UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. FROM THE LIBRARY OF DR. MARTIN KELLOGG. GIFT OF MRS. LOUISE B. KELLOGG No. : Students' Scries of iLattu Classics GREEK ANB ROMAN MYTHOLOGY BASED ON STEUDING'S GRIECHISCHE UND ROMISCHE MYTHOLOGIE KARL POMEEOY HAKEINGTON PROFESSOR or LATIN IN THE UNIVERSITY OF NORTII CAROLINA AND HEKBEET GUSHING TOLMAN PROFESSOR OF GREEK IN VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY LEACH, SHEWELL, AND SANBOEN BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO 1897 p. COPYBIGHT, 1897, BY KAKL POMEROY HARRINGTON AND HERBERT GUSHING TOLMAN Norfooofc J. S. Cashing & Co. - Berwick & Smith Norwood Mass. U.S.A. PREFACE In adapting Standing's Griechische and Romische Mythologie to the needs of American students, two aims have been kept steadily in view : first, that the genesis and development of the myths should be clearly set forth ; secondly, that the text should be supplemented by a generous supply of references to some of the most useful literary passages illustrative of the subjects in hand. Therein lie whatever claims this little book has to a place among the various attractive text-books that have recently appeared upon the same subject. It is not a dictionary, perhaps not even a reference book ; but rather an attempt to furnish within small compass a con- sistent and systematic exposition of the development of mythology and religion among the Greeks and Romans. With a view to the practical convenience of all classes of students likely to use the book, it has seemed wisest as a rule to spell the proper names in the way in which they commonly occur in English literature and in clas- iii 126130 IV PREFACE sical dictionaries. Mere transliterations of Greek epi- thets, and the like, are, of course, not Latinized; but where a Latin form exists it has usually been preferred. While perfect consistency in form is unattainable on these principles, it is believed that such consistency is less desirable than the advantages otherwise gained. As a guide to proper pronunciation, the quantities of all the long vowels have been marked in the index, and, in the text, in names printed in italic or full-faced type. Grateful acknowledgments are hereby accorded to the various scholars that have contributed towards perfecting the form and accuracy of the book : especially to Pro- fessor Francis Kingsley Ball of the University of North Carolina, for his many valuable suggestions and his painstaking care in reading the proof ; to Dr. H. F. Linscott of the University of North Carolina, for read- ing part of the proof; and to Professor E. M. Pease, editor-in-chief of the series, for his wise criticism and help at every stage of the work. KARL POME ROY HARRINGTON. HERBERT GUSHING TOLMAN. JANUARY, 1897. BRIEF BIBLIOGRAPHY Fiske, J., Myths and Myth-makers, Boston, 1881. Frazer, J. G., The Golden Bough, New York and London, 1894. Furtwangler, A., Meisterwerke der griechischen Plastik, Leip- zig, 1893 sq. English edition by Euge'nie Sellers, London, 1895 sq. Gruppe, O., Die griechischen Culte u. Mythen in ihrer Bezieh- ungen zu den orientalischen Religionen, Leipzig, 1887 sq. Harrison and Yerrall, Mythology and Monuments of Ancient Athens, London and New York, 1890. Jacobi, Ed., Handworterbuch der griech. u. rom. Mythologie, Coburg and Leipzig, 1835. "" A., Myth, Ritual, and Religion, London, 1887 ; article on " Myt v ogy " in Encyclopaedia Britannica, 9th ed., vol. 17, p. 135. 1 , Ernst, Orpheus : Untersuchungen zur griechischen, rom- ischen, altchristlichen Jenseitsdichtung und Religion, Munich, 1895. Mannhardt, W., Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, Berlin, 1877 ; Mythologische Forschungen, Strassburg, 1884. Mayer, M., Die Giganten und Titanen in der antiken Sage und Kunst, Berlin, 1887. Meyer, E. H., Indogermanische Mythen, Berlin, 1883 sq. Miiller, H. D., Mythologie der griechischen Stamme, Gottingen, 1857-1859. Miiller, K. O., Prolegomena zu/einer wissenschaftlichen Mythol- ogie, Gottingen, 1825. VI BRIEF BIBLIG ,PHY Miiller, Max, Chips from a Gen Workshop ; Science of Religion, London, 1873; Science of age, 7th ed., London, 1873. Overbeck, J., Geschichte d. griech. 7 }-ik, 4th ed., Leipzig, 1894 ; Griechische Kunstmythologie, m ,s, Leipzig, 1871 sq. Pater, W., Greek Studies, London, Ib Preller, L., Griechische Mythologie, Berlin, 1854 ; 4th ed. by C. Robert, 1887 sq. ; Romische Mythologie, Berlin, 1858 ; 3d ed. by H. Jordan, 1881-1883. Rohde, E., Psyche, Freiburg i. B., 1890. Roscher, W. H., Studien zur vergleichenden Mythologie der Griechen und Romer, Leipzig, 1873 sq. ; Studien zur griechischen Mythologie und Kulturgeschichte vom vergleichendem Stand- punkte, Leipzig, 1878 sq. ; Ausfuhrliches Lexikon der griech- ischen und romischen Mythologie, Leipzig, 1884 sn. Sittl, K., Archaologie der Kunst (Vol. VI. of M tiller's Hand- buch d. klass. Altertumswissenschaft), Munich, 1895. Stengl, P., Chthonischer und Totenkult, Leipzig, 1895. Topffer, J., Attische Genealogie, Berlin, 1889. Tylor, E. B., Primitive Culture, London, 1871 ; Anthropology, New York, 1881. Welcker, F. G., Griechische Gotterlehre, Gotting( " ""862. Whitney, W. D., Oriental and Linguistic Studies, Dries', New York, 1874. Wilamowitz-Moellendorf, U. von, Euripides' s Herakles, Vol. I., Berlin, 1889. The most complete grouping and discussion of all the literature that appeared on the subject of Greek and Roman mythology during the years 1876-1885 is made by A. Preuner in Bursian's Jahresbericht, Vol. 25 ; all works on Greek mythology that ap- peared during 1886-1890 are similarly treated in Vol. 26, by Fried- rich Back ; and summaries of still later mythological literature have been made by 0. Gruppe in the same periodical in 1894 and 1895. TABLE OF CONTENTS A. THE ORIGIN OF MYTHS PAGE 1. The Soul and the Worship of the Dead, 1-9 ... 1 2. The Divinities of Nature, 10-14 10 3. The Worship of the Gods, 15-19 13 B. THE GREEK GODS I. THE DIVINITIES OF THE HEAVENS. 1. Representatives of the Phenomena of the Thunder- storm : Zeus (Giants, Cyclops), 20-31 ; He- phaestus, 32, 33 ; Prometheus, 34 ; Athena (Erinyes, Gorgons, Graeae), 35-42 16 2. W* Divinities : Harpies, 43 ; Wind gods, 44 ; aes, 45-48 34 3. Lnvmities of Light: Apollo, 49-53; Helios, 54; Hera, 55, 56; Artemis, 57, 58; Hecate, 59, 60; Selene, 61, 62; Stars, 63; Eos, 64 ; Iris, 65 38 II. THE DIVINITIES OF THE EARTH, 66. 1. Fire goddess : Hestia, 67 52 2. Water divinities : Lesser Sea divinities, 68-71 ; Poseidon, 72-75; River gods, 76; Centaurs, . 77, 78; Sileni, 79; Nymphs, 80 .... 52 3. Divinities of Growth, 81 : Satyrs, 82 ; Pan, 83, 84; Dionysus, 85-93; Demeter and Core, 94- 98 ; Gaea, 99 63 vii Viii TABLE OF CONTENTS III. THE DIVINITIES OF THE LOWER WORLD. PAGE 1. Divinities of Death : Hades, 100, 101 75 2. Divinities of Sickness and Healing : Aesculapius, 102, 103 . 77 IV. PERSONIFICATIONS, 104 78 1. The Divinities of Love, Social Intercourse, Order, and Justice: Aphrodite, 105-109; Eros, 110, 111; Charites, 112, 113; Muses, 114; Horae and Themis, 115 79 2. The Divinities of War and Strife: Ares, 116, 117 . 87 3. The Divinities of Destiny : Moerae, 118 ; Nemesis, 119; Tyche, 120, 121 89 C. THE GREEK HEROES 1. Thebes : Cadmus, 123 ; Antiope, 124 ; Niobe, 125 93 2. Argolis : lo, 126 ; Danatis, 127 ; Perseus, 128 ; Tantalus, 129-131 96 3. Corinth : Sisyphus, 132 ; Bellerophontes, 133 . . 103 4. Laconia: Dioscuri, 134; Helen, 135 105 5. Hercules, 136-149 .106 6. Theseus, 150-158 117 CYCLES OF MYTHS. 1. Meleager and the Calydonian Hunt, 159, 160 . . 122 2. The Argonauts, 161-166 124 3. The Theban Cycle, 167-174 128 4. The Trojan Cycle, 175-186 134 D. THE ROMAN GODS, 187 I. DIVINITIES NOT REDUCED TO A UNIFORM CONCEPTION. (1) Souls: Genii, Junones, Lares, Manes, Lemures, Larvae, 188, 189 145 (2) Spirits of Activity: Indigetes, 190 146 TABLE OF CONTENTS IX II. DEIFIED FORCES OF NATURE, AND DIVINITIES CLOSELY RELATED TO SPIRITS OF ACTIVITY. PAGE (1) Spring goddesses, 191 ; River gods, 192 ; Nep- tunus, 193 147 (2) Janus, 194, 195 ; Vesta, 196 ; Volcanus, 197 ; Saturnus, Census, and Ops, 198 149 (3) Divinities of Fruitf ulness : Faunus, 199 ; Silvanus, Liber, Yertumnus, 200 ; Fauna, Feronia, 201 ; Flora, Pales, 202 ; Diana, 203 153 (4) Mars, 204, 205 ; Quirinus, 206 157 III. DIVINITIES OF THE HEAVENS: Juppiter, 207-210; Juno, 211, 212 160 IV. DIVINITIES OF DEATH : Orcus, Mania, Lara, 213 . . 165 V. PERSONIFICATIONS, 214 166 VI. DIVINITIES ORIGINALLY FOREIGN, 215-218 .... 167 INDEX . 171 or THE f UNIVERSITY 1 GREEK AND KOMAN MYTHOLOGY A. THE OEIGIN OF MYTHS 1. THE SOUL AND THE WORSHIP OF THE DEAD 1. Even in the earliest stages of civilization, before the human mind devoted any very careful study to its external surroundings, the instinct of self-love impelled man to investigate the processes that he saw going on in himself and in creatures like himself. Sickness and death were the first to attract his attention; for they interrupt the course of everyday life. Then dreams which sometimes, especially when attended by the night- mare, seem exceedingly real suggested the existence of beings which, though imperceptible to the senses, can yet affect human life, now agreeably, and again disagree- ably. These beings, accordingly, came to be regarded as the authors of certain phenomena, which were apparently inexplicable in any other way. Therefore, supported by the universal inborn desire for the continuance of per- sonal life after death, there grew up a belief in the exist- ence of the souls (ghosts) of the dead. Closely related to this was the belief in elves or fairies, a superstition B 1 2 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY which even yet, in races that have remained in the lowest stages of development, appears to be about the only general form of faith extending beyond mere physical sensations. 2. Although the Greeks and Romans in historic times had long since passed beyond the earlier stages of de- velopment, yet all their ideas with regard to sickness, death, and the continued existence of the soul, were based entirely upon the views of that early period. Naturally, in process of time, a later series of conceptions, based upon quite different hypotheses, was intermingled with the more primitive ones; but at all events those seem to be among the most ancient which grew out of the principal characteristics which the dead had possessed in life. As with most of the other Indo-European nations, burial was their earliest form of laying away the dead; and the grave itself was regarded as the dwelling place of the departed one, who still enjoyed an existence in bodily form. It was customary to bury food and drink, implements and weapons, with the dead ; and originally a man's favorite wife and those slaves that during his life he had considered essential to his welfare were compelled to share death and the grave with him. Thus, as late as the Iliad, Achilles at the funeral of Patroclus is represented as killing twelve Trojan youths, probably with the idea that he shall in that way make their souls the slaves of his friend in the next world. After a while the offering of animals was substituted for that of human beings ; yet the gladiatorial combats also, which were a customary feature of funeral games at Rome, were evidently a kind of substitution for the sacrifice of slaves or prisoners. There was a belief also that the dead as well as the living could enjoy such prize contests. THE ORIGIN OF MYTHS 3 3. Of course it was necessary to replenish the supply of food and drink occasionally ; consequently the worship of the dead at the tomb consisted chiefly in the repeated offering of the means of subsistence. The custom grew up of doing this on the anniversaries of the birth and death of the departed one, and during the general cele- brations in honor of the dead. Such occasions at Athens were the Nekysia or Nemeseia on the 5th day of the month Boedromion (September-October), and the Cliytroi on the 13th of Anthesterion (February-March) ; at Home, the Lemur ia on the 9th, llth, and 13th of May, and the dies parentales, which were celebrated towards the close of the older Roman year, beginning with the 13th of February, and ending with the Feralia on the 21st. Souls punished neglect by sending sickness or death ; and so by the Greeks they were called Keres, i.e. destroyers ; by the Romans, Larvae or Lemures, specters. Therefore, to guard against the evil influence of these dreaded beings, and to prevent their return into their former dwellings, all such rites were resorted to as were commonly em- ployed in the effort to avoid any other evil. 4. At this stage in the development of the idea souls were believed to retain the form and physical peculiarities of the dead body. It was thought that by an offering of fresh blood (which is lacking after the heart ceases to beat) they could be temporarily called back to life, and could answer questions, a supposition out of which were developed necromancy and the oracles of the dead. In connection with these oracles there appeared at a later period in Greece oneiromancy also (divination by dreams ascribed to the deities of the lower world). For it was believed that the god or demigod living in the depths of 4 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY the earth appeared personally in a dream to those that slept in his sanctuary (incubatio), and gave them his counsel. Almost as ancient as these conceptions seems to be the idea that when the soul departed from the body it assumed animal form. The serpent especially, a creature of noiseless and rapid movements, which often lives in the ground, was commonly regarded as the soul in brute form ; and among other forms attributed to souls, at least by the Greeks, were those of bats, birds, and, later, butterflies. 5. From the observation that a dead body gradually crumbles away, the belief at length became common that the dead are not body, but spirit; and as people saw that the cessation of life's activity was coinci- dent with the expiration of the last breath, they came in time to look upon the breath itself as the funda- mental principle of life, i.e. as the soul, a fact that is demonstrated by the double signification of i/or^ anima, "breath/ 7 and similar words. Therefore souls that had left the body were imagined to be airy ; but still, on ac- count of an intermixture of the earlier idea, there was attributed to them a human or animal form. So they were conceived of sometimes as shadowy figures (O-KICU, umbrae), or smoke-like phantoms (etSooAa, simulacra, ima- gines), sometimes as tiny, winged creatures with human form. 6. At Kome, in connection with the worship of the dead, the older conceptions endured. In Greece also, where they had ceased to prevail generally about the beginning of the seventh century B.C., they spread again everywhere at a comparatively late period, under the influence of the Boeotians and Dorians, who had not ad- THE ORIGIN OF MYTHS 5 vanced beyond the corresponding stage of development. In Homer, on the other hand, such ideas can be recog- nized only in isolated allusions, since in his time the later doctrine was already accepted among the Achaians and lonians, whose view he represented. Simultaneously among these peoples, from the ordinary characteristics of every grave, there had grown up the idea of a common place of abode for souls, subterranean, naturally, but not accessible to human beings through the medium of prayers and offerings, an abode separated from the world above by impassable rivers, such as the Styx ('the hated 7 ), Acheron (' river of woe '), Cocy tus (' river of lamentation '), Pyriphlegethon (< stream of fire '), and Lethe ( ( forgetfulness ') from which the dead drank for- getfulness. 7. As soon as the dead had been covered with earth, their souls, lingering on the bank of the Styx or the Acheron, were ferried across by the boatman Charon. As pay for this service he received an obolus (a small coin worth 3^ cents), which customarily was laid under the tongue of the deceased. Once down in the lower world, the dead, according to Homer's belief, lived a gloomy, empty, shadowy sort of life. Their previous tastes and occupations were, indeed, unchanged; but their life was without consciousness and the power to effect any actual results. A few individuals, however, who were especially loved or hated by the gods, retained consciousness and sensation, that they might be rewarded or punished for their deeds done upon earth. From this realm of death there could be no return ; to this end the three-headed dog Cerberus kept watch at the entrance, which the ancients believed they had discovered in vari- 6 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY ous places, e.g. at Cichyrus in Thesprotia, Pheneus in Arcadia, on the promontory Taenarmi) in Laconia, and at Lake Avernus near Cumae. Charon, too, carried no- body back over the Styx. (The divinities that rule in the lower world are discussed in 100-103.) 8. Upon another conception, of later origin, rests the idea of Elysium, the field of arrival, or of those that have gone over (cf. \r}\vOa), which was supposed to be at the western boundary of the earth, 011 Oceanus, not in the lower world. For, without the necessity of first suffering death, many of the heroes and heroines espe- cially dear to the gods, begotten from mortals, or other- wise nearly allied to divine beings, were carried off to this abode, there to enjoy a blessed, godlike life of pleasure. With the later poets the ' Isles of the Blessed ' take the place of this. But not until after the fifth century B.C., with the growth of a belief in a retributive justice, was there developed the idea of a tribunal of the dead. According to this idea an abode either in Elysium, the home of the blessed, or in Tartarus, the gloomy place of punishment, the deepest abyss of the lower world, is assigned to the dead by Minos, Khada- manthus, and Aeacus, the decision in each case depending on the character of the life lived on earth. 9. Among the Romans, in later times, the souls of the dead were commonly designated by the flattering term Manes, i.e. ' the Pure/ ' the Good,' or were called, in general, inferi, ' those of the nether world.' Each family worshiped especially the spirits of its own ancestors, as the del Inferum parentum, or the del parentes or patrii. Very strictly, too, did they preserve a conscien- tious observance of all the precepts applying to solemn THE ORIGIN OF MYTHS 7 burial ; and even after cremation had become the usual custom, the old usages, which had been based on the idea of interment, were never essentially altered. However, the conception of a common abode for souls never thor- oughly prevailed at Rome ; and, on account of the simi- larity of death to sleep, the later epitaphs seem to indicate a belief that the dead slumbered forever in the grave, and were free from care, peaceful and happy. (Of. Divinities of Death, 213.) Styx : Homer, II. xiv. 271, Od. x. 513: cv6a IAV els 'Axeptivra HvpupXeytdwv re ptovviv Kt6Acur6s 0', 6s drj Zriryos vdards ea-rtv d,Troppu% Ovid, Met. iii. 76, Ars Amat. i. 635, ii. 41 ; Vergil, Geor. iv. 480 ; Milton, Par. L. ii. 577 : Abhorred Styx, the flood of deadly hate ; Sad Acheron, of sorrow, black and deep; Cocytus, named of lamentations loud Heard on the rueful stream ; fierce Phlegethon, Whose waves of torrent fire inflame with rage. Pope, Thebais i. 411 : - For by the black infernal Styx I swear, (That dreadful oath which binds the thunderer) ; Ode on St. Cecilia's Day 90 : Tho' fate had fast bound her With Styx nine times round her. Shak., Troilus and Cressida v. 4, 20 ; Spenser, F. Q. i. i. 37. Acheron : Homer, Od. x. 513 ; Vergil, Aen. vi. 295 ; Spenser, F. Q. i. v. 33 ; Milton, Par. L. ii. 577. Cocytus : Vergil, Geor. iii. 38, iv. 479, Aen. vi. 297, 323 ; Pope, Thebais i. 419 : Whose ghost yet shivering on Cocytus' sand Expects its passage to the further strand. Shak. , Titus Andronicus ii. 3, 236 : As hateful as Cocytus' misty mouth. Spenser, F. Q. i. i. 37. 8 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY Pyriphlegethon : Ovid, Met. v. 544 ; Vergil, Aen. vi. 551 ; Pope, Ode on St. Cecilia's Day 50 : - Th' infernal bounds, Which flaming Phlegethon surrounds. Lethe : Ovid, Trist. iv. 1, 47 : - Utque soporiferae liberem si pocula Lethes, Temporis adversi sic mini sensus hebet. Vergil, Aen. vi. 705, 714; Tennyson, In Memoriam xliii. : And in the long harmonious years (If Death so taste Lethean springs) May some dim touch of earthly things Surprise thee ranging with thy peers. Milton, Par. L. ii. 583 : - Lethe, the river of oblivion, rolls Her wat'ry labyrinth, whereof who drinks Forthwith his former state and being forgets, Forgets both joy and grief, pleasure and pain. Shak., King Henry IV. pt. ii. v. 2, 72, King Richard III. iv. 4, 250 ; Spenser, F. Q. i. iii. 36. Charon : Vergil, Aen. vi. 298 : - Portitor has horrendus aquas et flumina servat Terribili squalore Charon. Pope, Dunciad iii. 19 : Taylor, their better Charon, lends an oar. Swift, A Quibbling Elegy on Judge Boat : Our Boat is now sail'd to the Stygian ferry, There to supply old Charon's leaky wherry; Charon in him will ferry souls to Hell ; A trade our Boat has practised here so well. Shak., Troilus and Cressida iii. 2, 11. Cerberus : The conception of a dog guarding the lower world is very old. In the Rig Veda there are frequent allusions to the offspring of Sarama, the bitch of Indra, who conduct to the other world those whom Yama summons. In Vendidad, xiii. 9 of the Avesta, dogs are represented as sentinels of the other world. In the Funeral hymn, another portion of which is cited below, the dogs appear in one stanza in a hostile attitude, in the others as kind to those whom they conduct. They are mentioned in Rig Veda vii. 55, 2-3, x. 14, 10. Rig Veda x. 14 : THE ORIGIN OF MYTHS 9 10. Run past the two dogs, offspring of Sarama, four-eyed, brinded, by a straight path. Then go unto the fathers, kindly noticing, who with Yama revel in common revel. 11. These dogs which are thine, the guardians, O Yama, four-eyed, guarding the path, men-beholding, to them give over this (man), O king, for well-being and to him extend weal. Vergil, Geor. iv. 483 : Tenuitque inhians tria Cerberus ora. Ovid, Her. ix. 93, Met. iv. 449, ix. 185 ; Milton, L' Allegro 1 : Hence loathed Melancholy Of Cerberus and blackest Midnight born. Shak., King Henry IV. pt. ii. ii. 4, 182, Troilus and Cressida ii. 1, 37 ; Spenser, F. Q. i. v. 34. Elysium : Hesiod, Works and Days 170 ; Pindar, 01. ii. 67 sq. ; Vergil, Geor. i. 38, Aen. vi. 637 sq. ; Shak., Cymbeline v. 4, 117 : - More sweet than our blessed fields ; Two Gentlemen of Verona ii. 7, 38, Twelfth Night i. 2, 4. Tartarus : Horner, Od. xi. passim ; Ovid, Fast. iv. 605 ; Ver- gil, Aen. vi. 577. Minos : Homer, II. xiii. 450 ; Ovid, Met. viii. 6 sq. , Her. xv. 347 ; Vergil, Aen. vi. 432 ; Hyginus, Fab. xl.-xliv. Aeacus: Homer, II. xxi. 189; Ovid, Met. vii. 471 sq.; Horace, Od. ii. 13, 22 ; Hyginus, Fab. Hi. Manes : The following is translated from the tenth book of the Rig Veda. Although the hymn is acknowledged to be much later than other portions of the Rig Veda, yet the stanzas given are un- doubtedly of very ancient date. They will be interesting to show the early ancestor-worship among the Indo-European peoples. Yama, father of mankind and king of departed souls, waits to receive the dead into his kingdom of light. Roth has made an in- teresting comparison between the Sanskrit Yama and the Avestan Yima. Yama is the son of Vivasvant ; so Yima. Yama is called " Gatherer of peoples" ; so Yima in Vendidad ii. 21 of the Avesta makes a "gathering of men." Yama is the first mortal to reach heaven and gathers the blessed to himself. Rig Veda x. 14 : 1. The one gone forth over the great heights, the one pointing out the path to many, | the son of Vivasvant, the gatherer of peoples, Yama the king, him worship with an oblation. 2. Yama was the first to find a refuge for us: this (heavenly) past- ure is not to be taken from us : | whither our fathers of old have gone, thither the children are going along their pathways. 10 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY 7. Go forth, go forth by the ancient paths whither our fathers of old have gone. | Both kings exhilarated with the sweet oblation, Yama and heavenly Varuna thou wilt see. 8. Meet with the fathers, with Yama, with the reward (in store for thee) in highest heaven. | Leaving what is sinful come back home : possessing full life meet a (new) body. 9. Go away (ye mourners), go apart and disperse from here. The fathers have made this place for him, | adorned with days, with waters, with nights. Yama gives to him a resting-place. 2. ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE CONCEPTION OF THE DIVINITIES OF NATURE 10. The inborn impulse in man to endeavor to compre- hend the causal connection of all phenomena observed by him could not long confine itself to the events that concern his own person. Before long he began to con- sider also the world of nature, in which he lives, and whose influence he feels. A child attributes the property of life to the objects surrounding him, as soon as they appear to exert any active influence. So, by one who is as yet but a simple child of nature, everything that exerts any power is regarded as endowed with life, because activity, in connection with its own peculiar motion and productiveness, appears to him as the chief characteristic of a living being. Soon, however, he per- ceives that the apparent activity belonging to things without life is frequently produced by living beings hid- den from view. Through this experience he reaches the point of presupposing in general for every exercise of power a living being as the author, upon whose particu- lar form and fashion he decides according to the nature of the operation of the force in each case. Thus fancy gradually peopled the whole world of nature in which man lived so far as activity, motion, and productive- THE ORIGIN OF MYTHS 11 ness were observed with a countless number of living beings, which may be called divinities of nature. These, like the beings which the human imagination had in a similar manner created out of souls, could not be directly perceived by the senses, and so the two kinds of supersensual beings were easily compared with each other. The natural result was that the peculiarities of the beings developed from souls, having been already determined, were transferred to the divinities of nature. 11. Now, if the observed exercise of power in any process of nature is mightier and of longer duration than can come from an ordinary human being or animal, the presupposed author is exalted above the measure of man or beast, as regards might and duration of life. Moreover, according as this power appears hostile or friendly, strong or gentle, active or passive, towards mankind, so in each case there is attributed to the being whose action is supposed to be thus manifested a friendly, or an unfriendly disposition, and masculine or feminine gender. 12. These divinities of nature, whose identity was preserved among the Greeks in the multitudes of river gods, centaurs, nymphs, nereids, satyrs, etc., were essen- tially different from the gods proper. For, during the stage of belief in such divinities, an exhibition of a given force is not attributed to some being that always produces similar results in similar objects ; but, rather, every object of nature exhibiting signs of the activity of life is supposed to be inhabited and preserved by a special divinity of its own. The transition from belief in the minor divinities to belief in gods. always follows first in the sphere in which strict distinctions of place 12 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY and object are not noticed, i.e. in the case of the divini- ties that work in the heavens and the air. For, in the case of storms, winds, clouds, sun, and moon, it cannot be decided whether the same phenomenon is constantly repeated, or whether various, yet similar, phenomena follow each other. 13. With the uniting of individual families into races and states, the divinities that have in a certain sense been independently created by each family can for the first time rise to the dignity of gods generally recog- nized and clearly conceived of as individual beings by the mass of the people. For, until then, the real identity of various individual conceptions cannot be discovered; and, on the other hand, it is not until this stage of prog- ress that the spirit of an ancestor of a ruling family can become the hero of a race. 14. When, at length, in the progress of civilization and culture, the superiority of spiritual power over everything physical is recognized, the gods become more and more spiritualized. As they are stripped of the sensual char- acteristics of animals or human beings, they gradually develop more or less completely into purely spiritual deities, defenders of morals and the moral laws, which have meanwhile grown up among mankind under divine direction. Such beings as these were the gods of the Greeks and the Romans in the best period in the life of those peoples. Not until the gods are recognized in this light can the independent deification of abstract ideas begin ; but after such recognition it is no longer a necessary requisite for the creation of a personality that there should be an activity perceptible by the senses. It cannot, however, be denied that there is a THE ORIGIN OF MYTHS 13 sort of spiritual action in such figures as Ate ('infatu- ation '), Apate (' deception '), Dike (' justice '), Theinis ('law'), Irene (' peace 7 ), and Nike ('victory'), which are found even in the oldest Greek poets. 3. ORIGIN OF THE WORSHIP OF THE GODS 15. Since man can conceive of all supernatural beings only as superior personalities made after his own image, he endeavors to influence them in the same manner as in the case of powerful human beings. He shows them his reverence by approaching them in humble posture, with purified body and clean raiment. He begs for their favor, and, if they are displeased, for their indulgence or pardon. He presents them with the best of what he himself possesses, in order to insure for himself their good will, to express his thanks for bene- fits received, or to atone and make expiation for any offence toward them. 16. Such is the origin of the three principal forms of worship, purification, prayer, and sacrifice. To express humble reverence and submissiveness one would either actually cast himself down upon the ground (irpoo-Kwclv, supplicare), or at least stretch out his upturned palm toward the abode, or the image, of the divinity. Men sometimes confined themselves with chains or bands, that thus they might surrender themselves entirely help- less into the divine hands. For the same reason, at a later period, in the performance of every holy act they wound bands (rati/tat, taeniae, vittae) around their heads, just as they did around the sacrificial animals and other objects consecrated to the gods. The word religio, in- deed, signifies properly that relation of being bound 14 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY which one sustains toward a divinity, the obligation or duty which one feels toward him. 17. All purification (lustratio, from lud, Ka0ap/xds) relates originally to the body ; and water is the chief requisite in connection with it. Purification was, accordingly, con- sidered especially necessary in case of a murder attended with bloodshed, or of touching a dead person, though the idea of deliverance from guilt was not at first associated with it. For this purpose water from the sea or from a spring was preferred, because neither of these remains impure. Prayer is properly a simple request, the effect of which, however, can be heightened by the addition of a promise or a vow (e^x 7 ?? votum). Prescribed formulas were employed only because their success seemed to have shown that they, more than other words, were efficacious in influencing the gods to grant the desire expressed. 18. Anything that is likely to please a divinity may be offered as a gift (avdOrj/jLa). Appropriate gifts would be, first, such objects as are used in acts of worship or for the adornment of a temple ; secondly, such as possess a particular value for the person offering them. But the most common of all gifts to the gods was the offering of food and drink. Such offerings consisted of all the things that please the taste of man himself ; for originally physi- cal enjoyment was presupposed even in the case' of the gods. At a later time, by the burning of the offering, the vapor and smoke, at least, exhaling an agreeable odor, were made to ascend to the realm of the celestials. 19. Finally, as men gave expression to their will by signs or words, the effort was made to discover the will of the gods in omens (re/oara, ostenta), such as lightning, THE ORIGIN OF MYTHS 15 rainbows, eclipses of the sun and moon, and the flight of birds, or to learn it from significant words and sounds ((fry/man, K/V^SoVe?, omind). From the omens were devel- oped in Greece the sign oracles of Zeus ; in Italy, the auspicia and the whole science of the augurs. From the words and sounds arose the oracular responses of Apollo. The inspection of the liver and other entrails of slain sacrificial animals grew up later out of the gen- eral requirement that an animal for sacrifice must be healthy and unblemished. B. THE GEEEK GODS I. THE DIVINITIES OF THE HEAVENS 1. REPRESENTATIVES OF THE PHENOMENA OF THE THUNDERSTORM 20. The most tremendous phenomenon in nature, and the first to attract the attention of mankind, is the thunderstorm. As this can be better compared to a violently raging battle than to any other event occurring on earth, it was first conceived of as a battle in which Zeus, the god of thunder and lightning, Athena, the goddess of lightning, the other Olympian gods that were friendly toward mankind, and the demigod, Hercules, are all arrayed against the monsters of the thunder- storm, the Gigantes (< Giants '). The latter, like the Cy- clopes (' Cyclops '), are in the Odyssey imagined to be an earthly race of giants, living in the far west, hurling rocks for missiles, a race which is annihilated by the gods for its arrogance ; but the later tradition, as in some other cases, seems to have preserved the earlier form. Accordingly in the art of the Hellenistic period, particularly, for example, on the frieze of the altar of Pergamum (now in the Berlin museum), they are repre- sented with serpentine feet (lightning?). Originally Phlegra, the place of burning, was commonly mentioned 16 THE GREEK GODS 17 as the battle ground ; by which, probably, the glowing, illuminated sky is to be understood; later the scene of combat was removed to the peninsula (or the Attic deme) Pallene ; finally, to Cumae, in Italy. 21. From a different point of view, however, the fall thunderstorms, breaking forth after the dry harvest time, were probably looked upon as a battle between the fructifying thunder god Zeus and his father, the sun god Cronus, who at the height of summer brought on the harvest and caused the luxuriant vegetation of spring to dry up. It is clear that Cronus was the sun god from his epithet, Titan; and as in this contest other gods, according to the poets, were ranged beside Zeus as comrades for the fight, so there appeared on the side of Cronus, under the term Titanes (' Titans '), a series of names of beings of light, the meaning of which names, though appreciated in early worship, after a while largely faded away. With the help of the Cyclops ('round- eyed') Arges (' bright lightning'), Brontes ( ( thunder') and Steropes ('dazzling -eyed'), whose single round eyes are the lightning, they were vanquished and hurled down into Tartarus, the deepest part of the lower world. 22. To these conflicts of Zeus was added, later, that against Typhoeus, or Typhon ('the smoking, steaming one'). In him we have an embodiment (perhaps origi- nating in Asia Minor) of the steam and smoke breaking from the earth in connection with earthquakes, and out of volcanoes, as well as of the mighty power working in those phenomena. Although he was armed with a hundred serpent heads darting forth fire, he, like the Titans, was cast down by Zeus into Tartarus. All this is a picture of the apparent conflict between the thunder- 18 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY storm accompanying every volcanic eruption and those mighty forces of the depths which, at the end of the eruption, seem to sink back through the crater into the interior of the earth. 23. The victor in all these battles, the mighty god of the thunderstorm, a god, however, kindly disposed toward mankind, who sends down the fructifying rain, is Zeus (Lat. Juppiter). The stem of this name, which appears in the genitive Ai(f)o's, goes back, like the Indian Dyaus, the German Ziu, and the Latin Juppiter (which is composed of Diovis or Jovis and pater), to the root div (' sky ') ; i.e. the name of the god of the thunder- storm is derived from the sky itself, of which the thunderstorm is a principal phenomenon. Correspond- ing to this idea, the chief attribute of Zeus, who is further characterized as the lightning god by the epithets Keraunios and Kataibates, is the lightning itself; and closely connected with this is the Aegis (' goatskin'), a representation of the thundercloud surrounded by ser- pentine lightning, which is usually pictured in later times as a shaggy skin with a border of serpents. 24. The victor in the battle of the storm came to be regarded as a powerful ruler of earthly combats (Zeus Agetor, Stratios, Areios), who held victory (VLKTJ) in his hand ; a conception which led Phidias to place the winged Kike on the outstretched hand of his statue of the Olym- pian Zeus. In his son Ares this side of Zeus's nature was developed into a god of war pure and simple. On ac- count of the rain that falls during a thunderstorm, Zeus appears, on the other hand, as a rain dispenser bestowing fertility (Hyetios, Ombrios). In this capacity he begot from his sister Demeter, who is the female representative THE GREEK GODS 19 of the productive force of the cornfield, Persephone (Lat. Proserpina), the subterranean protectress, and representa- tive, of the seed corn. The same idea is expressed in the theogonic poetry by the relation of Uranus (' heaven ') to Gaea ('earth'). In similar manner, according to an Argive legend, Zeus was united with Danae under the guise of golden rain, and, according to a Thebaii legend, with Semele, who died in his embrace when, at her re- quest, he approached her as he approaches Hera, i.e. as the god of the thunderstorm. 25. Zeus is also collector of the clouds (Nephelegeretes) and god of the winds (Euanemos and Urios). As such, however, he afterwards has associated with him Hermes, his son born of Maia (Pleias), the goddess of the rain cloud. To Zeus belong prodigies, birds of omen, and especially thunder and lightning themselves, and the eagle darting down upon its prey like a flash of lightning out of the clouds ; and so he becomes a most important oracular god. The oak is sacred to him probably because it is an especially tall tree and is therefore frequently struck by lightning. 26. As thunderclouds settle about the mountain peaks, so Zeus as AJcraios or Korypliaios makes his dwelling place upon them, his chief abodes being on Olympus on the borders of Thessaly and Macedonia, and on Lycaeus in Arcadia (which also is often called Olympus). On_ Mount Lycaeus human beings were offered to him. The legendary founder of this form of worship, Lycaon, was said to have slain here his own son, or grandson, and placed him before Zeus as a repast, i.e. offered him up. In punishment for this act he was changed into a wolf. 20 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY 27. From his being the mightiest god the idea devel- oped that Zeus was also the highest god (Hypatos, Hypsistos). From his mountain summit, like a king from his castle, he rules the surrounding country under the appellation of Zeus Basileus. As a symbol of his ^dominion he bears the scepter; he protects justice and all pious men, and punishes every wrong, especially per- j ury (Zeus Horkios), and any injury to a guest (Z. Xenios) or to one seeking protection (Z. Hikesios). It lies in his power to grant expiation of guilt, and purification (Z. Katliarsios) (cf. Apollo). To him, therefore, as the protector of hearth and home (Z. Herkeios), the father of the family offered sacrifices ; and to the same god, in his capacity of protector of the family (GenetJilios), the head of the family sacrificed ; and many ruling fami- lies claimed to derive their origin from him as their ancestor. 28. Side by side with the king of the gods stands their queen Hera, who, like Juno, the goddess associated with Juppiter (the ruling lightning god of Italy), is probably to be regarded as the moon goddess and queen of the night. In Argos, where Hera was held in special honor, Hebe (< the bloom of youth ? ) was considered the fruit of the union of this royal pair. Ares, also, the war god, and Hephaestus, the lightning god, are their children. As the masculine counterpart of Hebe appears Ganymedes (son of Tros or Laomedon), whom, on account of his beauty, Zeus caused to be kidnaped by an eagle, and to be made his cupbearer and favor- ite ; for, like Ganymedes, Hebe too offers to the gods ambrosia and nectar; indeed she sometimes even bears the name Ganymeda. THE GREEK GODS 21 29. Local traditions associated Zeus with numerous other goddesses and heroines representing the moon : at Dodona with Dione, a name which might, of course, in some old worship have belonged to Hera herself ; at other places, with Selene, Europa, and Antiope. From the 'dark, beautif ul-haired ' Leto (Lat. Latona) he begot the sun god Apollo and the moon goddess Artemis; from Leda, whom he approached in the form of a swan, the moon heroine Helena (' Helen ') and the hero of light Pol- lux. Again, Alcumena, whose origin was in the race of the Ferse'ides (' shining ones '), became by him the mother of Hercules. But whether all these last-mentioned spouses may be regarded as moon heroines is doubtful. 30. The symbolizing poets have special regard to the moral side of the nature of Zeus, which afterwards came into prominence, when they designate Metis (' wisdom 7 ) and Themis ('law') as his wives, and represent him as begetting from the latter the Horae, Eunomia ('lawful- ness '), Dike (' justice '), and Irene (' peace ; ), as well as the Moerae (' goddesses of fate '), who order human life. On similar grounds he figures as the father of the Graces and Muses. Finally, the legend of the birth and death of Zeus is based on a Cretan local worship. Here his father is the sun god Cronus, who devours his own children. But Cronus's spouse Rhea (a form of Ma, the mother of the gods, closely related to Cybele and Artemis, who were worshiped in Asia Minor), instead of giving him Zeus, hands him a stone, which was swallowed forthwith. Zeus, however, being suckled by the she-goat Amalthea (who represents the thundercloud, which dispenses nourishing moisture), grows rapidly in a cave of Mount Ida until he is in condition to overpower his father. (See 21.) 22 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY 31. In accordance with the conception prevailing in Homer, Phidias fashioned the artistically ideal figure of Zeus about 432 B.C. for the temple at Olympia, where the great national games were celebrated in his honor. The ancients believed that during the work there had been before the mind's eye of the artist the words of the Iliad (i. 528 sq.):- " He spoke, and awful bends his sable brows, Shakes his ambrosial curls, and gives the nod, The stamp of fate and sanction of the god : High heaven with trembling the dread signal took, And all Olympus to the centre shook." (Pope's translation.) But Lysippus (about 338 B.C.) is regarded as the creator of the most common type in the representations of Zeus in the art of later times, a type of which a noble example appears in the mask of Otricoli. 32. To a much smaller sphere than Zeus is his son, the lightning god Hephaestus (Lat. Volcanus), confined, who probably was originally peculiar to a different Grecian tribe from that in which the worship of Zeus prevailed. He was born of Hera during a quarrel with Zeus (i.e. in a thunderstorm) ; but since he was lame (i.e. moved with a short, quick motion, like the lightning), his mother herself flung him down into the sea (a figurative expres- sion for the descending lightning), where, in a cave, con- cealed for nine years, he was nursed by the sea, goddesses Thetis and Eurynome. The latter part of this legend doubtless refers to that part of the year in which the lightning seems to be hidden away somewhere in the cloudy vault of the heavens. He is conducted back to heaven by Dionysus, i.e. in the spring; here he cleaves THE GREEK GODS 23 the head of Zeus by a stroke of his axe (lightning) ; amid loud cries of victory (thunder) the goddess of the thunderstorm, Pallas Athena, springs forth, evidently a tale in which the phenomena occurring at the cleav- ing of a thundercloud by lightning have been attributed to the different divinities of the thunderstorm. 33. Out of regard to the fructifying power of the spring thunderstorms, Charis, the goddess of spring, is represented as being wedded to Hephaestus, according to the Iliad ; in the Odyssey, however, he is the husband of Aphrodite, the goddess of love and fertility. After the invention of the art of working metal by the aid of fire, the phenomena of the thunderstorm were compared to the work in a forge, and so Hephaestus became the smith of the gods, with hammer, tongs, cap, and short working garment, who made weapons and ornaments for the im- mortals. Then when the Greeks became acquainted with the burning mountain on Lemnos and the volcanoes of Sicily and the Liparian islands, they transferred the forge of Hephaestus to these mountains, and called the Cyclops his comrades. The story now ran thus : because he had sided with his mother Hera in her quarrel with her husband, he was thrown down from Heaven upon the island Lemnos. This forthwith became one of the principal seats of his worship, a worship which blended with that of the oriental Cabiri (' great gods '), who were worshiped there and were in their nature related to him. 34. Another god of lightning and fire, originally, like Hephaestus, is Prometheus ('man of forethought'), who purloined fire from the gods, in order to give life, as well as fire, to the human beings that he had formed out 24 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY of clay. Though he had previously been a friend of Zeus, he was now, in punishment for his deed, chained to a rock on Caucasus and tortured by an eagle which fed on his liver. It is Hephaestus who creates Pan- dora (' endowed by alP), the first woman, through whom, according to the familiar story of Pandora's box, all evils come upon the race of men created by Prome- theus. 35. With these gods of the thunderstorm, who are principally the embodiments of the lightning flash, are intimately associated a series of female divinities of the thunderstorm, in whom the appearance of the thunder- cloud comes into special prominence. Everywhere in Greece and in her colonies, but most of all in Athens, which was named for her, Athena (Lat. Minerva) was worshiped as the goddess that sends down lightning, rain, dew, and mist. She is designated as a goddess of the lightning by her epithet Pallas, 'the brandisher' of lightning, which is conceived of as a spear ; therefore in early times her statues, representing her with poised spear, were called Palladia. Like her father Zeus, she wears the Aegis, and with it the Gorgon's head (Gorgo- neiori), which, according to the Argive myth, she received from Perseus, but, according to the Attic myth, won for herself in single combat. 36. The three Gorgoiies (< Gorgons '), who live in the far west, especially one of them, the mortal Medusa, - are properly female representatives of the thunder- clouds ; but, like the Giants and the Cyclops, they embody only the terrible side of the phenomenon. Their vesture is as black as the thundercloud; their fiery glance turns to stone, as the lightning's stroke THE GREEK GODS 25 stuns or kills ; their bellowing is the roar of the thunder ; wings carry them through the air. When the head of Medusa was cut off, the monster Chrysaor (' gold-sword/ the golden flash of the lightning) sprang from her body, and also the winged horse Pegasus (the thundercloud), at the stamp of whose hoof (lightning) the spring of the Muses, Hippocrene (' horse spring '), which inspires all poets, gushed forth on Mount Helicon. After serv- ing Bellerophon, Pegasus bears in heaven the lightning of Zeus. Medusa was killed by Athena for the same reason as that for which the Giants were conquered by Zeus. That is, in the phenomena of the thunder- storm the element of power that is hostile to mankind, embodied in these monsters, soon disappears ; but rain and fertility, which men regard as gifts of the divinity of the storm, endure after the storm has vented its rage. Like Zeus, Athena becomes, on account of this contest and victory, the goddess of war and victory in general, so that she bears the epithets Promachos (' leader of the combat ') and Nike (' victory '). 37. In the dry season of the year, the rain, which pro- motes the growth of vegetation, sometimes pours from the thundercloud; and so Athena was the protectress of the chief sources of the wealth of Attica, namely, fruit culture and agriculture, and consequently of the cultivated land. Therefore the second principal type of her representation in art exhibits a matronly, enthroned goddess, who is visually called Athena Polias (' goddess of the city '). On the Acropolis of Athens was an ancient olive tree, which, it was said, the goddess had caused to spring up when she strove with Poseidon for the dominion over the country. 26 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY 38. To agriculture especially is to be referred the myth of the serpent-formed Erichthonius, or Erechtheus. These two names at Athens stood originally for the same person, and really represented the seed corn grow- ing up out of the lap of the earth (their mother Gaea), under the protection of Athena, the goddess of the thunderstorm, and her maidservants, the dew sisters Aglauros (' the one living in the open air ? ), Herse ('dew'), and Pandrosos ('dew'). The father of both Erichthonius and Erechtheus is Hephaestus, the god of the thunderstorm, who during the spring storms cleaves the hard crust of the earth and fertilizes it. It was sup- posed to be in his honor and that of Athena that the very ancient ChalJceia (' forge festival ') had been instituted, at which the invention of the plow and the birth of Erech- theus were celebrated. Erichthonius and Erechtheus came at length to be distinguished. The latter was considered a national god living in a cave on the Acrop- olis, and, still later, as a king of Athens. The dew sisters now appear under various names as his daughters. In the Erechtheum he was worshiped as a hero in the form of a serpent, in connection with the worship of Athena and Poseidon. As the protecting goddess of agri- culture Athena was honored also by sacred plowings at the foot of the Acropolis in the beginning of seedtime, and especially at the old harvest festival of the Pana- thenaia from the 24th to the 29th of Hecatombaion (beginning of August), a festival which from the time of Pisistratus was observed every fifth year with special splendor. A torch race, prize contests for musicians and dancers, and races between ships of war were arranged for these occasions. The chief day of the festival was THE GREEK GODS 27 the 28th, the birthday of the goddess, on which they brought her a new robe (Peplus), embroidered by the ladies of the highest rank in Athens. During the fes- tal procession through the city this was fastened like a sail to a chariot made to imitate the form of a ship. Priests, old men, women and maidens, and the whole body of men capable of bearing arms, marched along with it, amid a display of the greatest magnificence, up the Acropolis to the ancient temple of the goddess. The splendid reliefs on the frieze of the cella of the Parthe- non still serve to bring this festal procession before our eyes. 39. This Peplus, moreover, calls attention to another very significant side of the nature of the goddess. The thundercloud, in which the lightnings rush hither and thither, and similarly the mist, which often covers every- thing as with a veil, were conceived of as a delicately woven fabric; and so the goddess with whom these phenomena were associated, under the name Athena Ergane (' worker '), came to be considered the inven- tress of the arts of spinning and weaving. As such she transformed into a spider the skillful Lydian weaver Arachne (' spider'), who dared to engage with her in a trial of skill. After she had once become the inven- tress of an art in which skill is of great importance for the ordinary relations of life, many other similar inventions were ascribed to her. So she developed gradually into the goddess of wisdom in general, and in that connection into the protectress of learning; and, in Hesiod, Metis (' wisdom') appears as her mother. Of course it may be that some additional influence to emphasize this phase of her character was exerted by 28 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY the idea of her clear shining glance (suggested in her epithet yAavKWTris, and in the fact that the owl is her sacred bird), which in human beings indicates a spiritual life, and which properly belongs to Athena on account of the same characteristic in the lightning. Also a further explanation may be sought in the notion of the fiery essence of the soul itself; for it was on this ground that the formation and animation of the human race were ascribed to Prometheus, god of lightning, and to Hephaestus, god of fire. 40. Athena's ideal figure in art was made by Phidias, who likewise has been generally credited with having created the type of the so-called Athena Promachos in a colossal bronze statue placed upon the Acropolis under the open sky. It was the same sculptor who fashioned in gold and ivory for the Parthenon the Athena Parthenos (' maiden 7 ), holding on her right hand Mke (< victory '). She appears always serious, even austere, but full of composure, and with an expression of high intellectual- ity ; she always wears a long robe, and is often distin- guished by the Aegis worn over this. 41. The Erinyes (< the angry ones '), black, winged, stalking swiftly along in the dark clouds, are, like the Gorgons described above, the embodiments of the grim thunderclouds which threaten destruction. Their glance of flame and their fiery breath, like the ser- pents twining about their heads, represent the darting lightning. The same idea is signified by the torch and the whip which they brandish, the latter of which pro- duces a state of madness and stupefaction in whomso- ever they strike. But since the clouds on the horizon seem to rise up out of the earth, imagination removed THE >H4 fftX 29 the abode of the Erinyes to the lower world ; thus from being black divinities of the thunderstorm, who bring death, they became goddesses of death and vengeance. Their wild raging was conceived of as a pursuit or a hunt, so that they were themselves compared to hounds. On being transferred to the realm of morals they became pursuers of those that had committed heinous crimes, especially of those who, transgressing the laws of family rights, had injured a parent or elder brother; on the other hand they protect the stranger and the sacredness of an oath. But by offerings and prayers, even the ' angry ones' can be conciliated, and so they were worshiped in Sicyon and Argos as Eumenides (' well-disposed 7 ), in Athens as Semnai ('the honored'). 42. Near the Gorgons dwell their sisters and guar- dians, the Graeae ('old women'), Pephredo, Enyo, and Demo ('the terrible'). They are probably representa- tives of the gray clouds preceding the thunderstorm proper, in which the lightning harmlessly darts from one cloud to another (heat lightning). Therefore they appear as old women, who possess only one eye and only one tooth between them (in both thes.e figures represent- ing the lightning), who surrender these to each other, however, for various purposes. Gigantes : Hesiod, Theog. 185 ; Ovid. Met. i. 152 sq. Cronus (Saturn): Homer, II. passim; Hesiod, Theog. 137; Ovid, Met. i. 113 sq., Amor. iii. 8, 35; Vergil, Aen. vii. 180, viii. 319, 357 ; Keats, Hyperion i. 249 : - Shall scare that infant thunderer, rebel Jove, And bid old Saturn take his throne again. Milton, Par. L. i. 510 : - Titan, heaven's firstborn, With his enormous brood, and birthright seized 30 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY By younger Saturn ; he from mightier Jove (His own and Rhea's son) like measure found ; So Jove usurping reign 'd. Chaucer, Knight's Tale 470, et passim. Titan as sun god : Shak., Venus and Adonis 30 : And Titan, tired in the mid-day heat. Spenser, F. Q. i. iv. 8, xi. 33. Titanes : Hesiod, Theog. 207 ; Hyginus, Pref. Cyclopes : Homer, Odys. vi. 5, viii., ix. passim; Hesiod, Theog. 139 ; Euripides, Cyclops ; Vergil, Geor. i. 471 : Quotiens Cyclopum effervere in agros Vidimus undantem ruptis fornacibus Aetnam, Flammarumque globos liquef actaque volvere saxa ! Aen. iii. 569, xi. 263, Geor. iv. 170 sq. ; Ovid, Met. xiii. 744 sq., xiv. 167 sq, ; Pope, Thebais i. 306 : Th' o'erlabour'd Cyclop from his task retires. Shak., Titus Andronicus iv. 3, 46, Hamlet ii. 2, 511. Typhoeus : Hesiod, Theog. 821 ; Ovid, Met. v. 325 sq.; Spenser, F. Q. i. v. 35. Zeus (Juppiter) : The noun stem DIV, DYU, became early a deification. The all-comprehending heavenly spaces suggest the divine presence. The word PITR ('father') was often joined to this stem. In the following hymn's DYAUS PITA ('sky- father') was worshiped among the ancient Hindus. The references are to all the places in the Rig Veda where the epithet PITR is added : Rig Veda i. 71. 5, i. 89. 4, i. 90. 7, i. 164. 33, i. 191. 6, iv. 1. 10, v. 43. 2, vi. 51. 5. In Hindu mythology, however, Indra corresponds in attributes to the Greek Zeus and Roman Juppiter more than any other god in the Indian Pantheon. The following verses from Rig Veda i., describing him as the whirler of the thunderbolt, are representative of many such ascriptions to his might which abound in the Veda. Indra, Rig Veda i. 32 : 1. The heroic deeds of Indra I shall declare which foremost he having the thunderbolt has accomplished. | He smote the dragon, he bored after the waters, he cut in sunder the bellies of the (cloud) mountains. 2. He smote the dragon lying on the mountains. Tvastar forged for him the whizzing thunderbolt. | As lowing kine, flowing suddenly the water ran down to the confluence. 3. With the lust of a bull he took the Soma, he drank of the extract in the vessels. I THE GREEK GODS 31 The generous Indra took the missile, the destructive thunderbolt, he smote the firstborn of dragons. 15. Indra is king of him who goes, of him who rests, and of the tame, of the horned beast, (Indra) possessing the thunderbolt on his arm. | That king rules the busy folk. He has surrounded them as a felly the spokes. Hesiod, Theog. 72 ; Homer, II. i. passim, xiv. 203 : tire re Kp6vov evpvoira Zei>s yat'rjs vtp0e KaQeiffe Kal drpvy^roio 0a\aW?;s. Ovid, Met. i. 113, Ars Amat. i. 635; Vergil, Aen. vii. 219; Hy- ginus, Fab. civ. ; (As the Sky, Horace, Od. i. 22, 20, iii. 10, 8 ;) Pope, Thebais i. 357 : When Jove descended in almighty gold ; Rape of the Lock v. 49 : Jove's thunder roars, heaven trembles all around. Shak., Cymbeline v. 4, 32 : With Mars fall out, with Juno chide ; The Tempest v. 1, 45, Measure for Measure ii. 2, 111, Hamlet iii. 4, 56; Spenser, F. Q. i. i. 6, iv. 11; Chaucer, Knight's Tale 2177, et passim. Uranus : Varuna (root VR = 'cover ') was an early deification of the expanse. A hymn in the Atharva Veda praises the god as the all-knowing divine presence. The stars which studded the heavens at night became, in the poetic imagination, the thousand eyes of Varuna looking down upon the world. A portion of the hymn is translated here. Atharva Veda iv. 16 : 1. The great one, lord of these worlds, sees, as if close at hand. | Whoever thinks he is acting stealthily, the gods know it all. 2. Whoever stands, and goes, and whoever stoops, whoever hides, whoever withdraws, | Whatever two (persons) sitting together de- vise, Varuna the king knows it (for he is there) as a third. 3. The earth is of Varuna the king and yonder heaven, great, pos- sessing distant ends. | And the two oceans are Varuna's stomach and in this little water he is hidden. 4. Who would go far beyond heaven will not escape from Varuna the king. | His spies from heaven traverse the world. Thousand- eyed they look upon the earth. 5. All this Varuna the king knows, what is between heaven and earth (and) what is beyond. | Numbered by him are the winkings of men's eyes. As a gamester knows his dice, he takes note of them. 32 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY Lycaon : Ovid, Met. i. 198 sq. Hera (Juno) : Homer, II. i. passim ; Hesiod, Theog. 454 ; Ovid, Ars Amat. i. 635, Met. iii. passim ; Vergil, Aen. i. passim ; Hygi- nus, Fab. xiii. ; Milton, Par. L.ix. 18 : Or Neptune's ire or Juno's, that so long Perplex'd the Greek and Cytherea's son. Shak., The Tempest iv. 1, 131, Antony and Cleopatra iv. 15, 34; Spenser, F. Q. i. iv. 17. Hebe: Homer, II. v. 722, Od. xi. 603; Hesiod, Theog. 922; Ovid, Met. ix. 400 ; Milton, Comus 290 : As smooth as Hebe's their unrazor'd lips ; L' Allegro 29. Ganymedes : Ovid, Met. x. 155 : Rex super urn Phrygii quondam Ganymedis amore Arsit ; xi. 756 ; Vergil, Aen. i. 28. Dione : Homer, II. v. 381 : 6ia Qcdwv. Ovid, Ars Amat. iii. 3, Amor. i. 14, 33. Rhea : Hesiod, Theog. 453 ; Ovid, Fast. iv. 201. Hephaestus (Vulcan): Hesiod, Theog. 927 ; Homer, II. i. 590 : Tjdrj yap /-te Kal dXXor' d\e^uej/cu pi\f/e irodbs reraytav airb &i}\ov Trdv 5' 71/j.ap a\ijs 7\avAcc67rt5a yelvar' ^KQi\vr\v^ Homer, II. ii. 157, i. passim ; Ovid, Fast. iii. 5 : Ipse vides manibus peragi fera bella Minervae : Num minus ingenuis artibus ilia vacat ? Ars Arnat. i. 625, 745 ; Vergil, Aen. v. 704, ii. passim ; Horace, Ars Poet. 385 : Tu nihil invita dices faciesve Minerva. Pope, The Dunciad i. 10 : Ere Pallas issued from the Thund'rer's head. Gorgones : Ovid, Met. iv. 618 ; Vergil, Aen. vi. 289 ; Milton, Comus 447 : What was that snaky-headed Gorgon shield That wise Minerva wore, unconquer'd virgin, Wherewith she freez'd her foes to congeal'd stone? Browning, Protus 4 : Loric and low-browed Gorgon on the breast. Erechtheus: Vergil, Geor. iii. 113; Hyginus, Fab. clxvi. Arachne : Ovid, Met. vi. 5 sq. Graeae: Hesiod, Theog. 270. D 34 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY Erinyes (Eumenides): Hesiod, Theog. 185; Aeschylus, Eumen- ides; Ovid, Met. i. 241, iv. 490, xi. 14 ; Vergil, Aen. ii. 337, 573, iv. 469, vii. 447 ; Pope, Ode on St. Cecilia's Day 69 : The Furies sink upon their iron beds And snakes uncurl'd hang list'ning round their heads. Spenser, F. Q. i. iii. 36, v. 31. 2. DIVINITIES OF THE WIND 43. As the wind itself shares one of its principal characteristics, swiftness, with the thunderclouds, so the divinities to whose activity was traced the power manifesting itself in the wind resembled the represent- atives of the thundercloud in many ways. A middle ground between the two seems to have been occupied by the Harpyiae ('the swift robbers'), Aello (' storm-swift'), and Ocypete (' swift-flying '), whose field of action was in the storm clouds. They are represented as winged and with a horse's shape, also as creatures with the head and bust of a woman, and the body of a bird, figures which were intended to suggest their swiftness. They came to be regarded as goddesses of death, swiftly snatching away their victims ; evidently because it was supposed that souls, being like air or smoke, were, on leaving the body, carried away by the storm. 44. Closely allied to the Harpies are the wind gods proper, who often, as enemies or as lovers, pursue them ; for in the earliest times the wind gods too were believed to have the form of a horse, later that of bearded men, taking long strides, with wings on their shoulders and often also on their feet. Sometimes they have faces looking both ways, forwards and backwards, a conception which probably has reference to the changeableness in the direction of the wind. There were distinguished in THE GREEK GODS 35 the earlier times only Boreas (north), Zephyrus (west), Notus (south), and, somewhat later, Eurus (east), who were considered the sons of Astraeus ( ( starry vault of heaven') and Eos (vrj) with which one needing pardon is dismissed; but the symbol of the wolf, which has been interpreted as an emblem of the fugitive murderer, is probably only the result of a confusion between the words AVKOS (< wolf ') and AVKCIOS (' the bright one'). 52. In later times all other phases of Apollo's nature were subordinate to his special character as god of ora- cles. The most important place of prophecy in all Greece was his oracle at Delphi, which is mentioned as early as the Iliad; but he gave oracular responses also at Didymoi near Miletus, Claros near Colophon, and Abai in Phocis. At these places a priestess, who by drinking from a sacred spring had brought herself into an inspired state, uttered significant words, which were then interpreted by a priest standing beside her, and thus became a response. At Delphi the priestess, who was called Pythia (< the understanding one/ cf. lirvOonrjv), sat on a tripod over a fissure in the ground while giving the oracle. Furthermore, since the oracular re- sponses of Apollo were usually composed in verse, Apollo was considered the protector and friend of poetry, song, and its customary accompaniment, namely, playing on the lyre. So he became leader of the Muses, and received as an additional emblem the lyre invented by Hermes. 53. In art Apollo is represented by the ideal form of a perfectly-developed, slender youth, beardless, except in archaic art, and with long hair falling in ringlets. Usually he is nude, or with only a little cloak (clilamys) thrown over his shoulder or his left arm. As his dis- 42 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY tinguishing symbols he carries a bow and arrows. A variety of this type, Apollo at rest, with his arm resting on his head, seems to have originated with Praxiteles. As leader of the Muses he is represented with a long, Ionian garment (chiton), a lyre, and a laurel wreath, a conception which, at least in the more animated form of its representation, is believed to have been furnished by Scopas. 54. As the ethical side of Apollo's nature was more fully developed, by degrees his significance in the visible world was forgotten, and the active force typified in the sun god was transferred to Helios, who was probably from a very early period regarded by the inhabitants of the island of Rhodes as their chief god. For, while his worship in the rest of Greece was relatively insignificant, there he was so highly honored that a brilliant festival, the Helieia, was celebrated for him. At the same place was erected in his honor, about 280 B.C., at the entrance of the harbor, the celebrated bronze statue (made by Chares of Lindos) known as the Colossus of Ehodes. On account of the apparent movement of the sun it was believed that Helios rode along in the heavens in a glit- tering chariot, drawn by four swift horses. He himself was pictured to the imagination as in the bloom of young manhood, with a sparkling crown upon his head, which was covered with long curling locks. From the sea god- dess Clymene he begot Phaethon ('the shining'), who perished in an attempt to manage the chariot of the sun for a day in his father's place. On the island of Thrina- cia were said to be pastured the milk-white herds of cattle and flocks of sheep belonging to Helios, by which are probably to be understood the bright little clouds THE GREEK GODS 43 which with us also are frequently described as " fleecy/ 7 and among the Germans are called Schdfcihen (' lambkins '). The heliotrope, which always turns toward the sun, was believed to be his beloved Clytia metamorphosed into a flower. 55. The moon among the Greeks and Romans was given a feminine name (o-eA^v^, luna), and the power which people believed they saw exerted by it was as- cribed to goddesses, who in different tribes bore various names. During nights when the moon shines bright the dew falls more abundantly than at other times; therefore the moon goddesses were regarded as dispensers of dew, and as protectresses of the growth of plants, as well as of the abundance of game depending on vegetation for food. The relation to human fertility which is promi- nent in all these goddesses is probably based upon the influence that the moon appears to exercise upon the life of women. 56. The latter characteristic conies into the foreground in the case of Hera (Lat. Juno), who was worshiped throughout Greece, but especially in Argos. She is the protectress of wedlock (H. Zygia, Teleia), and the jealous representative of lawful wives and their rights. The goddess of birth, Ilithyia, was considered to be her daughter. The festivals in honor of Hera always came on the day of the new moon, and likewise the celebra- tions of her marriage with Zeus (tepos ya/zos), at Argos in the spring, at Athens in the month of weddings, Gamelion (January February). Being spouse and sister of Zeus, she was the queen of the gods, and as such Polyclitus represented her (about 420 B.C.) in his statue of gold and ivory made for her restored temple, which was situated 44 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY between Argos and Mycenae. There she sat upon a throne, fully clothed, a crown upon her head, in her right hand a pomegranate, which on account of its many seeds was an emblem of fruitfulness. In her left hand she held the royal scepter, with a cuckoo, the messenger of spring, as its crown. Similarly it is as a queen that she appears before us in the excellent colossal bust of the Villa Ludovisi, a work which may belong to about the middle of the fourth century B.C. 57. To Artemis (Lat. Diana), daughter of Zeus and Leto, and twin sister of Apollo, was attributed particu- larly, besides her influence upon childbirth (A. Iltihyia), another one of the various functions of moon goddesses, namely, a fostering care over the abundant game in field and forest. She then developed into the goddess of hunt- ing (Agroteira), probably because, being a light-goddess, she is, like her brother Apollo, armed with bow and arrows ; moreover, the swift motion of the moon through the so-called Zodiac reminds one of a hunt. At Athens the festival of Elapliebolia (' stag hunt') was celebrated in her honor, and the hind is represented as her constant companion.- As a chaste and austere maiden she pun- ished with great severity every violation of chastity. The hunter Actaeon, son of Aristaeus, who had acci- dentally surprised her and her attendant nymphs bath- ing, was changed by her into a stag, that his own dogs might tear him to pieces ; and on similar grounds she killed the giant hunter Orion, who was then transferred as a constellation to the sky. 58. The many-breasted goddess of Ephesus, conceived of as the nourisher of all life, was so similar to the pro- tectress of the beasts of the forest and field that she also THE GREEK GODS 45 was called Artemis ; yet she seems to have been origi- nally, like Ehea and Cybele, only a local, modified type of the great maternal goddess of nature and war, Ma or Ammas (' mother'), who was worshiped by the Indo- European inhabitants of Asia Minor. To the nymphs attending Artemis as huntresses correspond the Ama- zones (' Amazons ? ) in the service of this Asiatic goddess. Evidently they were originally like her, and lived, accord- ing to the ancient myth, on the southern coast of the Black Sea, i.e. on the Thermodon and Iris in Pontus, while the chief abode of Ma herself was in that very region, at Comana on the Iris. The Amazons fought as bold riders against Bellerophon, Hercules, Theseus, and Achilles. Accordingly they are represented in art mostly as powerful, beautiful riders, with short garments and semicircular (or Boeotian) shields, and are frequently armed with the battle-axe. Phidias and Polyclitus made also statues representing in each case an Amazon fatigued by the exertions of battle. 59. In Athens, Delos, and Epidaurus, Artemis bore the epithet tKarrj ('the far-shooter 7 ). So it is clear that the goddess Hecate, daughter of the Titan Perses ('the shining one') and Asteria ('naiad of the stars 7 ), although her worship developed quite independently, was by nature very closely related to Artemis. Hecate was worshiped principally in Caria and the adjacent provinces of Asia Minor, where she seems to have been an ancient goddess of the country. In Greece proper she was really worshiped only on the east coast, where she was particu- larly honored on the island of Aegina by secret rites or mysteries (Hysteria). In earlier times she was repre- sented with but one body, fully clothed, in her hands two 46 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY burning torches, which were attributed to her because of her character as a goddess of light; but Alcamenes (toward the end of the fifth century B.C.) made for the Acropolis at Athens a figure representing her as having three bodies (T/OITT/OOO-CDTTOS, triformis). These three bodies were placed back to back so that one of them constantly, like the crescent moon, looked towards the left, another, like the waning moon, towards the right, while the one standing between them, like the full moon, turned her face towards the beholder. The dish and measure that she car- ries in representations of this type characterize her as dis- penser of dew. Afterwards her worship at the crossroads was associated with these figures, and hence she was called Trioditis, Lat. Trivia ('the goddess of the crossroads 7 ). 60. Hecate was a kind of patron goddess of the belief in ghosts and witchcraft, and, as a natural consequence, a goddess of the lower world. The first of these functions belongs properly to the moon goddess as the mistress of the dismal nighttime ; but she came to be considered a witch because she herself, i.e. the moon, has the power of changing her own form, a trick that plays an important part in all witchcraft. Therefore she was regarded as the mother of the enchantresses Circe and Medea ('the shrewd/ 'the cunning woman'). Her association with the realm of the dead, however, was based on the idea that night and the world below are in general closely related ; it was also believed that at its setting the moon sank down into the lower world, so that a subterranean or gloomy Hecate (Ckthonia, fikotia) was commonly recognized. 61. After the activity of these older forms had thus passed over into other spheres, Selene, or Mene, assumed the functions of the moon goddess proper, as Helios took THE GREEK GODS 47 the place of Apollo. Therefore in worship, which kept strictly to the ancient ideas, she stood quite in the background. In mythology her husband or lover is Endymion. He probably stands for the sun god who has entered into his cavern (eVSixo), i.e. the sun after it has set, with whom the moon goddess is united on the night of new moon. According to the Elean version of the myth she brought forth fifty daughters begotten by him, the representatives of the fifty months in the cycle of the Olympian games ; but in the Carian myth the hunter, or herdsman, Endymion, was sleeping in a grotto of Mount Latmus, when Selene approached him by stealth, to kiss the beautiful sleeper. 62. The heroines Europa, Pasiphae, and Antiope (the mother of Amphion and of Zethus) are to be regarded as representatives of Selene, and may, of course, be considered rivals of Hera. The Cretan-Boeotian Europa (' the wide-seeing '), daughter of Phoenix, or sister of Cad- mus and daughter of Agenor and Telephassa (' the far- shining ' moon goddess), was kidnaped on the shores of Sidon or Tyre by the bull-formed sun god Zeus Asterios (a divinity probably of Phoenician origin) and carried off to Crete, where she became the mother of Minos and Ehadamanthus. A Cretan also, and perhaps origi- nally like her, is Pasiphae (' the one shining on all '), the daughter of Helios and Perseis ('the glittering'). She became the mother of the Minotaurus, a monster which had the body of a man and the head of a bull. His father was the Cretan bull, i.e. the same bull-formed Zeus Asterios, whose worship was prominent at Gortyna, with whom king Minos also, the husband of Pasiphae, must probably be identified. 48 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY 63. Iii the most ancient times but few of the stars figured in mythology. The morning star, Heosphoros or Phosphorus (' light-bringer/ Lat. Lucifer}, is repre- sented as a boy carrying a torch ; the brilliant constella- tion Orion, as a giant hunter, with club raised aloft. Orion was carried off by Eos and killed by Artemis. His dog is Sirius ('the glittering'), the brightest of all the fixed stars, at whose rising the hottest time of the year, dog days, commences. The Bear looks anxiously around at Orion, and the rain goddesses, the starry group of the Pleiades, flee before his snares. Later, after the example of the Babylonians, all the individual groups of clear-shining stars were conceived of as picturesque figures, and by tales of metamorphoses were associated with the older mythical beings. 64. First among the light-divinities of another sort stands Eos ('dawn/ Lat. Aurora), sister of Helios and Selene. As dispenser of the morning dew she carries pitchers in her hands. The brightness of the daily phenomenon which she represents caused to be attributed to her a saffron-yellow robe, arms and fingers beaming with rosy light, and glittering white wings. On account of her swiftness she is frequently represented riding in a chariot. Her husband was Ti.th.omis, a brother of Priam ; her son Memnon was killed by Achilles. As she had car- ried off Orion, so she stole TIthonus away when he was a beautiful youth, and obtained for him from Zeus the grant of immortality, but not of eternal youth. There- fore he withered away beside her, and as an old man, weakened by age, passed a miserable existence. 65. The swiftness with which the rainbow bends itself from heaven down to earth caused Iris, its representative, THE GREEK GODS 49 to be regarded as the messenger of the gods, so that large wings and a herald's staff (KYJPVKUOV) were attributed to her. In the older parts of the Iliad she appears as the messenger of Zeus ; afterwards Hermes performs this function, while she serves Hera. As the rainbow was considered the harbinger of rainy weather, Iris was said to be wedded to Zephyrus, the rain wind. (See, further, Dioscuri, 134.) Apollo : Homer, II. i. 9, 14 : Arjrovs /ecu Aids vibs, K7]p6\ov > A7r6XXw^os, et passim. Ovid, Her. viii. 83 : Apollinis arcus ; Met. i. 452 sq., ii. 24 ; Vergil, Aen. iv. 376 : Augur Apollo, et passim; Hyginus, Fab. clxi. ; Shak., Love's Labour's Lost iv. 3, QJQ . Bright Apollo's lute, strung with his hair. Milton, Hymn on the Nativity 176 : Apollo from his shrine Can no more divine, With hollow shriek the steep of Delphos leaving. Pope, Thebais i. 577 : Reveres Apollo's vocal caves ; i 739 _ But fir'd with rage, from cleft Parnassus' brow Avenging Phoebus bent his deadly bow. Shak., Taming of the Shrew Ind. ii. 37, Antony and Cleopatra iv. 8, 29, King Henry VI. pt. iii. ii. 6, 11, Much Ado about Nothing v. 3, 25, Cymbeline ii. 3, 20, Hamlet iii. 2, 165, King Henry V. iv. 1, 289 ; Spenser, F. Q. i. i. 23, ii. 29, iv. 9. Leto: Homer, 11. xxi. 489 sq. ; Ovid, Met. vi. 160; Hyginus, Fab. cxl. ; Keats, Endymion i. 861 : Hearken, sweet Peona! Beyond the matron-temple of Latona. Python : Ovid, Met. i. 438 sq. ; Hyginus, Fab. cxl. ; Pope, Thebais i. 664 : - When by a thousand darts the Python slain With orbs unroll'd lay cov'riug all the plain. E 50 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY Aristaeus: Ovid, Fast. i. 363 sq. ; Vergil, Geor. iv. 317 sq. Hyacinthus : Ovid, Met. x. 185 sq. ; Milton, Death of an Infant 28 For so Apollo, with unweeting hand, Whilom did slay his dearly-loved mate, Young Hyacinth, born on Eurotas' strand, Young Hyacinth, the pride of Spartan land ; But then transformed him to a purple flower, Alack, that so to change thee Winter had no power! Phaethon: Ovid, Met. ii. 34 sq. ; Hyginus, Fab. clii., cliv. ; Swift, Poem Suggested by the Hangings in Dublin Castle : Finding, too late, he can't retire, He proves the real Phaeton, And truly sets the world on fire. Pope, Weeping 13 : The Baby in that sunny sphere So like a Phaeton appears. Shak., Two Gentlemen of Verona iii. 1, 153, King Henry VI. pt. iii. ii. 6, 12. Artemis (Diana) : Vergil, Aen. xi. 582 : Sola contenta Diana Aeternum telorum et virginitatis amorem Intemerata colit. Ovid, Amor. iii. 2, 31, Her. iv. 87, Met. iii. 180 sq. ; Horace, Car. Saec. 1 ; Hyginus, Fab. clxxxi. ; Dryden, The Secular Masque 27 : With horns and with hounds I waken the day, And hie to the woodland walks away : I tuck up my robe, and am buskined soon, And tie to my forehead a wexing moon. Pope, Summer 62 : And chaste Diana haunts the forest shade. Shak., Midsummer Night's Dream i. 1, 89, Love's Labour's Lost iv. 2, 39, Titus Andronicus i. 1, 316, King Henry IV. pt. i. i. 2, 29 ; Spenser, F. Q. i. vii. 5 ; Chaucer, Knight's Tale 824. Actaeon: Ovid, Met. iii. 174 sq. ; Hyginus, Fab. clxxx.; Shak., Titus Andronicus ii. 3, 63. Orion: Homer, Od. xi. 572; Ovid, Fast. v. 493 sq. ; Vergil, Aen. i. 535 ; Hyginus, Fab. cxcv. ; Cowper, Translation from Milton, To his Father : Orion, soften'd, drops his ardent blade. THE GREEK GODS 51 Cybele: Ovid, Ars Amat. i. 507; Vergil, Aen. iii. Ill, xi. 768; Spenser, F. Q. i. vi. 15. Amazones : Vergil, Aen. i. 490, v. 311, xi. 648 sq. ; Hyginus, Fab. clxiii. Hecate: Ovid, Fast. i. 141, Met. xiv. 405; Vergil, Aen. iv. 609 ; Greene, Fr. Bacon and Fr. Bungay ii. 176 : And hell and Hecate shall fail the friar. Shak., Hamlet iii. 2. 269, King Lear i. 1, 112 ; Spenser, F. Q. i. i. 43. Europa : Ovid, Her. iv. 55 : Juppiter Europen (primast ea gentis origo) Dilexit, tauro dissimulante deum; Met. ii. 843 sq. ; Hyginus, Fab. clxxviii. ; Pope, Thebais i. 7 : Europa's rape, Agenor's stern decree. Shak. , Much Ado about Nothing v. 4, 45. Minotaurus : Ovid, Ars Amat. ii. 24, Met. viii. 152 sq. ; Vergil, Aen. vi. 25; Hyginus, Fab. xli., xlii.; Chaucer, Knight's Tale 122. Eos (Aurora): The dawn goddess (Sanskrit US AS) is celebrated in 21 hymns of the Rig Veda. Praises are addressed to her for all the blessings of the light. So we find the sacredness of the dawn in the literature of Greece and Rome. Homer, II. ii. 48 : 'Hobs fJitv pa Oea Trpoae^a-ero /ma.Kpbi>"0\viJLirov. Ovid, Met. iii. 149: Altera lucem Cum croceis invecta rotis Aurora reducet ; Her. iii. 57, xvii. 112 ; Vergil, Aen. iv. 585 : Tithoni croceum linquens Aurora cubile ; Geor. iv. 544, Aen. iv. 7; Hyginus, Fab. clxxxiii.; Spenser, F. Q. i. Now when the rosy-fingred morning faire Weary of aged Tithones' saffron bed ; xi. 51 ; Shak., Midsummer Night's Bream iii. 2, 380. Tithonus : Ovid, Amor. ii. 5, 35, Fast. vi. 473. Iris: Homer, II. ii. passim; Ovid, Met. i. 271; Vergil, Aen. ix. 803 ; Milton, Comus 83 : These my sky-robes spun out of Iris' woof. Shak., The Tempest iv. 1, 70. 52 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY II. THE DIVINITIES OF THE EARTH 66. It was probably at a later date than the develop- ment of most of the divinities thus far discussed, who embody forces operating in the sky and the air, that another series of real divinities grew up, out of the individual beings to whose activity were ascribed the forces operating on the earth itself in fire, water, and the fruit-bearing soil. The activity of these divinities was therefore now no longer confined to a particular spot and a single action; but they were believed to exert their power in a similar manner in all phenomena of the same sort. 1. THE GODDESS OF FIRE 67. Among these divinities, Hestia ( ( hearth/ Lat. Vesta) , the representative of the hearth fire, was in wor- ship hardly distinguished at all, as a rule, from the ele- ment which she represented. To be sure, she took part in all sacrifices at which fire was necessary, but was seldom actually represented as an individual. When so represented, it was as a maiden clothed in a long garment and veiled, holding a dish or a scepter. Hestia: See Vesta (after 206). 2. WATER DIVINITIES 68. Most of the water divinities, likewise, remained always very closely associated with their element; only certain ones of them, in particular, Poseidon, the ruler of the sea, and the Centauri (< Centaurs ') and Sileni, under the influence of worship, myth, and art, devel- THE GREEK GODS 53 oped into richly-endowed personalities. Oceanus is a mere personification of the ocean itself, which flows around the earth like a stream. From him were sup- posed to proceed not only springs, rivers, and seas, but also all other things, even the gods themselves, in har- mony with the conceptions of the physical world adopted by the most ancient philosophers, which were suggested by the island-like situation of Greece. Therefore Oceanus was represented as a fatherly old man. He was said to live with his wife, Tethys (' nurse/ ' grandmother '), on the western border of the earth, without frequenting the assembly of the gods. 69. Somewhat like Oceanus, but more exactly charac- terized, was the Hallos Geron (' old man of the sea '), who dwelt in a grotto deep down in the sea, and not only knew all the secrets of his element, but, like the sea gods of the Babylonians and the Germans, possessed inscrutable wisdom. But whoever wished to question him must first overpower him in a wrestling contest, and, in spite of his faculty for assuming various forms, like the water itself, must compel him to impart his knowledge. From him were derived, differently named at different places, the sea gods Kereus (' flowing'), Proteus ('the firstborn '), and Phorcys, as well as Triton (< the stream- ing'), and Glaucus ('the glittering'). Of these the first three were represented in human form ; Nereus and Proteus possessed the gift of prophecy and of changing their forms ; while Phorcys and his wife Ceto (' sea monster ') ruled over the sea monsters and other monsters. On the other hand, Halios Geron, Triton, and Glaucus, probably by association with Assyrio- 54 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY Babylonian prototypes of this sort of sea gods, prototypes which had reached Greece through the Phoenicians and lonians, were, at a later period, still regularly represented as heterogeneous monstrosities in which a fish's belly was joined to the upper part of a human body, a shape that developed itself in the same way as the forms of the river gods, Centaurs, and Satyrs. 70. By the side of these lower sea divinities stand the Nereides, i.e. daughters of Nereus, as representatives of the friendly forces operating in the sea, or, conceived of from the standpoint of the senses, as embodiments of the playful, bewitching waves. They were represented in the form of beautiful maidens, among whom Amphi- trite (' the one streaming all around 7 ), wife of Poseidon, Thetis, the mother of Achilles, and Galatea ('the milk- white one 7 ), the shy maiden loved by the Cyclops Polyphemus, are especially prominent. Akin to them is Ino-Leucothea, whose aid was invoked in perils on the sea; for the Nereids themselves are called also Leuco- theae ( ( white goddesses 7 ). In another aspect she became a secondary form of Aphrodite-Astarte, who is powerful on the sea, just as her son Melicertes was developed from the sun god and city god Melkart, of Tyre. Like Melkart, Melicertes was worshiped as a protector of sailors. Yet he was represented as a child in the arms of his mother, who, it was said, in a fit of madness had cast herself with him into the sea ; sometimes, however, he appears standing upon a dolphin. His other name, Palaemon (< wrestler 7 ), refers to his taking part in the celebration of the Isthmian games. He had a sanctuary in the neighborhood of Corinth, a city which had been an old Phoenician mart. THE GREEK GODS 55 71. The destructive power of the threatening rocks and whirlpools in the sea was personified in the imagi- nary sea monsters Scylla and Charybdis. The former appears as a maiden, out of whose body grow six dogs' heads, which pull the rowers out of ships ; but Charyb- dis is described by Homer in general only as a monster that three times a day sucks high water in. Both were in later times localized in the straits of Messina. 72. Of a more exalted nature than any of these beings is Poseidon (Lat. Neptunus), brother of Zeus and Hades. He is the ruler of the sea, and, at the same time, of all waters in general. As a symbol of his power, and as a weapon with which he can cleave the rocks and cut val- leys in the mountains, he carries a trident, really a sort of harpoon which was used by fishermen in spearing dolphins and tunny. He was the national god of the lonians, who lived chiefly by fishing and sailing the sea, just as his son Theseus was their national hero. Yet his worship is more ancient than that of The- seus ; for as early as the Ionian migration it reached Asia, where the Panidnia were celebrated in his honor on the promontory Mycale as a festival of the united Ionian colonies. To these corresponded in the father- land the games established by Sisyphus and Theseus on the isthmus of Corinth, which were originally as purely Ionian as the old Amphictyonia (' sacrificial league') of Poseidon at Calaunia near Troezen. Sanc- tuaries of Poseidon were situated in many places, all over the Peloponnesus and on other coasts ; but his dwelling place was said to be, with his wife Amphitrite, in a golden palace in the depths of the sea, near Aegae in Achaia. 56 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY 73. As all springs and rivers flow from Oceanus, so Poseidon is the ruler of them all, evidently because it was supposed that they had a subterranean connection with the sea, which embraces all the land (Gaieochos) and penetrates it. Earthquakes were thought to be caused by these subterranean waters, and Poseidon was therefore called the earth-shaker (Ennosigaios). So he was worshiped in many inland localities also, where inland lakes, rapid rivers, or earthquakes, seemed to prove the presence of his power, as was the case in Boeotia, Thessaly, and Arcadia. Yet, since he thus represented the fructifying moisture emanating from springs and rivers, he became also the protector of plant growth (Phytalmios), and therefore was associated with Demeter. 74. The animal usually sacrificed to Poseidon, which was likewise his symbol, was the horse ; and so he rides along over the sea in a chariot drawn by dark horses with golden manes, whenever he commands the waves and winds. In the form of a horse (P. Hippios) he begot Arion, the battle horse of Adrastus, from an Erinys or Harpy, or by a thrust of his trident caused him to spring forth from a rock, just as in a similar manner in the contest with Athena he called into being a salt spring on the Acropolis of Athens. 75. Besides the horse, the bull (representing the wild might of the waves), and, in sharp contrast, the dolphin, which appears chiefly when the sea is quiet, are sacred and dear to Poseidon. In art, Poseidon is represented as similar to Zeus, only there appears in the features of the former less of the lofty repose than of the powerful might which the nature of his being calls for. Usually THE GREEK GODS 57 one foot is raised, a characteristic attitude of fishermen and sailors ; in the works of art belonging to more ancient times he is entirely clothed, afterwards the upper part of his body is uncovered. 76. Like the waves of the sea, rapid rivers, by their ungovernable power, and their roaring, which resembles bellowing, gave rise to the idea that in every such stream a prodigious bull manifested his activity. Therefore in very ancient times the representations of river gods were formed like bulls, with a human countenance. But as early as the time of Homer, they appear in human form throughout ; and only rarely does the later art indicate their nature by little bulls' horns, but usually makes them recognizable by the attribute of an urn. The most important of them are Achelous, the opponent of Her- cules, and Alpheiis, the lover of the fountain nymph Arethusa, who fled before his wooing through the sea to the peninsula Ortygia at Syracuse. The most beautiful statue of a river god which can be definitely identified is that of the Nile, now in the Vatican museum. 77. The Centaurs and Sileni also were probably river gods, and may originally have come to be considered companions of Dionysus on account of the insatiable thirst implied by their nature ; of course they are also very closely connected with him on account of the rela- tion of water to the fruitfulness of the earth. The Aeolic-Thessalian Centaurs, sons of Ixion and Nephele (' cloud 7 ), were natives of the mountains of Thessaly, particularly of Pelion and Ossa, also of Pholoe on the western border of Arcadia, and are probably to be re- garded as embodiments of the wild, rushing streams of these mountains. So their origin is the cloud; they 58 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY rage, devastate tilled lands, carry off women (just as Acheloiis and Alpheiis were ardent suitors), hurl rocks and trees torn up by the roots, and hunt, i.e. surprise, the wild animals hiding in the dry channels, and carry them along with them. Like the waves of the sea, which go swiftly raging by, they are represented as having the form of a horse. In the oldest sculptures the hinder part of a horse's body is simply joined to the back of a complete human body ; later, the human body near the hips is represented as changing into the forequarters of a horse, producing a formation which reminds one of the shape of the river gods and Tritons. The Centaurs fought (by inundations ?) in the plains of Thessaly with that mythical-historical people, the Lapithae (' stone- men '). The Lapithae may be regarded as the builders of the rocky citadels of Thessaly (and closely related to the Phlegyae and Minyae), especially since the in- habitants of most of these localities venerated as their founders heroes of the Lapithae with names similar to those of the places themselves. 78. The king of the Lapithae was Ixion, son of Phlegyas. Ixion was regarded as the father of the Centaurs. Because he had boasted of the favor of Hera, Zeus caused him to be punished by being twisted upon a swiftly-turning wheel in the lower world. He was succeeded by his son Pirithous, the friend of The- seus. In consequence of their mania for drink, an idea whose origin can be easily explained in the nature of wild torrents, the Centaurs came into conflict with Her- cules, as well as with Theseus and Pirithous, and in such struggles were annihilated by those heroes. Quite unlike the other Centaurs was Chiron ('the handy/ THE GREEK GODS 59 ' skillful '), who is probably to be considered as the repre- sentative of a brook that did not produce devastation. He dwelt in a cave on Mount Pelion, and was celebrated as a physician and prophet. (Cf. 'the old man of the sea/ 69.) So he became the friend and tutor of the heroes Achilles, Jason, and Aesculapius, just as Silenus, the genius of the fountain, cared for the young Dionysus. 79. The Sileni were Ionian-Phrygian gods of rivers and springs. Their bodies, like those of the Centaurs, were originally half man and half horse. As their chief representative appears the Silenus Marsyas, the god of the river rising at Celaenae in Phrygia. As the inventor of the Phrygian art of playing on the flute he was said to have challenged Apollo, the player of the lyre, to a contest, and, when vanquished by him, to have been flayed alive for his presumption. His skin was said to have been then inflated and hung up near his spring in Celaenae. Yet, as skins served as vessels for water, perhaps the skin was originally attributed to him, as the urn was to the river gods, only as a symbol of his character ; and so possibly the story of this contest is to be regarded as a later invention to explain the attribute. In Athens the Sileni accompany- ing Dionysus were confused with the Peloponnesian Satyrs. The latter had the form of a goat, and about the time of Pisistratus had been introduced from Cor- inth as a feature of the festal songs and dances of the greater Dionysia. 80. The animating force of water was represented par- ticularly by the Nymphae ('Nymphs'), who, being pic- tured to the imagination as young maidens or women, lightly clad, freely giving fruitfulness of all kinds, 60 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY appeared in every place where water exhibited a simi- lar effect. This happened most naturally at the springs which had served as places for worship since most ancient times. The Naiades ('Naiads'), who represented such springs, were more exactly distinguished by mussel shells or other receptacles for water. But Nymphs were almost as frequent wherever an abundance of water produced luxuriant plant growth; and so the Oreades had their abode in the forests and pastures of the mountains. Moreover, the vital strength of every individual tree was explained as the activity of a soul-like nymph living in and together with it, who was designated as a Dryad (' tree nymph ') or Hamadryad (< the one united with the tree 7 ). Accordingly a nymph was supposed to live only so long as she was herself effective in the object whose vital power she represented. If the spring dried up, or the tree withered, the nymph also died. This kind of nymph marks an intermediate step between the divini- ties of water, and the special divinities of growth. Oceanua : Hesiod, Theog. 133 ; Homer, II. xiv. 246 : 6s irep ytvevis TravrecrffL T^TU/CTCU, et passim ; Ovid, Fast. v. 81 ; Hyginus, Fab. clxxxii. Tethys : Homer, II. xiv. 201 : re Ovid, Met. ix. 499 ; Spenser, F. Q. i. iii. 31. Nereus: Ovid, Amor. ii. 11, 39; Vergil, Aen. ii. 419; Horace, Od. i. 15, 5 ; Milton, Comus 871 :- By hoary Nereus' wrinkled look. Spenser, F. Q. i. iii. 31. Proteus : Homer, Od. iv. 365, 385 sq. ; Ovid, Met. viii. 730 sq. ; Vergil, Geor. iv. 429 sq. ; Hyginus, Fab. cxviii. ; Pope, Dunciad ii. 129 : THE GREEK GODS 61 So Proteus, hunted in a nobler shape, Became, when seiz'd, a puppy, or an ape. Shak., King Henry VI. pt. iii. iii. 2, 192 ; Spenser, F. Q. i. ii. 10. Triton : Hesiod, Theog. 931 ; Vergil, Aen. i. 144, x. 209 ; Ovid, Met. ii. 8 ; Milton, Comus 873 : By scaly Triton's winding shell. Shak., Coriolanus iii. 1, 89. Glaucus : Ovid, Met. xiv. 9 sq., Ibis 555 ; Milton, Comus 874: And old soothsaying Glaucus' spell. Nereides : Homer, II. xviii. 37 sq. ; Ovid, Amor. ii. 11, 35, Met. xi. 361. Amphitrite : Ovid, Met. i. 14 ; Keats, Endymion ii. 108 : I would offer All the bright riches of my crystal coffer To Amphitrite. Thetis : Homer, II. i. 351, et passim, xviii. 35 sq. ; Ovid, Met. xi. 221 sq. ; Hyginus, Fab. liv.; Shak., Troilus and Cressida i. 3, 38, Pericles iv. 4, 41. Ino (Leucothea) : Homer, Od. v. 333 ; Hesiod, Theog. 976 ; Ovid, Met. iv. 488 sq. ; Hyginus, Fab. ii., iv. Melicertes (Palaemon) : Ovid, Met. iv. 523 sq. ; Hyginus, Fab. i., ii. Charybdis ; Scylla : Homer, Od. xii. 104 sq. ; Ovid, Met. xiii. 730 sq., Ibis 385; Vergil, Aen. i. 200, iii. 420; Milton, Par. L. ii. 1019 : - Or when Ulysses on the larboard shunn'd Charybdis, and by the other whirlpool steer'd ; ii. 660 : Vex'd Scylla bathing in the sea that parts Calabria from the hoarse Trinacrian shore. Poseidon (Neptunus) : Hesiod, Theog. 15 ; Ovid, Epis. xviii. 129 ; Vergil, Geor. i. 14, Aen. i. 125 sq. ; Hyginus, Fab. clvii. ; Pope, Rape of the Lock v. 50 : - Blue Neptune storms, the bellowing deeps resound. Shak., The Tempest v. 1, 35, Coriolanus iii. 1, 256, King Richard II. ii. 1, 63, Macbeth ii. 2, 60, Antony and Cleopatra ii. 7, 139 ; Spenser, F. Q. i. iii. 32, xi. 54. 62 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY Acheloiis : Ovid, Met. viii. 547 sq. Alpheus: Vergil, Aen. iii. 694:- Alpheum fama est hue Elidis amnem Occultas egisse vias subter mare. Ovid, Met. v. 599 sq. ; Pope, Thebais i. 383 : Where first Alpheus hides His wand'ring stream, and thro' the briny tides Unmix'd to his Sicilian river glides. Milton, Lycidas 132 : Return, Alpheus, the dread voice is past, That shrunk thy streams. Arethusa : Ovid, Met. v. 573 sq. ; Vergil, Geor. iv. 344 sq. ; Milton, Lycidas 85 : O fountain Arethuse, and thou honour'd flood. Centauri (Centaurs): Hesiod, Shield of Herakles 178 sq. ; Ovid, Met. xii. 210 sq. ; Vergil, Aen. x. 195 sq. ; Hyginus, Fab. xxxiii. ; Pope, Vertumnus and Pomona 71 ; Spenser, F. Q. i. xi. 27. Lapithae : Ovid, Met. xii. 250 sq. ; Vergil, Geor. ii. 457 ; Hygi- nus, Fab. xxxiii. Ixion: Pindar, Pyth. ii. 21-24 ; Vergil, Geor. iii. 38 ; Hyginus, Fab. Ixii. ; Pope, Ode on St. Cecilia's Day 67 : Ixion rests upon his wheel ; Rape of the Lock ii. 133 ; Spenser, F. Q. i. v. 35. Phlegyas: Ovid, Met. v. 87; Vergil, Aen. vi. 618; Pope, Thebais i. 851 : In Phlegyas' doom thy just revenge appears, Condemn'd to furies and eternal fears ; He views his food, but dreads, with lifted eye, The mould'ring rock that trembles from on high. Marsyas: Ovid, Met. vi. 382 sq., Fast. vi. 707 ; Hyginus, Fab. clxv. Naiades : Homer, Od. x. 350 sq. ; Ovid, Fast. i. 405, Met. i. pas- sim; Vergil, Eel. x. 10, Geor. ii. passim, Aen. i. passim; Keats, Endymion ii. 690 : . , , ,, Art a maid of the waters, One of shell-winding Triton's bright-hair'd daughters? Pope, Fable of Dry ope 18 : And to the Naiads flowery garlands brought. Shak., The Tempest iv. 1, 128. THE GREEK GODS 63 3. DIVINITIES OF GROWTH 81. The vital force that shows itself in the fruitful- ness of the ground the ancients could not explain except on the hypothesis that such forces were to be traced to living beings, whose activity was patterned after the analogy of the reproduction of animals or human beings. Therefore it was assumed that in the ground were effec- tive male and female divinities. With the former was associated the idea of fructifying moisture; with the latter, that of the reception and absorption of such moisture and the development of the seed into the plant. For the same reason fructification appears as an important element in the nature of those gods espe- cially connected with water in the sky and on earth, the rain-bringers Zeus and Hermes, Poseidon, the river gods, and the Centaurs ; and in the Satyrs, Pan, and Dio- nysus, this idea has embodied itself quite independently. On the other hand, Demeter, Gaea, and the originally for- eign goddess, Rhea-Cybele (to whom the Ephesian Artemis and Aphrodite are akin), are goddesses of the receptive fruitfulness of the earth. The nymphs discussed above ( 80) are very closely related to these goddesses. 82. The SatyrI (' Satyrs ? ) are the only individual divini- ties found, in more recent times, that originally belonged to the Peloponnesus. There the mountain districts were inhabited principally by goatherds, whose imagination em- bodied the fruitfulness of the earth in the form of the he-goat, because to them this animal naturally appeared to be the one especially adapted to produce fruitfulness. In their transition into human form, the Satyrs retained from this earlier stage of development the goat's ears and the little tail as symbols indicating their nature. 64 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY 83. Closely allied to the Satyrs is the exclusively Arca- dian shepherd god Pan ('the feeder '), whose father was the shepherd god Hermes, and whose mother was a daughter of Dry ops, i.e. a Dryad. For, like the Satyrs, he is represented in the form of a he-goat, and so may probably be considered merely a type of these fructifying divinities, who was transformed by the im- agination of the Arcadian shepherds into a divine shep- herd. First of all he produces fruitfulness and increase of the flocks. Moreover, like the shepherds themselves, in the summer he dwells in the rocky caves of the mountains, and in the winter descends into the plains. In the heat of midday he rests, at evening he plays the shepherd's flute (syrinx) ; and as accessory employ- ments he carries on hunting, fishing, and war. Yet it is he that inspires in the flocks, and likewise in their masters, sudden fright (' panic '), hurrying them along into unreasoning flight. His love for the moon goddess Selene is probably to be explained by the fact that moon- shine assures to the flocks a favorable pasturage, fresh with dew. 84. His worship spread from Arcadia by the way of Argolis'and Athens to Parnassus and even to Thessaly. In later times, on account of the relation between his na- ture and that of Dionysus, he came to be looked upon as an attendant of that god, probably by being associated with the Satyrs. Finally, the theorizing of the philoso- phers, by changing the signification of his name (making TO TTOLV = ' the universe '), and by comparing him to the great goat-shaped god of Mendes, in Egypt, transformed him into a great, all-powerful ruler and pervading spirit of the life of nature as a whole, at whose death all this life THE GREEK GODS 65 of nature dies away. He was represented as bearded, with the legs, tail, ears, and horns of a he-goat; often, however, in human 'form, distinguished only by the animal-like expression of his face. 85. Dionysus (Lat. Bacchus) himself, the most impor- tant of these divinities of fruitfulness, was once rep- resented in animal form, namely, that of a bull, richly endowed with procreative power, as is seen from certain of the customs of his worship in Argos and Elis ; and at a later period the bull and the he-goat were still consid- ered the most acceptable offerings to him. Nevertheless, the worship of Dionysus (' Zeus-man ? or ' Zeus-hero ') had its origin, properly speaking, in Thrace ; and from there, by an emigration of part of the inhabitants toward the southwest, it reached Phocis and Boeotia, and, later, Attica also. The Phocians w.ere closely related to the Phrygians of Asia Minor, among whom he was worshiped, under the name Sdbazius, as son of Ma, the mother of the gods. 86. In his native home, and later also in Greece, the worship of the god was celebrated by women, who in sensual ecstasy, carrying torches, reveled by night through the mountain forests in so-called 'orgies/ a word that is connected with 6/oyaw (' to swell with fructify- ing moisture'). These devotees of his became in mythol- ogy sometimes his nurses, the nymphs, and sometimes his attendants, the Bacchae (' exulting ones '), Maen- ades (' raving ones '), and Thyiades (' raging ones '). To fill themselves (and typically, at the same time, the rural districts represented by them) with new pro- creative power, they tore in pieces young animals (and, in the earliest times, probably even children) which 66 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY had been dedicated to the god, and which, according to the older idea, filled his place. Then they drank the blood, which was regarded as the seat of vital strength, devoured the raw flesh, and wrapped themselves in the fresh skin. At the same time with a loud voice they be- sought the god (whom at the time of the winter solstice fancy pictured as a sleeping child in a winnowing fan) to dispense fruitfulness in the year just beginning. The god was called also Bacchus or lacchus from the shouts uttered by them. 87. It was for the same purpose that in the rural dis- tricts of Attica the phallus was carried about during the lesser Dionysia, which came at the same time in the year (Poseideon = December-January). In Athens itself, at the festival of the Anthesteria (' flower festival ? ), this favor of the god was sought by the ceremony of his sym- bolic marriage with a queen representing the soil. In the times of the republic her place was filled by the wife of the ArcJwn Basileus. 88. As the bull and the he-goat, of all the animals, were especially sacred to Dionysus, so in the vegetable kingdom were the evergreen ivy and the vine swelling with juice, on account of their luxuriant growth. The vine was especially appropriate also for the reason that the enjoyment of wine drinking has the faculty of increasing the sensual excitement peculiar to this worship to a point of enthusiasm that is like madness (drunkenness). (Of. i Spirit/ ' spirits of wine.') Such an effect, moreover, cor- responded to the nature of Dionysus, who was so gener- ally believed to be taken into oneself in drink that his relation to wine gradually drove into the background all other phases of his character. As Lyaeus ('freer from THE GREEK GODS 67 care ') he carries for a symbol the vine branch or the tliyrsus (vine-prop?). In his honor was celebrated at Athens the vintage festival of the Oschophoria (' carrying about of vines'), as well as the Lenaea (' feast of the wine press'); while 011 the island of Naxos, which abounded in wines, and was the center of the worship of Dionysus among the islands having an Ionian popu- lation, the ditliyrambus was probably first sung. This' was originally a simple drinking song in honor of the god, which in Corinth became a chorus rendered by singers in the costume of Satyrs. From this was devel- oped the dithyramb of Pindar at the festivals of Dionysus in Thebes. In Athens, however, it became the drama, at first in the form of ( tragedy ' (rpayw&a = ' goat song ? ) or satyr-play. Here, at the spring games of the greater Dionysia, the presentation of the dramas that grew out of the dithyramb came at length to constitute the most essential part of the festival. 89. When the real significance of the above-mentioned sacrifice of children was no longer understood, the Orphic poets, i.e. the representatives of the religious poetry developed by the worship of Dionysus, about the time of Pisistratus, attempted to explain that sacrificial cus- tom by inventing the story that Dionysus himself, when a child, or in animal form, had been torn in pieces by the Titans, and had therefore received the name Zagreus. There was, however, symbolized in that fable an idea based 011 an actual process of nature ; for Dionysus really seemed to die in the fall. As the reproductive power of nature vanishes after the harvest time for a season, so its awakening in the spring, which in Athens was cele- brated by the Anthesteria (' flower festival '), could be 68 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY looked upon as a resurrection of the fructifying god, and thus he could easily be regarded as having been temporarily dead. This was the case particularly at Delphi, and probably also in the ' mysteries' of Eleusis. 90. When this Thracian ' Zeus-hero ' and representa- tive of productive moisture was introduced into the Grecian system of gods, he came to be regarded as the son of Zeus, the god of thunder and rain; and his mother Semele (Earth?) was said to be the daughter of Cadmus of Thebes, because that was the chief place of his worship. After her premature death, continued the legend, Zeus concealed the yet immature child in his own thigh till the time for it to be born. Then Hermes carried it to the nymphs of Nysa, or the synony- mous Hyades (' raincloud goddesses ') to be nursed. 91. Certain other myths relate to the opposition which was raised to the introduction of this foreign worship. Even in Thrace, the very home of the god, barbarian opponents of his worship were personified in Lycurgus, who pursued him and his nurses with a battle-ax. In the Minyaii Orchomenus he was resisted by the soberly industrious daughters of Minyas, similarly in Argos by the daughters of Proetus, and in Thebes by king Pen- theus % but these all perished when the god sent upon them the madness which sensual excitement finally reaches. 92. The legend of the marriage of Dionysus with Ariadne, a Cretan goddess very much like Aphrodite, which was localized on the island of Naxos (Dia) near Crete, is entirely in harmony with the nature of the fructifying god; and the significance of this wedlock is indicated by the names of their sons, Oenopion (' wine- THE GREEK GODS 69 drinker '), Staphylus (' grape-cluster '), and Euanthes (' the richly blooming '). He is, however, associated with Aphrodite as the father of Priapus, god of gardens and flocks, who was worshiped at Lampsacus on the Hellespont and was essentially like his father. 93. The oldest symbol of the worship of Dionysus is a consecrated post or pillar (the idea of which prob- ably arose from a sacred tree) ; and from this, by the addition of a mask and clothing, the oldest regular images naturally developed. The type of the god in which he is bearded and fully clothed was the prevalent one till sometime during the fourth century B.C. ; later he appeared as a child on the arm of Hermes or of a bearded Satyr. After Praxiteles represented him as a youth nearly nude, clothed only with a skin of a fawn, the nude and youthful form came to be universally accepted. 94. Among the goddesses of the receptive fruitfulness of the earth, a prominent place was occupied by Demeter (cf. fjpodlTr). Ovid, Trist. ii. 299 ; Vergil, Aen. i., et passim ; Hyginus, Fab. xciv. Aeneas : Homer, II. ii. passim ; Vergil, Aen. i., et passim ; Ovid, Met. xiii. 665; Shak., The Tempest ii. 1, 79, Midsummer Night's Dream i. 1, 173, King Henry VI. pt. ii. v. 2, 62, Julius Caesar i. 2, 112, Antony and Cleopatra iv. 14, 53. Eros (Cupid): Ovid, Amor. i. 1, et passim ; Vergil, Aen. i. 658, 695 ; Byron, Childe Harold i. 9 : And where these are light Eros finds a fire. Pope, Summer 13 : - ye coo]ing stteams> Defence from Phoebus', not from Gupid's, beams. Shak., The Tempest iv. 1, 90, Romeo and Juliet i. 4, 4, Merchant of Venice ii. 6, 38, Midsummer Night's Dream i. 1, 169, ii. 1, 161, iii. 2, 103 ; Chaucer, Knight's Tale 765. Musae : Homer, II. ii. 484 : MoO(rcu 'OXtfyUTrta 5i6/iar' e%ov(rcu ts yap deal eo-re, irapevrt re fore re otoj> aKotiojLev ovd n Ovid, Ars Amat. ii. 279 : Ipse licet venias Musis comitatus, Homere ; Amor. iii. 12, 17, Ibis 2 ; Vergil, Geor. ii. 475 sq. ; Milton, Par. L. Sing Heavenly Muse ; Descend from Heaven, Urania, by that name If rightly thou art called, whose voice divine Following, above th' Olympian hill I soar, Above the flight of Pegasean wing. THE GREEK GODS 87 Wordsworth, Ode (1814) v. : And ye, Pierian Sisters, sprung from Jove And sage Mnemosyne. Pope, Spring 11 : O let my Muse her slender reed inspire. Shak., Sonnet xxxviii. ; Spenser, F. Q. i. Pr. 2 ; Swift, Last Speech of Daniel Jackson : There's nine, I see, the Muses, too, are nine. Who would refuse to die a death like mine! 1. Thou first rung, Clio, celebrate my name; 2. Euterp, in tragic numbers do the same. 3. This rung, I see, Terpsichore's thy flute. 4. Erato, sing me to the gods ; ah, do't; 5. Thalia, don't make me a comedy ; 6. Urania, raise me towards the starry sky ; 7. Calliope, to ballad strains descend, 8. And Polyhymnia, tune them for your friend. 9. So shall Melpomene mourn my fatal end. Orpheus: Vergil, Geor. iv. 454 ; Ovid, Met. x. 3 sg., xi. 22 sq. ; Hygimis, Fab. xiv. ; Pope, Summer 81 : But would you sing and rival Orpheus' strain, The wond'ring forests soon should dance again; The moving mountains hear the pow'rful call, And headlong streams hang list'ning in their fall ! Ode on St. Cecilia's Day 113 : Yet ev'n in death Eurydice he sung, Eurydice still trembled on his tongue, Eurydice the woods, Eurydice the floods, Eurydice the rocks, and hollow mountains rung ; Temple of Fame 83 ; Shak., Titus Andronicus ii. 4, 51 : As Cerberus at the Thracian poet's feet ; Two Gentlemen of Verona iii. 2, 78, Merchant of Venice v. 1, 79, King Henry VIII. iii. 1, 3, Rape of Lucrece 79. 2. THE DIVINITIES OF WAR AND STRIFE 116. The god that inflamed and stirred up war was called Ares (Lat. Mars). Originally he was the chief god of the warlike race of the Thracians, perhaps as 88 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY a god of death dwelling in the depths of the earth, like the Zeus of the lower world (Hades-Pluto), and there- fore also closely related to the earth's fruitfulness. Per- haps, however, he was a real heavenly Zeus in Thrace, and when imported into Greece was reduced to son- ship, retaining the warlike attributes of his father as his own special characteristic. At any rate, as might have been expected from the character of his early worshipers, he was developed into a wildly raging war god, and it was exclusively as such that he found entrance into Greece. Out of his ancient epithet, Enyalios, which seems to have referred to the wild war cry, was developed the idea that he had as a companion a destroying war goddess, Enyo (Lat. Bellona). There were also associated with him Deimos (' terror 7 ), and Phobos ('fright'), Eris the goddess of f strife ' (Lat. Discordia), and the Keres, who were repre- sented as dark-visaged women in bloody robes. The Keres were believed to cause death in battle, and are probably to be regarded as having been originally souls of the dead. Ares, however, represented only rude, violent warfare, so that he was constantly forced to give way before Athena and whoever chanced to be her proteges (e.g. Diomedes, in the Fifth Book of the Iliad). 117. In Greece Ares was looked upon as the son of Zeus and Hera, and in Thebes, the most important seat of his worship, Aphrodite was called his wife. The epic poets, however, harmonized two myths by making Aph- rodite the wife of Hephaestus and at the same time the mistress of Ares. In Athens, where he was honored upon the *Apeio? ?rayos (Mars's Hill) as god of the atone- THE GREEK GODS 89 ment for murder, and of the tribunal that decided cases involving life and death, her place was taken by the dew nymph Aglauros. In art Ares was represented as a young and powerful man, in early times bearded and with full armor; later, beardless and usually clothed only with a helmet and a chlamys. His symbol was the spear. In worship he had as a further attribute an in- cendiary's torch, which was probably a symbol of the devastation produced by war. Ares (Mars) : Homer, II. passim; Ovid, Amor. iii. 3, 27 : Nobis f atif ero Mayors accingitur ense ; Met. iv. 170 sq.; Vergil, Geor. iv. 346:- Martisque dolos et dulcia furta ; Vergil, Aen. passim ; Horace, Od. i. 6, 13 ; Hyginus, Fab. clix. ; Dryden, Secular Masque 53 : Mars has look'd the sky to red ; And Peace, the lazy God, is fled. Shak., King Henry IV. pt. i. iv. 1, 116, King Henry V. Chorus i. 6, Antony and Cleopatra i. 1, 4, Hamlet iii. 4, 57 ; Chaucer, Knight's Tale 117, et passim / Spenser, F. Q. i. xi. 7. Enyo (Bellona) : Ovid, Met. v. 155, Fast. vi. 201 ; Vergil, Aen. viii. 703. 3. THE DIVINITIES OF DESTINY 118. When in human government order and justice, as opposed to the arbitrary will of the sovereign, grad- ually attained a commanding influence, it came to pass that, side by side with the gods of earlier times, who were represented entirely after the manner of human rulers tainted with passion, these ideas of order and justice gained an independent importance by being per- sonified in the divinities of destiny. In Homer, as in the governments of his times, their position was still a 90 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY vague one. The appointed lot, the Moera (more rarely found in the plural form, Moerae), or Aisa, is some- times considered an expression of the will of Zeus; in other parts of the Homeric poems it already stands inde- pendently beside, or even above him, and he then, like the other gods, becomes merely the executor of its (or their) decrees. Therefore in Hesiod the Moerae are called sometimes daughters of night, at other times daughters of Zeus and Themis. They decide the fate of every man at his birth; and all the important events of his life, especially marriage and death, follow their decrees. From the time of Hesiod three Moerae were distin- guished : Clotho (' spinner '), who spins the thread of life ; Lachesis (' allotter '), the bestower of life's lot ; Atropos ('the inevitable/ 'the unrelenting'), who sends death. Accordingly in art they carry as symbols a spindle and lots, sometimes also a scroll and a balance, as their mother Themis does. By the Romans they were identified with their Fates (Parcae or Fata). 119. Nemesis, also, who appears personified first in Hesiod, represented originally the idea of the part meas- ured out (cf. ve'/W). She guards the preservation of the just measure; so her attributes are the cubit and the balance. Since she censures and punishes (ve/Aeoraa>, ve/xeo-ioju,ai) every violation of proper moderation, espe- cially such as is occasioned by excessive self-confidence, she becomes also the angry requiter ; and, as the one who subdues arrogance, she carries a bridle, yoke, and whip. But by the dropping of spittle into her bosom and the loosening of her garment it is especially indicated that she is the goddess who warns against presumptuousness ; for it was customary to endeavor to shield oneself from the THE GREEK GODS 91 evil consequences of such presumption by these signs of self-abasement. As the goddess who will requite in the world to come she was adored at Athens at the feast of the Nemeseia; but she enjoyed real worship only at Rhamnus in Attica. (Concerning her identification with Leda see 135.) 120. The latest of those personifications which gradu- ally destroyed the old belief in the gods was Tyche ( ( the lucky accident/ Lat. Fortuna). She was indeed already personified by the earlier lyric poets, but did not enjoy any general adoration as a divine being until faith in the power of the older gods began to wane. In those times of unbelief she was first considered the dis- penser of fruitfulness and wealth, as well as the disposer of human destiny, and the rescuer from the dangers of sea and war. Then in many cases she came to be regarded also as the protecting divinity of cities. As attributes she had the cornucopia and rudder, also a rolling wheel or a ball, to indicate the mutability of fortune. 121. The worship of such a goddess of chance, how- ever, signifies properly nothing further than the denial of all actual divine power. So, after the destruction of the old positive faith in gods that were consciously and benignly guiding the world and human destiny, the Grecian world was preparing itself for the reception of the new doctrine of salvation emanating from Palestine. For though philosophy for a while tried to revivify the old dead forms by filling them with ethical ideas, it never could afford a really comforting, steadfast belief in a continued life after death, and in a justice that com- pensates for the defects of this earthly existence. 92 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY Parcae: Homer, II. xx. 127; Hesiod, Theog. 217, 904; Old Verse : Clotho colum retinet, Lachesis net, et Atropos secat. Vergil, Eel. iv. 46 ; Ovid, Trist. v. 3, 25 ; Hyginus, Fab. clxxi. ; Shak., Pericles i. 2, 108: Till the Destinies do cut his thread of life. Tyche (Fortuna): Ovid, Trist. v. 8, 7; Vergil, Aen. viii. 334; Shak., King Henry V. iii. 6, 29. C. THE GKEEK HEKOES 122. The warrior champions of the early ages were called ' heroes ' (17/00*9) ; but their worship as demigods does not surely date back beyond the ninth, or perhaps the eighth, century B.C., when it was recognized among the Aeolian tribes, particularly by the Boeotians, with whom also the worship of ancestors, a custom of very ancient origin, was always kept up. In almost every case the hero's grave, the customary place of sacrifice, was the central point of his worship. In art they usually appear as warrior champions, often 011 horseback, or sitting on a throne, or reclining on a couch in their grave and feasting (if this is the correct interpretation of the ' funeral meal reliefs '), surrounded by their adorers. Therefore besides their armor and horse, and the serpent which has been shown above ( 5) to be the representative of the soul, a cup became their usual attribute. 1. THEBAN LEGENDS 123. Cadmus, the founder of Cadmea, to which he him- self as its eponymous hero owes his name, was the legen- dary ancestor of the noble tribe which settled on the site of the citadel of Thebes. At a neighboring spring dwelt a dragon descended from Ares. This Cadmus slew, and 93 94 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY from the sowing of its teeth in the ground sprang up the brazen Sparti (' sown men ? ), i.e. the indigenous in- habitants of Thebes. After most of these had killed each other in the fratricidal war cunningly incited by Cadmus, he founded Cadmea with the help of the five survivors, i.e. the ancestors of the noble families of Thebes. Then he married Harmonia (< harmony '), who was the daughter of the Boeotian national god Ares and of Aphrodite, a myth that probably refers to the be- ginnings of political organization. Of their children, Ino and Semele were especially conspicuous. At last Cadmus and his wife, like other heroes, assumed the form of serpents, but both were removed by Zeus to Elysium. A later legend, emanating especially from Delphi, transfers the home of Cadmus to Phoenicia, and makes him a son of Agenor, king of Tyre. According to this version, Agenor sent Cadmus forth in company with his brothers, the national heroes, Phoenix, Cilix, and Thasus, to search for his sister Europa, who had been carried off by Zeus ; and in his wandering he reached Boeotia and founded Thebes. 124. Antiope ('the one looking toward you') was a Boeotian-Corinthian, perhaps closely akin to Selene. On the mountain Cithaeron she bore the Zeus-begotten twins Amphion and Zethus, who are probably, like the Laco- nian Dioscuri, to be regarded as divinities of light. When afterwards, being cruelly tormented by Dirce, the jealous wife of her uncle Lycus, she fled to Cithaeron, she met her sons, who had been reared by a shepherd. They did not recognize her. But on the occasion of a Diony- sus-festival she was again caught by Dirce and in punish- ment for her flight was about to be dragged to death, THE GREEK HEROES 95 bound to the horns of a bull. Just then the sons learned from their foster father the secret of their origin, rescued their mother, and visited the cruel punishment with which she had been menaced upon Dirce herself, who after her death was changed into a spring near Thebes. The fastening of Dirce to the bull was represented in the second century B.C. by Apollonius and Tauriscus of Tralles in the marble group commonly known as "the Farnese bull," which is now in Naples. The twin brothers obtained the sovereignty in Thebes, and surrounded the lower city with a wall in which were seven gates. The stones dragged along by the powerful Zethus piled themselves up in layers regularly of them- selves by the magic of Amphion's playing on the lyre, a legend that was probably intended to glorify the regulating power of music, in which the same symmetry prevails as in architecture. 125. Amphion wedded the daughter of Tantalus, Niobe, who had inherited from her father conscious pride. When she had borne six sons and six daughters, she boasted that she was richer than Leto, who had but two children. Apollo and Artemis, however, revenged the insult offered their mother, by killing the children of Niobe, who in grief at their loss was turned into stone and removed to Mount Sipylus in Lydia; whereupon Amphion put him- self to death. A representation of the killing of the children of Niobe was executed by Scopas or Praxiteles, probably for the city of Seleucia in Cilicia. This group was later brought to Rome. We are acquainted with most of its figures through Eoman copies (the most complete group of which is in Florence). 96 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY Cadmus: Ovid, Met. iii. 1 sg., Trist. iv. 3, 67; Hyginus, Fab. vi. ; Pope, Thebais i. 8 : And Cadmus searching round the spacious seas ? How with the serpent's teeth he sow'd the soil. Chaucer, Knight's Tale 688. Agenor : Ovid, Met. iii. 51 ; Hyginus, Fab. clxxviii. Amphion : Vergil, Eel. ii. 24 : Amphion Dircaeus. Ovid, Met. vi. 271 ; Horace, Ars Poet. 394 ; Pope, The Temple of Fame 85 : Amphion there the loud creating lyre Strikes, and beholds a sudden Thebes aspire ! Thebais i. 12. Dirce : Hyginus, Fab. vii. Niobe : Homer, II. xxiv. 602 ; Ovid, Met. vi. 148 sq. ; Hyginus, Fab. ix., x., xi., cxlv. 2. LEGENDS OF ARGOS, MYCENAE, AND TIRYNS 126. As has been learned from excavations, the district of Argos had intimate relations with Egypt and Asia even as early as the flourishing period of the city Mycenae, a period which perhaps extended from 1450 to 1250 B.C. The same relations appear also in the myths of this region; the story of lo and Danatis suggests an alliance with Egypt ; that of Perseus and the Pelopidae, one with Asia. 16, the daughter of the river god Inachus, was beloved by Zeus; therefore the jealous Hera transformed her into a heifer, and caused her to be guarded by the many-eyed, ( all-seeing J (Panoptos) Argus in the vicinity of Mycenae, until, at the command of Zeus, he was put to sleep and killed by Hermes, who perhaps thus won the epithet Argeiphontes ('Argus-slayer'?). Upon this lo was pur- sued over sea and land by a gadfly sent by Hera; but finally in Euboea or Egypt she regained her human form, and bore Epaphus, the father of Danatis and Aegyptus. THE GREEK HEROES 97 127. Danaiis, the representative of the Dana'i dwelling in Argolis in the times of Homer, migrated to Greece with his daughters, the Danaides, according to the legend, and became king of Argos. The fifty sons of Aegyptus followed them and courted them, but, with the exception of Lynceus, whom his wife Hypermnestra spared, were all murdered by them on their wedding night at the com- mand of Danatis, a figurative description of the rivers of Argos (sons of the Aegyptus stream) becoming quite dry in summer through the drying up of the springs (Danaides). In punishment for this murder the Danaides were com- pelled in the lower world to draw water in a perforated vessel, an idea that is closely connected with their sig- nificance as fountain nymphs. 128. A descendant of Lynceus was Acrisius, king of Argos. Through an oracle he learned that he was to be killed by a grandson. Therefore he concealed his daugh- ter Danae in a brazen tower and kept her strictly guarded. Zeus, however, penetrated to her in the form of golden rain, and she became the mother of Perseus. Acrisius then shut both mother and child up in a chest and threw them into the sea. Simonides of Ceos, with delicate poetic appreciation of their fearful peril, describes the situation as follows : When, in the carven chest, The winds that blew and waves in wild unrest Smote her with fear, she, not with cheeks unwet, Her arms of love round Perseus set, And said : child, what grief is mine ! But thou dost slumber, and thy baby breast Is sunk in rest, Here in the cheerless brass-bound bark, Tossed amid starless night and pitchy dark. H 98 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY Nor dost thou heed the scudding brine Of waves that wash above thy curls so deep, Nor the shrill winds that sweep, Lapped in thy purple robe's embrace, Fair little face ! But if this dread were dreadful too to thee, Then wouldst thou lend thy listening ear to me ; Therefore I cry, Sleep, babe, and sea be still, And slumber our unmeasured ill ! Oh, may some change of fate, sire Zeus, from thee Descend, our woes to end ! But if this prayer, too overbold, offend Thy justice, yet be merciful to me ! (Translated by J. A. Symonds.) Finally they reached the island of Seriphus, where they were brought to land by the fisherman Dictys. When Perseus had grown up, Polydectes, the ruler of the island, who was a suitor of Danae, and found the son in his way, inveigled the young man into a prom- ise to go and bring the head of the Gorgon Medusa. By the assistance of Hermes and Athena, Perseus sue* ceeded in cutting off the head of the monster while she was asleep, that head the very sight of which petrified every one who gazed upon it ; but he escaped from the pursuing sisters of Medusa only by borrow- ing the helmet of Hades, which rendered him invisible. In Ethiopia (Rhodes?) he rescued the daughter of Ce- pheus, Andromeda, who had been bound fast to a rock on the shore as a propitiatory offering to a sea monster which had been sent by Poseidon. Then after chang- ing all his enemies into stone by showing them the Gorgon head, and after fulfilling the oracle by killing his grandfather inadvertently by a throw of the discus, THE GREEK HEROES 99 he ruled in Tiryns with his wife Andromeda, and from there built Mycenae. 129. A more recent family, yet one that even before the Dorian migration was powerful in Argos and a large part of the surrounding Peloponnesus, was that of Tan- talus, who, at the same time, dwelt upon Mount Sipylus in Asia Minor. He is a mythological figure similar to Atlas, the mountain god, who bears up the heavens ; and his name, too, seems to mean " bearer." To him, as the son of Zeus, the gods vouchsafed their confidential inter- course, but by his gross covetousness and his presump- tion he forfeited their favor. Therefore he was cast down to the lower world, and there stood, tormented by hunger and thirst, in the midst of water, under a tree loaded with fruits ; for water and tree alike receded as often as he stretched out his hand toward them. Ac- cording to another legend a rock hung over his head constantly threatening to fall upon him. 130. The children of Tantalus were Niobe and Pelops, after whom the Peloponnesus (' island of Pelops ') is said to have been named. Pelops sued for the hand of Hip- podamia (' tamer of horses J ), the daughter of king Oeno- maiis of Elis, and won her as a wager in a chariot race with her father, who lost the race, and perished, through the treachery of his charioteer Myrtilus. The preparations for this contest were represented in the eastern pediment of the temple of Zeus at Olympia. Atreus, the son of Pelops, was ruler of Mycenae after the death of Eurystheus. According to the older legend, which is followed in the Iliad, his brother Thyestes inherited the kingdom from him in a lawful manner. On the other hand, the later epic poets and the tragic 100 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY writers entangle the descendants of Tantalus in a series of terrible crimes. According to them Thyestes robbed his brother Atreus of his sovereignty and his wife, and brought about the death of his son. Atreus, however, after regaining the royal power, revenged himself by slaying the sons of Thyestes and setting their flesh as food before their unwitting father. For this, Atreus, in turn, was afterwards murdered by a son of Thyestes, Aegisthus, whom Atreus had treated as his own son and brought up as such. 131. Agamemnon and Menelaus, the real sons of Atreus, in due time dispossessed Aegisthus of the king- dom. The former became king of Mycenae, and the latter of Lacedaemon. Paris, the handsome son of Priam of Troia (' Troy '), eloped with Helen, the wife of Menelaus. In order to avenge this outrage, the two Atridae ('sons of Atreus') collected a mighty Grecian army, whose leadership Agamemnon assumed. When the hosts had assembled at Aulis, contrary winds prevented their setting sail, because their leader had offended the goddess Artemis. According to the decision of the seer Calchas, the goddess could be propitiated only by the sacrifice of Agamemnon's daughter, Iphigenia. There- upon the king sent a messenger to his wife Clytaemnestra at Mycenae, to tell her that she must send her daughter to the camp to be wedded to Achilles. When, however, in response to this deceptive summons, Iphigenia arrived, and was dragged to the altar to be offered, Artemis inter- posed and carried her off to Tauris (the Crimean pen- insula), and a hind was found standing at the altar in place of the maiden. Agamemnon, now, with many other heroes, proceeded against Troy. Meanwhile Aegisthus THE GREEK HEROES 101 seduced Clytaemnestra, who was angry at her husband on account of the attempted sacrifice of Iphigenia ; and the guilty pair finally murdered the king when he returned ten years later, after the conquest of Troy. In Laconia, Chaeronea, and Clazomenae, however, Agamemnon was worshiped in later times as a Zeus of the lower world, under the name of Zeus Agamemnon (cf. Z. Basileus), in the form of a scepter, the symbol of dominion. At the murder of her father, the elder daughter of Agamemnon, Electra, rescued her youthful brother Orestes, and took him to Strophius, king of Phocis, with whose son Py lades he formed a close friendship. When grown up to young manhood he hastened back to Mycenae to take vengeance on his father's two murderers. In the Electra of Sophocles, and still more in Euripides's play of the same name, Electra, whom her mother has so wronged, herself goads her brother on to the dread- ful murder, when he hesitates at the sight of his mother. Clytaemnestra falls first, pierced by her son's sword; afterwards, Aegisthus also. But Orestes has scarcely shed his mother's blood before the Erinyes start in his pursuit. Eestless and miserable, he wanders about until at the bidding of the Delphic oracle he goes to Tauris, for the purpose of taking the image of Artemis which was there to Greece. Being caught in the attempt to carry this off, he is about to be slain as an offering to the goddess. But there he finds in the temple his sister Iphi- genia as a priestess ; and by her assistance he escapes, carrying with him his sister and the image of the god- dess. Pylades, who has accompanied him everywhere, now marries Electra, while Orestes himself weds the beau- tiful Hermione, the daughter of Menelaus and Helen. 102 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY Argus: Ovid, Amor. iii. 4, 19: Centum f route oculos, centum cervice gerebat ; Met. i. 624 sq., ii. 533 : - Tarn nuper pictis caeso pavonibus Argo. Vergil, Aen. vii. 791; Pope, Thebais i. 355: And there deluded Argus slept, and bled. Spenser, F. Q. i. iv. 17. Epaphus: Ovid, Met. i. 748; Hyginus, Fab. cxlix., cl. Danaiis : Ovid, Her. viii. 24 ; Hyginus, Fab. elxviii., clxx. Danae: Ovid, Met. iv. 611; Vergil, Aen. vii. 410; Hyginus, Fab. Ixiii. ; Tennyson, The Princess vii. 167 : Now lies the Earth all Danae to the stars And all thy heart lies open unto me. Perseus: Homer, II. xiv. 319; Ovid, Met. iv. 610 sq., v. 16 sg., "Sappho" 35; Hyginus, Fab. Ixiii., Ixiv. ; Pope, Sappho to Phaon 41 : An Ethiopian dame Inspired young Perseus with a generous flame ; Temple of Fame 80 : - And Perseus dreadful with Minerva's shield. Cepheus : Ovid, Met. iv. 737, v. 12 sq. ; Hyginus, Fab. Ixiv. Andromeda : Ovid, Met. iv. 757 sq. ; Hyginus, Fab. Ixiv. Tantalus : Homer, Od. xl. 582 ; Hyginus, Fab. Ixxxii. ; Pope, Thebais i. 345 : The guilty realms of Tantalus shall bleed. Atlas: Ovid, Her. ix. 18: Hercule supposito sidera f ulsit Atlans ; Met. iv. 632 sq., Fast. v. 180 ; Vergil, Aen. iv. 481 : Ubi maximus Atlas Axem humero torquet stellis ardentibus aptum. Milton, Par. L. ii. 306 : With Atlantean shoulders fit to bear The weight of mightiest monarchies. Cowper, Translation from Milton, To his Father: And Atlas stands unconscious of his load. Pope, Thebais i. 138 : Affrighted Atlas, on the distant shore, Trembled, and shook the heav'ns and gods he bore. Shak., King Henry VI. pt. iii. v. 1, 36. THE GREEK HEROES 103 Pelops: Ovid, Met. vi. 403 sq. ; Vergil, Geor. iii. 7; Hyginus, Fab. Ixxxiii., Ixxxvi.-lxxxviii. Hippodamia (Daughter of Oenomatis) : Ovid, Her. viii. 70 ; Hyginus, Fab. Ixxxiv. Oenomaus : Ovid, Ibis 365 sq. ; Hyginus, Fab. Ixxxiv. Thyestes: Ovid, Ars Amat. i. 327; Hyginus, Fab. Ixxxvi., Ixxxviii. Aegisthus : Ovid, Rem. Amor. 161 ; Hyginus, Fab. Ixxxvii. Agamemnon : Homer, II. passim ; Aeschylus, Agamemnon ; Sophocles, Electra ; Euripides, Orestes ; Ovid, Met. xv. 855 ; Horace, Od. iv. 9, 25 ; Hyginus, Fab. xcvii. Menelaiis : Homer, II. passim ; Ovid, Ars Amat. ii. 359 ; Vergil, Aen. vi. 525 ; Hyginus, Fab. cxviii. ; Shak., King Henry VI. pt. iii. ii. 2, 147 ; Troilus and Cressida Prol. 9. Paris: Homer, II. passim; Ovid, Epis. v., xv., xvi. ; Vergil, Eel. ii. 61, Aen. i. 27 ; Hyginus, Fab. xci., xcii. Helen: Homer, II. passim, Od. iv. passim; Euripides, Helen ; Vergil, Aen. vii. 364 ; Hyginus, Fab. Ixxix ; Shak., King Henry VI. pt. iii. ii. 2, 146, Troilus and Cressida Prol. 9. Iphigenia : Euripides, Iphigenia at Tauris, Iphigenia at Aulis ; Ovid, Met. xii. 31, Ex Pont. iii. ii. 62 ; Hyginus, Fab. xcviii., cxx. Orestes : Aeschylus, Choephori ; Euripides, Orestes, Iphigenia ; Ovid, Ex Pont. iii. ii. 69 s#., Her. viii. ; Hyginus, Fab. cxix. Hermione : Homer, Od. iv. 14 ; Ovid, Her. viii. 3. CORINTHIAN LEGENDS 132. The relations were intimate between Argos and Corinth, which, in consequence of its situation, developed very early into an important commercial town, and was especially influenced by Phoenicia. As early as the Iliad we find mention of the crafty, covetous Sisyphus, ruler of Ephyra, i.e. the Acrocorinth, who later sank down to the level of a mere arithmetician and intriguer, the type and copy of the average Corinthian merchant. Because he had offended Zeus he was condemned in the lower world to keep eternally rolling a rock up a steep hillside, though it always rolled down again as soon 104 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY as it reached the summit. Since at other times Sisy- phus is also characterized as an old sea god, this pun- ishment may be considered a symbol of the waves of the sea ceaselessly rolling the stones to and fro on the shore. 133. His grandson Bellerophontes (or, in a shortened form, Bellerophon) possessed the winged horse Pegasus. With the help of this horse, having been sent to Lycia, he killed the frightful Chimaera ('goat'), a monster composed of a fire-breathing she-goat, a lion, and a ser- pent. Originally this was an imaginative representation of the thundercloud sending forth the ragged, roaring, and serpentine lightning ; but later it probably symbol- ized also the volcanic phenomena of Lycia. Bellerophon fought successfully with the mountainous race of the Solymi, the neighbors of the Ethiopians and Lycians (i.e. of the inhabitants of the land of light), and also with the Amazons. At last he attempted on his thunder- horse to enter heaven itself, but was flung down and perished miserably, a legend no doubt representing the lightning darting down from heaven to earth. In Corinth, as well as in Lycia, he received adoration as a divine being. Bellerophon, as is evidenced by his rela- tion to Pegasus, the embodiment of the thundercloud, and by his killing the monster of the thunderstorm, was a figure closely related to the lightning hero Perseus, who was indigenous to the neighboring Argos. Sisyphus : Homer, II. vi. 153, Od. xi. 593 sq. ; Ovid, Met. iv. 460, Fast. iv. 175 ; Hyginus, Fab. Ix. ; Pope, Ode on St. Cecilia's Day 66 : Thy stone, O Sisyphus, stands still. Spenser, F. Q. i. v. 35. THE GREEK HEROES 105 Bellerophon : Homer, II. vi. 155 sq. ; Hyginus, Fab. Ivii. Pegasus: Ovid, Met. iv. 786; Hyginus, Fab. Ivii. ; Spenser, F. Q. i. ix. 21 ; Shak., King Henry V. iii. 7, 11. Chimaera : Homer, II. vi. 179 ; Ovid, Met. ix. 647 : Quoque Chimaera jugo mediis in partibus ignem, Pectus et ora leae, caudam serpentis habebat. Vergil, Aen. vi. 288 ; Hyginus, Fab. Ivii. 4. LACONIAN LEGENDS 134. Before the Dorian migration the most important place in Laconia was Amyclae, situated south of Sparta, and one of the chief seats of the worship of Apollo. Here, or in Sparta, ruled Tyndaretis and his wife Leda. The latter became by Zeus, who was enthroned upon the neighboring mountain Taygetus, the mother of the Dios- curi ('sons of Zeus'), Pollux (G-k. Polydeukes) and Cas- tor. Afterwards, when Zeus in the form of a swan had approached her, she bore Helen also. To Tyndaretis she bore Clytaemnestra ; and in the later version Castor also, who was a mortal, was regarded as his son. 135. The Dioscuri, who were perhaps ancient divini- ties of light, had their chief abode in Laconia, Messenia, and Argos, but after a while their worship spread over the whole Grecian world, so that they were everywhere invoked as rescuers in danger (Soteres), or as rulers (Ana- Jces), particularly in battle or in storms at sea. Some- times their sister Helen was worshiped as a protecting goddess with them. She may be considered a moon goddess, and was in later times called the daughter of avenging Nemesis only on account of her fatal signifi- cance for Troy and the Greek people. Both Dioscuri were believed to ride upon white horses ; and, besides being a master of horsemanship, Pollux was regarded as 106 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY a powerful boxer. After the death, of Castor, who was slain by the Messenian hero Idas, Pollux obtained from Zeus permission for himself and his brother to spend the time together forever, by living one day in the lower world and the next on Olympus. In art the Dioscuri appear usually as youthful riders, clad only in the chlamys, and armed with the lance. As heroes, the serpent was their attribute ; but later the pointed, egg-shaped hat (77-1X0$), or the addition of two stars, characterized them. Leda: Homer, Od. xi. 298; Ovid, Her. xvi. 55, Met. vi. 109; Hyginus, Fab. Ixxvii. ; Keats, Endymion i. 157 : Wild thyme, and valley lilies whiter still Than Leda's love, and cresses from the rill. Dioscuri (Pollux and Castor): Ovid, Amor. iii. 2, 54: Pollucem pugiles, Castora placet eques ; Fast. v. 709 sq.; Hyginus, Fab. Ixxx. ; Macaulay, Battle of Lake Regillus 2. Idas : Homer, II. ix. 558 ; Ovid, Fast. v. 700 sq. 5. HERCULES 136. Hercules (Gk. Herdkles) was the son of Zeus and Alcmene (' strength '), the wife of king Amphitryon of Thebes, and thus was a descendant of Perseus. His names are as various as his functions. In his youth, i.e. in Thebes, where the story of his youth is laid, he was called also Alcaeus (' the strong '), from which is derived his epithet Alcides. His principal name, which is proba- bly of Argive origin, it has not yet been possible to ex- plain with certainty. The second part, cules (/cX^s), belongs, like the fuller form /cXetros, to /cAeo? ('fame'); but whether or not the first part is connected with Hera, , the protecting goddess of Argos, who imposed THE GREEK HEROES 107 upon him his labors, cannot be positively decided. While he was worshiped especially by the Boeotians, Dorians, and Thessalians (as, indeed, it was with the Boeotians that all hero worship in its full develop- ment appeared first), yet from the earliest times in Athens, Marathon, and Leontini, he enjoyed divine honors as Alexikakos (' defender from evil '), and Kallinlkos (' glo- rious victor '). In later times he was regarded as the chief representative of the wrestling art and therefore also as the founder of the Olympian games ; and his statue ap- peared everywhere in the gymnasiums and adjacent baths, so that he became by such association the god of all warm baths and other healing waters or springs. On account of his clearing the highways of enemies, he appears also as the god that escorts travelers (Hegemonies). He is often attended by his protectress Athena, more rarely also by Hermes and Apollo. 137. He was hated by Hera, just as were all the sons of Zeus begotten from other wives. Therefore, since Zeus had decreed the dominion over Argos to the next descendant of Perseus who should be born, Hera delayed the birth of Hercules until his cousin Eurystheus had seen the light of day in Mycenae, and had thus become ruler of Argos, and liege lord of Hercules. Evidently, however, Tiryns was regarded as the birthplace of Hercules ; for the dis- tant Thebes, though spoken of in the Iliad as his home, never can have stood in such a dependent relation to My- cenae as would be implied by the legend just mentioned. While yet in his cradle Hercules strangled two serpents which Hera had dispatched against him. After he had slain with the lyre his teacher Linus, who had chastised him, Amphitryon sent him to tend flocks upon Mount 108 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY Cithaeron, where he killed a powerful lion. When his father had fallen in battle against the Orchomenians, Creon, the last of the Sparti, became king of Thebes, and to Hercules was given his daughter Megara as a wife. In a fit of madness, which Hera decreed upon him, he killed his three children with bow and arrows. On his recovery he was compelled in expiation of his crime to enter the service of Eurystheus, who laid upon him a series of difficult labors, the order of which varies in different versions of the myth. The collection of legends describing these labors forms the connecting link between the Theban-Boeotian and the Argive-Dorian Hercules myths. The latter of these two series of myths seems to embrace the labors in their oldest form. 138. According to this version Hercules had his abode in Tiryns, south of Mycenae, to which, indeed, the story of his birth points. (1) He fought at Tiryns, as he had done on Cithaeron, with a powerful lion, which lived on Mount Apesas, between Nemea and Mycenae. After this he wore the skin of this lion, flung over the upper part of his body, as a characteristic dress. (2) Accom- panied by his friend and charioteer, lolaus, he went against the Hydra, a nine-headed water serpent in the marshy springs of Lerna, south of Argos. In place of every one of the monster's heads that was struck off two new ones grew, until lolaus set the neighboring woods on fire and burned out the wounds (i.e. dried up the springs). The last immortal head Hercules covered with a block of stone. Then he moistened the tips of his arrows with the venom of the monster. 139. (3) From Mount Ery man thus in Arcadia, from whose snow-covered summit a wild mountain stream of THE GREEJSjRQggR \XjS 109 the same name rushes down, a wild boar (a symbol of this stream) was laying waste the fields of Psophis. Hercules pursued him up into the glaciers, and brought him in chains to Eurystheus, who in terror hid in a cask. On Mount Pholoe, which is near Erymanthus, he lodged with the Centaur Fholus, who was named after the moun- tain and was a counterpart of Chiron, who dwelt on the Thessalian Pelion. As Hercules was being there regaled with the wine which belonged to all the Centaurs in common, he fell into a quarrel with them, and finally killed most of them with his arrows. Pholus and Chi- ron perished also by carelessly wounding themselves with some of the arrows. Then, after Hercules, still operating in Arcadia, had (4) caught the hind of Cery- nea and (5) driven out the storm birds whose nests were 011 the lake of Stymphalus, birds that shot out their feathers like arrows, his native land of Argolis was insured against all dangers. 140. The scenes of the following expeditions were farther away. (6) Upon an Elean local legend rests the story of the cleansing of the stables of king Augeas (< the beaming one ? ), of Elis. Though three thousand cattle had been kept there, the cleansing must be completed in a single day. This feat, according to the tradition, Hercu- les accomplished by conducting the river Menios (' moon river ') through the place. But upon a metope of the temple of Olympian Zeus, the only extant representation in art of this adventure, he is represented as using a long broom. Augeas promised Hercules for his labor a tenth part of his herds, but did not keep his word ; wherefore he and all his champions were afterwards slain by Hercules after a stubborn resistance. 110 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY 141. Perhaps there is some connection between this last legend and that (10) (usually put in the tenth place in the series) of the robbery of the cattle of the giant Geryones (' roarer '), who likewise ruled in the far west on the island Erythea ( ( red land '). In order to ride over Oceanus, Hercules compelled Helios to lend him his sun skiff ; then he killed the three-bodied giant with his arrows. When returning, he overpowered the fire- breathing giant Cacus on the site of the future city of Rome, who had stolen from him and hidden in a cave a part of the cattle of Geryones which he had carried off. In Sicily, moreover, he defeated Eryx, a mighty boxer and wrestler, the representative of the mountain of the same name. (7) The seventh adventure, the binding of the Cretan bull, and (9) the ninth, the fight with the Amazons, the girdle of whose queen, Hippolyte, he is said to have demanded on a commission of Eurystheus, are perhaps borrowed from the legends of Theseus, who accom- plished similar acts; but since Hercules's battle with the Amazons appeared in works of art somewhat earlier than that of Theseus, the reverse process, namely that of a transfer from Hercules to Theseus, is not impos- sible. (8) As his eighth task, Hercules received the command to fetch the horses of the Thracian king Diomedes. Diomedes dwelt in the far north, and his horses were fed on human flesh. This task was accom- plished after throwing the cruel king before his own horses. 142. His last two adventures are closely connected with each other, both representing how Hercules, at the end of his life, laboriously obtained immortality by his THE GREEK HEROES 111 journeys into the lower world and into the garden of the gods. These ideas, to be smre, were afterwards, with the union of the Argive and the Thessalian-Oetaean legends, supplanted by the myth that he destroyed himself by fire. (11) On the way to the garden of the Hesperides (' western '), who guarded the golden apples of rejuve- nation, and dwelt where the edge of the western sky is gilded by the setting sun, he throttled the giant An- taeus, lifting him up from the Earth, his mother, who was constantly supplying him with new strength. Then he slew king Buslris in Egypt, who cruelly sacrificed all strangers cas*t upon the coast of his country. In the name Busiris certainly lurks that of the Egyptian god Osiris. Finally, after liberating Prometheus, who had been chained on Caucasus by Zeus, he came to Atlas, who bore the heavens upon his shoulders (as every mountain apparently does). Hercules begged him to pluck three apples from the tree of the Hesperides. Meanwhile he himself took Atlas's place in bearing up the heavens, or, in his own person went into the garden of the gods and slew the dragon that guarded the tree. 143. (12) The bringing up of the hellhound Cerberus from the lower world was put last, on the ground of its being the most difficult labor. Evidently it had been for- gotten that the fetching of the apples that bestow eternal youth out of the land imagined to be in the extreme west properly signified the reception of Hercules among the gods. This latter thought was certainly represented in the later idea (which likewise probably belongs to the Argive legend) of the marriage of Hercules with Hebe ('bloom of youth 7 ). She was the daughter and counterpart of Hera (who by this time had been appeased), while the 112 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY Italian legend unites its Hercules with. Juno herself. Hercules went down into the lower world at the promon- tory Taenarum, freed Theseus from his imprisonment, chained Cerberus, and came up with them at Troezen or Hermione. Another, perhaps an older, form of the same legend is apparently to be seen in the story, mentioned as early as the Iliad, of the expedition of Hercules against Pylus ('gate' of the lower world), during which he wounded with three-pointed arrows his inveterate enemy Hera, and also Hades, the rider of the lower world. After the com- pletion of the labors imposed upon him by Eurystheus, the servitude of Hercules came to an end. The appli- cation of the number twelve to his labors seems, how- ever, not to have been definitely made until about 480 B.C. 144. The third principal group of the Hercules myths is formed by the expeditions located in Thessaly and on Oeta. To this group originally belonged also his sacking Oechalia, and his servitude to Omphale. Hercules sued for the hand of lole, the daughter of the mighty archer Eurytus, who ruled in Thessaliaii Oechalia. But though he defeated her father in an archery contest, she was refused him. A short time thereafter, in revenge, he hurled her brother Iphitus down from a precipice, although he was staying as the friend and guest of Her- cules ; and later he also took the city, and carried lole with, him as a captive. To be absolved from this blood- guiltiness, he went to Delphi; but Apollo delayed his answer. Then Hercules seized the holy tripod, to carry it away ; the strife thus kindled was stopped by the interposition of a lightning flash from Zeus. Hercules THE GREEK HEROES 113 was now told by the oracle that he could be ransomed from his guilt only by a three years' servitude. 145. Hermes therefore sold him to Omphale, who was in later times commonly regarded as queen of the Lydians and as ancestress of the Lydian kings ; probably, however, she is only the eponymous heroine of a city Omphalium, which is believed to have existed in early times on the border between Thessaly and Epirus. For in her service he scourged the Itonians, i.e., of course, the inhabitants of the Thessalian Itonus, where he also fought with the mighty Cycnus. He punished likewise the sly thieves, whose home was near Thermopylae, the Cercopes, and also Syleus (< robber') on Pelion. But Lamios (or La- mus), the son of Hercules and Omphale, is merely the eponym of the city Lamia, situated not far north of Trachis. Perhaps it was not till after the home of the legend was transferred to Lydia that the poetic addition to the story was made that Hercules clothed himself as a maidservant and worked with the distaff, while Omphale adorned herself with his lion's skin and his club. 146. Directly connected with these legends, and, as their field of action is in the neighboring Aetolia, prob- ably allied in origin, is Hercules's wooing of Deianira (' husband-destroyer '). She was .the daughter of king Oeneus in Calydon, a country abounding in vines, where, to gain possession of her, Hercules (probably as the repre- sentative of civilization) was forced to fight with the wild river god Achelotis. The latter appears sometimes as a natural river, again as a bull, and still again as a man with a bull's head. Not until Hercules breaks off one of his horns does he acknowledge himself conquered, and offers, in order to recover it, to give in exchange the horn of 114 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY the she-goat Amalthea, i.e. the horn of plenty, from which issues a stream of nourishment and blessing. Yet this horn properly belongs to Hercules himself as the dis- penser of fruitfulness, in which capacity he was much worshiped, especially in the country. A counterpart of the battle with the river god is furnished by the wrest- ling match (usually introduced in connection with the Hesperides adventure) with Hallos Geron, the old man of the sea, who afterwards is called Nereus or Triton. 147. On his journey back to Trachis Hercules killed the Centaur Nessus (this being a counterpart of his battle with the Centaurs on Mount Pholoe), who at- tempted to offer violence to De'ianira while carrying her on his back across the ford of the river Evenus. The dying Centaur advised her to catch up and take with her the blood streaming from his wound, saying that it would act as a love charm. Some time later, hear- ing that after the capture of Oechalia Hercules had made the beautiful lole his prisoner, De'ianira rubbed this blood upon a garment and sent it by Lichas to her husband on his way home. Hercules had scarcely put it on before the poison of Nessus pierced through his body. In fury at his torment he flung Lichas into the sea, but could not remove the garment, which clung to his limbs and tore the flesh off with it. De'ianira killed herself in pure desperation; but Hercules charged his son Hyllus to marry lole, mounted a funeral pyre erected on the summit of Mount Oeta, and by the gift of his bow and arrows persuaded Poeas, the father of Philoctetes, or, according to another account, Philoctetes himself, to apply the torch. Amid thunder and lightning he as- cended to heaven, being thus purified by fire, and became THE GREEK HEROES 115 one of the gods. According to a passage in the Iliad there existed in some places the belief that Hercules, in obedience to a decree of fate, and in consequence of the wrath of Hera, actually died and was staying in the lower world. The same view really prevails in the Odyssey also ; but in the latter poem the idea of a later elaborator, who was striving to reconcile the myths, caused only the ghost of Hercules to appear. 148. Taking him all in all, Hercules in the later period was the ideal type of a valiant, noble Dorian man ; and in many parts of these legends he may be the exact representative of the Dorian race (which reverenced him especially) in its migrations and battles. Yet since many other features of his mythical history cause him to be recognized as an old sun god, we may perhaps assume that, like the gods of the Iliad, he first appeared in battle fighting for his worshipers, and then gradually became, from the protecting deity, the representative of the race, and at the same time the type of the Dorian warrior. 149. The oldest image with the form of which we are well acquainted connected with the worship of Hercules is that of Erythrae, where he, like other heroes, acted as a god of healing by means of oracular dreams. Accord- ing to coins upon which this image is imitated, Her- cules was there represented as standing upon a boat, without the lion's skin, a club in his right hand, which was raised ; in his left, a spear (or stick ?). In other very old representations also he is nude; later he appears wearing complete armor and a short tight-fitting cloak. At length, somewhere about 600 B.C., the type with the lion's skin, beginning in Cyprus and Rhodes, came to predominate, probably under the influence of Phoenician 116 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY models, in imitation of Melkart, the sun god and king of Tyre, with whom Hercules was later identified in many respects. His hair and beard are usually closely cut; it is very rare that he appears without a beard in works of the older period. After the beginning of the fourth cen- tury B.C. he is again regularly represented entirely nude ; he carries the lion's skin on his left arm, his club in his right hand. Praxiteles gives him a deeply sorrowful ex- pression ; Lysippus, the attitude of motion, especially at the hips. To the latter sculptor is doubtless to be traced the general type of the weary Hercules resting ; the special form of this, however, preserved in the so-called Tarnese Hercules' in Naples, was of later origin. In the representations of his deeds, Hercules usually in earlier works, as in the story of the Iliad, carries a bow as his weapon; more rarely, and indeed principally in works of Ionian origin, the club ; in those originating in the Peloponnesus, the sword, which, according to the Odyssey, he carried in addition to his bow. Hercules : Homer, Od. xi. 601 sq. ; Sophocles, Trachiniae , Euripides, Herakles ; Ovid, Met. ix. 256 sq., Her. ix. ; Vergil, Aen. vi. 801 sq. ; Horace, Ep. xvii. 31; Hygimis, Fab. xxx., xxxvi., clxii.; Shak., Midsummer Night's Dream iv. 1, 117, Love's Labour's Lost i. 2, 69, v. 2, 592 ; Pope, The Temple of Fame 81 : - There great Alcides, stooping with his toil, Rests on his club and holds th' Hesperian spoil. Milton, Par. L. ii. 542. Amphitryon : Ovid, Her. ix. 44 ; Hyginus, Fab. xxix. Creon : Homer, Od. xi. 269 ; Sophocles, Antigone ; Chaucer, Knight's Tale 80 sq. Hydra: Ovid, Met. ix. 69 sq. ; Vergil, Aen. vi. 287; Horace, Od. iv. 4, 61 ; Hyginus, Fab. xxx. ; Pope, Thebais i. 502 : The foaming Lerna swells above its bounds, And spreads its ancient poisons o'er the grounds. THE GREEK HEROES 117 Geryones : Ovid, Her. ix. 92 ; Vergil, Aen. vii. 662, viii. 202. Hippolyte : Apollod. ii. 6, 9 ; Diodor. Sic. iv. 16 ; Vergil, Aen. xi. 661 ; Chaucer, Knight's Tale 10. Hesperides : Ovid, Met. iv. 637 sq. ; Vergil, Aen. iv. 483 sq. ; Milton, Par. L. iv. 249 : Others whose fruit burnisht with golden rind Hung amiable, Hesperian fables true. Antaeus : Ovid, Met. ix. 183 ; Hyginus, Fab. xxxi. Omphale : Ovid, Fast. ii. 305 sq. ; Hyginus, Fab. xxxii. Philoctetes : Sophocles, Philoctetes ; Ovid, Met. xiii. 329 ; Hyginus, Fab. cii. 6. THESEUS 150. The lonians, a trading people, who worshiped Poseidon, had their principal homes in Euboea, the east- ern coast of Attica, and Argolis, and on the islands that formed the connecting link with the Ionian colonies on the coast of Asia Minor. They forced their way into Athens from the east and south; therefore Ion, their mythological ancestor, is really foreign to Athens, and only through his mother, Creusa, daughter of Erechtheus, is connected with the native ruling family of Cecrops. Of a more primitive character than this unworshiped ancestor of the Ionian race is Theseus, who, being espe- cially an Ionian, was developed, like Hercules among the Dorians, into the ideal Ionian hero. His home, prop- erly, was Troezen in Argolis, a city which must probably be regarded as a very ancient center of the unification of the Ionian race ; for the temple of Poseidon that served as the federate sanctuary of an old Ionian Amphictyonic league (sacrificial confederacy) was situated on the island Calauria, which is off the coast of Troezen. 151. Sometimes Poseidon himself, and sometimes king Aegeus of Athens, who is only a representative of this 118 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY god, and owes his mythical existence to a mere epithet (c/. atyes = ' springing ones ' = waves), was regarded as the father of Theseus. His mother was Aethra ('the bright, happy one ? ), daughter of Pittheus, king of Troe- zen. Before Aegeus left her on his return to Athens, he hid his sword and sandals under a heavy stone, with the charge that his son should be sent to him as soon as he could lift it. When grown to young manhood, Theseus, taking the sword and sandals for a countersign, so to speak, passed over the isthmus in search of his father. On the way he slew several robbers : the club-brandishing Periphetes ; the fir-bender, Sinis ; Sciron, who dwelt on a steep pass by the sea; the wrestler Cercyon; and the giant Damastes, who tortured strangers on a bed, and was there- fore called Polypemon ('hurter'), or Procrustes ('stretcher'). He also overcame the wild sow of Cromyon. 152. Meanwhile Aegeus had married the enchantress Medea. When Theseus arrived in Athens, she wanted to poison him ; but he was spared, his father recognizing him by the sword that he had brought. He now smote the gigantic Pallas and his mighty sons, who rose against Aegeus ; then he bound the Cretan bull, which had been released by Hercules and had ranged from Mycenae to Marathon. This adventure, however, is really only a later and secondary form of his contest with the bull- headed monster called the Minotaur, the story of which is usually told as follows : 153. Androgeos, a son of king Minos of Crete, had been slain by the Athenians. To atone for this murder they were compelled to send to Gnosus, every year for nine years, seven boys and seven girls to be devoured by the Minotaur, who was shut up in a labyrinth. Theseus vol- THE GREEK HEROES 119 untarily went with, these victims. On his arrival in Crete, Minos's daughter Ariadne fell in love with him and gave him a ball of yarn, with the advice to fasten the end of it at the entrance of the labyrinth when he went in, that by following the thread he might retrace his way out of the countless interlacing paths. The plan was successful ; and after slaying the Minotaur he sailed away with his companions, whom he had rescued. With them he secretly took Ariadne herself, and landed with them all either on the neighboring island of Dia, or on. Naxos. Here Ariadne was left behind, and according to one form of the legend, probably the older one, was killed by Artemis, because she had been already previously united in wedlock with Dionysus, and had preferred a mortal to him. According to the version that prevailed later, it was here that, after Theseus had secretly aban- doned her, she was wedded to Dionysus, whose worship was prominent on Naxos. 154. On his departure from Athens Theseus had prom- ised his father that in case the undertaking against the Minotaur was successful he would substitute for the black mourning sail of his vessel a white one. But he forgot his promise, and Aegeus on the approach of the ship cast himself down either from a cliff of the Acropo- lis, or into the sea, which derived its name ' Aegean 7 from him. In later times he was reverenced in Athens as a hero. Theseus, to commemorate his prosperous return, estab- lished the autumn festival of Pyanepsia (' bean festival '), and that of the grape gathering, Oschophoria ('carrying around of vine branches'). As ruler he consolidated twelve individual communities into the united state of 120 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY Athens at the southern base of the ancient Acropolis, an event that lived on in the memory of the people through the celebration of the old Synoikia ( l uniting of habita- tions'), and probably gave him his name Theseus ='the founder.' (Of. Orfa-uv and rifleVai.) 155. Like Bellerophon, Hercules, and Achilles, Theseus also fought against the Amazons, either as a comrade of Hercules, or on the occasion of an invasion made by the Amazons into Attica. At the same time he won the love of Antiope or Hippolyte, who had been conquered by him (cf. Achilles and Penthesilea), married her, and begot Hippolytus ('unyoker of horses'), a hero worshiped in Troezen and Sparta, who probably was originally a sun god. Afterwards Phaedra (' the shining one/ a moon goddess related to Aphrodite), whom Theseus had married after the death of the Amazon, became enamored of her chaste stepson Hippolytus, and, when her passion was not reciprocated by him, brought about his death by falsely accusing him of making improper proposals to her. 156. At Marathon, which belonged to the old Ionian tetrapolis ('four states') of Attica and was the scene of his struggle with the bull, Theseus met the Thessalian Pirithous ('daring attempter'), king of the Lapithae, and formed a close friendship with him. Then, as we read in the Iliad (though the passage is much disputed), on the occasion of his friend's marriage to Hippodamia, or Deidamia, Theseus fought beside him against the wild Centaurs of Mount Pelion., as in their drunkenness they laid wanton hands on the women. This scene frequently appears in the art of the first half of the fifth century B.C., notably in the metopes of the Parthenon, and in the group GREEK HEROES 121 designed by Alcamenes in the western pediment of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia. But in the earlier works, from the seventh century B.C. on, Hercules is the regular opponent of the Centaurs. Together with Pirithotis, Theseus then carried off the youthful Helen from Sparta, and brought her to the mountain stronghold Aphidnae in northern Attica, from which she was afterwards released by her brothers, the Dioscuri. Meanwhile Theseus (prob- ably, according to the older idea, at Hermione) went down into the lower world with his friend to steal Per- sephone for him. Both of them grew fast to a rock at the entrance, but Theseus was afterwards released by Hercules. 157. During the absence of Theseus, Menestheus, who in the Iliad is leader of the Athenians, had usurped the power at Athens. Theseus was therefore compelled, soon after his return from the lower world, to leave the city again. He went to the island Scyros, and was there treach- erously cast into the sea by king Lycomedes. Later, how- ever, Demophoon and Acamas, sons of Phaedra, gained the dominion in Athens. The bones of Theseus, which, it was claimed, had been miraculously discovered, were brought to Athens from Scyros in the year 468 B.C., and interred in a newly erected sanctuary between the gymnasium of Ptolemaeus and the Anakeion. His real worship at Athens began after the opening of the fifth century B.C., when the Ionian democracy came into power. 158. In art Theseus was represented perhaps even as early as the eighth or the seventh century B.C. in battle with the Minotaur, or standing near Ariadne. In works of the sixth century the contests with the bull and the 122 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY Amazons appear, as well as the rape of Helen. None of the other adventures is to be found until the fifth cen- tury B.C. In the oldest representations his weapon is the sword, and in dress and bodily frame he is still un- distinguished from other heroes. Later, in imitation of the Hercules type, he usually carries a club and often a beast's skin ; but he is distinguished by the headdress of youth and by being more slender. Doubtless Theseus is a personality originally related to the Boeotian-Argive-Thessalian (Dorian) Hercules ; but his form has been perfected to correspond to the Ionian ideal of a hero. Like Hercules, he has many char- acteristics of an old sun god ; it being especially common that such divinities, as in this case, were considered the founders of communities of a race or a city. Cecrops : Ovid, Met. ii. 555 ; Hyginus, Fab. xlviii. Theseus : Ovid, Met. vii. 404 sg., East. iii. 473 ; Hyginus, Fab. xxxviii., xlii., xliii. ; Chaucer, Knight's Tale 2, et passim. Aethra : Ovid, Her. x. 131 ; Hyginus, Fab. xxxvii. Medea : Euripides, Medea; Ovid, Met. vii. 11 sq., Her. xii., xvi. 229 ; Hyginus, Fab. xxv., xxvi., xxvii. ; Shak., Merchant of Venice v. 1, 13 ; King Henry VI. pt. ii. v. 2, 59 ; Chaucer, Knight's Tale 1086. Hippolytus : Euripides, Hippolytus ; Ovid, Fast. iii. 265 ; Ver- gil, Aen. vii. 761 sq.; Hyginus, Fab. xlvii. ; Spenser, F. Q. i. v. 39. Pirithous : Homer, II. i. 263, xiv. 317 ; Ovid, Met. xii. 218. Hippodamia (daughter of Atrax) : Ovid, Met. xii. 210 sq. CYCLES OF MYTHS 1. MELEAGER AND THE CALYDONIAN HUNT 159. Meleager, the son of Oeneus, of Calydon, and Al- thaea, was a mighty hunter. With many companions he laid low a terrible wild boar sent by Artemis, which was THE GREEK HEROES 123 ravaging the fields. But in a quarrel that arose out of the award of the prize of victory he slew a brother of his mother. She besought the gods of the lower world to avenge the murder on her son. Soon after- wards he fell in battle. The post-Homeric poets add that the Moerae had informed his mother soon after his birth that her son would live only until a piece of wood then glowing on the hearth should be consumed by the fire ; whereupon she quickly quenched it and saved it ; but after the murder of her brother she caused the death of her son by burning the stick. 160. Another later addition to the myth was that the shy Arcadian-Boeotian huntress Atalanta, who is closely akin to Artemis, the hunting goddess, was associated with Meleager. In consequence of his love for her he promised her the head of the boar as a prize of honor, because she had been the first to wound the animal; thus he fell into the quarrel with his uncle and met his death, as told above. But Atalanta would have for her husband only one that could defeat her in a foot race, the con- dition being that all defeated suitors should be put to death. Milanion (according to another version, Hip- pomenes) received from Aphrodite three golden apples, which at her advice he flung before Atalanta during the race. While she was picking them up he reached the goal before her, and so she was compelled to become his wife. Althaea : Ovid, Met. viii. 446 sq. ; Hyginus, Fab. clxxi. Meleager: Homer, II. ix. 543 sq. ; Ovid, Met. viii. 270 sq. ; Hyginus, Fab. clxxiv. ; Chaucer, Knight's Tale 1213. Atalanta : Ovid, Met. x. 565 sg., Ars Amat. iii. 775 ; Hyginus, Fab. clxxxv. ; Chaucer, Knight's Tale 1212. 124 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY 2. THE ARGONAUTS 161. The myth of the Argonauts unites the legends of the Thessalian city lolcus and the Boeotian Orchomenus, both of which were inhabited by the old race of the Minyae, with those of Corinth, which from the earliest times had been closely connected with the far east by navigation ; and this union is so complete, probably under the influence of the Ionian epic poets, that the real basis of the myth can no longer be ascertained with cer- tainty, lolcus was the home of Jason, the leader of the Argonauts. He was the son of Aeson, but was under the guardianship of his uncle Pelias, and, like Achilles, Aesculapius, and Hercules, was brought up on the neigh- boring Pelion by the Centaur Chiron and instructed in medical science. During his absence Pelias, as Pindar sings in his fourth Pythian 'ode of victory/ had been given the following oracle : " That in every way he should keep careful guard against the man of one sandal, whenever from the steep pastures to the sunny land of renowned lol- cus he shall come, be he stranger or native " (vv. 75-78). As Jason on his return homeward had lost a shoe in crossing the river Anaurus, Pelias feared that by him he should be robbed of his power, and therefore sent him on an expedition to bring the golden fleece from Aea, the land of Aeetes, in the hope that the youth would perish in the attempt. Jason collected a large band of heroes, built the first large ship, the Argo (' the swift 7 ), under the protection of Hera overcame all the dangers threaten- ing him, and after his return ruled in lolcus, wedded to Medea, the daughter of Aeetes. 162. For Medea persuaded the daughters of Pelias to kill their own father, and promised to bring him to life THE GREEK HEROES 125 again and to renew his youth, but did not fulfill her word. According to the later version of the legend, which com- bines its individual features in a confused manner, she then fled with Jason before Pelias's son Acastus to Cor- inth, while magnificent funeral games were celebrated in honor of the murdered man. Alcestis was the only daughter of Pelias that took no part in the murder of her father. She afterwards voluntarily died for her husband Admetus, the king of Pherae, since according to the will of the Moerae he could be saved by the sacrificial death of another. She was then brought back from the realm of death by Hercules. 163. The myth of the golden fleece seems to have developed principally in Orchomenus. King Athamas, who of course is closely related to the Athamantian plains near Halos in the Thessalian Phthiotis, had from Nephele (' cloud ') the children Phrixus and Helle. When his second wife Ino instigated him to sacrifice Phrixus to Zeus Laphystios, to remove the unfruitf nines s of the land, Nephele carried off her children through the air upon a golden-fleeced ram furnished her by Hermes. On the way Helle fell into the arm of the sea named after her (Helles- pont), while Phrixus successfully reached Aea, the land of the light of sunrise and sunset, which was located sometimes in the east and sometimes in the west. He there offered the ram in his stead to Zeus Lapliystios, and hung up its golden fleece in the grove of Ares, where it was guarded by a dragon. In this part of the myth a process of nature is symbolized, the carrying away of a rain cloud gilded by the sun, which is also at other times thought of as a shaggy pelt, being thus picturesquely expressed. On the other hand, the story of the offering 126 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY and rescue of Phrixus may have originated in the wor- ship of Zeus Laphystios, where for the sacrifice of a human being that of a ram may have been afterwards substituted, a process such as may lie at the foundation of the legend of Iphigenia. The story relating to Helle was perhaps added only to explain the name Hellespont. 164. The Medea myth and the further development of the expedition of the Argonauts is of Corinthian origin ; for their goal is designated as the eastern land Colchis, well known to the Corinthian navigators. More- over, Aeetes, the son of Helios and Persa, while he is a personality that surely originated in an epithet of the sun god, is generally considered to have been a ruler of Corinth, on whose citadel, Ephyra or Acrocorinth, Helios himself had one of the chief seats of his worship, and afterwards to have emigrated to Colchis. When Jason demanded from him the golden fleece, Aeetes declared himself ready to comply if he would first yoke two fire- breathing bulls with brazen feet and with them plow the field of Ares. Medea, who was inflamed with love for the stranger, protected him from the effect of the fire by a magic ointment, and helped him to overpower the dragon which was guarding the fleece. 165. Then with the Argonauts she embarked in the ship, at the same time carrying off her young brother Apsyrtus. When pursued by Aeetes, she killed the boy and flung his limbs one by one into the sea, that her father might be retarded by the search for them. After an adventurous voyage, which later forms of the legend, with the widening of geographical knowledge toward the north and west, constantly extended further, they reached Corinth (or returned to lolcus), where they THE GREEK HEROES 127 obtained the kingdom. When Jason afterwards divorced Medea to wed the daughter of king Creon, Medea killed Creon and all his daughters by means of a magic poi- soned garment. Then, after murdering both of her own children, she fled to Athens in a chariot drawn by drag- ons, where she married Aegeus. In consequence of her unsuccessful murderous attack upon Theseus she returned to her home in Asia. Medea is the mythical prototype of all witches, who were similarly charged with murdering children ; but at the same time she is so closely related to the moon god- desses Hecate and Hera that she must herself be re- garded as a moon heroine. Jason, however, may be a figure resembling the Boeotian Cadmus, and may have received his name from 'lawA/cos, lolcus. 166. To this, the simplest form of the myth of the Argonauts, was by degrees added a whole series of local legends and sailors' tales, and an ever-increasing number of heroes were mentioned as having joined in the expe- dition. It was said that at Chalcedon, on the Bosporus, Pollux had defeated in a boxing contest the giant Amycus (' tearer '), who had prevented the navigators from gain- ing access to a spring. On the other side of the Bos- porus the Argonauts met the blind king Phmeus, who was tormented by Harpies. As soon as he sat down to eat, the Harpies came along and seized or befouled the food. They were therefore pursued by Zetes and Calais, the sons of Boreas, and driven away forever (c/. the Stymphalides). To express his gratitude for this ser- vice, Phineus told his rescuers how to avoid the further dangers of the voyage, particularly how to pass success- fully the rocks of the Symplegades (< striking together ? ) ; 128 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY which crushed ships between them. These rocks, which can still be distinguished at the entrance of the Bos- porus, were said to be floating islands, which were after- wards fixed in their present position. In the adventure in Colchis itself the sowing of the dragon's teeth by Cad- mus (c/. 123) was transferred to Jason. Argo ; Argonauts : Pindar, Pyth. iv. ; Vergil, Eel. iv. 34 : Vehat Argo | delectos heroas. Ovid, Amor. ii. 11, 6, Her. xii. 9; Hyginus, Fab. xiv.-xxi. ; Milton, Par. L. ii. 1017 : - And more endanger'd, than when Argo pass'd Through Bosporus betwixt the justling rocks. Pope, Ode on St. Cecilia's Day 40 : While Argo saw her kindred trees Descend from Pelion to the main. Apollon. Rhod., Argonautica. Jason : Apollod. i. 9, 16 ; Ovid, Met. vii. 5 sq., Epis. xvi. 229 ; Hyginus, Fab. xxii. , xxiii. , xxiv. Aeson : Ovid, Met. vii. 162 sq. ; Pope, Dunciad iv. 121 : As erst Medea (cruel so to save ! ) A new edition of old Aeson gave. Cowper, Translation from Milton ii. 10 : Aeson-like to know a second prime. Pelias : Ovid, Met. vii. 298 sq. ; Hyginus, Fab. xii. Aeetes : Ovid, Met. vii. 9 ; Hyginus, Fab. xxii. Alcestis : Euripides, Alcestis ; Hyginus, Fab. 1., Ii. Admetus: Euripides, Alcestis; Ovid, Ex Pont. iii. 1, 106, Trist. v. 14, 37 ; Hyginus, Fab. L, Ii. Phrixus; Helle: Ovid, Epis. xvii. 141 sq., Fast. iii. 852 sq. ; Hyginus, Fab. i., ii., iii. Apsyrtus: Ovid, Trist. iii. 9, 6; Hyginus, Fab. xxiii. Fhineus : Ovid, Met. v. 8 sq. ; Hyginus, Fab. xix. 3. THE THEBAN CYCLE 167. In the myths that are brought together in the Theban cycle there appears this pervading thought, that THE GREEK HEROES 129 man is not able, either by wisdom or by strength, to carry out his own plans in opposition to the will and predestination of the gods. On the contrary, the very prudence that strives to render of none effect such de- crees of the gods as have been announced by oracles or other signs helps to fulfill the divine will. This appears most simply in the oldest part of the cycle, the expedi- tion of the Seven against Thebes, described in the Thebais. A later counterpart is the expedition of the Epigoni (' the after-born 7 ) ; and the same thought is brought out in a more complicated manner in the Oedi- pus myth, which contains the preliminary history of this contest, and which Cinaethon of Sparta (?) had used in his Oidipodeta. Finally, the Alkmaionis, a sequel to the story of the Epigoni, and a work belonging to the end of the sixth century B.C., described the tremendous punishments inflicted by the gods in avenging the murder of relatives. In the extant Thebais of the Roman poet Statius the principal ideas of all these lost epics are combined. But this group of myths is still further per- fected from the purely moral point of view in the Attic tragedy, and is represented in the following extant plays : the ' Seven against Thebes ; of Aeschylus, the 'Oedipus Tyrannus/ ' Oedipus at Colonus/ and ' An- tigone 7 of Sophocles, the 'Phoenissae' of Euripides. 168. According to a divine decree Laius, the son of Labdacus, was to be the last of the family of Cadmus who should be king of Thebes. Therefore he received from the oracle at Delphi the utterance : " If thou beget a son, he will murder thee and marry his own mother." So when his wife locaste, whom the epic poets called Epicaste, the sister of Creon, the last of the Sparti, 130 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY bore him a son, Lams pierced his feet, bound them together, and caused him to be exposed on the neigh- boring mountain Cithaeron, that thus by killing his child he might render impossible the fulfillment of the oracle. But the child was discovered by a shepherd, brought to king Polybus at Sicyon or Corinth, and by him named Oedipus ( 4 swollen-footed '). When the boy had grown up, being taunted about his parentage, he asked the oracle at Delphi to reveal to him his real origin, but received as answer only the ominous response, that he must become guilty of incest with his mother, and kill his father. In order to make the threat ineffec- tive, he did not return to Corinth; yet even before he had gone far from Delphi he met his father Laius at a fork in the road, and being provoked by him, killed him without being aware who he was. 169. Meanwhile Thebes had been visited with a severe scourge. The Sphinx ('throttler ? ), a monster, the upper part of whose body was a winged maiden, and the lower part that of a lion (probably, like the "nightmare," a creature born of "such stuff as dreams are made of," though afterwards it was thoroughly confused with the similarly formed Egyptian-Babylonian symbol of power and swiftness), dwelt upon a mountain in the vicinity of the city and submitted to passers-by this riddle : " What walks in the morning on four legs, at midday on two, and at evening on three ? " She had killed all that had not guessed it, among them, according to an older legend, Haemon, the son of Creon, who after the death of his brother-in-law Laius ruled in Thebes. Creon now offered as a reward to anybody freeing them from this scourge the hand of the queen and the sovereignty of Thebes. THE GREEK HEROES 131 Oedipus correctly solved the riddle as referring to man, who creeps on all fours when a child, walks upright in middle life, and uses the support of a staff in old age. 170. Oedipus accordingly became king in his native city, and, at the same time, his mother's husband. Ac- cording to the epic poets the gods soon made this crime known, probably through the seer Tiresias, as the later form of the legend states. Epicaste killed herself and Oedipus blinded himself. Afterwards, by a second wife, Eurygania, he had the sons Eteocles and Polynices, and the two daughters Antigone and Ismene. The tragic poets mention no second marriage of Oedipus, but rather treat all these as the children of locaste herself. Later, on account of some trifling fault, Oedipus brought upon his sons the curse that they should divide the inher- itance by the edge of the sword. He himself then died in Thebes, or, according to the Attic version, in banish- ment in the sanctuary of the Semnai at Colonus, near Athens, under the protection of Theseus. 171. Eteocles and Polynices fell into a quarrel in divid- ing the inheritance and the power ; whereupon the latter fled to Adrastus, king of Argos and Sicyon, and became his son-in-law. He then equipped an expedition against his brother, of which Adrastus undertook the command. Polynices was further supported by his brother-in-law, the Aetolian Tydeus, a fiery son of Oeneus of Calydon ; also by Hippomedon and Parthenopaeus, the brothers of Adrastus ; by the mighty Capaneus ; and lastly by the courageous seer Amphiaraus, brother-in-law of Adrastus. Amphiaraus, indeed, foresaw that they should almost all perish in the expedition, but was nevertheless induced to take part in it by his wife Eriphyle, who had been bribed 132 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY by means of a beautiful necklace, which, however, brought ruin to its possessor. Therefore he charged his son Alcmaeon (' the strong ') that as soon as he grew up he should take revenge upon her for his death. 172. In spite of omens, which predicted all sorts of evil, the Seven, trusting in their own power, advanced against Thebes and assaulted the seven gates of the city. Capaneus had already scaled the walls, when a bolt from the hand of Zeus dashed him down again. The two brothers Eteocles and Polynices killed each other in single combat, yet the fight continued to rage with fearful fury. Tydeus, even in the throes of death, lacerated with his teeth the head of his fallen antagonist and sipped the brains out of the gaping skull. Amphiaratis was buried alive with his chariot close by Thebes in a chasm in the ground, which Zeus opened in front of him by a thunder- bolt. Here he ruled as a spirit giving out oracles by means of dreams. He was greatly revered also in other places, especially at Oropus in the district of Psaphis ; but originally he was none other than Hades himself, invoked under the name of 'the besought on every side.' 173. Adrastus, saved by his swift war horse Arion, was the only one of the seven to escape. The Thebans were persuaded by him, or, according to the Attic version of the story, were compelled by Theseus, to deliver up the fallen for burial. Aeschylus and Sophocles add at this point the story of Antigone's fate. According to them Polynices was to remain unburied as an enemy to his native land. But his sister Antigone, contrary to this command, dragged him upon the funeral pyre of Eteo- cles, or at least covered him with earth. She was seized by the appointed watchers and punished by death for THE GREEK HEROES 133 this deed, which was nevertheless called for by sisterly love and divine law. 174. Ten years later the sons of the fallen heroes (the Epigoni), now led by the favor of the gods, marched against Thebes, took it and demolished it, and set over it as ruler Thersander, the son of Polynices. The whole expedition, however, is described by the later poets as a counterpart of the former one. Alcmaeon, the leader of the host, before setting out fulfilled the command of his father by murdering his mother to avenge him. But although Apollo himself had given his consent to this, the murderer, like Orestes, was pursued by the Erinyes until after long wanderings he finally obtained rest through a. new oracular response. locaste : Homer, Od. xi. 271 sq. ; Sophocles, Antigone 861, Oedipus Rex ; Hyginus, Fab. Ixvi., Ixvii. Oedipus : Homer, Od. xi. 271 ; Sophocles, Oedipus Rex, Oedipus at Colonus, Antigone ; Hyginus, Fab. Ixvi. ; Pope, Thebais i. 21 : At Oedipus from his disasters trace The long confusions of his guilty race ; Thebais i. 69 : Now wretched Oedipus, depriv'd of sight Leads a long death in everlasting night ; Thebais i. 336 : - His sons with scorn their eyeless father view. Eteocles : Hyginus, Fab. Ixvii. ; Sophocles, Antigone ; Aeschy- lus, Seven against Thebes 182 sq. ; Pope, Thebais i. 219. Polynices : Sophocles, Oedipus at Colonus, Antigone ; Hyginus, Fab. Ixvii.-lxxii. Antigone : Aeschylus, Seven against Thebes 862 ; Sophocles, Antigone, Oedipus Rex, Oedipus at Colonus ; Hyginus, Fab. Ixxii. Amphiaraiis : Aeschylus, Seven against Thebes 569 sq. ; Ovid, Ex Pont. iii. 1, 52: Notus humo mersis Amphiaraiis equis. Hyginus, Fab. Ixxiii, 134 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY 4. THE ACHAIAN-TKOJAN CYCLE 175. A part of the Achaians once emigrated from Thessaly to Argolis. Some of them were forced by the Dorians into Achaia, and afterwards settled lower Italy. Others went to Asia Minor, and there in company with the Achaians of Thessaly, who migrated thither at the same time, obtained by conquest new homes in the vicinity of Troy, which was then lying in ruins. It was probably the effort to explain the origin of these ruins, which went back to a prehistoric period, that caused the migrating Grecian tribes to connect them with old myths of their own people. Taking their idea from the conquest of this same land, which they had just made an accomplished fact, they fancied the destruction of Ilios- Troia to have been the result of a campaign of their own ancestors. 176. This whole legendary subject-matter was treated in the following independent epics, which group themselves round the Iliad and the Odyssey : (1) The Cypria, by a Cyprian poet, perhaps Stasinus ; a work originating after the completion of the interpolated additions to the Iliad. (2) The Iliad of Homer, who may have lived about 850 B.C. (3) The Aithiopis of Arctinus of Miletus, written perhaps about 750 B.C. (4) The < Little Iliad 7 of the Lesbian Lesches, of the first half of the seventh century B.C. (5) The ' Destruction of Ilios' (IXtbv Wpo-ts), also by Arctinus. (6) The ' Homeward Voyages ' (Noo-rot), by Agias of Troezen, later than Arctinus and the Odyssey. (7) The Odyssey, to be dated somewhere about 775 B.C. (8) The Telegonia, by Eugammon of Cyrene, about 570 B.C. 177. Of the foregoing, aside from fragments and mea- gre excerpts, only the Iliad and the Odyssey are extant. THE GREEK HEROES 135 These were recognized by the ancients themselves as the most noble gems in the crown of epic poetry. Both of them were in earlier times ascribed to the poetic genius of one man, Homer, who surpassed all others ; but the great dissimilarity that appears in the social relations and the religious conceptions described forces us to con- clude that the two poems must be attributed to different authors, at least in their present form. Seven cities claimed Homer as their citizen. Smyrna, the first men- tioned of these, seems to have the best right to the claim, for it appears from the Iliad itself that the poet probably came from the region near the mouth of the river Hermus. In its original form the poem described only the momen- tous quarrel between Achilles and Agamemnon. But into this oldest epic, which formed the foundation of the whole Trojan chain of myths and contains the germ of all other poems on the subject, there were certainly intro- duced at a later period many kinds of interpolations, and at the same time the whole was probably revised; yet even in its present form the dramatic plot which lies at its foundation is so plainly visible that there can be no doubt of its conscious formation by one individual poet. 178. The keynote of the drama of the Iliad is struck by a description of the plague brought upon the Grecian host by Apollo, on account of an injury done to his priest Chryses in the tenth year of the siege of Troy. Just as in the progress of the chief plot the haughtiness of the commander in chief, Agamemnon, is to blame for the grievous losses and defeats of the Greeks, so here he has caused this wrath of Apollo by refusing to listen to the request of one of his priests for the restoration of a daughter who has been carried away among the spoils 136 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY of war. At this point comes in the dramatic ' motive 7 : Achilles (Gk. Achilleus), the noblest champion in the Grecian camp, in the name of the army, which has been victorious up to this time, demands from Agamemnon that he surrender this maiden Chrysei's. The plot deepens as follows: Agamemnon indeed grants the request, but in compensation for his own loss, takes away from Achil- les the girl Briseis, who has been given to him as a present by the army. Thereupon Achilles in anger with- draws from battle, and at his request his mother Thetis prays Zeus, the disposer of battle, to grant victory to the Trojans until her son shall have received full satis- faction. 179. In Books ii.-vii. comes the first climax, in a sub- sidiary plot. First Agamemnon tries to bring about an end of the war, without Achilles, by a single combat between Paris, who carried off Helen, and her rightful husband Menelatis. Paris, being vanquished, is rescued by Aphrodite, but the treaty is immediately broken by a treacherous shot of the Trojan Pandarus. Now the Achaians advance, and Diomedes, the son of Tydeus and ruler of Argos, who is under the special protection of Athena, and Ajax, the son of Telamon of Salamis, next to Achilles the most valiant of the Grecian heroes, distin- guish themselves in single combats. As Agamemnon already fancies that he has nearly won the victory over Troy, and at the same time over his rival Achilles, Zeus, out of regard for his promise made to Thetis, forbids the gods to take any further part in the struggle. Conse- quently the Greeks are driven back into their camp, where- upon the second climax begins, arid this time in the main plot (Books viii.-xii.). THE GREEK HEROES 137 180. In order not to be forced to give way to Achilles, Agamemnon seriously proposes to give up the siege alto- gether. But Diomedes and the aged Nestor, who rules the Messenian and Triphylian Pylus, and who surpasses all the other chieftains in wisdom and eloquence, hinder him by their opposition. Therefore the Greeks attempt once more to conquer in open battle, but suffer a complete defeat, and Agamemnon himself is wounded, like most of the other champions. The chief climax of the action, and the apparent ap- proach of victory for the hero of the drama, i.e. Achil- les, are marked by the battle round the ships (Books xiii.-xv.). Hector, the most valiant son of king Priam of Troy, and Apollo force their way into the Grecian camp and set fire to the ships, at which the destruction of the whole host seems almost inevitable. Then in the direst necessity comes a change in affairs, caused by the waver- ing of Achilles himself. Half renouncing his decision, he sends to the assistance of the hard-pressed fighters his friend Patroclus, whom he allows to put on his own armor and to take command of his Myrmidons. They drive the enemy out of the camp ; but as Patroclus, against his friend's command, pursues the Trojans, he is killed by Hector (Book xvi.). 181. At this point begins the decline of the action (Books xvii.-xxi.). The final l motive ' of dramatic inter- est is the surrender of Brisei's to Achilles and the humili- ation of Agamemnon. Yet even now Achilles's victory is only apparent, as he himself well understands. For he, the champion, has invited against himself the charge of arrogance, since, on account of the merely personal injury done him by Agamemnon, he has too long inac- 138 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY tively viewed the destruction of his people. This fault of his causes the death of Patroclus, and with it the catastrophe (Book xxii.). After obtaining through his mother new weapons from Hephaestus, Achilles kills Hector, although he knows that he himself must in- evitably die shortly after laying low this enemy, and Hector himself, when mortally wounded, reminds him of the certainty that such a fate will befall him. The action comes to an end with the funerals of Patroclus and Hector and the lament of Achilles over the loss of his friend. In his lament he is preparing himself for his own death, which follows so immediately that, so far as Homer is concerned, it follows only behind the scenes. 182. It cannot at present be decided whether we may attribute to Homer some sort of an original sketch, or rough draft of the Odyssey, which served as a model for all the poets describing the return home of the Trojan heroes ; but at any rate this poem, as well as the Iliad, was laid out according to a plan exhibiting a unity that has been marred only by later interpolations. Among these in- terpolations is, together with the larger part of the last book, the whole ' Telemachy ' (Books i.-iv.), in which the journey of Telemachus to Pylus and Laconia is described. To get information concerning the whereabouts of his father, who has now been away nearly twenty years, he goes to the aged Nestor, and then to Menelaiis. Each tells him of his own return home and of that of other heroes. From Menelaiis he learns also that his father is a prisoner on the island of the nymph Calypso in the far west. But before Telemachus gets back to Ithaca, his father himself has already arrived there. His journey therefore has no influence on the course of events. THE GREEK HEROES 139 183. The old Nostos (' homeward journey '), like the Iliad and this speaks strongly for the identity of their authors described only the last year of the wanderings, i.e. the catastrophe proper, while the previous events were set forth by a narrative put into the mouth of Odysseus. During his wanderings on the return from Troy, Odysseus (Lat. Ulixes, Eng. Ulysses), the ruler of the little island of Ithaca, has lost his companions and ships. Though consumed with longing for his home, he lives for seven years on the island Ogygia with the nymph Calypso ('the concealer'), who tries to create in him a permanent attachment for herself. But with long- ing equal to his own his faithful wife Penelope awaits his return in Ithaca, although wooed by numerous haughty suitors. Finally, induced by Athena's request, Zeus com- mands the nymph to release Odysseus. On a raft he approaches the island of the Fhaeaces. But here Posei- don dashes his craft to pieces, and only by the help of the goddess Ino-Leucothea is he able to swim to the shore. 184. Nausicaa, the daughter of king Alcinotis, gives him clothing and directs him to her father's palace. At the king's table he himself tells of his previous adventures. He had lost many of his comrades in battle with the brave Cicones. The others had tasted the sweet fruit of the Lotus in the land of the Lotophagl (' Lotus-eaters '), and he had been compelled to drag them to the ships by main force, since eating it had made them forget their native land and their friends. Then the voyagers had come into the cave of the one-eyed Cyclops Polyphemus, who de- voured several of them, but finally in a drunken sleep was blinded by Odysseus. Since Polyphemus was a son of Poseidon, that god was now angry at Odysseus and his 140 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY companions. Next they came to Aeolus, the ruler of the winds, who, being graciously disposed towards them, shut up all contrary winds in a bag ; and so they might have reached home safely if the comrades of Odysseus had not secretly opened the bag. 185. Then all the ships except the one on which Odysseus himself was sailing were wrecked by the gi- gantic Laestrygones. With the one remaining ship he reached the island of the enchantress Circe, who at first metamorphosed a part of the crew into swine ; but on being threatened by Odysseus, she restored them to their human form, and they were then all gladly re- ceived by her. On her advice Odysseus proceeded to the entrance of the lower world, to ask the shade of the seer Tiresias about the way homewards. Past the islands of the bird-formed SIrenes (< Sirens '), who charm men by their singing in order to kill them, and between the abode of the sea monsters Scylla and Charybdis, he sailed to the island Thrinacia ('three-pointed 7 ), where his comrades, constrained by hunger, slew some cattle out of the sacred herds of Helios. In punishment for this the lightning of Zeus shattered the last ship, and only Odysseus, who had taken no part in the sacrilege, saved himself, reaching the island of Calypso after drift- ing about on the mast for nine days. 186. Alcinous, touched with sympathy at this narrative, now gives the much-tormented sufferer many gifts and sends him to Ithaca on a swift vessel. That he may not be recognized at once, his protectress Athena gives him the appearance of a beggar. In this form he hunts up his shepherd Eumaeus, and from him learns of the arrogance of his wife's suitors. Odysseus tells nobody THE GREEK HEROES 141 except his son Telemaclius who he is ; but his old dog and his nurse Euryclea recognize him in spite of his metamorphosis, while he is staying in his own house as a beggar. Penelope has just announced that she will marry the one who can stretch the bow of her deceased husband and 'shoot an arrow through the openings of twelve axes placed in a row one behind another. All the suitors attempt in vain to bend the bow ; but Odysseus easily accomplishes the feat. Being changed back to his proper form, he makes himself known, and with the assistance of his son and two faithful shepherds, Eumaeus and Phi- loetius, in a savage conflict, he puts all the suitors to the sword. Then for the first time Penelope learns of her husband's return. Finally Odysseus seeks out his old father Laertes, who is cultivating a farm in the vicinity. Chryseis : Homer, II. i. passim; Ovid, Ars Amat. ii. 402 ; Hy- ginus, Fab. cxxi. Achilles: Homer, II. i., et passim; Ovid, Amor. i. 9, 33, Rem. Amor. 777, Trist. iii. 5, 37 ; Hygirius, Fab. xcvi. ; Shak., Love's Labour's Lost v. 2, 635, Troilus and Cressida passim. Briseis : Homer, II. i., et passim ; Ovid, Rem. Amor. 777, 783, Her. iii.; Hyginus, Fab. cvi. Pandarus : Homer, II. ii., et passim; Vergil, Aen. v. 496 ; Shak., Troilus and Cressida passim. Diomedes: Homer, II. ii., et passim; Ovid, Met. xiii. 100 sq.; Shak., Troilus and Cressida passim. Ajax (son of Telamon) : Homer, II. ii., et passim; Sophocles, Ajax ; Horace, Od. ii. 4, 5 ; Ovid, Met. xiii. 2 : Clipei dominus septemplicis Aiax. Hyginus, Fab. cvii., cxiv. ; Shak., King Henry VI. pt. ii. v. 1, 26, Troilus and Cressida passim. Nestor: Homer, II. i., et passim, Od. iii. passim; Ovid, Met. xiii. 63 ; Shak., Rape of Lucrece 203 : Nestor's golden words; King Henry VI. pt. iii. iii. 2, 188, Troilus and Cressida passim. 142 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY Hector: Homer, II. i., et passim; Ovid, Met. xii., xiii. passim; Euripides, Andromache ; Vergil, Aen. i., ii. passim; Shak., Love's Labour's Lost v. 2, 537, King Henry IV. pt. ii. ii. 4, 237, King Henry VI. pt. iii. iv. 8, 25, Troilus and Cressida passim. Priam : Homer, II. xxii. passim ; Ovid, Met. xiii. 470 sq. ; Vergil, Aen. i., ii. passim; Hyginus, Fab. xc. ; Shak., Hamlet ii. 2, 469, King Henry VI. pt. iii. ii. 5, 120, Troilus and Cressida passim. Patroclus: Homer, II. xvi., et passim. Telemachus : Homer, Od. passim ; Ovid, Her. i. 98, 107. Calypso : Homer, Od. vii. 245 : Ovydryp, 5o\6ecr, 216, p. 38 Hermionc 131, p. 103 heroes 122 sq., 8, 13 Herse 38 Hesperides 142, p. 117 Hestiii (57 Himeros 111 Hippocrene 36, 114 Hippodamia (daughter of Atrax) 156, p. 122 Hippodamia (daughter of Oeno- maiis) 130, p. 103 Hippolyte 155, 141, p. 117 Hippolytus 155, p. 122 Hippomedon 171 Hippomenes 160 Honos 214 Horae 115,30 human sacrifice 2, 26, 51, 163, 193, 203 Hyacinthus 50, p. 50 Hyades 90, p. 74 Hyakinthia 50 Hygea 103 Hyllus 147 Hyperborel 49 Hypermnestra 127 Hypnos 101, p. 77 lacchus, 86, 95, p. 74 lasion 97 laso 103 Idas 135, p. 106 Meet of divinity 12 sq. Ilithyia56 sq. Inachus 126 incubdtid 4 Tndigetes 190, 204 Infer! 9 Ino 70, 123, 163, 183, p. 61 Id 126 locaste 168, 170, p. 133 lolaus 138 lole 144, 147 Ion 150 Iphigema 131, p. 103 Iphitus 144 Irene 115, 14,30 Iris 65, p. 51 Isis 218 Isles of the Blessed 8 Ismene 170 Isthmia 72 Isthmian Games v. Isthmia Itonians 145 Ixion 77 sq. , p. 62 Janus 194 sq., 189, 191, p. 159 Jason 161 sq., p. 128 Juno 211 sq., 28, 188, 207, 216, p. 32 JQnones 188 Juppiter 207 sq., 23, 28, 189, p 30 Juturna 191 Juventas 207 Karneia 50 Keresll6,3 kerykeion 45, 65 Labdacus 168 labyrinth 153 Lachesis 118 Laertes 186, p. 143 Laestrygones 185, p. 142 Lai us 168 sq. Lamios 145 Laomedon 28 Lapithae 77, 156, p. 62 Lara 213 Ldrentdlia 213 Lares 189 Larunda v. Lara Larvae 3, 188 Latona 29 laurel 51, 53 Leda 134, 29, p. 106 176 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY Lemures 3, 188 Lemur ia 3 Lenaea 88 Lernaean Hydra 138, p. 116 Lethe 6, p. 8 Leto 49, 29, 57, 125, p. 49 Leucothea 70, 183, p. 61 Liber 200 Libera 200 Libertas 214 Libitma 216 Lichtis 147 Linus 137 Lotophagi 184 Lower World 7, 6, 41, 60, 98 sq., 100 sq., 129, 132, 142 sq., 147, 156, 185, 213 Lucifer 63 Lucina212, p. 165 ludl 210, 198, 202, 217 Luna 55 Lupercalia 199 Lupercl 199 Lyaeus 88, p. 74 Lycaon 26, p. 32 Lycians 49, 133 Lycomedes 157 Lycurgus 91 Lycus 124 Lynceus 127 sq. Ma 58, 30, 85, 218 Machaon 103, p. 78 Maenades 86 Magna Mater 218 Maia 25, 45, 47, 197 Manes 9, 188, p. 9 Mania 213 Marathonian bull 152 Mars 204 sq., 212, p. 160, p. 89 Marsyas 79, p. 62 Mater Matiita 203 Mdtrdlia 203 Mdtrondlia 212 Medea 164 sq., 60, 152, 161, p. 122 Meditrindlia 207 Medusa 36, 128 Megara 137 Meleager 159 sq., p. 123 Melicertes 70, p. 61 Melkart 70, 149 Melpomene 114 Mem n on 64 Mene 61 Menelaus 131, 179, 182, p. 103 Menestheus 157 Menios 140 Mercurius 216, 47, p. 38 Metis 30, 39 Milanion 160 Minerva 215, 211, p. 33 Minos 62, 8, p. 9 Minotaur v. Minotaurus Minotaurus 152 sq., 62, 158, p. 51 Minyas 91 Mithras 218 Mnemosyne 114 Moerae 118, 30, 159, 162 moon 55 sq., 12, 28 sq., 135, 155, 165, 203 Musae 114, 30, 52 sq., 191, p. 86 Muses v. Musae Myrmidons 180 Mysteries 95, 59, 89, 98, 218 Naiades 80, p. 62 Naiads v. Naiades Narcissus 96, 101, p. 75 Nausicaa 184 necromancy 4 nectar 28 Nekysia 3 Nemean lion 138 Nemeseia 119, 3 Nemesis 119, 135 Nephele 163, 77 Neptunalia 193 Neptunus 193, p. 61 Nereides 70, 12, p. 61 Nereids v. Nereides INDEX 177 Nereus 69, p. 60 Nessus 147 Nestor 180, 182, p. 141 nightmare 1, 169 Nike 36, 14, 24, 40, 104 Nile 76 Niobe 125, 130, p. 96 Notus 44 Numa 191, 205 Nymphae 80, 12, 47, 48, 58, 86, 90 Nymphs v. Nymphae Oceanmae 96 Oceanus 68, 96, p. 60 Ocypete 43 Odysseus 182 sq., p. 142 Oedipus 167 sq., p. 133 Oeneus 146, 159, 171 Oenomaus 130, p. 103 Oenopion 92 Ogygia 183 omens v. haruspicina Omphale 145, p. 117 Opdlia 195 Opiconsivia 195 Ops 198 oracles 52, 19, 25, 99, 102, 149, 172 Orcus 213 Oreades 80 Orestes 131, p. 103 orgies 86, 218 Orion 63, 57, p. 50 Orithyia44 Orpheus 114, p. 87 Oschophoria 88, 154 Palaemon 70, p. 61 Pales 202 sq., p. 160 Palilia 202 Palladia 35 Pallas 152 Pallas Athena v. Athena Pan 83 sq., p. 74 Panacea 103 Panathenaia 38 Pandarus 179, p. 141 Pandora 34, p. 33 Pandrosos 38 Panidnia 72 Parcae 118, p. 92 Paris 107, 131, 179, p. 103 Parthenopaeus 171 Pasiphae 62 Patroclus 180 sq., 2, p. 142 Pax 214 Pegasus 133, 36, p. 105 Peitho 105 Pelias 161 sq., p. 128 Pelops 130, p. 103 Penates 189, 196 Penelope 183, 186, p. 142 Pentheus 91, p. 74 Pephredo 42 peplus 35 sq. Periphetes 151 Persa 164 Perseides 29 Perseis 62 Persephone 98, 24, 101, 106, 156, p. 75 Perses 59 Perseus 128, 35, 133, 136 ,9?., p. 102 personifications 103 sq., 14, 99, 214 personifications of towns 99 Phaeaces 183 Phaedra 155, 157 Phaethon 54, p. 50 Philoctetes 147, p. 117 Philoetius 186 Phmeus 166, p. 128 Phlegra 20 Phlegyas 78, p. 62 Phobos 116, 105 Phoebus v. Apollo Phoenix 123, 62 Pholus 139 Phorcys 69 Phosphorus 63 Phrixus 163, p. 128 178 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY Pietas 214 Pirithoiis 156, 78, p. 122 Pittheus 151 Pityokamptes v. Sinis Pleiades 63, 25 Pluto 101 Pliitus 97, 115, p. 75 Podalirius 103 Poeas 147 Pollux 134 sq., 39, 166, p. 106 Polybus 168 Polydeukes v. Pollux Polymnia 114 Polymces 170 sq., p. 133 Polypemon 151 Polyphemus 184, 70, p. 142 pomegranates 56, 96 Pomona 200, p. 160 pontifices 192, 190, 196 Port un us 195 Poseidon 72 sq., 37 sq., 98, 128, 150 sq., 183 sq., 193, p. 61 Pothos 111 prayer 17, 15, 41 Priam 107, 180, p. 142 Priapus 92, p. 75 Procrustes 151 Proetus 91 Prometheus 34, 39, 142, p. 33, p. 159 Proserpina 200, 24, 217, p. 75 Proteus 69, p. 60 Psyche 111,5,48 Pudlcitia 214 purification 17, 15, 16, 27, 51 Pyanepsia 154, 50 Pylades 131 Pyriphlegethon 6, p. 8 PJythia 52 Pytliia 50 Python 50, p. 49 Quinquatrus 205 Quirlnalia 206 Quirmus 206 religid 16 Remus 205 rex sacrorum 194 Rhadamanthus 62, 8 Rhea 30, 58, 81, 94, 198, p. 32 river gods 76, 12, 192 Robigus 202 Romulus 205 sq. Sabdzius 85 sacrifices 15 sq., 41, 101, 121 Saeturnus v. Saturnus Salil 205 sq. Salus 214 Sarapis 218 Saturnalia 198 Saturnus 198, p. 29 Satyr! 82, 12, 79, 93, p. 74 Satyrs v. Satyri Sciron 151 ScyHa71, 185, p. 61 Selene 61, 29, 55, 83 Semele 90, 24, 123, p. 74 Semnai 41 , 170 serpent 4, 20, 23, 38, 97, 102 sq. 123, 133, 135, 137, 188 Sibylline books 215, 193, p. 169 Silcni 79 Silvanus 200, p. 160 Sinis 151 Sirenes 185, p. 143 Sirens v. Sirenes Sirius 63 Sisyphus 132, p. 104 Sol v. Helios Solymi 133 souls 1 sq., 10, 43, 48, 116, 188 sq. souls in animal form 4 Sparti 123, 137, 168 Spes 214 Sphinx 169 spirits of growth 81 sq., 199 sq. spolia opima 209 Staphylus 92 sta?*s 63 INDEX 179 Steropes 21 Strophius 131 Stymphalian birds 139 Styx 6 sq., p. 7 Summanus 208 sun 49 sq., 12, 21, 61 sq. , 148, 155, 164, 204 Syleus 145 Symplegades 166 Synoikid 154 taeniae 16, 111 sq. Tantalus 129, p. 102 Tartarus 8, 21, p. 9 Telamon 179 Telemachus 182, 186, p. 142 Telephassa 62 Telliis 99, 213, p. 166 Terminus 209 Terpsichore 114 Terra Mater v. Tellus Tethys 68, p. 60 Thalia (a Grace) 113 Thalia (a Muse) 114 Thallo 115 Thanatos 101, 111 Thargelia 50 sq. Themis 115,14,30,118 Thersander 174 Theseus 150 sq., 58, 72, 141, 143, 170, 173, p. 122 Thesmophoria 97 Thetis 70, 32, 178 sq., 181, p. 61 Thrmacia 54, 185 thunderstorms 20 sq., 12, 130, 207 sq. Thyestes 130, p. 103 Thyiades86 Tiberinus 192 Tiresias 170, 185 Titanes 21, 89, p. 30 Titans v. Titanes Tithonus 64, p. 51 tragedy 88 tribunal of the dead 8 Trmacria v. Thrmacia Triptolemus 97, p. 75 Triton 69, p. 61 Trivia 59 Trophonius 102 Tros 28 Tubilustrium 205 Tyche 120 sq., p. 92 Tydeusl71 sq., 179 Tyndareus 134 Typhoeus 22, p. 30 Typhon v. Typhoeus Ulixes v. Odysseus Ulysses v. Odysseus Urania 114 Uranus 24, 108, p. 31 Vejovis 208 Venus 216, p. 85 ver sacrum 204 Vertumnus 200, 203, p. 160 Vesta 195 sq., 189, p. 159 Vestdlia 196 Victoria v. Nike Vlndlia 207 Virtus 214 vittae 16 Volcanus 197, p. 32 water 68 sq., 17, 191 sq. wind 43 sq.., 12, 184 , 51, 205 Zagreus 89 Zephyrus 44, 65, p. 38 Zetes 166 Zethus 124 Zeus 20 sq., 32 sq., 36, 45, 56 sq., 90, 96, 105, 113 sq., 118, 124, 126, 128 sq., 132, 134, 136 sq., 163, 178 sq., 183, 185, p. 30 Zeus Asterios 62 Zeus Chthonios v. Hades Zeus Laphystios 163 Announcement. THE STUDENTS' SERIES OF LATIN CLASSICS. UNDER TIIK KD1TOIUA.L SUPERVISION OP ERNEST MONDELL PEASE, A.M., Leland Stanford Junior University, AND HARRY THURSTON PECK, PH.D., L.H.D., Columbia College,. This Series will contain the Latin authors usually read in Ameri- can schools and colleges, and also others well adapted to class-room use, but not as yet published in suitable editions. The several volumes will be prepared by special editors, who will aim to revise the text carefully and to edit it in the most serviceable manner. Where there are German editions of unusual merit, representing years of special study under the most favorable circumstances, these will be used, with the consent of the foreign editor, as a basis for the American edition. In this way it will be possible to bring out text- books of the highest excellence in a comparatively short period of time. The editions will be of two kinds, conforming to the different methods of studying Latin in our best institutions. Some will contain in the introductions and commentary such a careful and minute treatment of the author's life, language, and style as to afford the means for a thorough appreciation of the author and his place in Latin literature. Others will aim merely to assist the student to a good reading knowledge of the author, and will have only the text and brief explanatory notes at the bottom of each page. The latter will be particularly acceptable for sight reading, and for rapid reading after the minute study of an author or period in one of the fuller editions. Eor instance, after a class has read a play or two of Plautus and Terence carefully, with special refer- ence to the peculiarities of style, language, metres, the methods of presenting a play, and the like, these editions will be admirably suited for the rapid reading of other plays. The Series will also contain various supplementary works pre- pared by competent scholars. Every effort will be made to give the books a neat and attractive appearance. 1 The following volumes are now ready or in preparation : CAESAR, Gallic War, Books I-V. By HAROLD W. JOHNSTON, Ph.D., Professor in the Indiana University. CATULLUS, Selections, based upon the edition of Riese. By THOMAS B. LINDSAY, Ph.D., Professor in Boston University. CICERO, Select Orations. By B. L. D'OOGE, A.M., Professor in the State Normal School, Ypsilanti, Mich. 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TERENCE, Adelphoe, for rapid reading. By WILLIAM L. COWLES, A.M., Professor in Amherst College. Ready. TERENCE, Phormio, based upon the edition of Dziatzko. By HER- BERT C. ELMER, Ph.D., Assistant Professor in the Cornell Uni- versity. Ready. TIBULLUS AND PROPERTIUS, Selections, based upon the edition of Jacoby. By HENRY F. BURTON, A.M., Professor in the University of Rochester. VALERIUS MAXIMUS, Fifty Selections, for rapid reading. By CHARLES S. SMITH, A.M., College of New Jersey. Ready. 3 VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, Historia Romana, Book II. By F. E. RocKWOOi), A.M., Professor in Bucknell University. Ready. VERGIL, Books I- VI. By E. ANTOINETTE ELY, A.M., Clifton School, and S. FRANCES PELLETT, A.M., Binghamton High School, N.Y. VERGIL, The Story of Turnus from Aen. VII-XII, for rapid reading. By MOSES SLAUGHTER, Ph.D., Professor in Iowa College. Ready. VIRI ROMAE, Selections. By G. M. WHICHER, A.M., Packer Col- legiate Institute. Ready. LATIN COMPOSITION, for college use. By WALTER MILLER, A.M., Professor in the Leland Stanford Jr. University. Ready. LATIN COMPOSITION, for advanced classes. By H. R. FAIRCLOUGH, A.M., Professor in the Leland Stanford Jr. University. HAND-BOOK OF LATIN SYNONYMS. By Mr. MILLER. A FIRST BOOK IN LATIN. By HIRAM TUELL, A.M., Principal of the Milton High School, Mass., and HAROLD N. FOWLER, Ph.D., Western Reserve University. Ready. EXERCISES IN LATIN COMPOSITION, for schools. By M. GRANT DANIELL, A.M., formerly Principal of Channcy-Hall School, Boston. Ready. A NEW LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION. By M. GRANT DANIELL, A.M. Ready. THE PRIVATE LIFE OF THE ROMANS, a manual for the use of schools and colleges. By HARRIET WATERS PRESTON and LOUISE DODGE. Ready. GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY, based on the recent work of Steading. By KARL P. HARRINGTON, A.M., Professor in the Uni- versity of North Carolina, and HERBERT C. TOLMAN, Ph.D., Pro- fessor in Vanderbilt University. Ready. ATLAS ANTIQUUS, twelve maps of the ancient world, for schools and colleges. By Dr. HENRY KIEPERT, M.R. Acad. Berlin. Ready. Tentative arrangements have been made for other books not ready to be announced. LEACH, SHEWELL, & SANBORN, Boston, New York, and Chicago. 4 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED LOAN DEPT. This book is due on the last date stamped below, or on the date to which renewed. Renewed books are subject to immediate recall. nec'62Kk NOV 3 -jcjg2 LIBRARY USE APR 17 1965 REC'D LD APR 17 '65 -12 M ^" , - *J * * +~r*\r-*' . ir ji^^j^-T i *. ADD o F; ^c -c; p^A MrH 2 -> ou O r m LD 21A-50m-3,'62 (C7097slO)476B General Library University of California Berkeley YB 22332