5. What is the principal occupation of the Italians ? 6. What is the capital of Italy ? 7. What two countries in the eastern peninsula of Europe ? XVI. [Se^:pagrs 113, 114.] 1. How much of the land surface of the globe is contained in Asia? 2. What portion of all the iijiabitants of the globe live in Asia ? 3. What three races are found there ? 4. Of what does the Chinese Empire consist ? 5. What can you tell about China ? 6. What are the chief exports from Chiha ? 7. What is the capital of the Chinese Empire ? XVII. [Seepages 116-118.] 1. Where is Japan ? 2. Is it more or less progressive than China ? 3. What are the chief exports of Japan ? 4. What is the population of Hindostan ? 5. What country governs Hindostan ? 6. What are the chief products ? 7. Where is Calcutta ? — Bombay ? XVIII. [Scc2}ages lis, 119.] 1. Name the principal countries of the Eastern Peninsula. 2. Name the four largest of the East India Islands. 3. For what products are they noted ? 4. Under what government is Persia ? 5. Where is Arabia ? 6. What ancient countries are included in Asiatic Turkey ? 7. What can you tell about Siberia ? XIX. [See pages 121-124.] 1. What is the most civilized country of Africa ? 2. Name the three Barbary States. 3. What is the Sahara ? 4. What can you tell about the people of Central Africa ? 5. To what nation does Cape Colony belong ! 6. Name three countries on the East Coast. 7. Where is Zanguebar '! XX. [Seepages 125, 12t;.] 1. 'WTiere is Australia ? 2. What can you say of its vegetation ? — of its animals ? 3. To what country does Australia belong ? 4. What are the principal products ? 5. Where is New Zealand ? 6. Name the principal groups of Polynesia. 7. Give an account of the Sandwich Islands. 131 APGAK'S SYSTEM OF MAP-DRAWING. E. A. AND A. C. APGAK. SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. Ix presenting geographical facts two mitliuds arc c ployed. By the use of maps the form and location of geographical features are represented, and by the use of text the featiii-es thus represented are described. A lesson in text is committed to memory, and recited as given by the author. Maps should be studied and recited in the same manner. They should be committed to memory, and for a recitation they should be reproduced as they appear in the book. As maps represent form, they should be studied as other forms are studied, namely, by drawing. The practice of drawing maps will impress their outlines and important features upon the minds of the pupils in much less time than is possible by any other method, and the ability to draw them is evidence that the desired ini- ]iressions have been made. Map-drawing is the only true method for learning that part of geography represented u]ion maps. Materials. — The materials needed for map-drawing are a good lead-pencil (No. 3 or 4), an eraser, a ruler, four cakes of water-colors, — red, green, blue, and yellow, — two camel-hair pencils, — one f(uite small, — and a cake of India-ink. Maps in Lead-Pencil. — (1) Coast-line. — Commence at the northwest and draw in order the northern and east- ern coasts ; then commence again at the northwest and draw the western and southern coasts. Make the line uni- form in width, and avoid sharp angles. (2) Rivers. — Com- mence at the source with a light line, and increase the shade gradually to the mouth. Give it the irregular waved appearance. (3) Mountains. — First draw the base lines or curves, and then the radiating lines, or the radi- ating lines may be omitted. Keep the pencil sharp. (4) Boundary-lines. — Use the ruler in drawing the straight Imuiidary-liues. Make the dots and spaces ec^ual in length. Maps in Lead-Pencil and Color. — Complete the map in lead-pencil, and then color according to one of the following methods. (1) Outline Coloring. — Rub one of the colors in a few drops of water, on a plate or piece of glass, till the color is cpiite bright, but not thick. With the small camel-hair pencil draw a bright, narrow line around all the divisions that are to receive the color mixed. Follow in the same manner with the other colors, being careful to wash the brush each time before using a new color. In outline coloring the width of the line of color aroimd the map or division should not exceed one sixteenth of an inch. (2) Surface Coloring. — Mix the color as be- fore, but make it very light, so light that a single color upon the paper is barely distinguishable. Color the entire I surface of each division with its proper tint, u.sing the large brnsh. When dry, color tiie boundaries according to the fii-st method, using for the boundary of each division the same tint as that upon the surface. This method need.s great care. In imtting on the light tint the brush must be well filled with color, and the whole division must be com- pletely covered Ijefore any ])i)rtion is dry. Maps in Color and India-Ink. — CoiTiplete the map in lead-]iencil, making all the lines very light, then color according to one of the methods e.^jjlained, and finally retrace every line in lead-i)encil with India-ink. Rub the ink with water in a shallow poi-celain dish till it is quite black, and with a fine sti^el pen draw the c<>:ist line, moun- tains, and river.s. Lettering. — Lettering improves a niaj) if it is well done, Imt it should not be undertaken uide.ss it om be made to resemble the lettering upon the printed map. A map looks much better without any lettering, unless it can be done with exceeding neatness, care, and accuracy. Coasting. — Coasting, like lettering, recpiires great care. Each line must be coinideted around the entire division and islands before the next is commenced. The water-lines forming the coasting should cover about one fourth of an inch in width, and within this space there may be drawn, with a hard and sharp-]iointed pencil, or with a fine steel pen, about six lines. Practice. — Draw the map several times from the copy, and then draw one from memory. Compare the last draw- ing with the copy, and correct all mistakes. Draw again from copy, and then from memory, and correct as before. Repeat this alternate drawing from copy and from memory until the whole map can be drawn from memorj' with such accuracy that neither the i)Upil nor the teacher can detect mistakes. While it is well to have pupils color some of their maps with care, too much time should not be expended in orna- mentation. All exercises in map-drawing should be of such a nature as to prepare the pu])ils to draw rapidly, accurately, and \vithout the copy. In drawing a continent, the pupils should be taught, first, to construct the diagram accu- rately ; second, to draw the coast-line, and to describe all the features formed by it, such as peninsulas, capes, bays, ,i;nlfs, etc. ; and third, to draw and describe the internal features, such as mountains, lakes, rivei-s, and cities. It is all important that the pupils should be able to draw the outline of a continent readily and accurately, before they attempt to re])resent the internal features, for upon an im- perfect drawing of the outline, the detjiils must necessarily be imperfect. DIRECTIONS FOR DRAWING NORTH AMERICA. Diagram. — 1. Draw a quarlrant, and divide it into four equal parts, as represented in the figure. Through the first division at 1, and the right angle, draw the first line of the diagram the length desired for the map. 2. From the centre of this line, draw the line C D at right an 4. Divide the line A E into four equal parts, and from the upper division-point at G draw the line G H at right angles to A E, and equal to .B C in length. Connect M and H. 5. Di\'ide the line E B into two equal parts, and from its centre, and at right angles with it, draw the line I J one half the length of E C, and connect E and J and J and B. 6. Divide the lines C D and C B each into two equal parts, and the lines A D and D B each into six equal parts. 7. Subdivide the lower division of the line J3 B into three equal parts, and from the division-])oint at L draw L M, and from M draw M N, and from N draw NO, — making the length of each line equal to two thirds of the distance from B to K, or equal to the distance from L to K. ^ Points of Coincidence. — The position of Point Bar- row is ileterniineil liy the northern angle of the diagram ; Cape Charles by the eastern angle ; Port of Guatemala by the southern angle ; Bay of San Francisco by the western angle ; and the western extremity of Alaska Peninsula by the northwestern angle. * Drawing the Map. — Arctic Coast. — Commence at Point Barrow. Make the mouth of the Mackenzie River opposite tlie first division ; Victoria Land on the second ; the mouth of Hudson Bay between the third and fourth, and Ungava Bay and Cape Chidley near the fifth division. The southern extremity of Hudson Bay touches the line C D near its centre. Atlantic Coast. — Make the Peninsula of Nova Scotia opposite the first division ; Cape Cod north of the second, and Cape Fear at the third. The western shore of Florida crosses at the fourth division, the mouth of the Gulf of Mexico is between the fourth and fifth, and Yucatan Penin- sula extends as far north as the fifth. The shore of the Gulf of Mexico crosses the line C B near its centre, and touches the line E B. The shore of Central America and the Isth- mus of Panama follow closely the zigzag line from K to 0. Pacific Coast. — California Pensinsula extends nearly as far south as the angle at /, and the eastern shore of the Gulf of California crosses the line / / near its centre. Note. — It will be observed that the Lake of the Woods is on the line D, miilway between its centre and C; also, that Lake Erie is midway between tlie centres of the lines C D and B D. * In tliese dirpi-tions for drawing, some features are referred to wliiehare not found ujion tlie accomi>anying maps. In such cases it is expected that the jiupil will refer to the other maps iu the boolc. MAP OF SOl'TH AMEIUCA Tiyi:. A. 4 A. C. Apgar. Scale lOOOJIiks to an IiKh EXPLANATION OF SIGNS. CITIES AND TOWNS. Each Line represpnts a Each Line upon the i Each Line npnn the . .. „ Dot represents a pop- Dot and Cirele ('«m) ulatiou of 100.000. represents 1,000,900 inliabitanls. population of 10,000. 10,000 + 20,000 ■H- 30,000 4t 40,000 flf 60,000 100,000 200.000 300,000 .400,000 500,000 1.000,000 2,000,000 3,000,000 4,000,000 MOUNTAIN RANGES. )))))»)))»»)»)» First Class or Hills. — Under 2,000 feet high. 'T^^— ^— -'iA Second Class. — Between 2,000 and 8,000 feet high, or ^^ '^•~^\%t between >i ami 1^ miles liigh. \^\/'\J%y^%mi Third Oass. — Between 8,000 ami 16,000 feet high, or ' ?!''* W I between 1% and 3 miles high, >^^V^AAi'^/VS^4^<''''■'''■ <^".«. — Over 16,000 feet high, or over 3 miles ^^n*wr '"si'- MOUNTAIN PEAKS. '' I 1' • 'r one mile high each Curve upon the right represents One I ' "■' '"■ Klevation : for those one mile high or more, eaeh Line inesents One Mile in Elev.ation and the Dash underneath r\ >i of a nulehigh. A 1. A u lile high, miles high. 2K iiiiles high. 3 etc., etc. DIRECTIONS FOR DRAWING SOUTH AMERICA. Diagram. — 1. Draw the vertical lino .1 /> tlii' leiij,'th (le.sireJ for tU« map, and divide it, into four ('(pial jiart.o. From the upper divisioii-])nint draw a horizontal line to the right, one half the length of the fiist line, and divide it into three ecpial parts. Extend this horizontal line one third of its length to the left. 2. Draw straight lines from G to F, from /■' to A, from A to E, and from E to B, and divide the lines F A, A E, and E B each into three equal parts. ^_ General Form. — South America in its general form is wedge-shaped, — being wide toward the north and narrow toward the south. Its coast-line is simple, and deviates hut little from the lines of the diagram. The length of the Con- tinent from nortli to south is 4,500 mile.s. Points of Coincidence. — The position of the Penin- sula of Paraguana is determined by the northern angle of the figure ; Cape St. Roque by the eastern angle ; Cape Pillar by the southern, and Cape Parina by tlie western. Opposite the second division-point, on the line F A, is the Isthmus of Panama ; and opposite the second, on the line A E, is the mouth of the Amazon. Opposite the first divis- ion on the line E B is Cape Frio, and opposite the second I is the mouth of the Rio de la Plata. 134 DIRECTIONS FOR DRAWING EUROPE. Diagram. — Draw the liorizoiital line A B the lenrjth ilesivoil fnr the map. This line connects the mouth of the Douro TiiviT -with Cape Ajlsheron. Its length is 3,000 miles. With A and 7? as centres, and with a radius equal to three fourths of A 7?, draw arcs to ii lersect at C, and connect A and C, and' 73 and C. Divide A C into four, CB into six, and .1 B into eight ec^ual parts. From the first division to the riL;ht of Q and from the angle A draw ver- tiial lines, as shown in the figure, each one eighth the length of .4 7!. Cip7inect 77 and 7, and divide the right-hand half of this line into four eriual parts. From D draw a jierpen- dirular line equal to two and one half divisions on the line A I!, and hisect it. Connect G and F, and E and B. From K draw a line in the direction of the centre of C 73 until it meets a vertical line drawn from the angle G, Map. — Commence at G, on the coast of Norway, and draw, in order, the northern and eastern boundaries ; then conmience again at G and draw the western and southern boun V 'i^^ {^ "^^'liiV rtf**^^\**!S''^^*^ > >^^^ %'^ f • t?^ 1^ _jl "^ ' ' •■< ' ^^ "t" ^^ ^^ >^ Lu^^ *-v ^^ ^% ifc r'^'^-^y^^'^l) ^ ^C#E !^L P / t " ^^%^b--SSTh ^^^^ X!^~~'^C"<:«"'-f"^T'*^V"" / II ^'if"'^!^ ^ . v-^ I N I)\^ A (.'^2^'''^\ \ i' A ^C "' " ^' ^ ^ ^M ''""'''' ^C ^ J. „^ yJ 1 "^-^-d ^\ *iY ^\. ^^ / ^ 1 ^ ^ >>. / \ y "^ ^' -■'v (K^ -^ y^ X// ^v ^ C-C^mo^y^ /S ^ ^--2;5^ / r - ^^---^ 9,^ 111'' pi s^ ;]biM»»*^ ^'^<^' / [\ ^^ \ X, *». V.L "■ -+••'" \ -Vk ■-■' %\ '^ K J- -^-^ •» ' V l>,i(imts(/ie ,■ >'» 5J Zin DIRECTIONS FOR DRAWING ASIA. Diagram. — l>iaw tlir vritiral liiir ,1 P, a little- iimro than one lialf tlir k-iigtli ili-siivd lur the iiia|i. iimlli anil south. Diviilc: it into thive oiiual parts, and the upper third iutu two parts. From the point B draw the horizontal line /i C oni' and one sixth times the length of .1 D. Bisect it, and coiniect A and C. Trisect A 0, then l>isee,t the middle division and trisect the upper. With the iioints A and Cas centres, and with a radius equal to one and two thirds time.s the fii-st line, draw arcs to intersect at D. and connect A and D, and C and D. Trisect A D and bisect the miiMle division. Divide the line CD into four equal parts, and Insect lioth of the extreme divisions. Draw the lines E P and N L and hisect them ; also one from to A' atid trisect it. From the lower trisectint^ ])oint on the line OK draw* a lino toward J till it meets the line N L. Hap. — Commeiice at East Cajie and draw in oiiler tlie eastern, sontliern, and western lioundaries, inchuling tlie Black Sea ; then commence again at Ea-st Cape .and finish the outline. Tl:e shore of Kameliatka crosses at the first division on the line D C ; tlie southern shore of tlie Sea of OchotsU is at O ; Die Yellow Sea is near the centre of the line at // ; tlie Gulf of Tonqiiin is at / ; and the Oult of Siam is near tlie l.ast division. If we suii)iose aline drawn from tliis division- IHiint parallel witli the line .1 C, it will assi.st in detenniiiin? the position of the Oulf of Siam an.l the liav of Bcnsial. Cape Romania coincides with tlie aiiirle at C, and Tape fiunorin with' the lower division on .the line O A'. Tin- head of the Per- sian Gulf is near the centre of the tri.angle .1 .V /.. The Strait of TSah-el-Manaeb is at aV : the Isthmus of Suez between A and ^f : and the Strait of liosphorus. at A. Tlie Black Sea extends as far east as the first division on the line .1 C, and th.e Caspian Sea touches this line at the second division. Tlie jiosition of the Cas- pian Sea, the Ural River, and Ural Mountains is determined by the line E C. "B Gc&le 1000 Uiles to an Inch " ■'IguUia, DIRECTIONS FOR DRAWING AFRICA. Diagram. — I. By iiu-aiis of a quadrant iliviili-d into six equal parts, a.s represented in the figure, draw tlie first line of the diagram the length desired for the map. 2. Divide this line into two equal parts at C, and the upper lialf in four equal parts. 3. With the points A and B as centres, and with a radius equal to three fourths of the first line, draw two arcs to intersect at D, and draw the lines A D and B D. In the same manner with the points A and C as centres, and with a radius equal to three fourths of the line A G, determine the point E, and draw A E and C E. 4. Divide the line A D into two cfiual ^larts, and draw the perpendicular F H e(iual to one eighth of the first line. Divide the part F D into two equal parts, and draw the lines A H and H G. Trisect each of the lines A H, D B, B C, and G E. General Form. — Africa resembles both North America and .South America in its general form, being wide at the north and narrow toward the south. Its coast is very regu- lar, like that of South America. Its length, from Cape Spartel to Cape Agulhas, is 5,000 miles. Like South America, it is situated on both sides of the Equator. Points of Coincidence. — The position of Cape Spar- tel is determined by the ncirthern angle of the diagram ; the Isthmus of Suez by the northeastern angle ; Cape Guar- dafui by the eastern angle ; Cape Agulhas by the southern, and Cape Eoxo by the western. Outline. — Commence at Cape Spartel, and draw the northern and eastern coasts ; then, from the same point, draw the western coast. The coast from Cape Spartel to Cape Bon is without the line of the diagram ; then it crosses the line, and forms the Gulf of Sidra, opposite the second division-point. The western shore of the Bed Sea follows the line H G, and makes an inward curve between Gaud D. The eastern shore first makes a small outward curve ; touches the line at the first division-point, and then makes a umch larger bend without the line, touching again at Cape Agulhas. From this point it deviates but little from the diagram till it reaches Cape Lopez. Between this point and the first division on the line G E, there is a large in- ward bend forming the Gulf of Guinea. It then bends without the line till we reach Cape Roxo. From Cape E.OXO to Cape Spartel the coast is wholly without the line. Madagascar Island is situated opposite the middle third of the line D B. 137 PRONUNCIATION OF DIFFICULT GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES. ^^ All marks usod to indicate pronunciation arc the Bamo as arc employed In 'Wcbstor's Dictionary, last edition. Explanation of Marks. — ii, e, !, o, u, y, /njijr ; S, 5, o, less prolonged : S, E, I, 0, H, y, short ; n, j, i, 9, obscure : cSrc, Mr, list, full, wliat ; there, veil, term; pVqiie, firm; done, ffir, dn, w^lr, rt,'iie, k<> Inii' : Fr.pron. 1(1 ur; . BSS' I'ra. ko'b. Knln. Colorado, kul'o riUiMo Uomayagua, ko-mia'gwa. Com'o-rm. Conecocheague, kon'e-ko- cheeg'. Congo, cong'go, or ZaVre, za-eer'. Connaught. kon'nawt. Co'pgn-ha'^gn : Dan. Kjo- benhavn, kyo ben-hown'. Cor'do-va, or Cordoba. Corea, ko-re'a. Corfu, kor-foo', or kor'fu. Costa Rica, kfis'ta re'ka. Cotopaxi, ko'to-paks'e ; Sp. pron. ko-to-paii'iie. Cracow, kra'ko. CrT-mo'a. Croix (St.), kroi. Csaba, du'b'G. nca, kweu'ka. Cumana, kjj-ma-na'. Curapoa, ku'ra-so'. Cuyahoga, kPa-ho'ga. Cuzco, koos'ko. Dahlonega, dalOn'e-ga. Dahomey, or Dahomay, dah-ho'mn'. Dardanelles, dar'da-nelz'. Darien (Ga.), da're"§n. Darien (Isthmus of), ri3-re- 6n'. De-ca'tur. Delhi (Hindostan), del'lee. Delhi (U. S.), del'hi. Deraerara, dem'gr-a'ra. Des Moines, de-moin', or des moinz. Dhawalaghiri, da-wol'a- ger're. )ieppe, dyep, or de-ep'. Dijon, de'zhuX'. Dnieper, nee'pgr ; Russian pron. dnyup'gr. Dniester, nees'tgr; JRussian pron. dnyfis'tgr. Dominica, dom'e-nee'ka. Dongola. dong'^o-la. -" o'vre-n-eld' ; Norw. Daa^ vrefjeld, do'vrg-fycld'. Drontheim,dronl'im, Norw, Troudjcm, trond'yem. Dubuque, du-b(5bk'. Duluth. dii-liith'. Dumfries, dum-frees'. Dun-dee'. Duquesne, du-kan'. Etienne,Saint. saxt ct'e-en'. Et'o wab. Euba'a^u-bij'a. Eufaula, fi-fji'la. Euxine, yjjx'in. Faroe, fa'ro. Fauquier, faw-keer'. Fayal, fi-awP; Port. pron. flap. Feejee, f^'je. Fernanriiu'i. fPr nan-de'na. Ferrara, fri; ita'ra. Ferrol, fPit-RoP. Fezzan, I'cz'zan'. Finisterre (Cape), (in-is-tSr'; Sp. Finistierra, fee-niate- Fijud du Lac. [6R'Ra. fri' For-mo' Freiburg,' frPburj bdbRG. Frio, free'o. Fu'ca. Fuegos, rji-a'goee, Funchal, foon-shiU'. Fuuen, fu'nen. Fusiyama, ra-sT-yE-ma'. Gairdnor, gfird'ner. Galapagos, gaPa-pa'gus. Ga-le'na. Gallinas, gal-e'na*. GaPves-t^n. Galway, gawl'wn. Garonne, ga-rou'. Gas'co-n,f. Gaspe, ghs'pS'. ('ieu'o-a;lt.GenovaJen'o-va- Oeyser~s^ gi'serz. (Jhent, gent; Fr.Gand,g6x. Giessen, geea'sgu. Gila, iie'la. Gironde, je-rond'; Fr.pron. zhu'roNd'. Gloucester, glos'tgr, (Jobi, go'be. Gon'dar. Gtiteborg, yo-ta-boRg'. Gotha, go'ia. Gtittinw'en, or Goettingen, ■t'ting-gn, or got'ting-gn. Granada, gra na'da ; Span. pron. grU-u5'na. reenwich. grln'Tj. Guadalajara, or Guadalaxa- ^wa-na la-Ha'ra. Guadaioupe, gaw'dg-loop', or ga'da-loop'. Guadalquivir, gaw'dal- kwiv'er ; Sp, pron. gw^a- nai-kevecR'. Guadiana, gaw'de-&'na, or gwa'ne-a'na. Guauahani, gwa-naha'nee. (iuanajuato,orGuanaxiiato, gwa-nll-ilwa'to. Guardafui, gwar'da-fwee', or gar'da f%ve'. 138 PEONUNCIATION OP DIFFICULT GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES. Guatemala, gaw'te-m&'la, or gwU-te-mU'Ia. Oiiaviimn. cwi-n'ma. iHi iN.iMinl. wi-U-keel'. Guyaudott, gi-an-dot'. Hague, liaig. Hakodadi, ha-ko-dn'dee HanVburg; Ger.prmi.h^m^- booHG. Han'o-vcr; Ger.Han-no'vcr. Haverhill (Eng-.). Iiav'cr-il. Haverhill (Mass.), lia'ver-il. Havre de Grace, liav-er de Leipsic, llp^sik; zig, lip/tsio. Leitii. liitli. Ifh Fr. Hawaii, hS-wI'ee. Hayti, or Haiti, ha'tl pron. a/e'te'. Hebrides, heb,'ri-dez. He-le'iia, St. Helena '(Ark.), hel'B-ua. Hel'go-laud, or Hel'i-go land. He i'ko. ss« Cas'ssl. Uim-a-la'y.i ; Sanskritproil. hi-ma'la-ya, Hin-do-stan'? Ho-ang'ho, pronounced al- most wliang'ho'. Ho'bo-keu. Holstein, liol'stln. Honduras, hon-doo'ras, Honolulu, ho-uo-loo'^0. Houston, liyoos'tuu. Hu^, hoo-a'. Iberville, i'ber*vil. lUimani, eel-'va-nm'nee. Illinois, il ll-uoiec', ornoi'. Indiauola, lu-di-.a-no'la. Indies, in'dlz. I'o-wa. Isle Ifoyale, eel-riia yal. Ismailia, Ts-ma-el'ya. Itasca (Lake), T-tas'ka. Ith'a-ca. : I-u'%. Iztaccihuatl, es-tak-se- hwat'l'. Jalapa, Ha-m'pJI. Jalisco, orXalisco, iiS-lees'- ko. or Ha-lis'ko. Jeu'a; Ger.proii. ya'nJl. Joliet, jul'le-et. Ju'au Fer-nan'dPz; Sp. pr. Hoo-an' f6R-uau'deth. Ju'au, Saint; Sp. San Juan, siln Koo-an, or 6an Hw^u. Jungffrau, ydbng'frow. Ju'ni-at'a. Kal'a-ma-zoo'. Kam-cbat'ka. Kanawha, ka-naWwa. Kankakee, kank'a-kee'. Karakorum, ka-ra-ko'rQm. Ka-tahMiu. Kearney, kUr'nT, Kearsarge, ker'slirj'. Kennebec, kCn-ne-bek'. Kenosha, kSn-o'sha. Ke'o-kuk'. Khiva, Kee'va. Kiakhta, ke-SK'ta. Kief, ke-ef, or K!-ev'. ICiel, keel. Klamath, klara'at. Kilimanjaro, kil-g-mUn-jJi- ro'. Kil-Iar/ney. Kit'ta-ttn'ny. Kuni^'sber^, ken'igz-berg. Kordofan, kor-do-ian'." Kurile, kub'ril. Lab^ra-dor'. La Fayette, laf-a-et'. La Fourche, la foorsh. La Guayra, la gwi'ra. Laon, la'oN'. Lancaster, laug'kas-tgr. La iJochellc, la ro-shll'. Lausanne, lo'zan'. Leicester, k-s'ter. Leinster, lin'ster, or leen' ster. / > . , leej; Fr.pron. le-azli'. ,isic, Icel. Lima (Peru), loe'ma. - a(r.S.), IVma. iri, hp-'a-re or lee/p!i-ree. Llanos, lya'nos. Lodi (Italy), lo'dee. Lodi{lT. S.), lo'dl. Lo-fo'clcn. , IwXli. bar-dy. Lomond (Loch), loK lo'- mund. 08 Aiiireles, loce Sn/jel-Cz. Louisville, loo'is-vil; for- merly jyron. loo'T-vil. Lucca; i^ ;)rojj,. look'ka. Lupata, lu-pii'tri. Luzon, loo-zon'. Ly-cSm'ing-. Ly'ons; Fr. Lyon, le'ux'. . ma-9a/e-ra? Ma->i .1 .- n, ,. ! . ; ,. M;r_' ■' ■■: 1. 1 : ! . Mak....iM. i.i.. ju,, k.. k,. I 1. Mal'n Iku-'. Mal'a-L:a, or mU'in-gn. MaltTi,' hiawl'ta; //. pr miil'ta. Mandaleh, mau-da'le Mauistie, ma-nis'te. Manitoba, nihu-T-to'ba. Manitouwoc, man^c-toc ok'. Maracaybo, ma-ra-ki/bo. zh'nr Nismes, neem. Norwich (Eng.), nor'nj. Norwich (U. S.), nor'ricb, or nor'wich. Nov'go-rod'. Nueces, nwa'ses. Nyassa, n6-Us'a. Oahu, wUh'hoo. Obi, o'be. Ock'lo-ko'nee. 0-co'nee^ Odcnse. o'dgn-seh. O'dcr. Oise, oiz; Fr. pron. wSz, almost wTz^ Oii^eechee, o-ijec'chee. Okefenokoe, u-k(/-fsn-o'ke, Okhotsk, o-Kotsk'. ' )!i "I'i lu'a, on'un-daw'ga. Orizaba, o-re-sa'ba. Oude, owd. O^vidfN.Y.). O-zark'. Padni-a. Padiica, pa-du'ka. Panama, jKln/ama'; Sp.pr. p;i-n;t-ma'. Para, pn-r3'. Parnf.'-uay, pU-rU-gwa', or : ; Fr. pron. she-loo', or ra'do. o del Norte, ri'o del nort; Sj).pr. ree'o d61 noR^S. Rio Grande (Texas), ri'o rand. Rib Grande (S, A.), re'o- Gran'da. io Janeiro, rt'o ja-nee'ro, or ree'o ja-na'ro. Rivoli, riv'6-Ie, or ree'vo-le. Ro'a-n. • ■ Rouen. r:\'. n\Mi ; Fr. pr Sabine, sa-been'. Saco, saw'ko. Saguenay, sag'sh-na'. Sahara, sa-ha'ra, or sah/hi- ra. Said, sa-eed'. Saltillo. s:il-t.'<'I'yo; tyulffti Sangamon, sang'ga-mon. Santa Cruz, san'ta kroos; Sp. pron. san'ta krooth. Sanaa Fc; ,Sp. iJron. san^a Santiago de Cuba, san-te-U'- I de ku/ba, or da koo-'ba. Sas-katrh'a-uan'. r-bo. M.i: -.111 . [M , MartJiii^iiK, 111 M I, ii..>.k'. Ma-tan'zas, or ma-tan'thiis. Mat'a-pan'. Mauch-Chunk, mawk- chHnk/. Maz'.^it-lan', or mS-sat-lSin/. Medina ( Arabia), mc-dee/na. Medina (U. S.), me-di'na. " Me-her'rio. _ " Monai,m&n'iormen'a (Str.) Slendociuo, m2n-do-see'no. Mersey, mer'zT. Merthyr Tydvil, or Tydfil, mer'tligr tid'vil. Messina, mC'S-sec/ua. Miami, ml-a'mi. Milan, niTl'an (Italy); mi'lan (U.S.). " Miramachi, mir'a-ma-shee'. Mod'e-ua, or mod'a-nli. Mohave," mo-hSv'. Mo-luc'cag. Mo-nad'nock. Mo-non'ga-he'la- Mont Blanc, rn'oN blGN, or Mount BiaQC. Mont Cenis, moN Bgh-ne', or soh-ness'. Mon^e-vid'e-o, or mon-tS- vee''da-o. Mont-pe'lT-er. Mos''co\v; Russ. Moskwa mosk-wS'. Mozambique, mo-zam-book', Munich, mu'nik: Ger. Miiu chen, miin/Gon. Muscatine, mus'ka-teen'. Muskingum, mu8-Ictug'gum. Mysore, mi-sor'. Nantes, nants; Fr. pron. noNt. Nan -tuck 'gt. Natal, na-taP. Natch'i-toch'es ; sometimes pron. nak'e-tush'. Neufchatel, nush'a'teP. Newfoundland, nu'fund land'. New Or/le-ang; o/teji, but ko. Pesth, pest ; Hitng. pron. pesht. PhiPip-pTne. Piacenza, pe-a-chen'za. Pierre (Saint), sent peer; Fr. pron. sSn pe-SR', Piqua, pik'wa. Pisa, pee'sa." Pis-cat ■'a-qua. Plaquemine, plak'men'. Plata (Rio de la), re'o da la piaaa. Po'CQ-tal'i-cg. Pompeii, pom-pa'yee, Pont'char- train'. Pon'tT-ac. Po-po-cat'a-p5tP. Port-an-Prince, port-o- prTnss ; Fr. pron. poRt- o-pr3Nss. Porto Rico, por'to ree'ko Sp. Puerto Rico, pwSR'to ree'ko. Potosi, po-to-see', or po-to'- Poughkeepsie, po-kip'sT. Prague, prag; Ger. Prag prac. Prairie du Chien, pra'rT djj sheen. Puebla, pwSb'ia. Pyrenees, pir'e-nez. Queretaro, ka-ra-ta'ro. Quesada, k5-sa'Da. Quiloa, kee'lo-a. Quin'e-baug'. Quito, kee'to. Racine, ^as-seen^ Rahway, raw'wa. Raleigh, raw'li. Rangoon, rang-goon'. Rap'id-an', or Rap'id Ann. Raritan, rir'it-un. Reading, r<5d'ing. Terre-Haute, tgr/reh-hot ; Fr. pron. t5l:/hCt', or t5r'r(;h-hot. Thames, t6mz. Thibadeauville, tib'a-do'vil. Thibet, tib'et, or tt-bct'. Tim-buk'too. Titicaca, tit-e-ka'ka. Tivoli, tiv'o-le, ortee'vodee. To-pe'ka. Toulon,"too'15N'. Toulouse, too'looz'. Tours, toou. TraPal-gar', or TrafSPgar. Triest, or Trieste, tre-5st', or tre-Gs'ta. Trin'Tdad'. Truxillo, or Trujillo, troo- HccPyo. Tu'rin, or tu-rtn'. Tyr'Ql ; Gcj'. 7)7-on. te-roP. Ulm ; Ger. pron. dblm. Um-ba/gog. Upernavik, oo-pSR'na-vik. Up'sal, or Upsala, up-sa'la. Urug'uay, u'roo-gwa' or oo- roo-gwP. Utah, yoo'ta. Utrecht, u'tr^kt ; Dntchpr. U'treivt. Valdai, vapdi. VaPl.a-do-lid'; Span, pi'on. val-"ya-i'i->-loi'ii'. Valpar;n- . ^:il W^ n'M.._ Sp.'jn'. ,•,:!, 'lli'u , ki'' Vera ("m/. \ ;'i:i kr.m-;. Verde, verd. V^rgennes, ver-jenz'. Versailles, vgr-salz' ; Fr.pr. vBR'sal', or vfiR-say". Vienna, ve-en'na; Ger.Wien, ween, almost veen. Vienna (U. S.), vl-eu'n.i. Vincennes, vin-86nz';" Fr. pron. vaN'sBn'. Vosges, vozh. S.-1i' Schuylkill, skool'kil. Scinde, sTnd. Scituate, sit'u-at. Seine, san. Seville, sev'il, or ee-viP. Seychelles, sa'sheP. Shawangunk, shong'gum. She-boy'gan ; formerly lorit- ten Cheboygan. Shcn'an-do'ah, Sierra, se-eR'Ra. Sierra Madre, se-eu'ita raan'ra. Sierra Nevada, se-eR'Ra na- va'DU. Sim'plon; Fr. pron. saN'- pl6N'. Singapore, sing'ga-por'. Sioux, 800. Sisal, Bc-sSP, Skag'ggr Rack. Skaneateles, skan'e-at'les. So-i I'ra. Sorata, so-ra'ta. Steubenville, stu'bgn-vil. Stock'holm. Stutt'gart ; Gei\ pr. stdbt'- gaRt. Sucre, soo'kra. Suez, soo'ez ; Arab, pron soo-ez'. Sumatra, soo-raa'tra. Surinam, soo-rl-nam'. Su-Wji'nee. Swansea, swon'se. Szegedin,85g'ed'en', or seg'- ed'in'. Tahiti, ta-hPte. Talequah, ta'lg-kwa. TaPla-has'see. Tamaqua, ta-maw'kwa. Tampico, lam-pee'ko. Taos, tS'os ; almost towss. Taunton (Eng.), tawn'tgn. Taunton (Mass.), tUu'tijn. Teche, tfsh. Tehuantepec, ta-wan-ta-pek' Teneriffe, teu'er-iP. wirk [ . S.), wor'vvik, ■ wor'rik. Washita, 07* Ouachita, w5sh'- T-taw'. Watervliet, wa'tgr-vleet'. Wau-ke'gau. We/ggr; (5er. pron. wa/zgr. Wieliczka, weditch'k5. Wilkesbarre, wilks'b3r-rT. Willamette, wilda'raet; wr. a/so Walabmutte. Win'ne-ba'go. Win-ng-pg-sau'kee. Woolwich, wdb Pitch, or wo^oPij. Worcester, wdbs'ter Wiirtemberg, wQr'tgm-berg; Ger.pr. wiiR'tgm-bgRG'. Wy'an-dot'. Wy o'ming. Xapeco, or Chapeco, sha- Xarayes, sha-rPSs. [pa-'ko. Xenia, zee'nT-a. Xeres; Span.'pron. ut-r^^' ; Port. pron. shfir-Ss'. Xoa, sho'a. Yakootsk, ya-kootsk'. Yang-tse-kiang, yang'tse- ke-ang'. Ya-zoo'. Yera'en. Yenisei, yen'e-sa'e, or yeu- e sa'; or Enisei, en'e-sa'e. Yo-ko-ha'ma. Yo-sem'i-te. Youghiogheny,yCh'hQ-ga'nI Yp/sMan'li. Yu'ca-tau', or yoo'kS-tan'. Zacatecas, zak-a-ta'kas. Zam-beze', or zam-ba'zg. Zauguebar, zang'ga-bar'. Zan'te. Zan'zi-bar'. [tsii'riK. Zurich, zu'rik: Ger. pron. Zuyder {or Zuider) Zee, zP- dgr zee, or zoo'der zee ; Dutch pron. zoi'der za. 131 APGAR'S SYSTEM OF MAP-DRAWING. E. A. AND A. C. APGAR. SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. In presenting geographical facts two niethmls are em- ployed. By the use of maps the fonii and location of geographical features are represented, and by the use of text the features thus represented are described. A lesson in text is committed to memory, and recited as given by the author. Maps should be studied and recited in the same manner. They should be committed to memory, and for a recitatioti they should be reproduced as they appear in the book. As maps represent form, they should be studied as other forms are studied, namely, by drawing. The practice of drawing maps will impress their outlines and important features upon the minds of the pu]>ils in much less time than is possible by any other method, and the ability to draw them is evidence that the desired im- ]iressious have been made. Map-dra\ving is the only true method for learning that part of geography represented upon maps. Materials. — The materials needed for map-drawing are a g(iod lead-pencil (No. 3 or 4), an eraser, a ruler, four cakes of water-colors, — red, green, blue, and yellow, — two camel-hair pencils, — one quite small, — and a c.ike of India-ink. Maps in Lead-Pencil. — (1) Coast-line. — Commence at the northwest and draw in order the northern and east- ern coasts ; then commence again at the northwest and draw the western and southern coasts. Make the line uni- form in width, and avoid sharp angles. (2) Rivers. — Com- mence at the source with a light line, and increase the shade gradually to the mouth. Give it the irregular waved appearance. (3) Mountains. — First draw the base lines or curves, and then the radiating lines, or the radi- ating lines may be omitted. Keep the pencil sharp. (4) Boundary-lines. — Use the ntler in drawing the straight boundary-lines. Make the dots and spaces equal in length. Maps in Lead-Pencil and Color. — Complete the map in lead-pencil, and then color according to one of the following methods. (1) Outliiie Coloring. — Rub one of the colors in a few drops of water, on a plate or piece of glass, till the color is quite bright, but not thick. With the small camel-hair pencil draw a bright, narrow line around all the divisions that are to receive the color mixed. Follow in the same manner with the other colors, lieing careful to wa.sh the brush each time before using a new color. In outline coloring the width of the line of color aroiuid the map or division should not exceed one sixteenth of an inch. (2) Surface Coloring. — Mix the color as be- fore, but make it very light, so light that a single color upon the paper is barely distinguishable. Color the entire surface of each division with its proper tint, using the large brush. When dry, color tlu' boundaries according to the first method, using lor tlie boundary of each divi.sion the .same tint as that upon the surface. This method needs great care. In putting on the light tint the brush must be well filled with color, and the whole division must be com- pletely covered before any yiortion is dry. Maps in Color and India-Ink. — Complete the map in lead-pencil, ni.ikiug all the lines very light, then color according to one of the methods explained, and finally retrace every line in lead-pencil with India-ink. Rub the ink with water in a shallow purcelain dish till it is (piite black, and with a fine steel pen draw the coast line, moun- tains, and ri\'ers. Lettering. — LettiM'ing improves a map if it is well dime, l)Ut it should not be nndcM'taken unless it c;in be matle to resembh' the lettering upon the printed map. A map looks much better without any lettering, unless it can l)e done with exceeding neatness, care, and accuracy. Coasting. — Coasting, like lettering, recpiires great care. Each line must be completed around the entire division and islands before tlie next is commenced. The water-lines forming the coasting should cover about one fourth of an inch in width, and within this space there may be dra«Ti, with a hard and sharp-pointed pencil, or with a fine steel pen, about six lines. Practice. — Draw the inaji several times from the copy, and then draw one from memory. Compare the last draw- ing with the copy, and con-ect all mistakes. Draw ;»gain from copy, and then from memory, and correct as before. Repeat this alternate drawing from copy and from memory until the whole map can be drawn fiom memorj' with such accuracy that neither the ]ni]iil nor the teacher can detect mistakes. While it is well to have pupils color some of their maps with ciire, too much time should not be expended in orna- mentation. All exercises in nuip-drawing should be of such a nature as to prepare the pupils to draw rapidly, accurately, and without the co)iy. In drawing a continent, the pupils should be taught, first, to construct the diagram accu- rately ; second, to draw the coast-line, and to de,scribe all the features formed by it, such as peninsulas, capes, bays, gulfs, etc. ; and third, to draw and describe the internal features, such as mountains, lakes, rivers, and cities. It is all important that the pupils should be able to draw the outline of a continent readily and accur.ately, before they attempt to re])resent the internal features, for upon an im- perfect drawing of the outline, the details must necessiirily be imperfect. MAP OP NORTH AJSIERICA By E. A. * A. 0. AlgBT. Scale XOOO MiJ€s to an Incli. SOUTH AMERICA DIRECTIONS FOE DRAWING NORTH AMERICA. Diagram. — 1. Draw a quadrant, and divide it into four equal parts, as represented in the figure. Through the first division at 1, and the riglit angle, draw the first line of the diagram the length desired for the map. 2. From the centre of this line, draw the line C D at right angles with it, and one half its length. Connei-t A D and B I). 3. Extend the line C D toward E, making the whole length D E eijual to A D or B D, and draw the lines A E ami EB. ) 4. Divide the line A E into four equal parts, and from the upper division-point at G draw the line G H at right angles to A E, and equal to E C in length. Connect A and H. 5. Div-ide the line E B into two equal parts, and from its centre, and at right angles with it, draw tlie line / J one half the length of E G, and connect E and J and J and B. 6. Divide the lines C D and C B each into two equal parts, and the lines A D and D B each into six ecpial parts. 7. Subdivide the lower division of the line D B into tliree equal parts, and from the di\'ision-point at L draw L M, and from M draw M N, and from JV draw N 0, — making the length of each line equal to two thirds of the distance from li to K, or equal to the distance from L to K. (__ Points of Coincidence. — The position of Point Bar- row is determined liy the northern angle of the diagram ; Cape Charles by the eastern angle ; Port of Guatemala by the southern angle ; Bay of San Francisco by the western angle ; and the western extremity of Alaska Peninsula by the northwestern angle. * Drawing the Map. — Arctic Coast. — Commence at Point Barnjw. Make the mouth of the Mackenzie River ojjposite the first di\ision ; Victoria Land on the second ; the mouth of Hudson Bay between the third and fourth, and Ungava Bay and Cape Chidley near the fifth division. The southern extremity of Hudson Bay touches the line G D near its centre. Atlantic Coast. — Make the Peninsula of Nova Scotia opposite the first division ; Cape Cod north of the second, and Cape Fear at the third. The western shore of Florida crosses at the fourth division, the mouth of the Gulf of Mexico is between the fourth and fifth, and Yucatan Penin- sula extends as far north as the fifth. The shore of the Gulf of Mexico crosses the line G B near its centre, and touches the line E B. The shore of Central America and the Isth- mus of Panama follow closely the zigzag line from K to 0. Pacific Coast. — California' Pensinsnla extends nearly as far smith as the angle at J, and the eastern shore of the Gulf of California crosses the line I J near its centre. Note. — It will be observed that the Lake of the Woods is on the Hne C D, midway between its centae and C ; also, that Lake Erie is midway between the centres of the lines C D and B D. * In these direetions for drawing, some features a not found u]>on the acconii'anying maps. In snchc the pupil will refer to the other maps in the book. Scale 1000 SUITS to «n Inch EXPLANATION OF SIGNS. CITIES AND TOWNS. Each Line represents a E;icli Line upon populution of 10,000. o 10,000 + 20,000 ■if 30,000 tt 40,000 ^ 50,000 '.noh Line npnn the n..t anrt Circle ('.«) represents 1,000,000 irili.abit.-ints. etc., etc 100,000 200,000 300,000 ..400,000 300,000 1,000,000 2,000,000 3,000,000 # 4,000,000 etc., etc. MOUNTAIN RANGES. )))))))))));»»)») First Class or Hilk. — Under 2,000 feet hi-b. ^v-v^^— i^^^Jaj. Second ansa. — Between 2,000 anil 8,000 feet bi?b, or '"'' ^^'^TT5'% between K "'"I IK niiles high. 4 Third auss. — Between 8,000 and 16,000 feet high, or J\| between IK and 3 miles high. ,^^,^<^^v'^JA>S>^M^'""""' '^"w. — Over 16,000 feet high, or over 3 miles MOUNTAIN PEAKS. For Peal;s under one mile bigli each Curve Ujion the right represents One F'.urtli of a Mile Elev.ation : for those one mile higli or Tiiore. each Line right represents One Mile in Elevation anil the Dasli underncatli One n.alf a Mile. /^ >4' of a mile high. A 1 mile high. A IJi miles high. A 2 A 2}J miles high. DIRECTIONS FOR DRAWING SOUTH AMERICA. Diagram. — 1. Draw the vertical line A B the length desired fur the map, and di\'ide it into Ibnr ecjual parts. From the upper division-point draw a liorizontal line to the ri<^ht, one half the length of the fii-st line, and tlivide it into three equal ])arts. E.vtcnd llii.-; horizontal line mie third of its length to the left. 2. Draw straight lines from C to F, from F to A, from A to E, and from E to B, and divide the lines F A, A E, and E B each into tliree equal parts. >__ General Form. — South America in its general form is wcdgi'-shaped, — being wide toward the north anil narrow toward the south. Its coast-line is simple, and deviates but little from the lines of the diagram. The length of the Con- tinent from north to south is 4,500 miles. Points of Coincidence. — The position of the Penin- sula of Paraguana is determined by the northern angle of the figure ; Cape St. Ro(pie by the eastern angle ; Cape Pillar by the southern, and Cape Farina by the western. Ojiposite the second division-point, on the line FA, is the Isthmus of Panama ; and opposite the second, on the line A E, is the mouth of the Amazon. Opposite the first divis- ion on the line E B is Cape Frio, and opposite the second is the mouth of the Rio de la Plata, 134 EUEOPE JijE A. 4,4. C. ipgar. . 0»«4* V( xA tr s/t r I f^ r Wj! ± >iJ ^ -+1U S ^ ""1/4 R K ji A C X ^ ^^ -< ) ' \ 4 4. P-^ JS Z) J- '< ^^ A K- 1 CONSTANTINOPLE ^ / \ 1 \j» Siat»^ ^ X. f-fe- x^ >!>> \ r p fS DIRECTIONS FOR DRAWING EUROPE. Diagram. — Draw the horizontal line A B the length ilesireil fnr Ihe map. Thi.s line connects the mouth of the Douro Pviver with Cape Apsheron. Its length is 3,000 miles. With .4 and B as centres, and with a radius equal to three fourths of A B, draw arcs to ii lersect at C, and connect A and C, and B and C. Divide A C into four, C B into six, and A B into eight equal parts. From the first division to the rii,dit of G and from the angle A draw ver- tical lines, as shown in the figure, each one eighth the length of .4 B. Connect H and I, and divide the right-hand lialf of this line into four equal parts. From D draw a perpen- dicular line equal to two and one half divisions on the line A B, and liisect it. Connect C and F, and E and B. From K draw a line in the direction of the centre oi C B until it meets a vertical line drawai from the angle G. Map. — Commence at G, on the coast of Norway, and draw, in order, the northern and eastern boundaries ; then commence again at G and draw the western and southern boundaries. The coast of Norway follows the line G A, and extends south to a point about nudway between C and A''. Tlie lines G L and L K will assist in drawing the Gulf of Bothnia, the Baltic Sea, and the northwestern shores of Germany and France. The head of the Bay of Biscay is near the first division to the right of A, on the line A B. The Gull's of Lyons and Genoa are on opposite sides of the second division.' and the lieail of Ihe Adriatic Sea embraces the third division. The fifth division marks the western extremity of'the Black Sea ; the Sea of Azov is north of the sixth division, and the eastern extremity of the Black Sea is near the seventh. Italy resembles in outline the shape of a boot. Tlie southern extremity is between the first and second divisions to the right of / on the line H I. The Peninsula of Greece is situated between the second and third divisions, and extends south of this line equal to one division. The Sea of Marmora is a little north of I. The British Lsles are triangular in outline, and their length north and south is equal to one fourth oi A G. 135 DIRECTIONS FOR DRAWING ASIA. Diagram. — I'kiw tlic vritir:il line .1 /; :i liItU: luoi-o tli.m one half the leiigtLi (k'sired fov the ]iia]>. iiortli and soiith. Divide it into three criual ])arts, and tlie upper IhiVd into two parts. From the point li draw the horizontal line B G one .and one sixth times the length of .1 />. Bisect it, and connect A and C. Trisect A C, then bisect the middle division and trisect the upper. With the points A .and C as centres, and with a radius eipial to one and two thirds times the first line, dr.-nv .arcs to intersect at A ami connect A and /), and C and D. Trisect .1 D and bisect the niicMlc division. Divide the line CD into t'nnr ei^u.il parts, and bisect lioth of the extreme di\nsions. Draw the lines E P .and -Vi and bisect them ; also one from to AT and tri.sect it. From the lower trisecting point on the line K draw a line toward J till it meets the line A" L. Map. — Commence at Ea.>;t Cape and ilraw in onler the eastern, southern, and western bnunilaries, inchidiiig tlie Bl.ack .'iea ; then commence .-isiain at Ea.st Cape and linisli the outline. Tl'.e sliore of Kamcliatka crosse.s at the fii-st ilivision on tlie line D C : the snntlicrn shore of the Sea of Ochotsk is at G ; the Yellow Sea is ne.ar the centre of the line at // ; the Gulf of Tonqnin is at / ; and the Gull of Si.am is near the last division. If we suppose aline drami from this division- point parallel with the line .1 C. it will .assist in deterniinins the position of the Gulf of Siani and the Ilav of Bcn^'al. Cape Romania coincides with the angle at C, and Cape ConMrin with the lower division on the line K. The he.id of the Per- sian Gulf is near the centre of the trian^de .-I .V /,. The Strait of Bab-el-M.andeb is at X ; the Isthmus of Suez between A and .1/ ; anrl tlie Strait of Bosphonis, .at A . The Bl.ack Sea extends as far east as the first division on the line A C, and tl'.e Caspian Sea touches this line at the second di\ ision. Tlie jiosition of the Cas- pian Sea, the Ural River, and Ural Mountains is determined by the line E C. 136 Tropic of Capricorn MAP OF AFRICA By E. A. & A. C. Apgar. 2J Scalfi 1000 Miles to an Inch -^ ■-'sullia. DIRECTIONS FOB DRAWING AFRICA. Diagram. — 1. By means of a quadrant ilivideil into six equal parts, a.s represented in the figure, draw the first line of the diagram the length desired for the map. 2. Divide this line into two equal parts at C, and tlie upper Iialf in four equal jiarts. 3. With the points A and B a.s centres, and with a radius equal to three fourths of the first line, draw two arcs to intersect at 1), and draw the lines A D and B D. In the same manner w^ith the points A and C as centres, and with a radius equal to three fourths of the line A C, determine the point E, and draw A E and C E. 4. Di\'ide the line A D into two equal jiarts, and draw the perpendicular F H ei^waX to one eightli of the first line. Divide the part F D into two equal parts, and draw the lines A iland H G. Trisect each of the lines A H, D B, B C, and C E. General Form. — Africa resembles both North America and South America in its general form, being wide at the north and narrow toward the south. Its coast is very regu- lar, like that of South America. Its length, from Cape Spartel to Cape Agulhas, is 5,000 miles. Like South America, it is situated on both sides of the Equator. Points of Coincidence. — The position of Cape Spar- tel is determined by tlie northern angle of the diagram ; the Isthmus of Suez by the northeastern angle ; Cape Guar- F MARKS. — Ti, (". I, o, u, >', Io7iff ; a, c, u, kss profoiif/ctl : H, C-, T, o, tt, y, short: 3, g, I, q^ obscure; care, f^r, list, fall, whgit ; there, voil, term; pVquc, ftrm; d5ne, for, (Iq, w^lf, ftjGd, fdbt; fQrl, njde, pysh; e, i, o, silent; a, sound of louf/M; ii, similar to e in Iior; u, Wt*' theFrnicUn: ee, sound of i in spirit; f ksb; fh as sh; c, ch, ns k; &(tsj,%as in get; gasz; jrwgz; q «/;$ t'/t linger, liyk; tli a^ ih thine; I, /i7:e Hi in million ; n, like ni in minion ; s, nearly like z ; n, similar to th in this ; o, sound of Oeirman ch ; 11, strongly aspirated ; k, sound of German ch ; X, French naital sound ; n, like rr in terror. Abookut;!, n be-okii'ta. .\h/er-dcen'. Ahomov. nh'o-niS'. Aliniikir, rt ti.io keer/. .\c ijHiliM, -, I \ ixioVko. Arh .-,, ..■■■ \irl,-een/. Aruur:i;:u:u A k.-n-klUgw-n. Acri', IVkcr, o?- a'ker. Aden, SMiju; Arab. pron. n'di'n. AdipT*". il'de-je ; ft. ;jroj?. \i I -1,11, "ii LTiin'is-tSn'. A.-nlli ; , I''vri8. Ai.\-l,i < li:iiull.,aks-ia-sha'- pel'. Ajaccio, a ytlt'eho. Al'bans. .4lamo, U'la-mo. Al'be-nmrle (Eng.). Al'be-marle'(U.S.) Albuquerque, nl boo-k5i'/- ka, or al'boo-kCrk. Alcantara, al-kan'ta-m. Al'dt-r-ney. Alenfon, a-lcn'sQn ; French pron. a45N'son'. A lep'po. Alnwick, or Alncwick, an'- nik. Alsace, al'sass'. Altai, al ti'. Altamaha, awl'ta-ma-haw'. Al'tQn. Am -boy'. Am-boy'na. Amiens, a?n'!-suz; Fr.pron. a'me'GN'. Amite, a-meet', Am'9S-k6ag'. A-n5m'. An'da-man'. Andorra, an-doR'ua. An'do-vgr. An'dros-cog'gin. Anglesey, or Anglesea, ang'gUse. An-go'la. Angostura, Hn-gos-too'ra, An-nap'o-lis. An-tie'tam. Antigua' an-te'ga. Antilles, tin teer'or ("jN'teel', Apache, a pa'chu. Ap'en-nlne!;. Ap/pa la'cIiT-an, Ap'pa-lach'T co'la. Ap'po-mat't5x. Ar'al. Archangel, ark-an'j51. Arequipa, a-ra-kee'pa. At^Xg, ar-gile'. Arica, a-re'ka. Arispe, H-res'pa. Ar-kan'sas, formerly pro nounce'd, and sometimes written, Ar'kan-saw. Armagli, ar-ma', A-roos'tobk. A-shan'tee, or Xsh'an-tee'. Asb'ta-bu'ia. Asia, a'shT-a ; often improp erly pronounced ix'zht-a. As'pin-wall. Xs'sani. As-sin'ui-boin'. Aseuan, or Assouan, Us swan'. Asuncion, a-sijn/ge-on. X-ta-ca'ma. At-ba'ra. Atchafalaya, ateli-af-a-lT'a. Augg'bur^; German pron " OWGS'booRO. Augustine, St., sent-avv'gu; teen'. Au Sable, o-sablS'. Aus'tgr-litz, -lit! il ,/'--;■/ j'ro».bra-zecl'. >s, bra'/.ys,orbra's.-ss I't-n, or bra'men (Ktir , non fU. S.). " >ii Cap-'). I. fit nil. I Cherbourg, slier'bur; UHr'- shPR'booR'. jches'a-peak*'. 'pron. ows'tcr-lits. liiir'i im-ily. ■Vviguon, il'vCii'vuS'. KUNh ro. boo-sherr'. <'vil-la. Butte , liut. Avon, Sv'Sn, or S'von. Az'of. (Ti'di i: Sp.prnn. kS'iirth Azores, a-zorz', or a-zo rcz. Caen IDus'Hel-dorf; Ger. DUssel- I dorf, dus'si'l-doRf. DwI'ua; Jinss.pronA\cc'vi&, lE'bro; .S'/». prf>». ii'bro. I Ecuador, ek-wU-doii'. I Edinburgh, etl'in-bur-mh. I p;ibc, clb ; Ger. ~pron. el'bijh. ;EI-boorz', orEl-brooz';icnY- I tfn also KIburz tj* Elbrouz. I-n-Ianil* in -'-land, . 1.1. Ill' III..- runrarce^Gs. 1. 1.- ■ i';i .■ ■■ i:i-''ga-beci:'g3 Bab'el man'dcb. Baden, ba'den, or bad'gn. Ba-ha'ma£. " Babia, bU-e'a. Baikal, bl'kal'. BaUe-ar'ic (Islands). Balize, bU-Ieez'. Balkan, b:il-kan'. Bnl-mOr'al. Bang'koli'. Bangor fEng.), bang'ggr. Bau'g6r(U.S.). Barbados, or Barbadoes, bar ba'doz. Bar-ce-lo'na, or baR-tha-lo' na. Bar'ne-gat'. Barn'sta ble. Basle, bai. Bayou la Fourche, bi'oo l\ fjirsh. Baton Rouge, bat'un roozh. Bayonue, ba'yon'. Beaufort (British Domin- ions), bo'fiirt. Beaufort (S. C), bu'furt. Behring (Strait), beer'ing. Bel-fast' (Ireland). BeVfast (Maine). Bellefontaine (France), bel'- fOx'tan'. Bellefontaine (U. S.), bM- fCn'tgn. Belle Isle, or Bellisle,bel Tl'. Belloochistan, bel-Ioo'chis- Benares, ben-a'r6s, [tan'. Bengal, ben-gawl'. Benguela, ben-ga'lU. Berbera, b5r'be-ra. BPrg'en (U. S,). Bur'lin: (7er.pron. b6R-Ieen'. Ber-mu'dag,orBer-moo'thes. BCrne: Fr. and Ger. pron- bt-Rn or beini. Bernard', Saint. Berwick (Eng.), bC-r'rik. Ber'wick(U. S.). Bexar ; Sp. pron. ba-HaR': often pron. by the Texans bgh-har', or bar. Biloxi, be-loks't. Binghamton, bing'nra-tun. Birmingham, bTr'ming-um. Blane (Mont), m5N blgx, or Mount Blanc. Bogota, bo-go-ta'. Boise, bwa-za'. Bokhara, bo-Ka'ra. Bologna, bo-15n'ya. Bom-bay'. Bordeaux, boR'do'. Borgne, born. Bos'po-rus, or Bos'plio-ru Boulogne, boo-lon pron. boo'loii'. isieu, kai'ka-shj), or 'ka-shji. ... kal la'o. ..rkiil-Va'O. , ka rri'kas Sp. Carden.as. kar-dfi'nas. Car'ib-be'an Sea. CarlsruheJ' or Karlsruhe, karls'roo. Ca-r?in'di:I5t. Cartagena, kar'ta-je'na; Sp, pron. kaR-ta-Ha'na." cash -mere'. Caspe, kas'pii. Cas'sgl. Castile, kas-teel'. Castine, kas-tcen'. Ca-taw'ba. Cat'e-gat. or Kattegat. Catoehe, kato'cha. Cat'ta-rau'gus. Cau'ca-sus. Caxias, kashe'aR._ Cayembe, kl-am'ba. Cayenne, kl-en'. Cayes, k.a. Cayuga, ka-yoo'ga. Celebes, cel'e-biz." Ccn'is, or se'nc', Ceuta, sii'ta ; Sp.pron. tha'- 00-ta. rii ■ sT-Ion'. ^rii.nii'aiiiv. >Itri'raoo'ne'. jChaiidclour, sban-dg-loor'. Chapultepec, cha-pool-t3- pek'. Irbar'T-tgn. jChat'ta-hoo'che. jChat'ta-noo'ga. Chautauqua, "sha-taw'kwa; I formerly written Chautau- ■que iiVent'A Chemung, she-mSu Kstreniailura, es-tr3-ma- Doo'ra. Etienne,Saint, siNt et'e-en'. Et'0-1 ■ ( ivita Vrcchia, chee'vetU vf:-k'ke-a. Cobija, ko-bee'Ha. Cochabaniba,ko-cha-bam'ba' Euboeai" u-be'S. Co'chin Chi'na. Eufaula, H fa'Ia. Cohabuila, ko-a-wee'ia. jEu.xIne, yjix'in. Cohoes, or Cahoos, koho: Co-im'bra, or ko-eem'bra. Colima, Ic Colo- ko'Io . ko-lon' : Fr.pron Ge Kiiln cong ZaVi Congi za-i Connau-ht, kon'nawt. Co'pen-h.a'ge": t)«n. Kjci- benhavn,kyo ben-bown'. Cor'do-va, or Cordoba. Corea, kn-re'a. Corfu, kor-foo', or kor'fu. Costa Rica, kus'ta re'ka. Cotopaxi, ko'to-paks'c ; Sp. pron. ko-to-paii'ne. Cracow, kr.a'ko. Cri-rae'a. Croix (St.), kroi. Csaba, chf>b'5. Cuenca, kwen'ka. Curaana, kj]-ma na'. Cura^oa, ku'ra-so'. Cuyahoga, ki'a-ho'ga. Cuzco, koos'ko. Dahlonega, dalfln'e-ga. Dahomey, or Dahomay, dab-ho'mn'. Dardanelles, dar'da-nelz'. Darien ('. Giesscn, gees'sgn. Gila, He'la. Girondc. je-rond'; Fr.pron. zhC'roNd'. Gloucester, glos'tgr, Gobi, go'be. Gon'dar. Gtiteborg, yo-ta-boRg'. Gotha, go'ta. Gottiugeu, or Goettingen, get'ting-en,argot'ting-gu. Granada, graua'da; Span. pron. grU-na'na. Greenwich. grTn'Ij. Guadalajara, or Guadalaxa- ra, gwa-i>a la-iia'ra. Guadaloupe, gaw'da-loop', _3'da-loop'. Guadalquivir, gaw'dal- kwiv'gr ; Sp. pron. gw"a- ual-ke veeR'. Iliad): r'de-i'i or 138 PRONUNCIAT 14 DAY USE TO_DESK FROM WHICH BO, Guatemala, gaw'te-m&'la, or gwa-te-ttiU'la. Guayama, gwI-il'mS. ^ — Guayaquil, gwi-U-kecl'. Guayraas, gwT'mas. Guiaua, ge-ii-'na, or Guyana. Guinea, giu'c. " Guyaudott, gl-an-dof . Hague, haig. Hakodadi, nJl-ko-dil'dee. Ham'burg; Ger.pron.h'^wi'- boouG. Han'o-ver; Ger.Han-no'vcr. Haverhill (Eng-.), hav'or-il. Haverliill (Mass.), ba'ver-il. Havre de Grace, hav-er de grSss. Hawaii, liU-wi'ee. Havti, or Haiti, ba^I; Fr. Leipsic, lip'sik zig, lip'tsiG. Leith, loeth. LC-om/iu-ster (J Leominster {V Le'ou : ^p.pi e Sueur. so< leh swL'it. --i%e, leej;i^r Lisle, Iccl. Lima (Peru), I - (f. ...,„.i,lil Llano pre '.'tG'. Hebrides, lieb'ri-dez. Hg-le'ua, St. Helena (Ark.)) I»ei'g-na. Hel'go-land, or Hel/j-go- land. Hel'siug-fors'. Hen-lo'pen. Heu-rFko. Hes8e Cas'sgl. Him-a-la'ya ; Sanskrit pron. hi-mtl'la-ya. Hin-dQ-stau'. Ho-ang'bo, pronounced ah most wliaug'ho'. Ho'bo-ks^n. Holsteiu, hol'stlu. Honduras, hon-doo'ras. Honolulu, ho no-Ioo'loo. Houston, Iiyoos'tun. Hue, hoo-ii/. Iberville, T'bgr-vil. lUimani, eel-yri-mn'nee. Hliuois, il-lT-noicc'', omoi'. Indianola, in-dl-a-no'la. Indies, iu'dlz. I'o-wa. Isle ifoyale, eel-rUa yal. I-uiCa." Iztaccihuatl, hwat'l'. ko, jiil-lees' Gf .pron. ya'uu. Joliel, jul'le-et. Ju'an Fer nau'dCz ; Sp. pv. Hoo-an' Ifu-unu'deth. Ju'au, Saint; Sp. San Juan s^n Kooan, or snn HWJiu, Juugfrau, ycTong'frow. Ju'ul-at'.a. Kal/a-ma-zoo'. Kam"-chat'ka. Kanawha, ka-uaw'wa. Kankakee, kank'.j-kee'. Karakorum, ka-ra-ko'rttm. Ka-taVdin. Kearney, kiir^ni. Kearsarge, ker'sUrj'. Kennebec, ken-nC bek'. Kenosha, kSn-o'sha. Ke'o-kuk/. Khiva, Kee'va. Kiakhta, ke-SK'ta. Kief, ke-ef, or Ki-ev'. Kiel, keel. Klamath, klnra'at. Kilimanjaro, kil-g-man-jil- ro'. Kil-lar'ney. Kit'ta-tin'ny, Konigsber"', ken'igz-bgrg. Kordofan, kor-do-fiin' . Kurile, koti'rU. l.ab'ra-dor'. La Fayette, laf-a-ef . La Fourche, 1^ foorsh. La Guayra, la gwi'ra. Laon, la'oN'. Lancaster, ISng^kas-ter. La liochelle, la ro-shSl'. Lausanne, 16'zan'. Leicester, les'ter, Leinster, lin'ster, or leen'- ster. ^., , , UBRARV This book IS due on the last date stamped below or on the date to which renewed. ' Renewed b ooks are subject to immediate recall LD 2l-50m-6.'60 (Bl321sl0)476 mal'ta. II 11 TT Mandalch,n JUL G Manistie, " Slauitoba, Manitouwo( wok'. Maracaybo, Mar'mo-ra. Marquesas, Marquette, Marseilles, Marseille' Martinique Ma-tan'zas Blat'a-pan' Mauch-Chi chtink'. az'at-lan Medina (A Medina (U. Me-her'rin. Menaijmenl or men'a (Str.) Mendocino, m5n-do-see'no. Mersey, mgr'zT. Merthyr Tydvil. or Tydfil, mer'thgr tid'vil. Messina, mt'S-.. pron. vaN's6n'. Vosges, vozh. Wachusett, wa-chij/sgt. Wahsatch, wa-sach'. Wijp'sT-pTn'e-CQn. ck (Eng.). wor'rik. Warwick (U. S.), wor'wik, or wor'rik. Washita, or Ouachita,w58h'- T taw'. Watervliet, wS'ter-vleet'. Wfiu-ke'gau. We'gsir : Ger. pron. wa'zgr. Wieliczka, we-litch'kS. Wilkesbarre, wTlks'bar-rT. Willamette, vvil-la'met; wr. also Walahmutte. Win'ne-ba'go. Win-ne-pg-sau'kee. Woolwich, wdbl'itch, or WQ-ol'ij. Worcester, wdbs'tgr. Wiirtembcrg, wfir'tgm-berg; Ger.pr. wUu'tem-beRG'. Wy'an-dot'. Wy-o'ming. Xapeco, or Chapeco, sha- Xarayes, sha-ri'Ss. [pa'ko. Xenia, zee'ni-a. Xeres; Span.'pron. H5-r6s'; Port. pron. sh6r-B8'. Xoa, sho'a. ke-ang'. Yazoo'. Yera'eu. Yenisei, yen'e-sa'e, or yen- e so'; or Enisei, en'e-sa'e. Yo-ko-ha'ma. Yo-sem'i-te. Youghiogheuy,y6h'h5-ga'nT Yp'si-iau'ti. Yji'ca-tau', or yeo'ka-tan'. Zacatecas, zak-a-ta'kas. Zam-beze', or zara-ba'ze. Zangxiebar, zang'ga-bar'. Zan'te. Zan'zT-bar'. [tsU'riK. Ziirich, zu'rik; Ger. pron. Zuyder {or Zuider) Zee, zV- der zee, or zoo'der zee; Dutch pron. zoi'der za. VE 0697 o 5J!6 73 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY ^ ^