CALIFORNIA '' AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE CIRCULAR 28 March, 1929 BROODING AND PULLET MANAGEMENT W. E. NEWLON AND M. W. BUSTER PUBLISHED BY THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Cooperative Extension work in Agriculture and Home Economics, College of Agriculture, University of California, and the United States Department of Agriculture cooperating. Dis- tributed in furtherance of the Acts of Congress of May 8 and June 30, 1914. B. H. Crocheron, Director, California Agricultural Extension Service. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRINTING OFFICE BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from University of California, Davis Libraries http://www.archive.org/details/broodingpulletma28newl BROODING AND PULLET MANAGEMENT W. E. NEWLONi and M. W. BUSTER2 The ability to raise pullets of good quality is probably one of the most important factors in the management of a successful com- mercial poultry farm. Many poultrymen fail, more or less, in this activity, and nothing will ever make up for poor results in brooding and rearing. While all phases of commercial poultry farming require close attention to detail, this is particularly true of brooding and pullet raising if one hopes to be continuously successful. Approximately 85 per cent of the income from poultry in Califor- nia is derived from the sale of eggs. Therefore the production of eggs is now, and very probably will continue to be, the most important phase of poultry production in this state. Unless a poultryman is able to produce or obtain vigorous and heavy laying birds, he is very seriously handicapped. Hence the utmost care and effort to secure good chicks and to raise them in the best possible manner are essential to the poultryman 's success. The hens lost through culling and mor- tality in the older birds must be replaced by strong, vigorous young stock. This replacement of the flock is the most important and, seemingly, the most difficult operation in poultry management. The ability to grow good birds is usually not acquired in a year. This skill is developed by years of experience together with careful analysis, the use of new methods, a love for the work, and the exercise of what is usually called ^'chicken sense." LOCATION FOR BROODING Land for the brooder house and yards should be well drained and have a southerly exposure. Very hilly land is undesirable because of difficulties in house location and construction, as well as in flock man- agement. A south or southeast exposure will receive a maximum amount of sunshine, and consequently will be warmer and dryer during the winter and spring. 1 Specialist in Agricultural Extension. 2 Formerly Specialist in Agricultural Extension. 4 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cikc. 28 Air and Water Drainage. — Cold air settles, hence the bottom of a low, enclosed valley is a relatively poor place for a brooder plant. If there is not a fairly good movement of air, the lower levels are more likely to be damp as well as cold. Good air drainage tends to insure against dampness, and consequently frosts are much less severe. Low, flat land and heavy clay and adobe soils are objectionable for brooding. This is particularly true where they occur together. Some slope to the land and light sandy to medium loam soils, will provide good water drainage. The House for Brooding. — Any good poultry house is a suitable place in which to brood chicks. Some of the important requirements of good housing are fresh air, direct sunlight, dryness, freedom from excessive heat or cold, freedom from drafts, ample room and ease of cleaning. The house should also be durable and economical to con- struct. It should be convenient for the operator to work in and should provide protection from rodents, wind and rain. Dryness and direct sunlight are particularly important in a brooder house. Dryness is essential in the control of intestinal para- sites. Direct sunlight is of immense value as a disinfectant and as a source of the rickets-preventing factor. An abundance of sunlight also aids greatly in maintaining a dry house. It should be remembered that ordinary window glass filters out nearly all of the ultra-\dolet rays which carry the rickets-preventing factor of the sun. Certain glass substitutes permit a portion of this factor to pass through, but open space is cheaper than glass substitutes and equally as effective for most California conditions. A shed roof house, facing south, with a six-foot opening the entire length of the front will insure a maximum amount of direct sunlight entering the house, particularly during the fall, winter and spring months. A brooder house should always face south or southeast when the slope of the land will permit. A southern exposure is not only important because of direct sunlight, dryness and warmth in the house, but it insures the most favorable conditions outside the house. This allows the chicks to be let out of the house earlier and they can stay out longer. There are numerous types of poultry houses in use and it seems apparent that the house which a poultryman builds, often is deter- mined very largely by the prevailing type in the community rather than b}^ a serious consideration of the desirable characteristics. While designs may vary, a good poultry house should incorporate all of 1929] Brooding and Pullet Management 5 the qualities listed above. The so-called University of California type of poultry house meets all the necessary requirements to a high deg'ree and under a wide range of conditions.^ A Special Brooding House. — This shed roof laying house recom- mended by the Poultry Division of the University of California can be used very satisfactorily for brooding chicks. Therefore, a logical ques- tion arises whether there is need of any other type of house for brooding. Many successful poultrymen in California are using this house as a permanent brooder house, but with brooding equipment substituted for laying equipment. Very few special brooder houses now in use throughout the State are as satisfactory for commercial brooding. It has the advantage also of being easily adapted to other uses. It can be built and equi[)ped so that it can be used interchangeably for brooding and for mature birds. For the beginner, using a laying house for brooding has the par- ticular advantage of saving the cost of building a special brooder house until such time as he has become well established as a poultry- man. A person starting with hatching eggs or day old chicks can build a laying house sufficient^ long to take care of the pullets reared the first year, and use this house for brooding and rearing his first pullets. Construction of the dropping boards, perches, nests and hop- pers for the mature birds can be delayed until the brooding equip- ment is removed. The dropping boards and perches for mature stock should, however, be constructed when the pullets are not older than 8 weeks. Or better still, a movable roosting equipment can be constructed which can be used both for the chicks and older birds. The mash hoppers for the mature birds should be installed and used for the pullets after they are 8 to 10 weeks of age. The following year further units can be added, used for brooding and rearing in the spring and summer, and for laying in the fall. In this way additional laying houses can be built each year and used temporarily for brooding, until such time as all of the laying houses which have been planned are constructed. Then a permanent brooder house may be erected, if desired. The laying houses, may also be used for brooding after they have been used for mature stock, ]n-ovided the proper sanitary measures are taken. When the laying house is used for brooding, the openings between the rafters and above the plate at the front and rear should be closed during cold weather — at least until the chicks are two or three 3 A publication is in preparation, by the University of California, giving detailed discussion of poultry houses, and plans for their construction. 6 California Agricultural Extension Service [Circ. 28 weeks old. The curtain frames at the front of the house should be made to fit tightly against the wall studding. It may also be necessary to cover the wire netting part of each partition with some material such as burlap, wall board or roofing paper. The 18 by 20 foot room of the laying house has sufficient floor space to accommodate 720 chicks, on a basis of 50 square feet of floor space for each 100 chicks. Better results in most cases, however, will be obtained with flocks not larger than 500 chicks. A satisfactory arrangement would be to divide each room into two 10 by 18 foot sections, with a temporary partition about 2 feet 6 inches high. Then place a brooder accommodating 350 chicks in each section. With average success, approximately 280 pullets will be obtained from 700 to 720 chicks. However, the 18 by 20 foot room in the laying house will not satisfactorily accommodate more than 150 mature pullets. Consequently, one might start with about 400 chicks, which would give decided advantage in greater space per chick. Or if 700 to 720 chicks are secured, three possibilities may be considered : 1. Cull the pullets closely and sell the poorer birds as broilers. This may be the most economical practice since the earlier maturing pullets are the best. 2. Construct additional house room for the extra pullets. 3. If less than average raise is obtained one may still have suffi- cient pullets to fill the house. Range and Yards. — The comparative value of more or less free range is a disputed question. There are somewhat different factors to be considered for birds of different ages, but there is still consider- able opinion that optimum growth and development in young stock can only be obtained with considerable range. It is doubtful if this influence is apparent in the first generation, but might possibly affect subsequent generations. Double yards are also considered desirable by many poultrymen. While one yard is being used as a run the other can be renovated by cultivation and growing some green feed crop which will utilize natural rainfall. As a sanitary precaution, however, in controlling intestinal l)arasites, crops requiring irrigation should not be grown in poultry yards. The yards should be kept as dry as possible during the summer months. Double yards may be on the same or opposite sides of the house. Free range and large yards are usually considered to have some sanitary value, particularly in controlling intestinal parasites. How- 1929] Brooding and Pullet Management 7 ever, a majority of the birds in a flock usually stay pretty close to the house. This tends to contaminate the soil nearby, making it a dangerous source of infection. Shade provided by various means at some distance from the houses will increase the use of large yards and free range. Where land is high priced and free range or large yards are not otherwise available, it is probable that small, hard surfaced yards 12 to 20 feet wide should be used. These are rapidly coming into more general use, not only because of land saving but primarily because of their value in aiding the control of intestinal parasites. They are also valuable in places where the soil drains poorly. Concrete yards should have a slope of at least % inch in a foot to insure drainage and to aid in cleaning. Lampblack may be used in the mixture to insure a minimum reflection of sunlight. It must be stated, however, that hard surfaced yards are of questionable value unless they are cleaned often enough to keep them dry and reasonably clean. 'Sun porches', made of %-inch square mesh (16 gauge wire) hard- ware cloth are being used extensively in some states. The hardware cloth is stretched on frames about 3 feet wide by 6 feet long ; the frames are made of 1 x 6 inch lumber, on edge, and are placed side by side covering the yard space necessary to afford the chicks an outdoor run. This raises the netting 6 inches above the ground and permits the droppings to fall through. Apparently the chicks can travel comfortably on the wire and a %-inch mesh is practically self- cleaning. The 'porch' may be from 6 to 12 feet wide and should extend along the entire front of the house. It should prevent the birds eating droppings, and, therefore, aid in the control of worms and coccidiosis. Summer Shade. — Shade is an advantage in the brooder yards for two reasons : To provide a cool place for the birds ; and to induce the chicks to spend time out of doors in warm, sunny weather. If the shade is some distance from the house it may also induce greater exercise. In this case, it would be desirable to provide feed and water in the shade, so that these may be freely accessible to the birds at all times. Trees, with branches at least three feet from the ground, provide excellent shade because free circulation of the air is not restricted. An excessive amount of shade, which may cause cold, damp yards, is not desirable. Shade trees should not be planted so that they will interfere with the sun's rays striking the front of the house during the winter months. California Agricultural Extension Service [Cmc. 28 BROODING EQUIPMENT A dependable source of artificial heat is necessary to brood chicks in commercial flocks. This and a g^reat many other requirements are called for in an ideal system of brooding. Some of these are : 1. Natural, or overhead application of heat. 2. Sufficient heat. 3. Uniform distribution of heat under the hover. 4. The heatinof arrangement should not heat the entire brooder house. 5. Flexibility of temperature. 6. Ample ventilation, without drafts. 7. Dryness. 8. Sunlight in or around the hover. 9. Safety from fire. 10. Ease of operation. 11. Convenience for cleaning. 12. Sufficient room for the chicks. 13. Usable any time of year. 14. Economy of heating. 15. Economy of construction. Top Heat. — It is desirable that the heat supply in the brooder should be directed down on the backs of the chicks. This is the natural method of application. Sufficient Heat. — A warm place |)roviding for a maximum possible temperature of 100 degrees Fahrenheit, and that is large enough to accommodate all of the chicks at one time is all that is required. It is desirable that the room tem])erature, 3 inches above the floor, should not go below 40^ F in the daytime. Chilling will tend to weaken the chicks and seriously handicap growth and development. On the other hand, excessive heat may be just as serious. The problem of sufficient heat delivery has been so over-emphasized in the ])ast that many chick flocks actually have been overheated. Uniform Temperature. — A uniform temperature over all i)arts of the floor under the hover and a fairly uniform temperature in the brooder house are desirable. Natural fluctuation between day and night temperatures will require regulation of the heat produced to maintain such a constant temperature under the hover. This should be controlled automaticallv bv an efficient thermostat. An appreci- 1^20] Brooding and Pullet Management 9 able rise or flroji in temperature imder the brooder, particularly at uig^ht, will tend to cause crowding and piling with consequent smothering, lowered vitality and increased mortality. Heating Arrangement SJiould Not Heat Entire Brooder House. — It is desirable to take the chill out of the brooder house. This will assist ventilation and help control excessive moisture. The tempera- ture of the room, however, should not be as high as under the hover. An excessive room temperature without adequate ventilation may cause the air in the house to become too dry and furnishes an unsatisfactory environment for the chicks. Temperature Coyitrol. — As the chicks get older the temperature should be gradually reduced, because the chicks need less and less artificial heat. Therefore the heat produced should be regulated according to the reactions of the chicks, but with the aid of a ther- mometer, which should be used as an aid only. Some poultrymen might do better without a thermometer, because of an inclination to depend upon it too much. For the first few days a temperature of 95° to 100^ P should be maintained in an area accessible to all of the chicks. They should not to be forced to stay in this temperature, and it should be reduced just as rapidly as the comfort of the chicks will permit. The temperature should be lowered about 5° ¥ each week until the heat is discontinued. Well Ventilated Without Drafts. — Pure, fresh air is as important, and probably more important, for poultry than for larger farm stock. It is very necessary that stale air in the brooder, charged with carbon dioxide and moisture from the lungs of the chicks, with odors from the droppings, and in some cases with fumes from the heating unit, be replaced with fresh air. Confinement in poorly ventilated quarters soon saps the vitality of growing chicks, retards their growth and in- creases the death rate. Hovers with curtains around the outer edges which hang to within an inch or two of the floor require close atten- tion to obtain proper ventilation. The moisture thrown off with expired air from the lungs of the chicks increases the humidity in a j)Oorly ventilated hover so that moisture may condense, in which case the chicks are said to "sweat." It would be much better to raise the hover to insure adequate ventilation than to save fuel and cause sweating. A slight increase in fuel cost is preferable to a poorly ventilated hover. In selecting and using a hover, poultrymen should consider chick raising efficiency ahead of construction and fuel economy. 10 California Agriculturaij Extension Service [Giro. 28 Dryness. — Only a properly heated and well ventilated hover will be satisfactory as to dryness. Otherwise the moisture from the lungs of the chicks and from the droppings may make the hover an unsatis- factory place for their comfort. Only the very hardiest chicks will survive such environment. Sunlight. — Because of the drying and disinfecting properties of direct sunlight, the brooding equipment should be so constructed and arranged that the sun's rays can strike the floor near and under the hover as much as possible. Safety From Fire. — Every precaution should be taken to reduce the fire hazard in chick brooding. Brooding equipment which is not reasonably fireproof may cause the loss of both brooder house and chicks. Brooder Simple and Reliahle to Operate. — Labor is an important item of cost in brooding chicks. The brooder should be so constructed that it will demand but little adjustment and attention. Successful brooding of chicks is quite exacting and the operator should be as free as possible to give his major attention to feeding, cleaning and general management. Equipment Easy to Clean. — Brooding equipment which is easy to clean is much more certain to be kept clean. Cleanliness and through sanitation are essential to the maintenance of good health and vigor in growing chicks. Sufficient Room for Chicks. — The hover should be large enough to accommodate all the chicks without crowding. At least 7 square inches of floor space under the hover should be allowed for each chick. Even with the canopy type which is suspended 6 inches or more from the floor and radiates an abundance of heat it seems desirable that the hover should be large enough to cover all the chicks. The chicks, however, usually spread out around the outside of the hover, except on very cold nights. Usable Any Time of Year. — Poultrjanen will profit by starting in with equipment which can be used everj^ season of the year. Emer- gencies may rise in the management of a poultry plant which make it advisable to brood twice or three times in a year, therefore brood- ing equipment should be purchased which can be used successfully during unfavorable weather conditions. Economy of Heating. — The cost of fuel averages only about 6 per cent of the entire cost of raising pullets to three months of age. Therefore fuel economy shovild be considered as a minor require- 1929] Brooding and Pullet Management 11 ment as compared with good ventilation and chick comfort. The smaller the area covered with the hover, assuming" the same type and fuel, the greater the fuel cost per chick is likely to be. Fuel consumption may be lowei^and the ventilation poorer with the box type or curtained canopy type, but the temperature is usually more uniform. With the curtainless canopy type, the edge of which is 4 to 8 inches above the floor, fuel consumption will be higher. Usually the heat is not so evenly distributed with the latter type, and on very cold nights the chicks on the outside of the circle will struggle to get closer to the heat, while those on the inside are scrambling to move back, with consequent crowding in between. The ventilation of this type, however, will be as good as the brooder house provides and there will be no necessity of the chicks running outside the hover to get a breath of fresh air. Economy of Construction. — First costs of brooding equipment are always important from the standpoint of interest on investment, of depreciation and replacement. However, the initial cost of brooding equipment should be secondary to durability and efficiency of opera- tion. The tendency in brooder construction is toward simplicity and economy, and properly so, because a satisfactory brooder does not have to be elaborate or expensive. TYPES OF BROODERS Many different types of brooder stoves are being used in Cali- fornia: electric, gas, oil, coal, hot water, hot air, storage, tireless, etc. Choice of type of brooder should be governed by : 1. Cost, availability and dependability of different fuel materials. 2. Personal likes and dislikes. 3. Adaptability of the poultryman to the operation of a particular type. Each major type of brooder has certain advantages and disadvan- tages. These have been changing rapidly as improvements have been made. There is also a variety of makes within each type. This pre- cludes the possibility of making a comparative classification of the major types on the basis of value. Consequently only a brief discus- sion of the general characteristics of each type will be presented. Electric Brooders. — Electric brooders are increasing in popularity. Since most sections of California have available electric power, they have a wide range of adaptability. Electric brooders have the advan- tages of simplicity and of convenience of construction and operation. 12 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cmc. 28 They are clean, have low fire risk and do not heat the entire house. They also have one advantage over many other types of brooders in requiring no flue which necessitates cutting a hole in the roof or side of the brooder house. On the other hand they present a serious problem if the power is oft' for even a comparatively short period in very cold weather. In most sections of California, however, the power companies have cooperated splendidly by making a special effort to maintain constant service on lines where electric brooders were operating. There are two general types of electric brooders — the non-glowing convection type and the glowing or radiant type. The radiant type is fast gaining in popularity because it is more ''foolproof in ven- tilation, and during very cold weather is more effective in taking the chill out of the air in the brooder house. The convection type, is cheaper to operate, the fuel cost being as low or lower per chick than with many of the other types of brooders, and it can be adequately ventilated if intelligently operated. Gas Stoves. — The gas stoves are rather similar in function and results, to radiant electric hovers, but usually they are not as simple to install nor as easy to operate. They are clean and usually give no difficulty because of interrupted fuel supply. Their use is increasing because more and more poultry sections are being ''piped with gas." Oil Stoves. — There is a considerable variety of oil burning brooders adapted to the various grades of fuel oil. With the exception of a stopped feed line and the failure of the operator to fill the fuel tank, there is very little danger of disrupted service when these are properly installed and carefully operated. They require more care and adjust- ment than either electric or gas burning hovers. They also demand more attention in cleaning and have a greater fire hazard. Otherwise they are reasonably reliable and present no serious problem in obtain- ing a fuel supply. Coal Stoves. — Coal brooder stoves, like coal and wood cook stoves, are passing out of general use in California where the more clean, easily secured and quickly responsive fuels are available. On the other hand, with the exception of lack of temperature flexibility, they are very reliable. There is practicall}^ no danger of lack of sufficient heat once they are fired up, and satisfactory fuel supplied. However, they require a little extra time, as compared with the other types of heating devices mentioned above, in fueling, adjusting and cleaning. l^-^l Brooding and Pullet Mana(}ExMent 13 Hot ^Va^c)■ mid Hot Air. — Hot water aud hot air pipe brooders are the least expensive types of heating equipment to operate. On the other hand the installation is more eomplieated and eostly. The equipment may take up considerable space which cannot otherwise be used and usually it is not practical to use houses equipped with hot water and hot air pipes for mature birds. Also it is not often practical to use a section of brooder house, equipped with this type of installation, for a small flock. The entire heating system must be operated (unless cutouts are installed), even though only a portion is used. Otherwise, such brooders have proven very satisfactory where the pipes are installed so that the heat is thrown down on the backs of the chicks. Storage Brooders. — Storage, or multiple deck brooders, are gain- ing in popularity in California. They may have an advantage where large numbers of chicks must be handled on limited floor space area. When this type of equipment is used, however, great care must be exercised in feeding because the chicks are continuously confined and get little or no sunlight. The pullets should be removed just as soon as their sex can be determined. The cockerels may remain in special compartments until sold as broilers, but the pullets should be given more room as early as possible. This makes it possible to use the regular brooder houses for pullets only. Poultrymen should bear in mind that storage brooders are still in the experimental stage and it seems probable that their best use will be for hatchery surplus. Fireless Brooders. — Fireless hovers are practical, economical and satisfactory for small lots of chicks. They are recommended only for agricultural club members and others brooding lots of one hundred chicks or less. SEASON FOR BROODING The time for brooding should be determined very largely by the need for producing hens. Efficient management demands that the I)Oultryman keep his laying houses filled to capacity with good pro- ducing birds. Under average conditions pullets for this purpose may be reared more economically than they can be purchased. Chicks may be obtained whenever desired in California. In fact, thousands of chicks are hatched and brooded each month of the year in this state. Following are some of the other important factors to be considered in determining the time to brood. 14 California Agricultural Extension Service [Circ. 28 Quality of Pullets. — A majority of poultrymen in California are able to produce the best pullets from chicks hatched between December 15th and March 15th. However, good pullets can be raised in Cali- fornia from chicks hatched any time in the year. Therefore a reason- able question arises as to whether the time of year or the brooding methods employed have the most influence on the quality of birds raised. Hatching at different periods of the year will require slightly different feeding and management methods to secure the best results. Most Efficient Use of Brooding Equipment. — Brooding three or four times during the year will permit of reduced investment in brooding equipment. Such a practice will also enable the operator to keep the most efficient flock, considering numbers in relation to maxi- mum house capacity. It also insures the most efficient use of lahor. Maintaining good sanitation may be somewhat more difficult when the same equipment is used three or four times. This latter consideration should be a minor one, however, when proper equipment and manage- ment are employed. Cost of Raising Pullets. — This factor varies but little with the time of year that the chicks are brooded. Late spring and summer hatched chicks require less fuel and less feed, but the broilers usually bring a lower price. Where chick prices vary according to egg prices at the time the eggs are set, the cost of raising pullets will be about the same, on the average, regardless of the time the chicks are secured. How- ever, where the price of chicks is the same throughout the year, pullets raised from fall and winter hatched chicks will usually cost less at maturity. Maximum Net Returns From Birds Throughout Their Lifetime. — The time of year at which chicks are brooded will have very little in- fluence on the factor of net returns that can be expected from hens throughout their lifetime. Assuming the same quality of birds, the same management and the same climatic and economic conditions, poorer returns within the first year from time of hatching will prob- ably result in better returns during the second year, and vice versa. Comparison of Seasons as Time for Brooding. — Each season — spring, summer, fall, and winter, has some advantages as well as dis- advantages for raising chicks. For the sake of clarity, arbitrary definitions for the different seasons are made : Spring Brooding. — (February, March, April). This is the most popular period for brooding chicks in California. 1929] Brooding and Pullet Management 15 Advantages of spring brooding : a. Spring is the natural growing season. 6. The breeders have had a rest during the molting period and may impart more vitality to the eggs. c. Weather generally is favorable to chicks. d. Green feeds as a source of vitamin A are plentiful. e. Pullets come into production during the fall and winter when e^^ prices usually are favorable. /. Pullet flocks generally are comparatively free from fall molt. Disadvantages of spring brooding : a. Chicks are in great demand at that time. 1). Prices for spring broilers usually are low. c. Moist soil increases intestinal parasite hazard. Summer Brooding. — (May, June, July). A few chicks are brooded in California during each of these months. This is particularly true in the Coast regions where temperatures are not excessive. Advantages of summer brooding : a. Chicks usually are lower priced. 1). Rains and cold nights are less prevalent. c. Fuel costs are lower. d. Prices usually are higher for sunmier raised broilers. e. Dry soil conditions decrease intestinal parasite hazard. Disadvantages of summer brooding : a. Day temperatures are excessive in some sections. 1). Pullets reach maturity on a declining eg^ market. c. Yards may be fouled by previous brood. Fall Brooding. — (August, September, October). Advantages of fall brooding : a. Chicks are hatched from eggs produced by the better hens in the flock, since the culls have been removed or are not laying. 1). Prices usually are good for fall broilers. c. There are fewer rains and fewer cold nights d. Fuel costs are comparatively low. Disadvantages of fall brooding : a. Day temperatures are excessive in some sections. h. Tender greens are scarce unless irrigation is practiced. c. Chick costs are high because of lower hatchability and higher e^^ prices. d. Pullets mature on low Qgg market in spring. e. Pullets usually are smaller at maturity and generally produce more small eggs. 16 California Agricultural Extension Service [Circ. 28 Winter Brooding. — (November, December, January). Next to spring, this is the most popular season for chicks in Calitornia. Advantages of winter brooding : a. Chicks are hatched from winter (usually heavy) layers. l). Prices for winter raised broilers generally are favorable. c. Tender green feeds usually are plentiful. d. Pullets begin to lay on an advancing e^^ market. e. Infestation with intestinal parasites less likely to occur because the chicks are not out on the ground as much as when brooded during other periods. Disadvantages of winter brooding : a. Chicks are higher priced because fertility and hatchability may be low and eg^ prices higher. b. Pullets are likely to molt in the fall when q^^ prices are high. c. Weather is rainy, foggy and cold in many sections. d. Leg weakness is generally more prevalent due to lack of sun- light, (vitamin D deficiency.) HOW MANY CHICKS TO BROOD The number of chicks which are bi-ooded should be determined by : 1. Capacity of the brooding equipment, including the house. 2. Capacity of laying houses and number of pullets desired to fill them. 3. Quality of the mature laying stock and probable replacement required. 4. The best proportion of pullets and hens for the greatest net profit per bird. Capacity of Brooding Equipment. — It is exceedingly important that the chicks should have plenty of room in the house. Plenty of room here refers to square feet of floor space. At least 45 to 50 square feet of floor space, and preferably 50, should be provided in the brooder house for each 100 chicks. Such factors as type of house with respect to adequate provision for ventilation and sunshine, and the age at which the males are removed naturally would affect the optimum amount of floor space per chick in the house. However, there is a very definite relationship between the amount of floor space per chick and results in brooding. This has been determined from numerous brooding records on commercial poultry plants. These records were segregated according to the amount of floor space allowed per 100 chicks and the results are as given in table 1. 1929 J Brooding and Pullet Management 17 TABLE 1 Relation Between Floor Space and Mortality of Chicks Floor space per 100 chicks Number of chicks Number of deaths Per cent mortality to 3 months of age 35 sq. ft., or less 73,077 25,371 25,044 19,257 4,122 3.484 26 3 35 to 50 sq. ft 16.2 50 sq. ft. or more 13.1 It is evident from these records that crowding has considerable in- fluence on mortality. Usually it is much better to brood smaller flocks of chicks at different times of the year than to crowd one large flock in an attempt to secure the desired number of pullets. It should be remembered, also, that it is A^ery undesirable to run chicks of different ages together in the same pens and yards. If different ages are brooded the same season, care must be taken to keep them sepa- rate. This will enable the poultryman to feed each lot according to age and development. Number of Pullets Needed to Fill Houses. — A representative lot of chicks will average fairly close to the proportion of half cockerels and half pullets. A brooding survey in several counties in 1920 showed the average mortality in California to be about 20 per cent during the first three months. Due to improvement in the quality of chicks produced and generally improved brooding practices, the aver- age mortality has probably now been reduced to 15 i)er cent or less. On the basis of half pullets, 15 per cent mortalit}^, and 5 to 10 per cent culling of the scrub pullets, a poultryman cannot safely figure on more than 40 per cent pullets at three months of age — or about 400 pullets from each 1000 chicks. Probable Beplaeement Required. — The usual culling in commer- cial laying flocks will average about 25 per cent during the summer months and the mortality, 15 to 20 per cent for the year. These averages of course will vary with the quality and management of the individual flocks. Proportion of PiUlets and Hens in the Laying Flock. — A reliable flock management survey with 38 flocks consisting of 62,000 birds indicated that the most efficient net returns were obtained in flocks where from 45 to 60 per cent of the hens were replaced by pullets every year. The 38 flocks were divided into three groups according to the per cent of pullets (6 to 12 months of age) in the flocks at the beginning of the year. These groups averaged 22, 45, and 64 per 18 California Agricultural Extension Service [Circ. 28 cent, respectively. The average size of eggs was smaller and the per cent of culling was greater in the groups containing the larger per- centage of pullets. Also mortality was less in these same groups. The farm income per hen was respectively $1.29, $1.53, $1.51 per hen. Thus the best results were obtained in those flocks having a pullet replacement of 45 per cent. The figures indicate that the very best practice is to select and keep the best of the hens and add 45 to 60 per cent of pullets. Hens in their pullet year will lay more winter eggs and a greater total for the year, but, on the other hand, they will lay a higher per- centage of small eggs. SELECTING CHICKS FOR BROODING There are three primary ways to be reasonably sure of getting good quality chicks. These are not mentioned necessarily in the order of their importance, but rather in the order of their development. 1. Hatch, or have the chicks hatched from one's own breeding flock. This will enable the poultryman to know the quality of parent stock in relating to egg production, size of eggs, color and texture of shells, broodiness, vitality and other important factors. 2. Purchase chicks from a successful breeder or hatchery in the community. This will enable the buyer to inspect the flock from which the chicks are hatched. In this case the buyer may determine whether the birds have been properly selected for vigor, type and color, and if there are strong, vigorous males of high production pedigree heading the flocks. He may also be reasonably certain that the birds have been accustomed to local climatic conditions. 3. The chicks may be secured from an accredited hatchery which has obtained its hatching eggs from an inspected certified flock. During the past fifteen years there has been a marked evolution towards specialization in the various branches of the poultry indus- try. The growth of commercial hatcheries and the development of colony brooding have been large factors in this change. Also this evolution has made an entirely different problem of the production of baby chicks. Most poultrymen are replenishing their flocks by pur- chasing baby chicks, while some buy 8- to 20-week old pullets. As a constructive development in line with these changing methods, accredited hatchery projects aa*e being organized rather rapidly throughout California, and the rest of the United States. Fundamen- 1929] Brooding and Pullet Management 19 tally these projects are sound and where properly organized and managed they are producing a remarkable improvement in quality of chicks. It seems reasonable to suppose that the plan will grow and become more generally accepted. Accredited hatcheries should develop to be the best source of baby chicks for the majority of poultrymen. Preparation for the Chicks. — Cleanliness and sanitation are of the highest importance in chick raising. All brooding equipment — houses, hoppers, foimtains and yards should be put in sanitary condition before the chicks are hatched. All portable equipment such as brooders, roosts, nests and hoppers should be removed from the house and cleaned off thoroughly. Carefully brush the ceilings, walls and floors of the house, using a scraper and water if necessary. Next, scrub the floors and walls, using a brush or broom and hot water to which has been added concentrated lye (1 pound of lye to 40 gallons of water) . Then spray the whole interior of the house with a standard disinfectant. A strong force pump is recommended to force the spray material well into all cracks and crevices. Disinfect all porta- ble equipment — hovers, hoppers, fountains, roosts and nests before they are replaced in the house. A standard disinfectant is ^'com- pound solution of cresol" or ''saponified cresol solution," containing 50 per cent of cresilic acid. The percentage of cresilic acid is the index of the value of the preparation. Such preparations are mar- keted by a number of firms under various trade names. Cleaning with a hot lye solution will also disinfect. After the floors have dried the hovers may be installed and the portable equipment replaced in the house. The floor may then be covered one to two inches deep with good, clean litter. Dusty or moldy litter must be avoided. Eice hulls, shavings, sand or chopped hay or straw may be used for this purpose. Sand has the advan- tage of being fireproof, but many disadvantages outweigh this point in its favor. It is heavy and difficult to handle and the chicks may eat damaging amounts of it. However, chicks tend to consume too much of any kind of litter when they are held around the hovers for any period before the first feed is given. DIRECTIONS FOR BROODING The hover should be tried out at least three days before the chicks arrive in order that the heat may be regulated and the house thoroughly dried out and warmed up. A temperature of 95 to 100 degrees, two inches from the floor near the edge of the hover, is desirable at the start, and the poultryman must know before the 20 California Agricultural Extension Service [Circ. 28 chicks arrive that the brooder will maintain this heat regularly and continuously. Under normal weather conditions, the tempera- ture should be lowered about 5 degrees each week until the 85 degree mark is reached. It is not desirable to drop below 85 degrees at night until after the fifth or sixth week, when most of the chicks, if Leghorns, should be roosting. The brooder room itself should be cool. All that is necessary is to heat that portion of the floor wiiere the chicks may spread out and be comfortable. It is better to have the hover a little too Avarm than too cold. Chicks can and will move away from the heat, but they tend to crowd and pile if too cold. Therefore no chances should be taken with too low heat. Chilled chicks usually die or at best develop into worth- less culls. A circular fence should be set up about 18 inches from the outer edge of the hover. This enclosure should be 12 to 16 inches high and may be of tar paper, strips of wall board or one-inch mesh chick wire covered with burlap. The fence serves two important purposes : To confine the chicks near the source of heat until they are hover-broken ; and to cut off drafts which may sweep across the floor and chill the chicks during the first two days. At least one drinking fountain (gallon size) should be placed inside this fence for each one hundred chicks. After the house and equipment have been cleaned and sprayed, the fence, litter, and fountain put in ])lace, and the heat regulated — then the chicks may be placed around the hover. WHEN TO FEED Usually it is desirable to put the chicks around the hover after dark and give them their first feed the next morning. When they are shipped any great distance, however, they may be placed around the hover immediately upon arrival. It always is advisable to put mash before the chicks as soon as they are placed around the hover during daylight. Facts are accumulating which suggest that feeding may begin when chicks are about 24 hours old, and that delay in feeding, particularly after 36 hours, may tend to develop vices. Vices are very likely to develop if the chicks are held around the hover with- out feed before them during daylight. Early feeding seems to de- crease the danger from overeating and lessens the tendency to consume damaging amounts of litter. 1929] Brooding and Pullet Management 21 Chicks thtit nre shipped in rej>:nlar chick lioxes jirc inactive and more or less qniet. Under such conditions they may ^o a re- markably long time (72 hours or more) Avithont nourishment. When properly handled, chicks can be, and are being", shipped lono; dis- tances with safety. WHAT TO FEED Feed for chicks is essentially the same as that needed by adult birds. It must contain all the essential parts of a complete ration, namely, carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals, vitamins and water. The feed must supply sufficient starch and fat for the formation of body fat as well as serve as a source of heat and energy for all neces- sary life ])rocesses, such as respiration, blood circnlation, digestion, etc., and for the upkeep of body temperature. For the formation of flesh, the feed must supply protein, but since a great many pro- teins are known to be w^holly or partly lacking in essential nitro- gen constituents (called the amino-acids) care must be taken to supply the proper proteins. The feed must also supply all the various mineral elements pri- marily needed for the growth of the skeleton, and for the body tissues and fluids. It must contain the vitamins which are needed to support the proper life functions. Water must be supplied as a body constituent and as a necessary aid in digestion, absorption and utilization of feed, as well as in the elimination of waste products. Not only should the ration supply the various parts that are necessary to a complete diet, but it should supply them in the proportions required ; in other words, in a balanced form."^ The rapid formation of new body material, which takes pla, inch from the tip, depending upon size of beak and length of tip. Then by prying and pulling with the flat side of the knife the point of the beak is removed by tearing and not by cutting. Thus, the tip of the beak is removed to the quick so it is tender for a while and left in such shape that it is impossible for the bird to firmly grasp either feathers or flesh. About three weeks is required for the beak to grow out again. Crowding. — Crowding or piling into corners of the brooder house, is another dangerous vice. Chilling is the most prevalent cause, but an overheated stove often forces chicks to seek comfort in the far cor- 6 For a complete discussion of poultry diseases see: Beach, J. E., and S. B. Freeborn. Diseases and parasites of poultry in California. California Agr. Ext. Service Cir. 8:1-60. 1929. 28 California Agricultural Extension Service [Oirc. 28 uers. Bright moonlight shining through low windows may draw the chicks toward the light. Rats or mice may stampede the chicks into a corner, or a wagging flashlight in the hands of a careless attendant may frighten the chicks and cause crowding or piling. This is par- ticularly true if they are disturbed soon after dusk. The remedy consists of eliminating the cause first. Aii hour or so after dark, the chicks should be gently herded back into position around the brooder stove. With the aid of a dim light and a broom the chicks may be spread around very easily. A dim light under the hover tends to eliminate crowding, and small lights over the roosts seem to assist in teaching the chicks to roost early. Sections of sloping roosts placed in the corners will minimize dangers from crowding and teach the chicks to roost. Inch mesh chick wire tacked to the bottom side of the roosts will keep chicks off the floor in the corners. Parasites. — A post mortem examination should be performed on all pullets which die ; and all small, light weight, runty birds should be killed and examined, to determine the presence or absence of roundworms or tape worms. To examine a bird, cut open the abdomi- nal cavity, remove and slit the intestine from end to end. Roundworms. — If roundworms are found in the intestine of any bird examined, a nicotine sulfate (round worm capsule) capsule should be given to each pullet in the flock 3 months of age or older. Tobacco dust at the rate of 2 pounds for each 100 pounds of mash should be fed for three or four weeks following the capsule treatment. Tobacco dust in the mash should be used for treatment, if worms are discovered before 12 weeks of age. Tapeworms. — If tapeworms are found in any bird examined, each pullet in the entire flock should be given one Kamala (tapeworm cap- sule) capsule. MANAGING THE YOUNG PULLETS Roosting. — The age at which chicks should start roosting depends to a considerable extent upon weather conditions and rate of growth and development. Some individual flocks develop slowly and are more difficult to teach to roost than others. As a rule, chicks get better ventilation and grow more rapidly when they begin roosting early. The coldest and foulest air is down on the floor; therefore it is desirable to get the chicks up on the roosts as soon as possible. The first perches should be put in the brooder house when the chicks are a month old. These can be light, portable and relatively inexpensive, and should be elevated 4 to 6 inches above the floor. They should i'*-'^J Brooding and Pullet Management 29 bo placed near the hover. The chicks will naturally start nsin^r these during the day and the more hardy chicks will use them at night. Elevating the hover more than usual (6 to 8 inches from the floor) enlarges the heated area and tends to encourage an early use of* the perches. During this period the operator should closely obserA^e the chick's reactions to heat and reduce the temperature under the hover just as raj)idly as the weather and the vitality of the chicks will per- mit. In most cases the heat can be discontinued just as soon as the chicks have been taught to roost properly. Training, with the aid of brooms, may be necessary in some instances. Only two or three evenings should be requii-ed to teach all the chicks to roost. Separating the Sexes. — There are two important reasons for sepa- rating the sexes as early as possible : one is, to provide more hopper space for the pullets and prevent overcrowding the roosts. The second is, so that the pullets and cockerels can be fed and managed differently. In the Mediterranean breeds, such as the Leghorns, differences between the sexes will first become distinguishable when the chicks are about two weeks old. The combs of the cockerels develop more rapidly and become red in color. Also, there is an earlier and greater develop- ment of wing and tail feathers in the males. The cockerels are usually more active, more erect and stocky. Practically all of the cockerels can be detected by eight or nine weeks, although the sex of some of the slowest developing birds cannot be determined until they are 12 to 14 weeks of age. Sexual characteristics develop more slowly in the heavier (Ameri- can, English and Asiatic) breeds, and the males are not so domineer- ing in temperament. It may be three, four, and even five months before the males can all be distinguished, but they should be sepa- rated from the pullets just as soon as possible. As the chicks develop, they require more room in the house, more air, and more hopper and water trough space. At least 8 feet of hopper space and 3 feet of di-inking space should be ])rovided for each 100 birds. These requirements can be obtained by gradually removing the males and placing them in other quarters. This separation start- ing as soon as possible should be pretty well completed at eight or nine weeks. Oracling for Size and Weight. — The separation of the cockerels and pullets into two or preferably three groups, each according to size and weight, is just as important as the se])aration of the sexes. The more precocious, domineering individuals tend to bully their weaker brothers and sisters so that the latter do not have the same oppor- 30 California Agricultural Extension Service [Circ. 28 tunities, particularly at feeding. When separated from the larger birds and given special feed and care, some of the backward birds of both sexes, which under usual conditions are only culls, will de- velop into fairly good individuals. In cockerels which are to be sold as broilers, this segregation will be taken care of more or less automatically as the larger birds are sold. Yet even with these much better results, more uniform growth and a higher percentage of good birds will be obtained where the cockerels are separated into two or three groups, when they are removed from the pullets. This earlier segregation will also simplify the selection of the larger cockerels for sale when they attain the desired weight. Cockerels for Breeders. — Where cockerels are to be used for sub- sequent mating, the most precocious and vigorous individuals, which conform to the breed type, should be selected before any are sold as broilers. At least twenty and preferably thirty cockerels should be selected for each ten breeding males desired. This should take care of mortality and subsequent necessary culling. A careful balance be- tween mash and grain, as outlined in the section on feeding should be maintained. The same general plan of feeding should be followed as that recommended for the pullets. The Growing Pullets. — Segregation of the pullets at 8 to 12 weeks of age (the earlier the better) into two groups according to growth and weight will tend to produce more uniform development and fewer runts and culls. This segregation can be made conveniently just after the sale of the broilers. Following such a system, the birds can be given more room as they grow, which is exceedingly desirable. It would also be desirable to move the pullets into colony houses at 8 to 12 weeks of age if a clean, free range is available. If a clean range is not available, the pullets should be moved into the laying house at about the same age. When the pullets are not separated into two groups the propor- tion by weight of mash and grain fed at different ages should be as given in table 3. TABLE 3 Proportion by Weight of Mash and Grain to Feed Unsegregated Pullets Age of pullet Per cent of mash to feed Per cent of grain to feed Proportions indicated, for convenience in feeding 45 40 35 30 30 35 40 55 60 65 70 70 65 60 il4 pounds mash to 53^ pounds grain 4 pounds mash to 6 pounds grain Z}4 pounds mash to 6>^ pounds grain 3 pounds mash to 7 pounds grain 3^ months 4 months 4V-^ months 5 months 3 pounds mash to 7 pounds grain 53^ months 33^ pounds mash to 63-^ pounds grain 6 months 4 pounds mash to 6 pounds grain 1929] Brooding and Pullet Management 31 The pullets should have all the feed they will eat but care should be taken to see that the birds do not waste any feed. The amount of mash consumed usually can be regulated by the amount of grain fed. Keep a mineral mixture of 4I/2 pounds of bone meal, 41/2 pounds of ground oyster shell and 1 pound of common salt in hoppers before the pullets all the time. Six pounds of succulent green feed for each 100 pullets should be fed daily. Tender kale, chard, clover, lawn clippings or alfalfa are excellent greens. Greens should be fed in the late afternoon after the evening feed of grain. Eight pounds of alfalfa leaf meal for each 100 pounds of mash makes a satisfactory substitute for tender greens. If for an}^ reason the pullets are not consuming much feed and when the mash consumption is 30 per cent or less of the entire ration some succulent greens should be fed to supplement dried greens (alfalfa leaf meal) in the mash. Feeding Modification for the Pw^Ze^s.— Considerable good may be obtained by placing the slowest developing 25 to 50 per cent of the pullets, at about ten weeks of age, on the 40 per cent milk mash for a six or seven day period. Cases of chronic coccidiosis are often found in pullet flocks between 4 and 12 months of age. The 40 per cent milk mash treatment at ten weeks of age may cure some of these cases. This mash also is of value in giving the slower birds a ''boost" in growth, but it must not be fed longer than seven days. Such a x>lan would probably have little or no value if the chick flock were fed the 40 per cent milk mash for coccidiosis control later than the seventh week. Otherwise feeding should be followed as recommended earlier in this circular, keeping in mind the gradual reduction of the percent- age of protein in the ration, and reducing the amount of protein more rapidly and to a greater extent with the earlier maturing pullets. When the pullets have been separated the proportion of grain and mash for the larger, early maturing birds should be as given in table 4. TABLE 4 Proportion of Mash and Grain to Feed the Larger, Early Maturing Pullets Age of pullet Per cent of mash to feed Per cent of grain to feed Proportions indicated, for convenience in feeding 35 30 25 20 20 25 30 65 70 75 80 80 75 70 33^ pounds mash to 6M pounds grain 3 pounds mash to 7 pounds grain 23^ pounds mash to 7}^ pounds grain 2 pounds mash to 8 pounds grain 2 pounds mash to 8 pounds grain 23^ pounds mash to 7}i pounds grain 3 pounds mash to 7 pounds grain 3^2 months ... 4J^ months ... . 5}4 months 32 California Agricultural Extension Service [Oh^c. 2S The smaller, backward or later maturing pullets should be fed as given in table 5. TABLE 5 J'kopoktiox of Mash and Grain to Feed the Backward OR Later Maturing PuXtLets Age of pullet Per cent of mash to feed Per cent of grain to feed Proportions indicated, for convenience in feeding 50 50 45 40 35 35 40 40 50 50 55 60 65 65 60 60 5 pounds mash to 5 pounds grain 5 pounds inash to 5 pounds grain 43^2 pounds mash to 5\4 pounds graiii 4 pounds mash to 6 pounds grain 33-i pounds mash to 6>^ pounds grain 33^2 pounds mash to 6>2 pounds grain 4 pounds mash to 6 pounds grain 4 pounds mash to 6 pound.s ffra'n 4 months . . 4 '-2 months , 4' 2 months ... 53^2 months 6 months The Second Pullet Grading. — Extremely rapid body develoi)ment or extremely early laying should be avoided. If growth is too fast the pullets may lack stamina and vigor. Also, the pullets should not start laying before their body development is at least even with their sex development. Many authorities believe that extreme early maturity tends to result in underweight bodies, small eggs, j^rolapsus of the oviduct, ruptured egg yolks, lowered production and early molting. Reducing the protein in the ration of the pullets which tend to develop too rapidly will aid in producing larger, heavier bodies, and therefore, larger eggs and more sustained production. While the earlier matur- ing pullets are the heaviest and most profitable producers," they never- theless require special management to assure maximum efficiency and profit. The problem with the smaller, slower developing pullets is to secure a more rapid, yet not abnormal growth and development. For this reason the protein and mineral content of their ration should be in- creased. Pullets must have a substantial body weight when they start laying and this must be maintained to secure the best and most profitable results. It is probable that 90 per cent of the "production bred" White Leghorn flocks, both pullets and hens, are under weight. The standard weight for Ijeghorn pullets at six months is SV^ pounds, and for mature hens, 4 pounds. There is very litle danger of getting either pullets or hens too fat when a reasonably well balanced ration is fed. Consequently, in order to get the best results, segregation and special feeding are required for the pullets and might even be advis- able for the mature hens. 7 Buster, Melvin W. The relation of rate of matiiritY to egg production. California Agr. Exp. 8ta. Bui. 424, 1927. 1929J Brooding and Pullet Management 33 The second grading and segregation of Leghorn pnllets should be made at about four and one-half months of age. When the birds are handled at this age it is easy to detect differences in both sex and body development. In case of roundworm, tapeworm or lice infestation the birds should be treated for these parasites and individual treatment can be administered conveniently at the same time that they are beinor handled for seo^reg-ation. Fig. 2.— A catching crate or coop permits the convenient handling of the flock at all times. A removable drop partition between compartments will aid in catching the birds more easily. If equipment similar to that described below is used and reasonable effort is made to handle them quietly, the pullets can be handled quickly and without harm : 1. A two-compartment catching crate (18 inches high, 3 feet wide and 6 feet long) will hold comfortably 100 mature pullets. A small hinged door in the top center of each compartment and a full width, removable drop partition between compartments, will aid in catching the birds easily, A crate of one compartment is illustrated in figure 2. 2. A full opening in one end of the catching crate and a similar outlet at least 2 feet wide by 15 inches high in the wall of the house, at floor level. The outlet should be near but at least two feet from a corner of the roouL 3. A roll of chicken wire four or five feet high and ten feet long or a light panel of convenient size, to assist in driving the birds into the coop. 34 California Agricultural Extension Service [Circ. 28 4. A catching net to use in driving, particularly under and off the dropping boards and to catch the stragglers. The improvement in the quality of the pullets following segregation as to size, weight and sex development will warrant the necessary partitions in houses and yards. Third Grading and Culling. — A third segregation should be made with Leghorns when the pullets are six to six and one-half months of age. American and Asiatic breeds should be a month to six weeks older before they are handled. The birds at this age preferably should be divided into three groups— two to keep, and one to sell. Assuming that no previous culling had been done, the segregation should be as follows : The first group should contain approximately 40 per cent of the flock. These birds should have well developed combs, long, deep bodies and should weigh at least 3I/2 pounds. They are known as early maturing pullets. The second group should contain the next best 40 to 50 per cent of the flock. These are called the medium maturing birds. They must have good bodies and be near to standard weight. Their combs, however, will be smaller as an indication of less rapid sex development. The third group should be sold as fryers, or culls, because they will not prove profitable if kept. This group should include 10 to 20 per cent of the average Leghorn flock, depending upon uniformity and whether or not they had been previously culled. It will contain all deformed, crippled, undersized or slow developing runts. It will also contain the extremes in sex development : those which have come into laying too quickly at the expense of physical body development ; and the few which develop a coarse, ' ' beefy, ' ' physical body and are back- ward in sex development. If these culls are sold at this time the net profit per bird and per flock will be increased. The disposition of these birds will also decrease the disease hazard and lower the mortality rate. At the same time less culling will be necessary the following summer and fall, which consequently means much less flock replace- ment and a more profitable flock. STATION PUBLICATIONS AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION BULLETINS No, No. 253. Irrigation and Soil Conditions in the 389. Sierra Nevada Foothills, California. 390. 262. Citrus Diseases of Florida and Cuba Compared with those of California. 391. 263. Size Grades for Ripe Olives. 268. Growing and Grafting Olive Seedlings. 392. 277. Sudan Grass. 393. 278. Grain Sorghums. 394. 279. Irrigation of Rice in California. 283. The Olive Insects of California. 304. A Study of the Effects of Freezes on 395. Citrus in California. 310. Plum Pollination. 396. 313. Pruning Young Deciduous Fruit Trees. 397. 324. Storage of Perishable Fruits at Freez- ing Temperatures. 398. 328. Prune Growing in California. 400. 331. Phylloxera-resistant Stocks. 402. 335. Cocoanut Meal as a Peed for Dairy 404. Cows and Other Livestock. 405. 340. Control of the Pocket Gopher in 406. California. 407. 343. Cheese Pests and Their Control. 344. Cold Storage as an Aid to the Mar- keting of Plums, a Progress Report. 408. 347. The Control of Red Spiders in Decid- 409. uous Orchards. 348. Pruning Young Olive Trees. 349. A Study of Sidedraft and Tractor Hitches. 410. 350. Agriculture in Cut-Over Redwood Lands. 353. Bovine Infectious Abortion, and As- 411. sociated Diseases of Cattle and New- born Calves. 412. 354. Results of Rice Experiments in 1922. 357. A Self-Mixing Dusting Machine for Applying Dry Insecticides and Fun- 414. gicides. 358. Black Measles, Water Berries, and 415. Related Vine Troubles. 416. 361. Preliminary Yield Tables for Second- Growth Redwood. 417. 362. Dust and the Tractor Engine. 363. The Pruning of Citrus Trees in Cali- 418. fornia. 364. Fungicidal Dusts for the Control of 419. Bunt. 366. Turkish Tobacco Culture, Curing, 420. and Marketing. 367. Methods of Harvesting and Irrigation 421. in Relation to Moldy Walnuts. 422. 368. Bacterial Decomposition of Olives During Pickling. 423. 369. Comparison of Woods for Butter Boxes. 424. 370. Factors Influencing the Development of Internal Browning of the Yellow 425. Newton Apple. 426. 371. The Relative Cost of Yarding Small and Large Timber. 427. 373. Pear Pollination. 374. A Survey of Orchard Practices in 428. the Citrus Industry of Southern California. 375. Results of Rice Experiments at Cor- 429. tena, 1923, and Progress in Experi- 430. ments in Water Grass Control at the 431. Biggs Rice Field Station, 1922-23. 377. The Cold Storage of Pears. 432. 380, Growth of Eucalyptus in California Plantations. 433. 382. Pumping for Draininge in the San Joaquin Valley, California. 434. 385. Pollination of the Sweet Cherry. 386. Pruning Bearing Deciduous Fruit 435. Trees. 387. Fig Smut. 388. The Principles and Practice of Sun- Drying Fruit. Berseem or Egyptian Clover. Harvesting and Packing Grapes in California. Machines for Coating Seed Wheat with Copper Carbonate Dust. Fruit Juice Concentrates. Crop Sequences at Davis. I. Cereal Hay Production in Cali- fornia. II. Feeding Trials with Cereal Hays. Bark Diseases of Citrus Trees in Cali- fornia. The Mat Bean, Phaseolus Aconitifo- lius. Manufacture of Roquefort Type Cheese from Goat's Milk. Orchard Heating in California. The Utilization of Surplus Plums. The Codling Moth in Walnuts. The Dehydration of Prunes. Citrus Culture in Central California. Stationary Spray Plants in California. Yield, Stand, and Volume Tables for White Fir in the California Pine Region. Alternaria Rot of Lemons. The Digestibility of Certain Fruit By- products as Determined for Rumi- nants. Part I. Dried Orange Pulp and Raisin Pulp. Factors Influencing the Quality of Fresh Asparagus after \t is Har- vested. Paradichlorobenzene as a Soil Fumi- gant. A Study of the Relative Value of Cer- tain Root Crops and Salmon Oil as Sources of Vitamin A for Poultry. Planting and Thinning Distances for Deciduous Fruit Trees. The Tractor on California Farms. Culture of the Oriental Persimmon in California. Poultry Feeding: Principles and Prac- tice. A Study of Various Rations for Fin- ishing Range Calves as Baby Beeves. Economic Aspects of the Cantaloupe Industry. Rice and Rice By-Products as Feeds for Fattening Swine. Beef Cattle Feeding Trials, 1921-24. Cost of Producing Almonds in Cali- fornia : a Progress Report. Apricots (Series on California Crops and Prices). The Relation of Rate of Maturity to Egg Production. Apple Growing in California. Apple Pollination Studies in Cali- fornia. The Value of Orange Pulp for Milk' Production. The Relation of Maturity of Cali- fornia Plums to Shipping and Dessert Quality. Economic Status of the Grape Industry. Range Grasses of California. Raisin By-Products and Bean Screen- ings as Feeds for Fattening Lambs. Some Economic Problems Involved in the Pooling of Fruit. Power Requirements of Electrically Driven Manufacturing Equipment. Investigations on the Use of Fruits in Ice Cream and Ices. The Problem of Securing Closer Relationship Between Agricultural Development and Irrigation Con- struction. bulletins- No. 436. I. The Kadota Fig. II. Kadota Fig Products. 437. Economic Aspects of the Dairy In- dustry. 438. Giafting Affinities with Special Refer- ence to Plums. 439. The Digestibility of Certain Fruit By- products as Determined for Rumi- nants. Part II, Dried Pineapple Pulp, Dried Lemon Pulp, and Dried Olive Pulp. 440. The Feeding Value of Raisins and Dairy By-Products for Growing and Fattening Swine. 441. The Electric Brooder. 442. Laboratory Tests of Orchard Heaters. 443. Standardization and Improvement of California Butter. 444. Series on California Crops and Prices: Beans. Aspects of the Apple In- ■{Oontinued) No. 445. Economic dustry. 446. The Asparagus Industry in California. 447. The Method of Determining the Clean Weights of Individual Fleeces of Wool. 448. Farmers' Purchase Agreement for Deep Well Pumps. 449. Economic Aspects of the Watermelon Industry, 450. Irrigation Investigations with Field Crops at Davis, and at Delhi, Cali- fornia. 451. Studies Preliminary to the Establish- ment of a Series of Fertilizer Trials in a Bearing Citrus Grove. 452. Economic Aspects of the Pear In- dustry. No. 87. Alfalfa. 117. The selection and Cost of a Small Pumping Plant. 127. House Fumigation. 129. The contiol of Citrus Insects. 136. Melilotus Indica as a Green-Manure Crop for California. 144. Oidium or Powdery Mildew of the Vine. 157. Control of Pear Scab. 164. Small Fruit Culture in California. 166. The County Farm Bureau. 178. The Packing of Apples in California. 202. County Organization for Rural Fire Control. 203. Peat as a Manure Substitute. 209. The Function of the Farm Bureau. 212. Salvaging Rain-Damaged Prunes. 215. Feeding Dairy Cows in California. 230. Testing Milk, Cream, and Skim Milk for Butterfat. 231. The Home Vineyard. 232. Harvesting and Handling California Cherries for Eastern Shipment. 234. Winter Injury to Young Walnut Trees During 1921-1922. 238. The Ajjricot in California. 239. Harvesting and Handling Apricots and Plums for Eastern Shipment. 240. Harvesting and Handling California Pears for Eastern Shipment. 241. Harvesting and Handling California Peaches for Eastern Shipment. 243. Marmalade Juice and Jelly Juice from Citrus Fruits. 244. Central Wire Bracing for Fruit Trees. 245. Vine Pruning Systems. 248. Some Common Errors in Vine Prun- ing and Their Remedies. 249. Replacing Missing Vines. 250. Measurement of Irrigation Water on the Farm. 252. Support for Vines. 253. Vineyard Plans. 255. Leguminous Plants as Organic Fer- tilizers in California Agriculture. 257. The Small-Seeded Horse Bean (Vicia faba var. minor). 258. Thinning Deciduous Fruits. 259. Pear By-Products. 261. Sewing Grain Sacks. CIRCULARS No. 265. 266. 267. 269. 270. 273. 276. 277. 278. 279. 281. 282. 284. 286. 287. 288. 289. 290. 292. 293. 294. 296. 298. 300. 301. 302. 304. 305. 307. 308. 309. 310. 311. 312. Plant Disease and Pest Control. Analyzing the Citrus Orchard 1)> Means of Simple Tree Records. The Tendency of Tractors to Rise in Front; Causes and Remedies. An Orchard Brush Burner. A Farm Septic Tank. Saving the Gophered Citrus Tree. Home Canning. Head, Cane and Cordon Pruning of Vines. Olive Pickling in Mediterranean Countries. The Preparation and Refining of Olive Oil in Southern Europe. The Results of a Survey to Deter- mine the Cost of Producing Beef in California. Prevention of Insect Attack on Stored Grain. The Almond in California. Milk Houses for California Dairies. Potato Production in California. Phylloxera Resistant Vineyards. Oak Fungus in Orchard Trees. The Tangier Pea. Alkali Soils. The Basis of Grape Standardization. Propagation of Deciduous Fruits. Control of the California Ground Squirrel. Possibilities and Limitations of Coop- erative Marketing. Coccidiosis of Chickens. Buckeye Poisoning of the Honey Bee. The Sugar Beet in California. Drainage on the Farm. Liming the Soil. American Foulbrood and Its Control. Cantaloupe Production in California. Fruit Tree and Orchard Judging. The Operation of the Bacteriological Laboratory for Dairy Plants. The Improvement of Quality in Figs. Principles Governing the Choice, Op- eration and Care of Small Irrigation Pumping Plants. The publications listed above may be had by addressing College of Agriculture, University of California, Berkeley, California. 16w-3, '29