SKETCHES OF THE HISTORY OF LITERATURE FROM THE EARLIEST PERIOD TO THE Heinfoti of Xrttrrs in the jFttarntfi Ofcntttrg. ladocti discant, ament meminisse periti. BY WILKINS TANNEHILL. NASHVILLE: JOHN S. SIMPSON DEADERICK-STREET, 1827. DISTRICT OF WEST TENNESSEE, ss" Be it remembered, that on this 20th day of June, in the year 1827, and 51st year of American Independence, Wilkins Tannehill hath de- posited in this office the title of a book, the right whereof he claims as author, in the words following;, to wit: "Sketches of the History of Literature, from the earliest period to the revival of letters in the fif- teenth century. Indocti discnnt amcnt meminisse periti. By Wilkins Tannehill." In conformity to an act of the Congress of the Uuited State?, entitled, "an act for the encouragement of learning, by securing copies of maps, charts, and books, to the proprietors and authors of such copies, during the time therein mentioned;" and also the act, entitled, "an act supplementary to an act for the encouragement of | learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts, and books, to the authors and propri- etors of such copies, during the time therein mentioned, and extending the benefit thereof to designing, engraving, and etching historical and other prints." N. A. M'NAIRY, Clerk Of IMF District of West Tennessee. p/V THE work now presented to the public is one of hum- ble pretensions, and goes forth unprotected by the pat- ronage of rich and powerful booksellers. Prepared du- ring intervals ot occasional leisure from the duties of an employment little congenial with literary pursuits, and without any opportunity for consulting extensive libraries, it aspires only to the character of sketches, without pre- tending to be a complete history. It is an attempt by a "backwoodsman" to condense and comprise within a narrow compass, the most prominent and interesting events, connected witji the progress of literary and sci- entific improvement, from the earliest period through a long succession of ages, and amidst a great variety of cir- cumstances. The author is well aware that, from the nature of things, its deficiencies must appear numerous and obvious to the scholar and man of extensive erudition. Many events, no doubt, have been more slightly noticed, than, from their importance, they deserved to be ; and some, perhaps equally interesting, have been entirely over- looked. These remarks are made, not for the purpose of averting the arrows of criticism, to which every man who ventures to publish a book must expect to be exposed ; but in order fairly to exhibit the true design of the work, and to point out the class of readers for whom it was spe- cially intended. To those who have no opportunity for ex- tensive reading, and Who may wish to take a rapid, gen- M76Q87 *b efal survey of the past history of literary improvement, this volume may prove a source of valuable and interest- ing information, not, perhaps, elsewhere to be found, with- in so narrow a space. As a book of occasional reference, it may be convenient even to the classical scholar, and to the student who aspires to a minute acquaintance with his- torical details, it may not be without its use, by affording facilities for reviewing and arranging the knowledge ac- quired by more extensive research. Such as it is, this vol- ume appears before the public a candidate for patronage and favor, in the hope, that all due and reasonable allow- ances will be made for its defects, and that its merits will be fairly appreciated, although proceeding from an indi- vidual unknown to fame, and issued from the press in th^ remote interior of the western country. x INTRODUCTION. CHAPTER I. Hieroglyphic and Alphabetic writing. Sketch of the Literature of the Egyptians. Of the Hebrews. Of the Hindoos. Of the Chaldeans. Of the Persians. CHAPTER II. Literature of the Greeks. Greek poets; Orpheus, Linus, Mu~ saeus. The ancient bards. Of Homer; Hesiod; Archilochus; Tyrtaeus; AlcaBUS; Sappho. Of the origin of the Drama, and Dramatic poetry. Thespis the first actor. Pratinas. CHAPTER III. Literature of the Greeks. Slesichorus ; Anacreon ; Simonides ; Pindar: JEschylus; extracts from the tragedy of Agamemnon. Sophocles; extract* from the tragedy of (Edipus Tyrannus. Euripides; extracts from the tragedy of Iphi- genia in Aulis. CHAPTER IV. Literature of the Greeks. Greek comedy the old, the middle and the new. Greek comic writers; Eupolis; Cratinus; Aristophanes; Crates; Pherei* crates; Anaxandrides; Epicrates; Eubulis; Alexis; Antiphanes; Menander; Phile- mon. Remarks on pastoral poetry ; the pastoral poet, Theocritus ; Appolonius Rhodius. CHAPTER V. Literature of the Greeks. Of the different sects of Greek phi- losophers. The Ionic school; Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenee, Diogenes, Appol- lionates, Archelaus. Of the Socratic sect; Socrates, Zenophon, jEschines, Simon, Ce- bes. The Cyrenaic sect; Aristippus, Arete, Hegisias. The Megaric or Eristic sect; Euclid of Megara, Eubulides, Stilpo. The Eliac sect; Phoedo, Menedemus. The Academic sect; Plato, Speusippus, Zenocratvs, Polemo, Grantor. The Middle acade- my; Arcesilaus. The New academy ; Carneades, Clitomachus, Antiochus. The Peri- patetic sect; Aristotle, Theophrastus, Strato. The Cynic sect; Antisthenes, Diogenes, Hipparchia. The Stoic sect; Zeno, Cleanthes; Posidonius. CHAPTER VI. Literature of the Greeks. Philosophers of the Italic or Pytha- gorean school ; Pythagoras, Empedocles The Heraclitean sect ; Heraclitus, Hippocra- tes. The Epicurean sect; Epicurus. .The Sceptic sect; Pyrrho, Timon,^Enesidemu5. CHAPTER VII. Literature or the Greeks. Greek historians: Cadmus of Mil- etus; Phenecydes; Hecateus; Herodotus; Thucydides; Xenophon; Philistus; Megas- thenes; Polybius; Diodorus Siculus; Dionysius of Halicarnassus. Greek orators; Pi- theus; Georgias; Lysias; Isocrates; jEschines; Demosthenes. CHAPTER VIII. Literature of the Romans. Early history of Rome. Numa, the successor of Romulu?. The Fescinnene verses. Satires. The first dramatic poetv Livius Andronicus. Ennius ; Accius ; Nevius ; Pacuvius ; Plautus ; Coecilius ; Terence. CHAPTER IX. Literature of the Romans. Didactic poetry. Lucretius; Ter- rentius Varro; accession of Augustus to the Roman empire; Virgil; Ovid; Tibullus; Propcrtius; Horace; Influence of government upon literature. Lucan; Persius; Juve- nal; Martial, the epigramatist; Silius Italicus; Statius. Decline of dramatic poetiy. Shows of gladiators. VI CHAPTER X. Literature of the Romans. Importance of history. Roman his- torians, Pictor, Csesar, Nepos, Livy, Paterculus, Tacitus, Quintus Curtius, Suetonius, Justin, Arrian, Pausanias. CHAPTER XI. Literature of the Romans. Roman orators and miscellaneous writers. Tiberius and Caius Gracchus, Hortensius, Cicero, Quintillian, Pliny the el- der, Pliny the younger, Lucian, Plutarch. CHAPTER XII. Rise and progress of philosophy at Rome, to the death of Mar- cus Aurelius. Numa, one of the earliest philosophers of Rome. Introduction of Gre- cian philosophy, by Carneades the academic, Diogenes the stoic, and Critolaus the Peripatetic, opposed by Cato the Censor; edict of the Roman senate ; Scipio and others, became disciples. Pythagorean system; Publius Nigidius. The Platonic school; Sto ics; Cato of Utica, a stoic; the Peripatetics; Crassus. The Epicurean system; Lucre- tius. Introduction of Christianity, remarks thereon. CHAPTER XIII. History of Literature, from the accession of Commodus, to the reign of Constantino. Celsus ; Modern Platonic or Eclectic sect of philosophers; Po- lamo; Ammonius;Tertullian; Clemens Alexandrinus; Origen; Plotinu?; Porpher)'; I- amblichus ; Longinus. CHAPTER XIV. History of literature, from the accession of Constantine, to the foundation of the French monarchy by Clovis. Conversion of Constantine to the Christian religion, his character; Arius and the Arian heresy; Council of Nice; Lanc- tantius; Eusebius; Ossian; the Celtic and Scandinavian bards; Massacre of the Welsh bards; Constantius; Julian the apostate; his attempts to subvert Christianity ; encour- ages learning; Jovian; St. Augustine; Hypatia a female philosopher of Alexandria, basely murdered by order of the patriarch Cyril; Ausonius; Theodosius the Great Division of the Roman empire into the Eastern and Western empires; Incursions of the Barbarians; Fall of the western empire in the reign of Romulus Augustulus; Learning in the eastern empire. CHAPTER XV. History of literature, from the foundation of the French mon- archy by Clovi?, to the reign of Charlemagne. The Druids of Gaul and Britain; their powers; their religious doctrines; their learning. The Greek colony of Marseilles; the schools of Marseilles and plan of education. Introduction of Christianity into Gaul : itseflect. Sidonius; Fortunatus; Boethius; Gregory of Tours; Fredegarius; Vener- able Bede; decline of learning in England after the death of Bede. CHAPTER XVI. Sketch of the history of the literature of the Arabians, from the time of Mahomet to the expulsion of the Moors from Spain, with a sketch of Spanish lit- erature after that period. Mahomet, the Arabian prophet; Almanzor; Al-Raschid; Al-Mamon; Arabian poets; translations of Arabian poetry: Al-Farebi; Al-Rasi; Abul- Husien ; Aviccnna; Al-Gazel; Conquest of Spain by the Moors; Reign of Abdurrah- man Literary inssitutions in Spain; Spanish Arabian philosophers, Avenpace, Aven- zoar and Averroes ; the poem of the Cid ; extracts from it; Gonzales de Berceo ; Alphon- zo X; Don Juan Manual; Vasco de Lobiera. CHAPTER XVII. History of literature from the accession of Charlemagne to the begining of the eleventh century. Character of Charlemagne; Alcuin, a learned Englishman; Seminaries of learning; course of education. Charlemagne as an author: specimen of his poetry; decline of learning after the death of Charlemagne; Charles the Bald, a patron of learning; Thegan; Walafride; Condition of Britain from the in- vasion of Julius Caesar to the reign of Alfred. Alfred a patron of learning; founds the university of Oxford; Joannes Scotus; Dunstah. State of learning during the tenth 'entury. Gerbert archbishop of Rheims. Vll , . g. CHAPTER XVIII. History of literature from the begimng of the eleventh to the middle of the thirteenth century. Conquest of England by William of Normandy; Its effect upon learning; Ingulph; Anselm; Fulbert; Barengarius; scholastic philoso- phy; crusades; William de Champeaux; Abelard; Peter Lombard ; John of Salisbu- ry; Thomas Aquinas; Roger Bacon. The Troubadours; specimens of their poetry ; Arnaud de Marveil; Pierre Vidal ; decline of the Troubadours ; the Trouveres; their romances; sacred drama; extract from the "mystery of the passion." CHAPTER XIX. History of literature from the middle of the thirteenth, to the revival of letters in the fifteenth century. Michael Scot; John Dun Scotus; William Occam; Mathew Paris; university of Naples; university of Paris; college of Sorbon- ne; university of Oxford; university of Cambridge; John Wickliffe, the reformer; Dante, extracts from his vision ; Petrarch, sonnet writing; sonnets of Petrarch; Bocca- cio; LeontiusPilatus; Geoffry Chaucer; Gower; specimens of their poetry; James I, king of Scotland ; Walsingham, Otterbourne and Elmham, English historians ; Sir John Fortescue, an eminent civilian; Earl of Worcester. Foundation of the universities of Saint Andrews and Glasgow, in Scotland. CHAPTER XX. The revival of learning in the fifteenth century. Emmanuel Chrysoloras, a learned Creek, visits Italy, and revives the taste for the Greek language. The family of Medici. Cosmo de' Medici, a distinguished patron of learning. Lorenzo de' Medici, surnamed the magnificent; specimens of his poetry. Politiano and Luigi Pulci, extracts from their poems. Conclusion . ". INTRODUCTION. AMONG the most interesting events in the history of the world, are the rise and progress of literature, its general diffusion, and the influence it has exerted, and still continues to exert, upon the moral, intellectual and political condition of the human race. The influence of literature and science, is well worth the inves- tigation, not only of the philosopher, who enters minutely into the examination of causes and effects, but of every rational and intelligent mind; and its history is no less a subject of interest- ing pursuit. It js a pleasing employment, when the mind is un- disturbed by the cares of the world, or not engaged by more profound studies, to trace its progress through its various ramifi- cations and gradations, its elevations and depressions, from its first rude beginnings, when knowledge was conveyed in symbols and hieroglyphics, to its present "high and palmy state." Like every thing else, dependant upon human exertion for its cultiva- tion and improvement, it has had its seasons of prosperity and glory; and, notwithstanding the inestimable- blessings it is cal- culated to bestow, it has also had its seasons of humiliation and depression. When we compare the condition of a civilized and enlightened people with that of the wild and untutored savage, whose benight- ed mind no genial ray of science illumines, the influence of learn- ing is strikingly displayed. In the latter we behold mind in a rude and uncultivated state, rough and unpolished as the most pre- cious of gems, before the hand of the lapidary has removed the external coat which conceals its beauties. Contented with the objects which surround him, and with which he has been fami- liar from his infancy, the uncultivated man, notwithstanding his native energy of intellect, discovers no great merit in the im- provements daily making by his more enlightened neighbours, in the arts which conduce to the comforts and conveniences of life ; nor does he discover any extraordinary development of mind in the various improvements and discoveries in the different de- partments of science. But let these things be explained in a x INTRODUCTION. manner which he can comprehend, and if he is not able, from the peculiar circumstances of his situation, to adopt them in real life, he will be constrained to acknowledge the advantages to be derived from mental cultivation. The influence of learning is obvious also, when we compare the civil and political institu- tions of a country, where seminaries of learning, unrestrained by arbitrary rules, are supported and encouraged by public and private munificence, arid where learning is generally diffused, with those of another where knowledge is limited to a few where fairsciencespreadsnothercheeringbeamsabroad through- out the land. % In the one, the people are generally intelligent, if not learned, and are capable of understanding and properly appreciating their civil and political rights; they are in the peaceful possession of the comforts and conveniences of life, and are contented and happy. In the other, "oppression rules the hour;" the great mass of the people, debased by ignorance and superstition, are poor, wretched and dependant upon the whims and caprices of some petty tyrant, who, "clothed with a little brief authority," exercises it, not for the general good, but for his own private advantage, and to gratify his lust of power. Seated, as it were, upon a commanding eminence, the lover of learning at the present day, can see what it once was, and what it now is. He beholds many a solitary place made glad by the influence of literature, whilst its gentle and beneficent stream continues to flow and spread, and like the fruitful JSile, fertilizes the soil which would, otherwise, remain a barren waste, or pro- duce only the noxious weeds of error. From this eminence he casts a retrospective glance over the plains and mountains of Greece,"the land of battle and of song," and beholds them as they were in the days of her glory and renown. The venerable groves of the academy and the lyceum rise to his view, where lessons of wisdom once flowed from the lips of a Plato and an Aristotle, and he dwells with enthusiasm upon that proud era of her history, when the streets of Athens were crowded with philoso- phers, orators, poets and historians, whose genius still throws a splendid light over a country, once the theatre of so many glo- rious achievements, now, alas! the land of oppression, ignorance and superstition. The banner of Mahomet now waves over her ruined temples, her porticos and her monuments, and but little remains to designate the spot where Athens, unrivalled in lite- rature and unequalled in arts, once stood, the admiration of the world; And yet how lovely in thine age of wo, Land of lost gods and godlike men! art thou'. Thy vales of evergreen, thy hills of snow, Proclaim thee nature's varied favorite now. Lord Byron, INTRODUCTION. x From the shores of classic Greece, the eye of the observer is next directed to imperial Rome, and rests upon the palaces, the temples, the columns, the triumphal arches, which once adorn- ed the seven hills of the "Eternal City." He contemplates with pleasure, mingled with regret, that bright period in her literary history, distinguished as the Augustan age. when the bard of Mantua tuned his pipe upon the banks of the Tiber. He sees before him that illustrious band of literary men who crowded the court of Augustus, and who, supported by his liberal patronage, were enabled to contribute so much to advance the literary re- putation of a people, previously distinguished more for deeds of arms, than for the encouragement of letters and learned men. At no antecedent, and at few subsequent periods, were literary men more munificently rewarded, than during the reign of Au- gustus. He had overcome his political rivals, and upon the ruins of the ancient republic, had erected the imperial throne, contrary to the wishes of the people. Although his power was supported by armed legions, Augustus judged it prudent to adopt other means to gain the people ; hence he extended the hand of patronage to the literary men of the day, who repaid his muni- ficence by extolling his virtues and the mildness of his govern- ment thus, in a great degree, reconciling the people to his usurpations of power, and the extinction of their liberties. Of their merits we shall speak hereafter. A few years subsequent to this period witnessed the decline of Roman power and gran- deur, and of learning the Roman capital became subject to the barbarians of the north the Gothic hordes who disregard- ed the refinements of civilization , and overturned and trampled >ipon the elegant productions of Grecian and Roman art. The Goth, the Christian, time, war, flood and fire, Have dwelt upon the seven-hill'd city's pride; She saw her glories star by star expire, And up the steep barbarian monarchs ride Where the car climb'd the capitoi; far and wide Temple and towfcr went down, nor left a site: Chaos of ruins! who shall trace the void, O'er the dim fragments cast a lunar light, And say, "here was, or is" where all is doubly night! Chil.Har.C.4. LXXX. The depression of learning, after Christianity became the re- ligion of the Roman empire, is as remarkable, as it is difficult to be accounted for, upon any correct system of reasoning. The obvious tendency of the Christian religion, when free to act is, not only to shed abroad a knowledge of salvation, and point to the bright realities of another world, but to enlighten and libe- ralize the mind, making it the receptacle of science. Unfortu- xu INTRODUCTION. nately, liowever, a different spirit prevailed as soon as tht sceptre fell from pagan hands, a persecuting and intolerant spirit pervaded the empire, as a retaliation for the persecutions en- dured by the Christians during the supremacy of pagan pow- er; the pagan schools were closed, and in a short time all the learning of the times was confined to the higher clergy, who were as ambitious of temporal, as they were of spiritual, power. Nothing more clearly marks the spirit of the times, than a for- mal decree of an ecclesiastical council,* which proscribed and persecuted what was called "pagan learning," that is, the poetry and philosophy of the ancients, and which prohibited even bishops from reading secular books. The stores of ancient learn- ing and wisdom were then mouldering in the cells of monaste- ries, inaccessible to any but illiterate monks, who, in conse- quence of their ignorance of even the rudiments of learning, were unable to avail themselves of the treasures within their grasp. The whole circle of monkish literature embraced only the legends of saints and the records of the wonderful miracles of holy martyrs. This age of ignorance continued through the long period of twelve centuries, scarcely a gleam of intellectual light breaking through the dark cloud which hung over it. The princes and nobles of those days, who ought to have been its patrons, were too much devoted to war and warlike amusements, to give themselves much concern on the subject of learning; they had no idea that any kind of knowledge, to be derived from books, was requisite to enable them to fill the eminent stations they occupied; they, therefore, left the pursuits gf literature entirely to the dignitaries of the church, who alone were thought to have any occasion for learning; and they were interested in not removing the veil of ignorance, that they might maintain that influence they had, unfortunately for the human family, ob- tained and exercised. About the middle of the eleventh centu- ry, alight burst through the surrounding gloom; feeble, indeed, at first, but gradually extending, until about the middle of the fifteenth century, when learning revived, and found patrons and protectors in the munificent house of Medici, particularly in Cos- mo dc Medici^ and his grandson Lorenzo, the magnificent. About this time, also, the art of printing was invented, which, aided by the liberal principles introduced by the reformation, contributed to the general und rapid diffusion of learning. Since then it has continued to flourish in Europe; and having been trans- planted into this free and happy country, it has found a conge- nial soil, where it requires only proper cultivation to bring it to perfect maturity. In the succeeding pages, we design to present a concise view * The fourth council of Carthage held A. D. 398. INTRODUCTION. x |jj of the progress of literature. The subject embraces, it is true, an extensive field, one which we have not the vanity to suppose ourselves capable of exploring and fully unfolding. We do not hope, nor do we aim to attract, by any novelty of matter or man- ner we design to give a brief sketch of what we consider an interesting subject, more particularly for the benefit of those who have neither leisure nor opportunity to examine the subject more at large. if& SKETCHES OF THE HISTORY OF LITERATURE , , * o > ^ * ' *'*** CHAPTER I. Hieroglyphic and Alphabetic writing. Literature of the Egyptians, Hebrews and other eastern nations. THE subject of alphabetic writing, that most important in- vention, to which we are indebted for the preservation of all learning, has given rise to much able, learned and interesting discussion. It has employed the pens of many profound anti- quaries, whose peculiar province it is, to penetrate the veil that covers the transactions of past ages: but, notwithstanding all their researches and ingenious speculations, it is unsettled among the learned, where and when it originated whether it is of di- vine origin, or a wonderful effort of human ingenuity and inven- tion. In a literary point of view, writing is the most important in- vention with which we are acquainted; as we are thus enabled to communicate our thoughts, our feelings and impressions, to each other, when absent, as well as when present, and to trans* mit to posterity the record of the great events which, from time to time, agitate the natural, moral and political world, as well as important discoveries and improvements in arts and science. Previous to the invention of letters, the knowledge of the historj of nations depended upon the frail memory of man, and was 16 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. communicated, from generation to generation, by tradition, or by means of hieroglyphics, which were known only to a few. In consequence of this want of written records, we are entirely ignorant of that race of people, who once inhabited the northern portion of the vast continent of America, and whose remains are at once a striking monument of their power, and of the vanity of all earthly things. Of the purposes for which these mounds or pyramids were erected, we are left entirely to conjecture. Writing was, at first, in hieroglyphics, or by representations of material objects ; thus, the figure of a man was used to express a man the figure of a tree to express a tree, and so on through all the productions of nature. Thus also, if it were meant to intimate, that a man h;>d been slain by a wild beast, the figure of a man extended on the earth, and the animal standing over hirt-., vould be delineated. The origin of hieroglyphic writing has been generally ascribed to the Egyptians; but, whether they are entitled to the honor of the invention or not, their priests deserve the credit of forming it into something like a regular system, by means of which, they were enabled to trace the con- ceptions and operations of the mind, so as to be perfectly intelli- gible to each other. The Egyptian priests were a separate class of men, set apart for regulating and conducting reli- gious ceremonies; they had acquired the reputation of superior wisdom, at a time when knowledge was extremely limited, and, with the ambition natural to man, they used every means that ingenuity could devise, to increase their influence with the peo- ple. They were closely united among themselves; a singleness of object and design governed and directed their actions, and the sacredness of character with which they were invested, ena- bled them to accomplish all they desired obtaining an unbound- ed influence with every order of society, from the prince to the peasant. In the retirement of their temples, they pursued those researches which rendered them celebrated in other lands; but the particular fruits of their studies were placed beyond the reach of common ken, by the use of hieroglyphic characters, known only to themselves, or such as they thought proper to ini- tiate into a knowledge of their mysteries. On the existing mo- numents of the ancient Egyptians, which strew the plains of Egypt, hieroglyphic characters abound, and still continue to attract attention, and exercise the ingenuitv of travellers. On HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 17 the temples and other ruins of Luxore, they look as if but re- cently cut. "You see them," says the author of Scenes and Im- pressions in Egypt and Italy, "as Cambyses saw them, when he staid his chariot wheels to gaze up at them; and the Persian war cry ceased before these acknowledged symbols of the sacred element of fire." Hieroglyphic writing not only prevailed among several an- oient nations of the old world, but was even practised by the Mexicans, when their country was invaded by the Spaniards, as appears from the fact, that the inhabitants of the coast, in order to give information to Montezuma of the arrival of strangers, sent him white cotton cloths, on which were delineated figures of ships, horses, artillery and whatever else they had observed remarkable.* It is even practised at the present day among the aborigines of America, as is well known to those who have paid any attention to their manners and customs. The curious will find an illustration of this fact, by consulting "Long's Expedition to the Rocky Mountains," where is preserved a copy of a hiero- glyphic record of an Indian battle, as delineated on a buffalo skin.t Hieroglyphic writing is a difficult, imperfect and unsatisfac- tory mode of recording events, and the process of delineation laborious. Although, in a certain degree, it answered the pur- pose for which it was designed, the difficulties attending it must have induced those who practised it, to study some more easy and expeditious method of communicating their ideas; hence, we presume, one improvement succeeded another, until the sys- tem of alphabetic writing was invented and adopted. The Egyptian priests, however, long after the invention of letters, continued the use of hieoroglyphics, to conceal their learning and the mysteries of the priesthood, from the profane eyes of the un initiated, in order to preserve and increase their authority. With regard to the origin of alphabetic characters, so con trary and insufficient is the evidence, that it is impossible to fix the era of the invention, or ascertain the inventors who are thus deprived of the honors justly due to so important a discovery. The invention has been ascribed to different nations the Egyp- tians, the Phoenicians, the Hebrews, the Chaldeans, the Indian?. * Robertson's History of America, vol. 1, p. 396, T Long's Expedition, vol. l,p. 159., 296,440. jg HISTORY OF LITERATURE. the Arabians, have each set up their claims, and each have had their advocates, who have urged their respective pretensions with great ingenuity, learning and ability. The Greeks ascribed the invention to Cadmus, a Phoenician, who first made known the use of the alphabet in Greece ; it then consisted of but sixteen letters, the rest having been added at subsequent and distant periods. Those who urge the claims of the Hebrews, say, that the Greeks confounded the Phoenicians with the Hebrews, in consequence of similarity of language, and that when they spoke of the Phoenician alphabet, they really meant the Hebrew. We think there is but little ground for the opinion, that Cadmus was the inventor of alphabetic writing; the honor of having accommodated the Phoenician or Hebrew cha- racters to the Greek language, is all that he may fairly be con- sidered entitled to; and this is no small honor it shows him to have been one who possessed at least some of the learning of the times, and was willing to share it with others. The Egyp- tians, Phoenicians and Chaldeans, were neighboring nations, dif- fering but little in their manners, customs and religion, and very similar in language. Their intercourse with each other favor- ed the reciprocal communication of the knowledge possessed by each; so that it is difficult to decide which received the know- ledge of letters from the other. To the Egyptian god Thotk, who is the same with the Phoenician Thaut, who is also the Hermes of the Greeks and Mercury of the Romans, the Phoenician historian Sanchoniathon ascribed the invention of letters. To him also it is ascribed by Diodorus Siculus. The claim of the Indians is thought by some modern writers, to be entitled to great weight; but they have probably rested their opinions more upon the proud claims of the Hindoo writers to high antiquity, than any strict and close examination of a subject of so much intricacy. The Sanscrit, a polished and ele- gant tongue, but which has now ceased to be a living language, is supposed to be the root of almost every dialect, from the Per- sian gulf to the Chinese sea, thirty-two of which have been re- cognised and distinguished by the missionaries of Serampore. The Hindoos assert, that their ancient books describe the Egyp- tians and other ancient nations, as seeking amongst them that Information their own country could not afford. This uncertainty, with regard to the invention of alphabetic HISTORY OF LITERATURE. ^ characters, by any particular nation, has induced the opinion, that it is not a human invention, but of divine origin, and was delivered by God himself to his chosen people. The opinion is supported by the following arguments: 1st. The high antiquity of the use of letters; the Hebrew characters having existed when Moses composed the Pentateuch, (1450 years before Christ.) at which time it appears they were in as perfect a state, as in the days of Jewish splendor and glory. 2d. The simila- rity between the various alphabets of different nations, which, for the most part, are the same in order, power and even form of their letters, with the Hebrew. 3d. The complete want of al- phabetic characters among those nations which have been cut off from all communication with the ancient civilized world. 4th. The difficulty of the invention, considering the rude state of society at the time it must have been accomplished.* The arguments here stated, if they are not conclusive as to the ori- gin of alphabetic writing, are at least plausible. One thing, however, we think may be regarded as certain, from various passages in the sacred volume, namely, that alphabetic writing existed before the delivery of the law to Moses; and if delivered by God himself, must have been delivered long antecedent to this time. Thus we find in the 17th chapter of Exodus, "the Lord said unto Moses, write this for a memorial in a book;" which direction was given before the law was delivered from Mount Sinai, and of course implies that writing was known be- fore that time, the period at which its original delivery to man is assigned by some who contend for its divine origin. Although it is probable, that alphabetic writing is of divine origin, and delivered to some of the descendants of Adam, long before the time of Moses, yet, as we find no mention made of this circum- stance in the sacred volume, the oldest record extant, we incline to the opinion, that it is of human invention, and was a natural consequence arising from the improvement of hieroglyphic or picture writing; and that Moses, who is said to have been "learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians," carried it with him out of Egypt. Letters were originally written from the right hand towards the left, and without any of the stops and divisions practised in * Frtin. Ency. art. Alphabet %0 HISTORY OF LITERATURE modern writing. This mode prevailed among the Assyrians, Phoenicians, Hebrews, Chaldeans and Arabians, and is still prac- tised among the nations of the East. This mode also obtained, originally, among the Greeks, as it is very natural it should, if they received their knowledge of alphabetic writing from the Phoenicians. They afterwards adopted the method of writing from right to left, and from left to right, alternately, which con- tinued until about the time of Solon, when the method of writ- ing from left to right was finally adopted. The Greek alphabet, as before remarked, is undoubtedly of Phoenician origin, and consisted of but sixteen letters; to these, Palemedes, son of Nauplius, king of Euboea, about the time of the Trojan war ? added four, and the poet Simonides, who lived in the time of Hipparchus, the son of Pisistratus, added four more. From the Greek alphabet, all the alphabets in use in modern Europe, have been derived. The materials first used for writing, were the leaves or inner bark of trees, afterwards linen, and tables covered with wax. About the time of Alexander the Great, paper first began to be manufactured from the Egyptian plant called papyrus, (Cyperm papyrus.} This plant has several coats, one above another, like the coats of an onion, which being separated by a sharp instru- ment, and moistened with water, were put under a press and afterwards dried in the sun. Besides these several prepara- tions, parchment, made of the skins of goats, was also used,, which continued in use, until the invention of paper from cotton by the Arabians, A. D. 706. In the thirteenth century, paper manufactories were established in the Christian kingdom of Cas- tile; and in the fourteenth century, the knowledge of the art found its way into Italy, after which time paper, manufactured from cotton and linen, came into general use. The long time which elapsed before the introduction of paper among the Christians of Europe, affords a strong evidence of the low state of learning in the Christian world. Had there been much zeal in the cause, a discovery so valuable would not have been so long neglected ; for such was the scarcity of materials for writ- ing, that many valuable ancient manuscripts were erased, to make way for the puerile productions of monkish superstition. The ancient form of a book, was usually that of a roll, form- ed of several leaves of parchment, or paper made of papyrus., -^ '-: HISTORY OF LITERATURE. IftftK, iustened together. When a book or volume was finished, a of wood, bone or horn, was affixed to it on the outside for secu- rity, as well as ornament, when the book was rolled. The cus- tom of writing in continued sheets, and putting them up in a roll, was practised by almost all nations of antiquity, differing, how- over, in this, that in some tbc writing was continued across the sheets, while in others the sheets were divided into columns. Among the Romans the method of dividing a book into pages, like our books, was not practised until the time of Julius Caesar, who adopted it on his letters to the senate. The internal ar- rangement of books varied also in different countries and at dif- ferent periods. At first letters were only separated by lines, and it was long before they were separated into individual words; on which account the utmost care was necessary to guard against errors. The Jewish writers never divided a word, so as to place a part in 'one line, and a part in another they, there- fore, enlarged some of their letters, so as to fill up the blank spaces; these letters are distinguished by the name of final let- ters. The division of the sacred books, into chapters and verses, is a modern invention.* Egypt is said to be the source whence we have derived all our knowledge; the spot whence learning and science was dif- fused over Europe. Egypt was long celebrated for the uninter- rupted enjoyment of peace, so necessary to the prosperity of a country, in the accumulation of wealth and all the conveniences of life, and so favorable to the cultivation of the peaceful arts, and the different branches of learning. Their system of gov- ernment, although monarchical and hereditary, was well devised to render the people contented and happy. Their princes, so far from being arbitrary and despotic, were under equal, if not greater restraint, than their subjects, arising from that salutary law which subjected their conduct to close examination after death, and a denial of the rights of sepulture and of funeral honors, if they were found guilty of any thing that would re- flect dishonor on their memory.! This salutary regulation, maintained by the priests, and supported by the force of public opinion, operated as a powerful restraint upon the abuse of power, and established that sort of connexion between prince * Adams' Rom. Ant., Rennet's Rom. Ant., Brown's Ant, of the Jews, i Rol.Anc. Hist. Yol.l, p. 157,171. oo HISTORY OF LITERATURE. aaa people, calculated to inspire mutual confidence a state of things seldom existing where the sovereign is absolute, and un~ restrained by written laws. Notwithstanding the great reputation of the Egyptians, as re- gards literature and science, which was not confined to the coun- tries watered by the Nile, but extended into more remote and distant quarters, the state of learning among them, as a people, has been much overrated; so much are we in the habit of re- ceiving as true, that which has long been asserted without con- tradiction. The mass of the people were not more enlightened in the ways of knowledge, than some of their neighbors, who have never acquired so high a reputation. Whatever learning was among them, was confined to the priests, by whom it was guarded with scrupulous care, as unfit to be communicated to vulgar minds. By this concealment of their knowledge, they were enabled to maintain that influence over the people they had long exercised, and which they were unwilling to lose. Priestcraft, in all ages, has been the same, seeking to perpetuate ignorance, rather than remove the film from the mental eye. Notwithstanding the fame they have acquired, and their boast of being the inventors of alphabetic writing, no works of Egyp- tian philosophers, poets or historian?, have come down to us, by which we can estimate the extent of their philosophical re- searches, their critical acumen, their taste or skill in poetry, the style of their oratory, or their historical compositions. What- ever works of literature and science they may have possessed, have perished, and their authors are no more remembered, than the founders of pyramids, so long one of the seven wonders of the world, and still the admiration of travellers who stop to con- template these stupendous monuments of human labor and in- dustry. The only information we possess, with regard to the literary attainments of the Egyptians, their knowledge of the arts and sciences, is derived from the sacred writers, and the imperfect accounts of the Grecian historians and philosophers, who were induced, by the high reputation of their priests, to travel to that country in pursuit of knowledge. Thus Pythago- ras anfl Plato, both celebrated as philosophers, were initiated into all the learning of the priesthood, on which they set a high value, and subsequently taught in their respective schools of Athens and Crotona, HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 23 The Egyptian priests, in addition to their reputation for learn- ing, were distinguished for extraordinary sanctity, which ob- tained for them a great influence with the people, and a consi- derable share in the management of civil affairs. At fixed hours they celebrated the praises of their gods; in the intervals of which, their time was employed in mathematical studies, or sci- entific pursuits. They concealed the mysteries of religion and learning from the common people, by means of that hierogly- phic, or symbolic method of writing, we have already mentioned. The philosophy of the Egyptians, as taught by their priests, con- sisted of two kinds the one addressed to the common people, which was called the exoteric, and contained the principles of their public religious creed ; the other, which was communicated to a select number intended for the priesthood, in a secret and mysterious manner, was called the esoteric. The exoteric doc- trines of philosophy or religion, inculcated the most absurd and irrational superstition, and the worship not only of gods, heroe? and eminent men, but different animals, and even the production? of the vegetable kingdom. Juvenal, in his 15th satire, thus speaks of the Egyptian superstitions: Quis nescit, volusi Bythenice, qualia clemens yEgyptus portenta colat? Crocodilon adorat Pars hcec; illapavet saturam serpentibus Ibin. Effigies sacri nitetaurea Circopitheci, Xfimidio magicae resonant ubi Memnone chorda?. Atque vetus Thebe centum jacet obruta portis. Illic caeruleos.hic piscim fluminis, illic Oppidatota canem venerantur, nemo Dianam; Porrum et cepe nefas violare, ac frangere morsu. O sanctas gentes, quibushoec nascuntur in horti^ JXumina, Who knows not to what monstrous gods, my friend The mad inhabitants of Egypt bend? While these the Ibis as a god enshrine, Those think the crocodile alone divine; Others where Thebes' vast ruins strew t'ie ground, And shatter'd Memnon yields a magic *ound, Set up a brute of uncouth shape And bow before the image of an ape! Thousands regard the hound with holy fear, Not one Diana; and it 's dangerous here, To violate an onion, or to stain The sanctity of leeks, with tooth profane. Oh holy nations! sacro-sanct abodes Where every garden propagates its gods. Giffbrd, ,. HISTORY OF LITERATURE. Doctrines so absurd and irrational, were not calculated to eu * large the mind, elevate the feelings, or give, indeed, any idea ot that supreme intelligence which governs the world. The esoteric. or secret doctrine, inculcated a much more rational philosophy, although much at variance with the sublimer systems of modern times. It taught that matter was the first principle of all tilings, and that before the regular forms of nature arose, an eternal chaos had existed, which contained, in a state of darkness and confusion, all the materials of future heings. Besides this ma- terial principle, it admitted also, an active principle, or intelli- gent power, eternally united with the chaotic mass, by whose energy the elements were separated and bodies formed, and which continually presided over the universe, and is the efficient cause of all effects. With respect to the human soul, although their opinions are differently represented, it is generally agreed, that the priests taught that it was immortal; and whilst some writers assert, that they believed and taught the doctrine of the transmigration of souls, others maintain that they inculcated the more fanciful notion, that the souls of good men, after wan- dering for a time among the stars, were permitted to return to the society of the gods. The doctrine of the transmigration of souls, taught in the Pythagorean school, was no doubt received from the Egyptian priests.* The Egyptians, at a very early period, possessed considerable skill in some species of manufactures; as we learn, that even in the days of the Patriarchs, they wore fine linen and golden or- naments; Joseph is described as being thus arrayed; and the sacerdotal garments of the Hebrew priesthood, and the inner hangings of the tabernacle, were made of fine linen dyed, and embroidered with gold. Husbandmen, shepherds and artificers, formed three classes held in great esteem ; and as no profession was regarded as mean, wVich in any manner conduced to the comfort* and conveniences of Ttfe, the arts received that encouragement which raised some of tbsm to a considerable degree of perfec- tion, notwithstanding that remarkable law which compelled a son to pursue the occupation of his father. This law, although it enabled artists to become more expert in employments which they exercised from their infancy, nevertheless operated as i\ ist, of Philo*. vol. 1. p. M. ftseq .. RoH. Anr His, vol. 1,p; 163. HISTORY OF LITERATURE. ^ oarher to invention, by cramping the genius, and confining it to a single object. Rollin calls it a wholsome institution, which extinguished irregular ambition, and taught every man to sit down contented with his own condition, without aspiring to one more elevated, from interest, vain glory or levity. Accustomed as we have been, to reverence the opinions of learned and dis- tinguished men, we beg leave to dissent from an opinion as un- philosophical as unwise. We can see nothing wholesome in an institution, which confines a man to one employment, to the pur- suit of a single object during a whole life. Had such a law been adopted in all nations, where would have been the march of improvement? Where would have been the great and manifold improvements and discoveries which have been made in the va- rious departments of the arts and sciences ? Were the most learned and enlightened of the ancient philosophers permitted to revisit this world, the wonderful changes which literature, science and art have made in its condition, would strike him with wonder and astonishment. The application of steam to the various pur- poses of commerce, manufactures and domestic economy, would alone be sufficient to establish, not only the propriety, but ne- cessity, of permitting the free exercise of genius, and prove the impolicy of the law of Egypt. The architecture of the Egyptians was massy and solid, but it had no beauty of design, or elegance of execution, to attract the admiration of beholders; it was not to be compared with the light and tasteful style of Grecian architecture. From this censure we ought, perhaps, to except their obelisks, which are quadrangular pillars, or pyramids of stone, covered with hiero- glyphical inscriptions. Two of these were conveyed from Egypt at great expense, and now adorn the city of Rome. The ruins of ancient Thebes, the city of a hundred gates, present the most strking monuments of Egyptian architecture, wherewith to gra- tify the curiosity of the traveller and the antiquary monuments covered with hieroglyphics "which look alike upon the learned and unlearned, with a bright and mocking distinctness, awaken- ing curiosity, exercising the fancy, but, after all, defying the un- derstanding." In what is called the fine arts, sculpture and painting, if they possessed genius and skill in execution, they were destitute of taste; their statues were without due propor- tion, grace or elegance of figure ; they were in no degree worthy 4 2$ HISTORY OF LITERATURE. to be placed in competition with the finished productions of Phi- dias and Praxitelles. Their paintings were in no better style of execution than their statuary, nor does history record the names of any distinguished painters. However deficient we may regard the taste of the Egyptians in architecture, sculpture and painting, they possessed consider- able knowledge of many of the physical sciences, and to them we are indebted, at least, for the principles, upon which they are founded. Geometry, now so important a branch of mathema- tics, and so essential to constitute an accomplished scholar, ori- ginated with them, and was, at first, nothing more than the simr ple process of measuring lands and establishing their bounda- ries, after the landmarks had been swept away by the inunda- tions of the Nile. From such simple beginnings has resulted a science, which has become, in the progress of society, highly im- portant to mankind, particularly to astronomers, architects, en- gineers, and others, who, without its knowledge, would be una*- ble to turn many of their discoveries and observations to advai> tage. The science of astronomy, that sublime science by which wf our Saviour. . HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 3^ On the other side, it is argued, that the vowel points were unknown to the seventy who translated the scriptures, about two hundred and eighty years before Christ, in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt. If, therefore, it is said, the Hebrew manuscripts at the time of the seventy were un- pointed, or, if they were pointed in a manner different from that mode of pointing which has come down to us, the high antiquity, and of course, the authority, of the present vowel points is de- stroyed, and will reduce the invention to a period subsequent to the septuagint translation. In support, also, of this opinion, it is said that Origen, who lived in the third, and St. Jerome, who lived in the fourth century, and were both well skilled in He- brew, make no mention of vowel points; the latter expressly asserts that the manner of reading the Hebrew was unfixed in his time. St. Jerome devoted much of his time to the study of Hebrew literature, having spent more than twenty years, solely for the purpose of attending the schools of the most celebrated Jewish teachers, and conversing with the most intelligent Jews on the subject of their language, and the meaning of their sacred writings. Another remarkable fact is, that the Jews have never suffered the manuscripts which are preserved in their synar gogues, for the purposes of religious worship, to be disfigured with points. Such is the substance of the principal arguments for and against the authority and authenticity of the vowel points. The reader who is desirous of examining this subject more at large, is referred to Calmet's Dictionary of the Bible.. Wilson's Hebrew Grammar, and Brown's Antiquities of thd Jews* The opponents of the vowel points have adopted a method of reading which certainly recommends itself for its simplicity: that is, by supplying a short a or e between the consonants* The vowels thus supplied facilitate the pronunciation, which can be acquired in a very short time, and retained with very little practice, whereas the Mazoritic points are complex and difficult. The first and most celebrated of the Hebrew writers of whom we have any certain knowledge, is Moses, who composed the Pentateuch, about 1450 years before the birth of Christ. Mose& was brought up in the court of Pharaoh, and was instructed in ^11 the wisdom of the Egyptians, and is said to have had a per 31 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. feet knowledge of all the sciences then known. At forty years of age he left the court of the Egyptian king, where he was sur- rounded hy the blaze and splendor of royalty, and seeking the land of Midian, he married Zippora, the daughter of Jethro, priest of Midian, and became an humble shepherd, tending the flocks of his father in law. From this humble condition, he was called to be the law-giver and judge of God's chosen people, and their leader from the house of bondage to the promised land. In the retirement of the land of Midian, while pursuing the peaceful occupation of a shepherd, he is supposed to have writ- ten by divine inspiration, the book of Genesis, which embraces a period of twenty-three hundred and sixty-nine years, from the creation of the world, and which contains the only authentic account of the great work of creation. It was at this time also, he is supposed to have written the book of Job; a book which yields to none in the sacred volume, for grand and sublime con- ceptions, and language at once energetic and abounding with the most pure and exalted precepts af morality. With regard to authorship of*the book of Job, the subject is stated and ex- amined at some length and with much learning, in the preface to Dr. Clark's commentary on the book of Job. In addition to the sacred books, which are on all hands acknowledged to be the work of Moses, he is said to have written several other works, not now extant, from which Pythagoras and Plato are supposed to have drawn, a great part of their respective doctrines. This opinion, however, is one which originated with the philosophers of the Alexandrian school, for the purpose, no doubt, of gaining credit for the doctrines they taught, which were a mixture of the Jewish and Christian philosophy, with that of the philosophers of Greece. It is unnecessary to enter into a detailed account of the sa- cred writers after Moses, or a minute examination of their par- ticular merits, as their works are, or ought to be, familiar to our readers. Among the most distinguished, however, are David, Solomon and the prophets. The authorship of the psalms is generally ascribed, exclusively, to David, who has been empha- tically styled the "sweet psalmist of Israel." There are, how- ever, some writers among the ancient Greek and Roman fa- thers, who contend, that the psalms are not the production of a individual; but of several. St. Athanasius reckons but HISTORY OF LITERATURE, 33 seventy-two psalms, out of one hundred and fifty, which have been pronounced canonical, as the work of David, and the same number is ascribed to him by Eusebius, bishop of Csesaria. Although the whole collection of psalms may not have been written by David, we have sufficient evidence, that the greater portion were composed by him. Warmed by a spirit of devo- tion, and animated by the most exalted sentiments of the wisdom and perfections of the great Creator, he poured forth his prayers in the most sublime poetry: "The Lord reigneth," says he, "let the earth rejoice; let the multitudes of the isles be glad thereof. Clouds and darkness are around about him; righteousness and judgment are the habitation of his throne. A fire goeth before him, and burneth up his enemies round about. His lightnings enlightened the world; the earth saw and trembled. The hills melted like wax at the presence of the Lord, at the presence of the Lord of the whole earth. The heavens declare his right- eousness, and all the people see his glory." Sublime as are some of the descriptions of Homer, the father of epic poetry, they fall far short of the majesty and grandeur of the royal psalmist. In the psalms there is a peculiarity of style and lan- guage that interests the imagination whilst it improves the heart. "Other poetry," says Steele, "leads us through flowery meadows, or beautiful gardens, refreshing with cooling breezes or delicious fruits, soothes us with the murmur of waters or the melodies of birds, or else conveys us to the court or camp; dazzles our ima- gination with crowns and sceptres, embattled hosts, or heroes shining in burnished steel ; but sacred numbers seem to admit us into a solemn and magnificent temple; they encircle us with every thing that is holy and divine; they superadd an agreeable awe and reverence to all those pleasing emotions we feel from other lays, an awe and reverence that exalts whilst it chastises ; its sweet authority restrains each undue liberty of thought, word and action; it makes us think better and more nobly of ourselves, from a consciousness of the great presence we are in, where saints surround us, and angels are our fellow worshippers."* In modern times, praise is often bestowed on rank and title which is only due to merit; and thus we frequently find, that men enjoy a celebrity in the literary world, on account of their elevated rank, which is denied to superior genius in humble life. This * Guardian No.5! 34 fi** HISTORY OF LITERATURE, remark, however, will not apply to David, who wielded the sceptre of a then powerful nation, and was surrounded by all the splendor of royalty. His superior endowments commanded the admiration of his subjects, yet more than his regal state, and while posterity acknowledges his claims to the character of a poet of the first order, it acknowledges also, that he possessed the inspiration of a prophet, and was the "anointed of the God of Jacob." The psalms were collected by Esdras, according to a tradition prevailing among Hebrews and Christians.* Among the wise men of the Jews, the first rank, by universal consent, has been assigned to Solomon, the son of David. In the books attributed to him, we discover the same sublimity of con- ception, the same energy of language, the same commanding eloquence, that distinguish the other sacred writers, and desig- nate one to whom "wisdom and knowledge" had been granted. The writings of Solomon display extensive knowledge of the ways of men, and a superior degree of moral wisdom; they in- culcate doctrines and opinions with regard to the conduct of men worthy of all acceptation, and which could only proceed from a mind preeminently enlightened. That he was well skilled in the sciences then known and cultivated, we have no doubt; but we have not been able to discover that profound knowledge in them respectively, which have been ascribed to him. We re- gard him rather as a great moral teacher, and endowed with su- perior wisdom, than as a teacher of natural and physical science. Of the works of Solomon, we have the books of Proverbs, Ec- clesiastes and the Song of Solomon. These are generally, if not universally, ascribed to him; the books of Wisdom and Ec- clesiasticus, which are attributed to him by some, are denied by others, and being thus of doubtful origin, are placed among the apocryphal books. Besides the above, many other works have been attributed to his pen, on magic, medicine and a variety of other subjects, which have been justly rejected as infamous at- tempts to impose on the credulity of mankind. It is thought by some, that Aristotle, the celebrated Grecian philosopher, was indebted to some of the works of Solomon, not now extant, for a great portion of that wisdom which gained him so much cele- brity, even in modern times. It is easy to advance such an opi> *Calraet'a Diet, of the Bible, art. Psaltnl HISTORY OF LITERATURE. nion, but it is difficult to prove or disprove it, when authorities for either purpose are unattainable. The several prophets may, with propriety, be regarded in the list of Hebrew writers. They were the divines, the philoso- phers, the instructers and the guides of the Hebrews in piety and virtue. They were the organs through which the Almighty thought proper to communicate his will to his chosen people. They generally lived retired, in a sort of community, where they and their disciples were employed in prayer, in labor and in study.* Their sacred character and exemplary conduct, in- spired the people with that reverence which is due to the minis- ter of God, and secured an influence never employed by them, but in delivering the will of God, and inculcating the principles of religion and virtue. The writings of the prophets, as well as the other sacred writings, have been remarkably preserved amidst the convulsions of empires and the devastations of war, which have destroyed the works of other ancient writers. The remarkable fulfilment of the prophecies, leaves no room to doubt of their immediate inspiration, and affords the most powerful evidence of the truth of that sublime religion which has brought life and immortality to light a religion which, when left free to operate, purifies the heart, and fits the soul for the blessed regions of immortal glory. In the old testament, we have the writings of sixteen pro- phets, four of whom are distinguished as the greater, and twelve as the lesser prophets. The four greater are Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Daniel. The twelve lesser are Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Micah, Jonah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Hag- gai, Zechariah and Malachi. In addition to the books considered canonical, Hebrew litera- ture possesses other works. The books of the Apocrypha, so called from the Greek word artox^vxtv, "to hide," because of their doubtful origin, were never admitted into the Jewish ca- non, nor read in the synagogue. Neither are they admitted as canonical by protestant Christians, but they, nevertheless, con- tain many sublime sentiments, and supply many historical facts in relation to the history of the Jews. As literary productions then, they deserve to occupy a conspicuous place in the history of the period to which they belong. * Calmet's Diet, of the Bible, art. Prophet. 35' HISTORY OF LITERATURE. Among the more modern Jewish writers, Josephus holds the first place. He was horn in Jerusalem, A. D. 37, and was pre- sent when that city was taken by the Romans under Vespasian. Having surrendered himself to the conqueror, he gained his es- teem and favor by flattering his vanity, and foretelling that he would one day become master of the Roman empire. After the siege of Jerusalem by Titus, he accompanied that conqueror to Rome, where he was admitted to the privileges of a Roman citi- zen. During his residence there, he employed his time in study, and in collecting and arranging the materials for his celebrated works, "The wars of the Jews" and the "Antiquities of the Jews." These works \vere composed during the reign of Titus, whose favor and patronage Josephus enjoyed. The "Wars of the Jews" was originally written in Syriac, and afterwards trans- lated into Greek; the "Antiquities" was written in Greek. Be- sides these works, he wrote some others of minor celebrity. His works are much esteemed as a valuable record of historical facts, so far as his own nation is immediately concerned ; but when he speaks of Jesus Christ, and the great and interesting events of his life, he writes with all the prejudices of a Jew, and misapplies some of the most prominent and striking pro- phecies. The Midmschim, is a work of great antiquity and of high au- thority. This work, as the name imports, consists of commen- taries upon the scriptures. The Misna, or Mishna, contains the oral law delivered by Moses, first to Aaron and his sons, and then to the seven elders. The Jews believe, that when God gave the written law to Moses, he gave them also another not written, which was preserved among the doctors of the syna- gogue, until the year A. D. 180, when Judas the Holy, a learn- ed Rabbin, and a chief of the Jev> s, apprehensive lest the tra- ditions and rites of their fathers might be forgot, in consequence of their dispersion throughout many provinces and countries, thought it better to reduce them to writing, than to trust to their memories. Thus the Mishna was compiled, and was received with profound veneration by the Jews, and their learned men made it their principal study. This work is divided into six parts, and contains the whole of their oral laws, and treats of rheir obligations, sacrifices, and whatever relates thereto. Ju i '.<* the Holy, the compiler of the Mishna. was the chief of those kJ HISTORY OF LITERATURE. jy doctors or learned men, called Tanaitcs, or preservers of .the tradition, whom they believed enjoyed the peculiar favor of God. The Talmud of Jerusalem, and the Talmud of Babylon, are both important works, and esteemed of high authority. The Talmud contains the body of the doctrine, religion and mora- lity of the Jews. That of Jerusalem was compiled about 300 years after Christ, by the Rabbi Johanan, and is composed of the Mishna, and the Gemara, a commentary upon the Mishna, by Jo- hanna; that of Babylon is composed of the Mishna, and the commentary of Rabbi Asa, who lived at Babylon about 400 years after Christ. The latter was compiled, because that of Jerusalem was considered imperfect, as containing only the opi- nions of a few of the Rabbins of Jerusalem. The Talmud of Babylon is generally preferred by the Jews to that of Jerusalem, because it is more extensive. Notwithstanding it abounds with miraculous stories, its authority is even preferred by some to that of the scriptures. They believe the traditions contained therein, are derived from God himself, that Moses revealed them to Aaron, to the sons of Aaron, and to the elders of Israel, and that they passed down until they came to the doctors, who reduced them to the form of the Mishna and the Gemara. The Targum, is the Chaldee paraphrase of the written law, as the Talmud is of the oral. It received its origin from the captive Jews of Babylon, whose knowledge of the Hebrew had become so imperfect, that when the Hebrew text was read in the synagogues, Ezra and the other priests, added an explanation or commentary in Chaldee, for the advantage of the people. The explanations and commentaries thus given by Ezra and his suc- cessors, were not committed to writing until the time of Onkelos and Jonathan, who lived about the time of our Saviour. They both composed paraphrases; that of Onkelos is on the books of Moses, and is most esteemed; that of Jonathan, is on the greater and lesser prophets; his style is diffuse, and he often takes great liberties, particularly with the lesser prophets. The parentage of Onkelos is uncertain; by some he is supposed to be a Gen- tile, who was converted to Judaism; by others, that he was the son of the emperor Titus, and by others, that he was his ne- phew. His Targum, or paraphrase of the Pentateuch, has always been greatly esteemed by the Jews, and in many copies 38 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. of the scripture it was inserted after the original text; the same musical notes were put to it, that it might be read with a kind of chanting at the same time with the original, and to the same tune.* There are several other works of ancient Jews, whose writings were much esteemed, and whose opinions were receiv- ed with great respect. Among the ancient nations of the east, the Chaldeans enjoyed a high reputation for learning, and have divided with the Egyp- tians the honor of originating certain arts and sciences, which modern learning and ingenuity have improved and applied to many useful practical purposes. That they cultivated learning to some extent, at a very early period, is acknowledged on all hands; but it was exclusively confined to the Chaldean, as it was to the Egyptian, priesthood. The public at large received no be- nefit from the knowledge they possessed, which was rather em- ployed in riveting the chains of superstition, than in enlight- ening the mind. Their peculiar doctrines were concealed from the profane and uninitiated by means of hieroglyphics, and were only taught to those who were designed for the priesthood. The priests instructed the people in the principles of religion and conducted its ceremonies; they interpreted the laws of the kingdom; they pretended to predict future events by divination; to explain prodigies and interpret dreams, and to avert evils or confer benefits, by means of augury and incantations. Astrology was held in such estimation among them, that a distinct order of men was appointed to make observations upon the heavenly bodies; hence, the appellations of Chaldean and astrologer be- came, afterwards, synonymous terms. The peculiar principles of their religion or philosophy, the Chaldeans are supposed to have received from a philosopher called Zoroaster, a different person, however, from the Persian Zoroaster, but equally re- nowned as one of the benefactors of the human race. They believed in a God or Supreme Being, the fountain of intelligence by whose providence and care the world is governed, and also in several inferior and subordinate gods, who assisted in the government of human affairs. These gods consisted of the sun, moon, planets and stars, and to them religious homage was of- fered. The Chaldean priests, like the Egyptian, are supposed to have taught in the retirement of their temples a more sub ** Calmet's Diet. ; Brown's Ant, of the Jews HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 3^ lime and rational system of religion, than that taught to the peo- ple. Of the writings of the Chaldean sages and philosophers, we can form no opinion, as none remain to satisfy the inquiring mind. India lays claim to high antiquity as well on the score of learning and philosophy, as to existance as a nation. It is diffi- cult to ascertain at what period the most ancient philosophers and learned men of India flourished, but it is well known that in the most remote times of which we have any knowledge, there existed in that country a race of men, distinguished by the name of Gymnosophists, with whom the present system of Hindoo re- ligion and worship originated. They were divided into sects, tribes or castes, the principal of which was that of the Brahmins, , still the chief caste among the Hindoos. These wise men not only distinguished themselves for the cultivation of science, but were remarkable for their rigid abstinence, their contempt of the pleasures of the world, and their uniform austerity of manner. This austerity and contempt for the pleasures of life, and their frequent conversations on divine things, gave a sort of sanctity to their character, and obtained for them an unbounded influence over the people who are accustomed to regard sanctity of char- acter with peculiar reverence. Like the philosophers of whom we have already spoken, they took great pains to conceal their learning and the mysteries of their religion, from the common people, and for the same reason that they might preserve the influence they had obtained. The Hindoo system of religion and morality is contained in their sacred books, which denoun- ced the heaviest penalties on whoever should reveal their con- tents to the uninitiated, and it was not until a recent period that any portion of them was translated, and any part of their hidden mysteries revealed. For the interesting information we possess on that subject we are indebted to the exertions of Sir William Jones, who in his zeal to inquire into the secrets of oriental lit- erature, found means to unlock the treasure. The admirers of Hindoo literature assert, that their learned men yielded the palm of learning to scarcely any other of the ancients, and that the more their philosophical works and law books are studied, the more the inquirer will be convinced of the depth of wisdom possessed by authors, many of whom flourished one thousand rears before the birth of Christ, according to Hindoo chronology. 40 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. The sacred writings of the Hindoos, which they attribute to the gods, are contained in the four vedus. Each vedu consists oi two parts, called the munturs and the bramhunus, or prayers and hymns. The complete collection of the hymns, prayers, and invocations belonging to one vedu, is entitled its sunghita. Every other portion of Indian scripture is included under the general head of bramunu. This comprises precepts, which in- clude the religious duties ; maxims which explain those precepts ; and arguments which relate to theology. The Hindoos have a great number of law books extant, which embrace a great variety of subjects that would naturally suggest themselves to wise legislators in drawing up a code for the regu- lation of civil society. But, as their legislators usually united the threefold character of philosopher, priest and lawgiver, their civil and criminal laws were not entirely separated from those concerning religious duties and ceremonies. Many of their laws appear to have been dictated by true wisdom, and a proper regard to the rights of individuals, whilst others are par- tial and unjust thus, "If a man deprive another of life, he shall suffer death; but if a brahmin do this he shall be fined." Of- fences against the brahmins are punished with the utmost se- verity. The ancient Hindoos possessed considerable knowledge oi various sciences of their knowledge of astronomy there are still remaining some curious monuments. The works still extant which treat of this science are said to be about sixty, and al- though they contain many absurdities and extravagant fancies, they manifest high intellectual powers, and much inquiry and observation. They give the circumference and diameter of the earth, which, according to their mode of computation, greatly exceeds the measurement of the astronomers of the present day they describe the causes of the eclipse of the sun and moon their appearance during an eclipse the times of the rising and setting of the planets, and the periods when different planets are in conjunction, and many other particulars of the heavenly bodies. The Hindoos cultivated poetry as a pleasing relaxation front severer studies, and their philosophers laying aside their grave discussions, laid down certain rules for poetic composition, and reduced it to a system. Likp that of other eastern nations, thei? HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 41 poetry abounded in metaphors, often extravagant, but some- times beautiful. The following description of winter, will serve as a specimen; "This season, as a king, with the cold winds for his retinue, advances from the Himalayu to conquer the earth he destroys the pride of the most powerful: the lord of day, filled with fear, takes refuge in the south-east; every morning the shivering wretch, raising his head, seeks him in vain; day, mourning the loss of his lord, constantly wastes away; the water-lily, having lost her beloved, ashamed, hides her head beneath the waters; fire, having lost his energy, retires to the cottage of the poor* covering himself with rags, so that even the starving wretch sets him at defiance. "The coldness of the water excites the same fears in the mind, as the presence of a serpent; a fire without smoke awakens the same desires as the breast of a female on the mind of the un- chaste; the rays of the sun cheer the heart like the birth of a son; the impression of the cold wind on the body, resembles un- kind words from the lips of a friend."* The Persians were also a distinguished people in the early age of the world. Amongthem a system of religion and philosophy was introduced, differing in many respects, from that of surrounding nations. By some this system is supposed to have been introduced by a philosopher named Zoroaster, who is often confounded with the Chaldean of the same name ; and by others it is thought, that their religious opinions and observances, having become corrupt- ed, were only revived and restored by him to their original state. The time when this philosopher lived, is uncertain; and while some suppose him to have been the patriarch Abraham, others maintain that he lived and commenced the work of refor- mation in the reign of Darius Hystaspes, who filled the Persian throne about the year 435 before Christ. Zoroaster is said to have written many works on religion and philosophy; one of" which, the Zend or Zendavesta, is still extant, and explains the order and forms of the rites and ceremonies, and the principles of religion and morality which he taught. His followers re- garded this work with the same veneration as Christians do the Bible, looking upon it as an emanation of divine wisdom. * For further information on the subject of Hindoo literature, the reader is referred *o Sir William Jones 1 Works, Ward's History of Hindoos and the Abbe Dubois' India 6 42 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. In this book are many laws which appear to have been taken from the laws of Moses, and the account of the creation, as given therein, bears a strong affinity to that ofMoses,Zoroaster declaring that the world was created in six periods, making together three hundred and sixty-five days. Before the time of Zoroaster, there existed in Persia a body of men, known by the name of Magi, who were the priests of the people and the philosophers of the country. The religion which they taught, consisted of the worship of the sun, under the name of Mithra, and of Oromasdes, the author of all good, and Arimanius, the author of all evil ; but whether they consi- dered the latter as equal or inferior to Mithra, is uncertain. Zoroaster introduced many alterations into the mode of worship, and into their religious system, and amongst others taught that Mithra was a divinity who acted as a moderator between Oro- masdes and Arimanius, and was hence called the Mediator. He believed that these two divinities, or the causes of good and evil, were perpetually at variance, but that, through the inter- vention of the mediator, the contest would eventually terminate in favor of the good principle. There still exists in Persia, a sect called Guebres, or fire worshippers, who still conform to the principles of Zoroaster.* CHAPTER n. Literature of the Greeks. Greek Poets : Orpheus, Linus, Musauv* Ancient bards: Homer, Hesiod, Archilochus, TyrtazuS) AlccKus, Sappho. Dramatic poetry : Thespis, Pratinas. NOTWITHSTANDING the laborious researches and investiga- tions of historians and philosophers, darkness and obscurity still rest upon the early history of Greece; and in endeavoring to trace even its outlines, we become bewildered and entangled in the mazes of tradition, or lost in the fabulous and legendary history of the times. Historians, however, are agreed in * Enfield's Hist, of Phil, vol.1; Cal. Diet, art. Zoroaster. HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 43 that the original inhabitants led a savage and wandering life, after the manner of the aboriginal natives of the American con- tinent, and like them, were governed by no regular system of laws, but such only as mutual safety and the peculiar circum- stances of the times may have dictated. Instead of commodi- ous dwellings, furnished with the necessary conveniences for domestic comfort, they sheltered themselves in caves or rudely constructed huts; instead of indulging a fastidious appetite in the luxuries of the table, they were content with the precarious support they derived from fishing and hunting. Such was the condition of Greece in its primitive state; yet, did this people, so uncivilized and barbarous in their original manner of living, become the teachers of other nations, in philosophy, poetry, oratory, architecture, sculpture and painting, which rose amongst them to such a state of perfection, that "modern degeneracy," although it has imitated, has not been able, in many essential particulars, to reach them. In consequence of their communication and intercourse with the nations of the east, particularly with Egypt, where, as we have seen, literature, science and art, had made some progress, the Grecian nations emerged from a state of barbarism, at an earlier period than any other people of Europe. They de- rived great advantages also, from the Phoenician navigators who visited their islands and coasts in the course of their commercial pursuits, and who, by introducing new wants, gradually intro- duced new and useful arts, which were cultivated and improved by a people, naturally ingenious, who readily perceived the ad- vantages to be derived from them. That species of knowledge, however, conferred upon them by the Phoenician navigators and adventurers, and which is most intimately connected with the subject of the present volume, is alphabetic writing. Cadmus, a Phoenician, who is said to have founded the city of Thebes, in Boetia, instructed them in the use of the alphabet, (at that time consisting of but sixteen letters,) about 1519 years before Christ, and sixty years after Cecrops founded the celebrated city of Athens. The use of letters, notwithstanding their great impor- tance in the preservation of all useful knowledge, did not be- come general until near four hundred years after; the greater part of the people still continuing to practise picture or hiero- glyphic writing. I 44 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. Before the invention of letters, poetry seems to have been the means by which knowledge of almost every kind was communi- cated; and in savage and uncultivated nations, minstrels, whose poetical effusions were rude and uncouth in their construc- tion, but energetic and vigorous in their mode of expres- sion, obtained an extraordinary degree of favor and influence. The history of the times, the praises of their God, their religi- ous rites and ceremonies, the peculiar doctrines of their philoso- phy, and even their laws, were embodied in poetic numbers. They thus expressed their joy for victories obtained over their enemies, celebrated the valiant achievements of their heroes, and poured forth their lamentations over their public and pri- vate calamities. This species of composition has prevailed in all nations of which we have any knowledge. The prophets of the Hebrews, "prophesied with psaltery, tabret and harp before them;" and the most ancient specimen of written poetry now extant, is the song of Moses, offered upon the banks of the Red sea, for the deliverance of the Israelites from their Egyptian* bondage, which was composed when Greece, afterwards the most polished nation of antiquity, was inhabited by a people not better, or mora civilized, than the American savages. Among the Persians, Arabians and other nations of the east, poetry was the earliest form in which their learning was communicated. Tacitus* says, "the Germans abounded with rude strains of verse, the reciters of which, in the language of the country, were called bards" Before going to battle they sung the war song, which was a recapitulation of their warlike exploits, and invoked the God of War, as the Scandinavians invoked the name of Odin. The earliest poets of Greece, of whom we have any informa- tion, are Orpheus , Linus and Musceus, who, by many, are sup- posed to have been contemporaries, but whether they really were so, is very uncertain ; they lived at least, in periods not very remote from each other. Orpheus is supposed to have lived about 1244 years before Christ, and taught in verse the "learned lore" he acquired from the Egyptian philosophers; he also introduced music and poetry into the religious ceremonies of Greece, and thereby increased * Manners of the Germans, ch. 3*. HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 4i> their solemnity and attractions. Orpheus was distinguished not enly as a poet and musician, but as a warrior, having been one of that band of adventurers who engaged in the Argonautic expedition, so celebrated in Grecian annals; the true object of which it has puzzled the brain of the antiquary and historian to discover. The departure of this expedition, is thus described by Appolonius Rhodius: "On their allotted posts now rang'd along, In seemly order sat the princely throng. Fast by each chief his glittering armor flames ; The midmost station bold Ancseus claims; While great Alcides, whose enornious might, Arm'd with a massy club, provokes the fight, Now plac'd beside him. In the yielding flood. The keel, deep sinking, feels the demi god. Their hawsers now they loose, and on the brine To Neptune pour the consecrated wine; While, raising high the Thracian harp, presides Melodious Orpheus, and the movement guides. On either side the clashing surges broke ; And hoarse remurmur'd to each mighty stroke; Thick flash'd the brazen arms with streaming light. While the swift bark pursued her rapid flight; And ever as thr sea-green tide she cleaves, Forms the long track behind, and whitens all the waves." A poetical account of this celebrated expedition is still ex- tant, said to have been written by Orpheus himself, which is doubted by Aristotle, who even denies the existence of such a person, and attempts to rob him of his honors by attributing the poems known by the name of Orphic, to a philosopher named Cercops, who does not appear to be otherwise distinguished, than by a place in the works of the Stagyrite. Of the skill of Orpheus in music, many wonderful anecdotes are related. A- mongst others, he as the story goes, could call Obedient stones to make the Theban wall, He led them as he pleas'd,the rocks obeyed And danc'd in order to the tunes he play'd. Francis' trans, of Hor. Art of Poetry, Orpheus, it is said, instituted the mysteries of Bacchus, in imitation of the Egyptian mysteries of Isis and Osiris. He is also said to have instituted the Eleusynian mysteries, usually at- tributed to the goddess Ceres. There are still extant some 4b - HISTORY OF LITERATURE. fragments of his hymns, which are remarkable as containing the most exalted ideas of the unity of God, and of the attributes of the Deity, without any mixture of the doctrines of polytheism. The following fragment of a hymn, preserved by Suidas, bears so strong a resemblance to the sacred writings, that, if genuine, it is difficult to believe that he had not some knowledge of the Hebrew scriptures. "God is self-existent and every thing ex- ists through him. He is every where, yet no mortal has beheld him. He alone distributes, in his justice, those calamities which afflict mankind. He governs and directs the wind of heaven and controls the lightning. He is seated high in the heavens on a throne of gold, and the earth is his footstool. He stretches his hand to the boundaries of the ocean, and the mountains tremble to their foundations. It is he who created the universe and every thing therein, and who is at once the beginning, the middle and the end." Oi-pheus was a native of Thrace, and ha- ving travelled into Egypt, he was initiated into a knowledge of all the sciences taught by the Egyptian philosophers, and on his return from Egypt, and settlement in Greece, he obtained that influence which cultivated minds soon acquire over the rude and uncultivated. This influence, however, was exerted for the purpose of ameliorating the condition of a barbarous race, and introducing among them the arts of peace, which conduce to the comforts and conveniences of life. There are many ancient poems which bear the name of Orpheus, but which are, probably, the productions of other and more recent pens. Orpheus was not only admired as a poet, but is also ranked among the ancient philosophers, and taught that God existed from all eternity, and consisted of a compound nature, active and pas- sive that by the energy of the active principle, he sent forth from himself, all material and spiritual beings, which partake, in different degrees, of the Divine Nature that all beings, pro- ceeding originally from God, will, after certain purgations, re- turn to him and that the universe itself will be destroyed by fire, and afterwards renewed.* He is also said by Diodorus Siculus,t to be the first who taught among the Greeks the doc- trine of the future punishment of the wicked, and the happiness f the good. We think it extremely doubtlful, whether any * Enfield's Hist, of Philos. vol. 1. p. 126. V Lib. 1,86. HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 4-7 such doctrine was ever taught by Orpheus, who, we have alrea- dy seen, received his knowledge from the Egyptians, to whose priests the doctrine of a future state of rewards and punishments, was never revealed. This doctrine was not even made known to Moses, but was reserved to be brought to light by the son of God himself. Linus was a native of Thebes in Boetia, and was also ranked among philosophers, as almost every man was in those early times, who had more than an ordinary share of information, and who was careful to wrap in mystery, his peculiar doctrines and opinions. Of his poetry or his system of philosophy, little can be said either by way of praise or censure, as all the information we possess, with regard to either, is contained in the writings of others, consisting of a few fragments only. He is thought by some to have been the first inventor of rhyme, and to have pre- ceded Orpheus. Virgil in his sixth eclogue places him near the muses on Parnassus. Turn canet errantem Permessi ad flumina Gallum Aonias in monies ut dixerit una sororum; Utque viro Phoebi chorus assurrexerit omnis ; Ut Linus hoec illi divino carmine pastor, Floribus atque apio crines ornatus amaro Dixerit: Hos tibi dant calamos,etiaccipe,Musae. Ascraeo quos anti seni: quibus ille solebat Cantando rigidas deducere montibus ornos. His tibi Grynaei nemoris dictatur origo ; Nequis sit lucus, quo se plus jactet Apollo. Eel. VI. 65 He taught which Muse did by Apollo's will Guide wandering Gallus to the Aonian hili; (Which place the gods for solemn meetings chose) With deep respect the learned senate rose, And Linus thus, (deputed by the rest) The hero's welcome and their thanks espress'd; This harp of old to Hesiod did belong, To this, the muses' gift, join thy harmonious song; Charm 'd by these strings, trees starting from the ground, Have follow'd with delight the powerful sound, Thus consecrated, thy Grynean grove Shall have no equal in Apollo's love. Earl of Roscomman- Mus&us is said to have been the disciple of Orpheus, and to have presided over the Eleusynian mysteries long celebrated at Athens with solemn rites by sacrifices, prayers and ablutions. Of 48 rflSTORY OF LITERATURE his poetry but a few fragments remain. That he held a high rank as a poet in the time of Virgil is evident from the manner ih which he is noticed in the sixth book of the J5neid. Quos circumfusos sic est affata Sybylla Musaeum ante oranes; medium nam plurima turba Hunc hubet, atque humeris extantem suspicit altis. Leb. VI. 666. To these the Sybil thus her speech address'd ; And first to him, surrounded by the rest, t Towering his height and ample was his breast , Say, happy souls, divine Musaetis say. JDryden. The doctrines of philosophy or religion held by Musaeus were nearly the same as those of his master Orpheus. He died at Phaleroe, and the Athenians honored his memory by erecting a public monument.* The poetry of these ancient poets was chiefly composed for, and recited in the services of religion, and they were regarded by the rude and superstitious multitude, not only as men of supe- rior minds, but as, in some degree, partaking of divinity. Mu- saus) in addition to his merits as a poet and philosopher, was acquainted with so much of the healing art, as to enable him to administer with success in some complaints, and he is said to have composed a poem on the cure of diseases. To the poets above mentioned succeeded the Bards who at- tended the Grecian chieftains in their hostile expeditions. They were the Improvisatori of Greece, and recited at the public games, and in the halls of their chiefs, the "passing tidings of the times." accompanied by the music of the lyre or the harp. Then would they sing achievements high, And circumstance of chivalry, Till the wrapt traveller would stay Forgetful of the closing day. Scott. These bards travelled over Greece, protected from insult and injury, by their sacred characters, and were every where treated with respect and veneration, as favored and inspired by the gods. They were intimately acquainted with the history of the age in *The works of Orpheus, Linus and Musseus which remain, have bt?n collected and published in a volume entitled "Poetv Minorrs Grcf-i " HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 4 g which they lived, and were rich in legendary lore, and the tales of other times. From them Homer collected the materials for his immortal poems, the Illiad and Odyssey, and from them he acquired that knowledge of the domestic manners of the Greeks and Trojans, during the heroic ages, with which he has relieved the details of blood and carnasre. o No poet of ancient or modern times has acquired the celebrity of JEZbraer, nor is there one of whose life less is known. He is supposed to have lived about 900 years before the birth of Christ, and about 300 years after the siege of Troy. Since his repu- tation has been established, and fame has crowned him the "Prince of Poets," many cities have disputed the honor of hav- ing given him birth ; and the emperor Adrian, in order to remove all doubts upon the subject, consulted the oracle, who answered that he was born in the island of Ithaca. Notwithstanding the response of the oracle, the learned are still divided upon this question, which it is of little importance to settle ; nor is it ma- terial to his fame to know, whether he was born blind, or became so in his old age, or whether he was blind at all. It is sufficient for us that we possess his works, not only in the original, but in the inimitable translation of Pope works, which disinterested and impartial criticism has placed among the most splendid literary monuments ever erected by human genius* Homer has been the subject of much learned criticism, among both ancient and modern writers. Whilst Horace assigns him an elevated rank as a moral teacher, even above some of the most celebra- ted philosophers, Pythagoras, a distinguished philosopher, whose doctrines and opinions were derived from Egypt, condemned him to Tartarus, for imparting false notions of the deity, and even the more gentle Plato would not give him a place in his ideal republic. Quintillian^ the famous rhetorician of Rome, whose judgment in ancient literature is much esteemed, speak- ing of Homer, says, "Him no one ever excelled in sublimity on great topics, in propriety on small ones; but whether diffused or compressed, gay or grave ; whether for his abundance or his brevity, he is equally to be admired, nor is he supereminent for his poetical talents alone, but for his oratorical also." Msto- phanes, whose peculiar genius led rather to ridicule than com- mendation, either overcome by a sense of justice, or awed by thr ; HISTORY OF LITERATURE. superior genius of Homer, thus speaks of him in his comedy of the "Frogs;" Homer, bard divine! Gods, to what height he soars, whilst he arrays The warrior bright in arras, directs the fight And with heroic virtue fires the soul." Previously, and subsequently also, to the time of Homer, a class of poets distinguished by the name of Rhapsodists, wandered from city to city, from place to place, and recited verses, either of their own composition, or the composition of others, at the public festivals. These recitations were much encouraged, as they were intended to disseminate among the listening crowd,, maxims of wisdom and virtue; they were thus productive of beneficial effects upon the hearts and minds of men, and were not only countenanced but encouraged, by the great Spartan and Athenian lawgivers, Lycurgus and Solon. Homer, like the Rhapsodists, led a wandering life, and recited his poems at the public games of Greece. To these Rhapsodists is posterity, in i great degree, indebted for the preservation of the Homeric poems; they recited them at the public festivals, one reciting a certain portion, and another taking up the subject where the first left off. Lycurgus is supposed to have been the first who collected and arranged in suitable order, the fragments of the Illiad and Odyssey. About three hundred and seven years after. Pisistratus, who loved learning, and was enraptured with the sublime poetry of Homer, caused them to be again arranged and corrected; in this work Solon is said to have been engaged. The first edition of Homer after the invention of the art of printing, appeared at Florence, A. D. 1488. Amongst modern writers, who aspire to the rank of critics, the Illiad and Odyssey are standing subjects of notice the standards by which to estimate every other claim to poetical distinction, and whatever diversity of opinion may prevail upon minor points, all agree in awarding him the first rank, and hailing him as the "Father of Poetry." "By Homer taught, the modern poet sings, In epic strains of heroes, wars and kings." In a work like this, it is not to be expected that we should >nter into an elaborate exposition of the beauty and sublimity 3 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 51 of language which distinguish this great poet, and his peculiar claims to the distinction he has acquired ; a few remarks will be sufficient to indicate the opinion we have ourselves adopted. 'To estimate his claims we need not go hack to the period in which he lived, and compare his style of poetic composition with the then rude state of society. His genius would irradiate any country, however advanced in refinement, and however exalted in intellectual improvement. Virgil, Dante, Tasso, Shakspeare, Milton and Byron, have respectively thrown a hrilliant light over the ages in which they lived, and have gained a never-dying reputation, and a never-fading crown, more splendid than that which adorns the victor's brow, yet they have not surpassed him in the various requisites of a poet, notwithstanding all the ad- vantages of education and of refined and polished society. Homer was nature's poet, endowed with a mind capable of grasping every subject he examined, and a bold and fertile imagination, which he exercised in describing scenes and events in the most glowing and animated style ; his language, like that of Shaks- peare, is suited to his subjects no less accurately than the actions and sentiments of his heroes are to their characters. Hence it is, that we enter into all the feelings of the different actors, in the interesting scenes he paints so vividly, and the actions he describes, and feel ourselves irresistibly moved to lament the unhappy fall of the ill-starred house of Priam. The place that contains the ashes of Homer, is equally uncer- tain with that which gave him birth. Altars and temples were, however, erected in honor of him in various cities, and divine honors were paid him. Among the most distinguished monu- ments to his memory was a temple erected by Ptolomy Philopa- ter, in which a statute was placed, surrounded by the represen- tation of the seven cities that contended for the honor of his birth. The period in which Hesiod flourished is uncertain; the most generally received opinion, however, is that of Herodotus, name- ly, that he was contemporary with Homer. Of his poems two only have reached us entire ; one entitled the "Works and Days," the other the "Theogony, or the birth of the Gods," together with a fragment of the "Shield of Hercules." The poem entitled "Works and Days" is divided into three parts, mythological, moral and didactic. In the first he relates to the fable of Pando 2 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. ra, and gives a description of the several ages of the world, which he divides into five, namely, the age of gold, the age of silver, the age of brass, the age of demigods and heroes, which we call the heroic age, and the age of iron. The second part contains many moral reflections addressed to his brother Perseus, with whom he had had a dispute about the paternal inheritance ; the third part appears to be principally intended for husbandmen, being a kind of treatise on agriculture, containing many useful precepts and instructions, suited to the then state of agriculture, intermixed with moral reflections arising from the contempla- tion of the works of nature.* Hesiod gave The useful lesson how to till the earth, And marked the seasons, when to sow the grain And when to reap --- " From this work Virgil is supposed to have received the Mm idea of the Georgics. In his "Theogony"he treats of the gene- alogy of the gods, and the creation of the world, and advances opinions which modern philosophers, in the present advanced state of science, would consider absurd and ridiculous. He be- lieved tlwt "first of all existed Chaos; next in order the broad- bosomed Earth, and then appeared Love, the most beautiful of immortals. From Chaos sprung Erebus and dusky Night, and from Night and Erebus sprung Ether and smiling Day. But first the Earth produced the starry Heavens, commensurate with itself, and the barren sea; then combined with heaven she bore the tremendous Titans. Then were born to heaven and earth, thunder, lightning and the flaming bolt, besides eruption, hurri- cane and earthquake." However absurd this theory may ap- pear, it is at least as rational and plausible as the theories of many modern philosophers, particularly as that of DC who was of opinion that man began his career as a ) or that of Kepler^ who considered the earth to be possessed of living faculties and a circulating vital fluid; that all the par- ticles of it are alive and possess instinct and volition; that the organs through which the large animal breathes are the moun- tains, and that mineral veins are abcesses, and metals the pro- duct of rottenness and disease. The fame of Hesiod among 'Coms de Litterature par La Ilarne, tome 1, p. 195, HISTORY OF LITERATURE. his countrymen was not founded solely upon his claims to the character of a philosopher; his poetical talents, which were held in high estimation, conferred upon him greater distinction. His poetry, if it does not possess the energy and sublimity of Homer, is pronounced by competent judges to be remarkable for ease and elegance of diction. He is said to have divided the public applause with Homer, and even to have borne off the prize of poetry in a contest at the funeral obsequies of Amphi- damas. This story is denied by La Harpc, who, being extremely jealous of the reputation of Homer, attributes its invention to his enemies, who were envious of his fame.* During the period which intervened from the age of Homer and Hesiod, to that of Thespis, when dramatic poetry was introdu- ced, poetical compositions were almost exclusively confined to the ode, or lyric poetry, so called from its being intended to be sung, accompanied by the music of the lyre. "In the ode," observes Dr. Blair, "poetry retains its first and most ancient form; that form under which the original bards poured forth their enthusi- astic strains, praised their gods and their heroes, and celebrated their victories." The most celebrated poets of the abovemen- tioned period, are Archilocus, Tyrtaus, Alcceus and Sappho. Archilochus was a poet of Paros, who flourished about 716 years before the Christian era. He wrote many elegies, odes, satires and epigrams, and was the inventor of that species of verse called Iambic. He is mentioned by Herodotus! as having written some Iambic verses on the murder of Candaules, king of Lydia, who had imprudently exposed his wife to the view of Gyges, one of his ministers. Although his poetical composi- tions are said to have been of so licentious a character, as to cause his banishment from Lacedemon, yet they are pronoun- ced by Quintillian to have been remarkable for their ingenuity, their elegance of style, and energy of language. He wrote so severe a satire on Lycartibus^ who refused him his daughter in marriage, that the unhappy man hung himself in despair. This circumstance is mentioned by Horace, in his epistle to cenas, in the first book. Parios ego primus iaoibos OstendiLatio; numeros animosque secutus Jlrchilochi, non res, et agentia verba Lycarabeu. * Cours de Litterature , tome I , p. 195. f Clio. ch. 12 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. Ac mene foliis ideo brevioribus ornes Quod timui mutare modos et carminis artem; Temperat Jlrchilochi niusam pede raascula Sappho Temperat Alceaeus. " Lib. 1, Ep. 19. To keen Iambics I first tun'd my lyre, And warm'd with great Archilochus' fire, His rapid numbers chose, but shunn'd with care That style which drove Lycambusto despair; I fear'd to change the structure of his line, And shall a short-lived wreath be therefore mine? Sappho, whose verse with manly spirit glows And great Alcoeus his iambics chose. Francis. Horace again speaks of him in his "Art of Poetry:'* Archilochum proprio rabies armavit iambo: Hunc socci cepere pedem grandesque cothurni, Alternis aptum sermonibus, et populaus, Vicentem strepitus, et natum rebus agendis. De Art. Poet. 79. Archilochus, with fierce resentment warm'd, Was with his own severe iambics arm'd, Whose rapid numbers suited to the stage, In comic humor, or in tragic rage, With sweet variety were found to please, And taught the dialogue to flow with ease; Their numerous cadence was for action fit, And form'd to quell the clamors of the pit. Francis. Tyrtceus was a poet of Attica, and flourished about 680 years before Christ, of whose compositions nothing remain but the fragments of a few elegies. The most remarkable circumstance in the life of this poet, is, his appointment of general in the Lace- demonian army. In the second Messenian war, the Lacedemo- nians being hard pressed by the Messenians under their heroic commander Aristomines, consulted the oracle, who directed them to apply to the Athenians for a general. They did so, and the Athenians sent them the poet Tyrt&us, who had borne arms, it is true, but had never attained any distinction as a soldier, nor commanded as a general he was sent more in derision, than with any expectation that he would retrieve the fallen fortunes of Sparta. He repaired, however, to the Spartan camp, where he found the troops dispirited by repeated defeats and disasters, and ready to fly before the victorious Aristomines. Tyrtaus pos- sessed neither skill nor experience as a commander, but he by the muse inspir'd, To deeds of arms the martial spirit fired." HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 35 and so raised the drooping spirits, and roused the dormant cou- rage of the Spartans, that they defeated the Messenians, and re- covered their wonted energies. Such was the power of poetry and music, and such the influence of the sacred character of the bard. Tyrtceus was afterwards made a citizen of Lacedemon, and treated with great consideration and attention. Alcaus was a lyric poet of Mitylene, in the island of Lesbos, and lived about 600 years before Christ. Of all his works, but a few fragments remain. Quintillian, on whose judgment we have already had occasion to rely, praises him for the boldness of his satire, and the moral tendency of some of his writings, but acknowledges that he is sometimes too licentious a fault which seems to attach to almost all the ancient poets, and from which even the polished and courtly Horace, who lived in a more re- fined age, was not exempt. He was contemporary with Sappho , and one of her ardent admirers. "Alcoeus strung his sounding lyre And smote it with a hand of fire; To Sappho, fairest of the fair, Chaunting the loud and lofty air." She, however, continued insensible, and rejected his address Alc&us, although celebrated as a poet, was not, like some of his brother bards, distinguished as a warrior; he is said to have fled from the field of battle, leaving his armor, which nis enemies afterwards hung up in the temple of Minerva, as a monument of his disgrace. Sappho was born in the island of Lesbos, and was not only ce- lebrated for her beauty and her poetical talents, but for an amo- rous and voluptuous disposition, which is clearly shown in the following fragment of a poem she addressed to her mother, whc had probably endeavored to restrain her prevailing inclinations: Cease, dear mother, cease to chide. I can no more the golden shuttle guide, While Venus thus through every glowing vein. Asserts the charming youth's resistless reign. She composed nine books of odes and lyric verses, besides epi- grams and elegies, which were extant in the time of Horace, who takes frequent occasion to speak of the poetess, who was called, on account of the splendor of her poetical genius, the tenth muse-, thus in the KSth ode of the second book: 56 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. Quam paene furvae regna Prosepinae, Et judicantem videmus JEacum, Sedesque discretas piorum, et .3oliis fidibus querentem Sappho puellig de popularibus. Lib. 2, Car. 1& How near was I those dreary plains Where Pluto's auburn consort reigns, Where awful sits the judge of Hell, Where pious spirits blissful dwell, Where Sappho in melodious strains Of cruel calumny complains. Francis. "Among the multitude of poets of antiquity," says Addisou-, "there is none whose fragments are so beautiful as those of Sap- pho. One may see, by what is left of them, that she followed nature in all her thoughts, without descending to those little points, conceits and turns of wit, with which many of our modern lyrics are so miserably infected. Her soul seems to have been made up of love and poetry. She felt the passion in all its warmth, and described it in all its symptoms." Of the numerous works of Sappho, two only remain, which are universally con- sidered as the most beautiful specimens of ancient lyric poetry, that has survived the ravages of time, and which are sufficient to confirm the character antiquity has given her, of possessing a sublimity of genius which has been seldom equalled. We will here present the fragments alluded to, in the beautiful version of Ambrose Phillips. The first is part of an ode preserved by Longinus, the celebrated critic: Blest as the immortal gods is he The youth who fondly sits by thee, And hears and sees thee all the while Softly speak and sweetly smile. 'Twas this deprived my soul of rest, And rais'd such tumults in my breast; For while I gaz'd, in transport tost, My breath was gone, my voice was lost My bosom glow'd ; the subtle flame Ran quick through all my vital frame ; O'er my dim eyes a darkness hung; My ears with hollow murmurs rung, In dewy damps my limbs were chill'd ; My blood with gentle horrors thriU'd ; HISTORY OF LITERATURE 57 My feeble pulse forgot to play ; I fainted, sunk and died away. The following "Ode to Venus," has also been preserved, and is a brilliant example of lyric poetry: O Venus, beauty of the skies, To whom a thousand temples rise, Gaily false in gentle smiles, Full of love-perplexing wiles; goddess, from my heart remove The wasting cares and pains of lov. If ever thou hast kindly heard A song in soft distress preferr'd, Propitious to my tuneful vow, Oh, gentle goddess! hear me now. Descend, thou bright, immortal guest, In all thy radiant charms confess'd Thou once did leave almighty Jove, And all the golden roofs above : The car thy wanton sparrows drew, Hovering in air they lightly flew; As to my bower they wing'd their way, 1 saw their quivering pinions play. The birds dismiss'd (while you remain,) Bore back their empty car again: Then with looks divinely mild, In every heavenly feature smil'd, And ask'd what new complaints I made, And why I call'd you to my aid. Whatphrenzy in my bosom rag'd, And by what care to be assuag'd? What gentle youth I would allure, Whom in my artful toils secure? Who does thy tender heart subdue, Tell me, my Sappho, tell me who? Though now he shuns thy longing arms, He soon shall court thy slighted charms; Thou now thy offerings he despise, He soon to thee shall sacrifice; Though now he freeze, he soon shall burn, And be thy victim in his turn. Celestial visitant, once more Thy needful presence I implore! In pity come, and ease my grief, Bring my distemper'd soul relief, Favor thy suppliant's hidden fires, And give me all my heart desires. 8 58 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. Sappho fell violently in love with a youth named Phaon, who did not return her love; in a fit of desperation she threw her- self into the sea, from the promontory of Luecate in Acarnania, and perished. Lyric poetry being susceptible of different ornaments, and adapted to a variety of subjects, from "grave to gay," and admit- ting also the boldest and most excursive flights of imagination, long continued a favorite species of poetic composition. Ac- companied with the music of the lyre, it elevated the soul to heavenly contemplations, brightened the brow upon which "pale melancholy" sat, or stilled the turbulent passions which too of- ten mar the pleasures of social intercourse, and destroy domestic happiness. Lyric poetry, which had been cultivated with so much care by the Lesbian poetess, and attained so high a cha- racter, did not degenerate at her death. The seed having been sown in a generous and prolific soil, and carefully nourished, produced poets of almost every grade of excellence. Some were distinguished for a vehemence and energy of language and boldness of style, which commanded attention, and others for a peculiar grace and elegance of manner and sweetness of expres- sion, which interested the heart and subdued the feelings; of the one the "deep mouthed Pindar" is a striking example, of the other the plaintive Simonides. Before, however, we speak of them, let us advert to a new species of poetry, different in its objects and character, from that which had before been culti- vated, and which, in its progress from rudeness to refinement, produced sensible effects upon the manners and habits, not only of the people of Greece, but in later times, upon the manners of other nations of Europe we mean dramatic poetry. The moral or immoral tendency of the drama, its beneficial or hurt- ful effects upon society, we leave to others to examine, as it does not fall within our plan. We mean only to speak of the drama and dramatic poetry, as constituting an important link in the chain of literary history we are attempting to review. In the early ages of Greece, before the refinements of society had produced a change in the public taste, tragedy, or the dra- ma, (then synonomous terms,) was rude and imperfect, being no- thing more than a song or hymn, called the "Song of the Goat," which was chanted by a chorus of singers, at the conclusion of the vintage, in honor of the god Bacchus. These Hymns were HISTORY OF LITERATURE. ^ sometimes sung by the whole company, and sometimes by sepa- rate bands, answering each other alternately, and bore but a faint resemblance to the drama in its present state. About 550 years before Christ, Thespis appeared, who effected an important change, by the introduction of an additional actor, who threw some variety into the entertainment, and relieved the singers by the recitation of some sad or merry tale, as the temper of the moment dictated, which was unconnected, however, with the main piece. The stage upon which Thespis and his "vagrant players" exhibited their dramatic pieces, was nothing more than a cart, in which they travelled from town to town, from village to village, as do our modern mountebanks. Ignotum tragicae genus invenissecamoenae Dicitur, et plaustris vexisse poemata Thespis Quae canerent agerentque peruncti fcecibus ora. Hor.DeArt.Poet.215. Thespis, inventor of the tragic art, Carried his vagrant players in a cart; High o'er the crowd the mimic tribe appear'd And play'd and sung, with lees of wine besmear'd. Francis. From this rude and imperfect state, in the short space of se- venty years, by the efforts of succeeding dramatic writers, and particularly of JEschylus, Euripides and Sophocles, it arrived at its more perfect form; that form which, in a great measure, it still retains, and may still be distinguished, even under the garb of modern improvement. Among modern critics, it has been a subject of controversy, whether tragedy was invented by Thespis, or whether he is only entitled to the honor of having changed the "Song of the Goat" into something like a regular drama. The controversy can only be considered important in a literary point of view, as tending to establish the time when, and by whom, dramatic poetry was first cultivated. Plutarch, in his life of Solon, says, "Thespis gave rise and beginning to the very rudiments of tragedy;" in the passage above quoted, Horace calls him the "inventor of the tragic art," and from the Arunde- lian marbles, or Parian chronicle, which contain a chronologi- cal account of the remarkable events in the history of Greece, from the time of Cccrops to the year 354 before Christ, we learn, that "Thespis was the first who gave being to tragedy.** 60 HISTORY OF LITERATURE Of the dramatic productions of Thespis, none are now extant, if indeed, any were ever committed to writing. It would be interesting to compare the rude dramas of Thespis, with the more refined productions of his illustrious successors. Thespis was succeeded in dramatic poetry by Patrinas, a Pe- loponessian. He wrote many dramatic pieces, most of which were of a satirical character, and were performed as farces. Actuated by a spirit of improvement, he effected a change in the mode of representation. He procured the erection of a theatre for dramatic exhibitions, plays still continuing to be ex- hibited on scaffolds, or in booths. He also attempted to make some alteration in the musical part of the entertainment, by which the confusion of voices would be avoided, and the recita- tive more distinctly heard by the audience; the people, howev- er, were too strongly attached to the ancient mode to which they were accustomed, to submit to the alteration. They opposed it with so much violence, the Patrinas, to appease the tumult, came forward, and accompanied with music and dancing, re- cited the following, one of the few productions of his mus' which has been preserved : What means this tumult? why this rage? What thunder shakes the Athenian stage? 'T is frantic Bromius bids me sing, He tunes the pipe, he smites the string; The Dryads with their chief accord, Submit and hail the drama's lord. Be still and let distraction cease Nor thus profane the muse's peace; By sacred fiat I preside The minstrel's master and his guide; He while the chorus strains proceed, Shall follow with responsive reed; To measur'd notes whilst they advance He in wild maze shall lead the dance. So generals in the front appear Whilst music echoes from the rear; Nor silence each discordant sound, For see, with ivy chaplet crown'd, Bacchus appears! he speaks in me, Hear and obey the god's decree. Cumberland. The effect of this address was such as might have been ex- pected ; the people were appeased, and Patrinas was permitted to carry into effect the improvements he had introduced. He HISTORY OF LITERATURE. bi ;s said to have been the author of fifty dramatic pieces. Ano- ther dramatic poet of this period was Phrynicus; he was the first who introduced the female mask upon the stage. His most ce- lebrated production was the tragedy of the "Siege of Miletus,'" founded upon the sacking of that city by the Persian troops. The representation of this tragedy had such an effect upon the Athenian audience, that the magistrates prohibited its future re presentation, and condemned the author to a fine of a thousand drachmas. * CHAPTER III. Literature of the Greeks. Stesichorus. Anacreon. Simonides. Pindar. JEschylus. Sophocles. Euripides. Stesichorus^ Anacreon and Simonides, flourished about the same time, that is about 520 years before Christ. Tesias^ or Stesicho- rus, was a native of Himera, in Sicily, and although he was not a native of Greece, and did not even visit that country until late in life, we have chosen to introduce him in this place, among Greek poets, because of the fame he acquired, and because his poems were written in the Doric, one of the dialects into which the language of Greece was divided. He composed twenty-six books of odes, epigrams and other poems, all of which are lost, except a few fragments scattered through the works of later writers. As a lyric poet he is said to have been unequalled ex- cept by Pindar, and he is even said to have equalled Homer in sublimity and grandeur of conception, and energy and eloquence of language. He held a distinguished place in the affections of his countrymen, and when he died in the city of Catana, in the island of Sicily, he was buried at the public expense; a tomb was erected to his memory, near one of the city gates, which was afterwards called by his name, and divine honors were decreed him. Anacreon, whose fame is familiar to all lovers of wine and mirth, and who is well known in modern times and to English readers, by means of the elegant translation of his odes by Moore? 2 HISTORY OF LITERATURE, was born at Teos, a city of Ionia. He was early distinguished for his poetical abilities; his lively character and social disposi- tion strongly recommended him to those of similar character, to whom the fascinations of the sparkling bowl presented irresisti- ble allurements. He enjoyed the friendship of Polycrates, tyrant of Samos, and of Hipparchus, son of Pisistratus, both liberal pat- rons of learning and learned men, the latter of whom sent a fifty- oared galley to bring him from Teos to Athens. Of the poetry of Anacreon it may with justice be said, that "the principal char- acteristic beauties consist of a singular simplicity of diction, a careless felicity and uncommon delicacy of expression, and al- though almost exclusively devoted to amatory and bachanalian subjects, they exhibit a wonderful fertility of invention and va- riety of illustration." The moral character of Anacreon has been variously represented, as it has been the subject of investi- gation by his friends, or his enemies, both of whom have, no doubt, suffered their partialities and prejudices to carry them too far, to enable them to form a correct estimate. On the one hand he has been represented as a drunkard as " . old Anacreon wet with wine, And crown'd with wreathes of Lesbian vine." On the other he is described as worthy of imitation in private and domestic life as a model of moral purity. If the senti- ments of an author, as contained in his works, are to be consid- ered as evidences of his real character and opinions, and if the celebration of love and wine in poetic numbers, involve immo- rality, then the character of Anacreon cannot escape the censure of the rigidly moral. Although he may not have been an habit- ual drunkard, we think his devotion to the "jolly god," and his fondness for wine, are manifest in almost every line of his work?. "Mix me, child, a cup divine, Crystal water, ruby wine; Weave the frontlet richly flushing, O'er my wintry temples blushing. Mix the brimmer; Love and I Shall no more the gauntlet try, Here upon this holy bowl I surrender all my soul. To-day I'll haste to quaff my wine As If to-morrov? ne'er should shine HISTORY OF LITERATURE 33 But if to-morrow comes, when then I'll haste to quaff my wine again. And thus while all our days are bright, Nor time has dimm'd their blooming light, Let us the festal hours beguile With mantling cup and cordial smile, And shed from every bowl of wine, The richest drop on Bacchus' shrine!" Besides odes and epigrams, Anacreon is said to have written elegies and hymns, nearly all of which have perished in the gen- eral wreck of ancient learning. The following beautiful "Re- flections at sea, on a moonlight evening," show that although the praises of wine principally occupied the muse of Anacreon, yet she sometimes tuned her lyre to other strains. '"T is sweet, upon the vessel's side To stand, and view the passing tide, Sadly to mark the silent scene In summer evening's close serene: To muse on one, who far away, Perhaps beholds his setting ray ; And at the sight may think, the while, What welcome words, what cheerful smile, Shall greet the youth whose love taught toil Has driven her from his native soil. Such thoughts can sweetly soothe the soul That bends, a slave, to Love's control! Heedless he hears old ocean roar, And waste his fury on the shore; Tranquil and calm, he boldly braves The howling hurricane and dashing waves. Gay Hope then yields with brightest rays The prospect of his future days. Around his couch she darts her beams And bathes in bliss his shadowy dreams In gloomy hours a silent tear May mark the steps of life's career: To distant climes when forc'd away He sadly chides the lingering day: Yet Hope is kindly hovering nigh, His soul to sooth, his tear to dry. Soft she whispers future pleasures Tasting Cupid's richest treasures."* Simonides was not only celebrated as a poet, but from the moral tendency and philosophical character of his writings, was * For the above translations of Anacreon, I am indebted to the interesting "Memoirs of Anacreon," by John E. Hall, Esq. published in the "Port Folio." ,j . HISTORY OF LITERATURE. ranked among the philosophers of the age. He stood high in the estimation of his countrymen, and enjoyed the particular friendship of the most distinguished men of his time, among whom were Hipparchus of Athens, and Pausamas,king of Lace- demon. His poetical compositions consisted of odes, elegies, epigrams and dramatic pieces, but he was more distinguished as an elegiac than a lyric poet. His elegies particularly were remarkable for their elegance of language, and the plaintive and pathetic strain in which they were composed, which moved and interested the feelings. "No person was ever better acquainted with the sublime and delightful art of interesting and moving the passions; nor did any one paint with greater exactness those situations and misfortunes which excite pity. It is not the poet to whom we are attentive; we hear the cries and groans of a distracted family, which weeps the death of a father or a son; we see an affectionate mother struggling with her son against the fury of the waves, while a thousand gulfs yawn on all sides, and menace her with a thousand deaths; the shade of Achilles rises from the bottom of the tomb, and announces to the Greeks, about to quit the shores of Illium, the innumerable calamities which await them by sea and land."* Simonides is reproached Avith ingratitude, and with being the first who prayed for hire. He died at about ninety years of age. A few fragments only remain of the numerous pieces of which he was the author. Pindar was born at Thebes in Boeotia, about 521 years before Christ, and is distinguished at the "great father of lyric poetry." He was early trained to music and poetry under Myrtis, a woman distinguished for her talents, and soon acquired a considerable reputation. Although five times vanquished in poetic contests with Cormna, a poetess of Tanagra, near Thebes, and who was also a pupil of Myrtis, he gained the prize at the Olympic games, and was crowned in the presence of assembled Greece. His odes, which are all that remain of his writings, are much ad- mired for "sublimity of sentiment, grandeur of expression, energy and magnificence of style, boldness of metaphor, harmony of numbers, and elegance of diction." Horace compares him to a river swollen by sudden rains overflowing its banks. * Travels of Anach. vol. VI. 153. Lon. ed HISTORY OF LITERATURE- $5 Monte decurrens velut amnis, imbres Quern super notas aluere ripas, Fervet, immensusque ruit profundo Pindarus ore. Lib. 4. Car. 2 As when a river, swollen by sudden showers, O'er it known banks, from some steep mountain pours, So in profound, immeasurable song, The deep mouth 'd Pindar, foaming, pours along. Francis. Pindar owed his fame principally to the hymns he composed in honor of the gods, or to celebrate the triumph of the victors in the public games. They were repeated before the most crowded assemblies in the temples of Greece, and always re- ceived with enthusiasm. After the death of Pindar, a statue was erected to him in the most public place of Thebes, and at the celebration of one of the Grecian festivals, a portion of the victim which had been offered in sacrifice, was reserved for his descendants. Alexander the great, out of respect to the poet, preserved the house which he had inhabited, and reduced the rest of the city of Thebes to ashes. Thus did the pride of vic- tory render homage to the superiority of genius. Pindar enjoyed the friendship of, and was patronised by, The- ron of Agrigentum, and Hiero of Syracuse. They were two of the most celebrated and munificent princes of the age, and were distinguished for their liberality towards learned men. Pindar took frequent occasion to celebrate their praises in lofty strains* Of Theron he speaks as follows: Ye choral hymns, harmonious lays, Sweet rulers of the Lyric string! What god, what hero's godlike praise, What mortal shall we sing? With Jove, with Pisa's guardian god Begin, O muse, the Olympic ode. Alcides, Jove's heroic son, The second honor claims; Who offering up the spoils from Augeas won, Establish'd to his sire the Olympic games; When, bright in wreaths of conquest, Theron shofte. Then of victorious Theron sing, Of Theron , hospitable, just and great ! Fam'd Agrigentum's honor'd king, The prop and bulwark of the state ; A righteous prince! whose flowering virtues gftfce, The venerable item of his illustrious race, 9 tftj HISTORY OF LITERATURE. Hiero having gained the crown in the Olympic games, Pindar alludes to that event in one of his odes, and thus takes occasion to speak of his friend and patron : Happy he, whose glorious brow Pisa's honor'd chaplets crown ; Calm his stream of life shall flow, Shelter'd by his high renown. That alone is bliss supreme; Which unknowing to decay/ Still with ever shining beam Gladdens each succeeding day. Then for happy Hiero weave Garlands of jEolian strains; Him those honors to receive The Olympic law ordains. Nor more worthy of her lay Can the muse a mortal find ; Greater in imperial sway, Richer in a virtuous mind. 'Contemporary with Pindar flourished the great tragic poet jfischylus. He was an Athenian by hirth, and was early distin- guished among his countrymen for poetic genius. Previously to his time, tragedy was in a rude and imperfect state, notwith- standing the talents of Thespis, Pratinas and others, had been exerted for its advancement. Being endowed by nature with a superior genius, and a mind far above the ordinary stamp, and conscious of the imperfections of the drama, he determined upon endeavoring to reform it, which he soon accomplished by intro- ducing radical and important alterations, not only in the struc- ture and arrangement of tragedies, but in the manner of repre- sentation. Before he was twenty-five years of age, several oi his tragedies were represented, and received with great applause fey an Athenian audience. Melpomene appeared with a grace, spirit and dignity unknown before, and assumed a more elevated rank among her sister muses. The improvements he effected in the manner of representation, were the introduction of seve- ral actors clothed in flowing robes, the use of masks by the per- formers, expressive of the characters they represented, and the decoration of the stage with appropriate scenery. JEschylus was distinguished for his valor and conduct in the ^ celebrated battles of Marathon and Platea, and the sea fight of Salamis. The scenes then represented before him, made so deep a.n impression upon hi? mind, that he afterwards skilfully adapted ' HISTORY OF LITERATURE. ^ them to scenic representation. He was the author of ninety tragedies, forty of which were rewarded with public prizes. Of all his dramatic productions, seven only have reached us, which have been translated in an elegant and spirited manner < by Potter. The tragedies of ^Eschylus have all the marks of a bold, ori- ginal and inventive genius, relying solely upon its own powers and energies his imagination was bold and comprehensive, seizing upon every circumstance fitted to produce dramatic effect, and attract the attention of the audience. In the language of Cum- berland, "his pen, like his sword, is a weapon of terror; the spec- tacle which his drama exhibits, is a sublime scene of awful mag- nificence, and his sentiment and style are in unison with his subject." In no one of his tragedies which have survived the ravages of time, are the various qualities that constitute the su- blime of dramatic poetry, more conspicuously displayed, than in that of Agamemnon, written when lie was upwards of sixty years e a time of life when the mental powers of most men are he decline. In the composition of this tragedy, and particu- larly in portraying the characters of Agamemnon, Clytemnes- tra and Cassandra, all the faculties of his powerful mind appear to have been called into action, and exerted with striking, if not tre- mendous, effect. In the Agamemnon of ^Eschylus, there is none of that fierceness of character, impetuosity of temper, and haughtiness of demeanor, which characterise the Agamemnon of Homer, and which most persons would look for in the proud leader of the Grecian armies; on the contrary, the author has invested him with a certain mildness of disposition, and openness of character, which are admirably contrasted with the duplicity of Clytemnestra and her bold and fearless spirit. Her duplici- ty is strongly marked in her reception of Agamemnon, after an absence often years. She receives him with every mark of joy and affection, and after pouring forth her complaints for his long absence, she thus addresses him: at thy return The gushing fountains of my tears are dried, Save that my eyes are weak with midnight watchuigg, Straining, through tears, if haply they might see The signal fires, that claim'd my fix'd attention. If they were clos'd in sleep, a silly fly Would, with the slightest murmuring, make me start 68 HISTORY OF LITERATURE And wake me to more fears. For thy dear sake,. All this I suffer'd; but my jocund heart Forgets it all, whilst I behold my lord, My guardian, the strong anchor of my hope, The stately column that supports my house. If any suspicions, with regard to the fidelity of Clytemnestra, had existed in the mind of Agamemnon, the above speech, so expressive of the warm and devoted attachment of a fond and affectionate wife, would have removed all, and silenced every whisper of jealousy. The mighty genius of Shakespeare him- self, intimately as he was acquainted with all the avenues to the human heart, would have found it difficult to have devised a speech better calculated to lull suspicion. It has the desired effect; Agamemnon enters his palace in all the pomp of triumph, and throwing himself completely in her power, falls a victim to the murderous dagger of Clytemnestra. After having commit- ted the horrid deed, and whilst her hands are yet reeking with a husband's blood, she avows it in the/ollowing language: when the heart conceives Thoughts of deep vengeance on a foe, what means To achieve the deed more certain, than to wear The form of friendship, and with circling wiles Inclose them in the insuperable net? I struck him twice, and twice He groan 'd, then died. A third time as he lay I gor'd him with a wound 5 a grateful present To the stern god, that in realms below Reigns o'er the dead; there let him take his seat. He lay. and spouting from his wounds a stream Of blood, bedewed me with his crimson drops. I glory in them, like the genial earth When the warm showers of heaven descend and wake The flowrets to unfold their vermiel leaves. Her bold and daring character, spurning all control and careless of consequences, is further exhibited in her reply to the chorus : Chorus. We are astonished at thy daring words Thus vaunting o'er the ruins of thy husband. Clytem. Me, like a witless woman, would thou fright? I tell thee, my firm soul disdains to fear. Be thou dispos'd to applaud or censure me, 1 reck not; there Agamemnon lies, My husband slaughter'd by this hand ; I dase ATOW his death and justify the deed HISTORY OF LITERATURE. ^ The character in the modern drama, which approaches near- est to that of Clytemnestra, is Lady Macbeth the same con- tempt of danger and steadiness of purpose mark both. Ano- ther important and interesting character is Cassandra, daughter of Priam and Hecuba, who received from Apollo the gift of pro- phecy. In the division of the spoils of Troy, Cassandra fell to the share of Agamemnon, and accompanied him to Argos. She is there inspired with the spirit of prophecy, and foretells her ewn death, which she meets with the firmness worthy the daugh- ter of Priam and the sister of the noble Hector. Such though it be, I enter, to bewail My fate, and Agamemnon's. To have liv'd Let it suffice. And think not, gen'rous strangers, Like the poor bird that flutters o'er the bough, Through fear I linger. But my dying words You will remember, when her blood shall flow For mine, woman's for woman's; and the man's For his that falls by his accursed wife. Chorus. Thy fate, poor sufferer, fills my eyes with teaw. Cassandra. Yet once more let me raise my mournful voice. Thou sun, whose rising beams shall bless no more These closing eyes! you, whose vindictive rage Hangs o'er my hated murderers, oh, avenge me, Though, a poor slave, I fall an easy prey ! This is the state of man : in prosperous fortune A shadow, passing light, throws to the ground Joy's baseless fabric; in adversity Comes malice with a sponge moistened in gall, And wipes each beauteous character away: More than the first this melts my soul to pity. The foregoing extracts will serve, in some degree, to exhibit the train of thought that characterised the dramatic genius of jEschylus, and the peculiar spirit which animated him in all his dramatic efforts. He lived in the time of the Persian war, and had himself been distinguished for deeds of arms ; hence his great object was to animate his countrymen, and keep alive the heroic fire which warmed their forefathers; he, therefore, se- lected his characters from the heroic sages, and depicted vigo- rous and free minds, superior to fear, devoted to their country, and greedy of glory on the field of battle. Notwithstanding his high reputation, when the tragedy of the "Furies" was represented, his enemies charged him with impie- ty, and would, probably, have put him to detith, had it not been 70 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. for the intercession of bis brother Amynias. This event made such an impression on bis mind, that he retired to the court of Hiero, king of Sicily, where he died in the sixty-ninth year of his age. The Athenians decreed public honors to his memory. JEschylus was succeeded by Sophocles and Euripides, two equal- }y celebrated names in dramatic history. Sophocles, at the death of ^Eschylus, was in the twenty-seventh year of his age, and like him was distinguished for his valor in several battles; indeed, having attained the dignity of Archon, he commanded the Athenian armies on several occasions, with considerable re- putation. He first applied himself to lyric poetry, and on his "sounding lyre" celebrated the victories of his countrymen. Having been successful in a poetic contest, instituted by the Athenians to celebrate the conquest of the island of Scyros, in which jEschylus is said to have been a competitor, he devoted the remainder of his days to the cultivation of poetry, in which he was eminently successful, having obtained the prize twenty different times. The splendid triumph which he gained over ^schylus, greatly increased his reputation, and gave him the empire of the stage, until disputed by Euripides. Sophocles was the author of one hundred and twenty tragedies, only seven of which arc extant. The style of Sophocles was compared by his contemporaries, to the honey of the bee for sweetness, hence he obtained the name of the "Bee." His children, anxious to become possessed of his estate, charged him with insanity before the Areopagus. The poet appeared before his judges, and by way of defence read his last tragedy of "CEdipus at Colonos," in which he represents, in the most glowing colors, the conduct of ungrateful children, and then inquired of his judges, whether the author of such a production could justly be charged with insanity. He was acquitted, to the shame and confusion of his children, and was conducted home amidst the acclamations of the people. Sophocles lived near one hundred years in the full enjoyment of his faculties, and died through excess of joy, when the prize was decreed to "CEdipus," the last play he exhibited. The following beautiful verses on his death, translated from the * Treek by Addison, cannot fail to please every reader of taste r Wind, gentle evergreen, to form a shade, Around the tomb where Sophocles is laid ; Sweet ivy wind thy boughs and intertwine HISTORY OF LITERATURE 7 j With blushing roses and the clustering vine ; Thus will thy lasting leaves, with beauties hung Prove grateful emblems of the lays he sung; Whose soul exalted like a god of wit Among the muses and the graces writ. The tragedy of "CEdipus Tyrannus," exhibits the dramatic powers of Sophocles, to as great advantage as any other of his works that have reached us. It is founded upon the story of the murder of Laius, king of Thebes, by -his son CEdipus, and the subsequent marriage of CEdipus with his own mother Jocas- ta, the fruitful sources of many and dire calamities to him and his unhappy family. When the play opens, all Thebes is in commotion, in consequence of a dreadful pestilence which was laying waste the land; people of all ranks are thronging to the temple of Jupiter, and supplicating at his altar the favor of the Deity. CEdipus is informed by Creon, who has just returned from Delphi, that the cause of the pestilence is the murderer of Laius, and that before it ceases, he must be discovered and dri- ven from the country. CEdipus, alive to the miseries of the peo- ple, determines to use every means to discover the murderer. By the advice of Creon, he sends for a blind and aged prophet named Tiresias, whowas looked on as one to whom all futurity was known: as among the gods All knowing Phoebus, so to mortal men Doth sage Tiresias, in foreknowledge sure Shine forth preeminent ." Tiresias being brought before CEdipus, hesitates to declare what he knows, and says, a You know not what you ask ; I'll not unveil Your miseries to you. I will not make Myself and thee unhappy. Still urged, he reluctantly declares that. CEdipus himself is the murderer, The guilty cause of all the city's woes And adds that he is in shameful bonds united With those he loves, unconscious of hisguil* fs vet most guilty. " 72 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. This declaration of Tiresias, excites the rage of (Edipus, and causes a quarrel between him and Creon, who he be- lieves has induced the prophet thus to speak, in order that the commission of the crime being fixed on him, Creon may succeed to the crown. The character of QEdipus is drawn with a mas- terly hand, and we cannot but feel deeply interested for him in his various and trying afflictions. The scene between (Edipus and Jocasta, when he informs her of the declaration of Tiresias, is one of peculiar and striking interest. (Ed. Creon says That I did murder Laius. Joe. spake he this As knowing it himself, or from another? (Ed. He had suborned that evil working priest ; And sharpens every tongue against his king. Joe. Let not a fear perplex thee, (Edipus; Mortals know nothing of futurity, And these prophetic seers are all impostors; I'll prove it to thee; know then, Laius once, Not from Apollo, but his priests, received An oracle which said, it was decreed He should be slain by his own son, the offspring Of Laius and Jocasta; yet he fell By strangers ; murder'd, so fame reports, By robbers in the place where three roads meet: A son was born, but ere three days had past The infant's feet were bored ; a servant took And left him on the pathless mountain's top To perish there; thus Phoebus ne'er decreed That he should kill his father, or that Laius, Which much he fear'd, should by his son be slain. This speech of Jocasta, instead of removing the fears of (Edi- pus, tends to confirm them; the time, the place, the description of the person of Laius, and the subsequent introduction of the shepherd, to whom (Edipus was delivered when an infant, cause him to break forth in the following pathetic language: Ome! at length the mystery 's unravelled ! T is plain; 't is clear; my fate is all determin'd: Those are my parents who should not have beea Allied to me; she is my wife, e'en she Whom nature had forbidden me to wed ; I have slain him who gave me life, and now Of thee, O light ! I take my last farewell ; For (Edipus shall ne'er behold thee more HISTORY OF LITERATURE.^ *A| 7-3 The death of Jocasta by her own hand, is thus described: Messenger. : the queen Divine Jocasta 's dead. Cho, Jocasta dead! say by what hand? Mess. her own; And what 's more dreadful, none saw the deed. What I myself beheld you all shall hear: Inflam'd with rage, soon as she reach'dthe palace , Instant retiring to the nuptial bed, She shut the door, then rav'd and tore her hair, Call'd out on Laius dead, and bade him think On that unhappy son who murder'd him, And stain'd his bed : then turning her sad eyes Upon the guilty couch, she curs'dthe place Where she had borne a husband from her husband, And children from her child; what follow'd then I know not, by the cries of CEdipus Prevented, for on him our eyes were fix'd Attentive. We might produce many more extracts from this tragedy, of peculiar beauty, but enough has been given for our purpose. Throughout this drama, the author seems to have had in view, to impress upon the mind, that whatever is decreed by Divine. Providence, must inevitably come to pass, notwithstand- ing every human means may Ije employed to counteract its designs; and he concludes with the following sentiment: Let mortals hence be taught to look beyond The present time, nor dare to say, a man Is happy, till the last decisive hour Shall close his life without the taste of wo. Euripides was born at Salamis, the day on which the army of Xerxes was defeated by the Greeks. He was the pupil of Socra- tes, the celebrated philosopher, but being more attached to poetry than philosophy, he left the groves of the academy and the banks of the Illyssus, and entered the temple of the muses, where he offered his devotions to Melpomene. When engaged in the composition of his tragedies, he frequently retired from the noise and bustle of the busy world, to a dreary and solitary cave in the neighborhood of Salamis. He is represented to have been proud, haughty, self-assuming and fond of contention. When requested by the audience to strike out some offensive Hnes in one of his plays, he came forward on the stage and told , that he came to instruct them, not to receive instruction* 10 74 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. Between Euripides and Sophocles, a bitter enmity, it is said, subsisted, which originated with the former, on account of his extreme jealousy of the talents and rising fame of the latter. This enmity led Aristophanes to introduce them both in some of his comedies, in which he ridiculed them with success and hu- mor. The following judgment, with regard to these two dra- matic writers, has been pronounced by a learned and judicious critic. "Euripides is esteemed more tender than Sophocles,. and he is fuller of moral sentiments. But in the conduct of his plays, he is more incorrect and negligent; his expositions, or openings of the subject, are made in a less artful manner, and the songs of his chorus, though remarkably poetical, have, com- monly, less connexion with the main subject, than those of So- phocles. Both Euripides and Sophocles are elegant and beau- tiful in their style; just for the most part, in their thoughts, they speak with the voice of nature; and, making allowance for the difference of ancient and modern ideas, in the midst of all their simplicity, they are both touching and interesting."* Aristophanes , in his comedy of the "Frogs,*' introduces /Eschy- lus and Euripides as contending for preeminence among the de- parted spirits; the contest is continued for some time, but is at length so managed, as to be decided in favor of the former* jEschylus is evidently the favorite of tbc poet, and lie next ranks Sophocles, as appears from the following speech of yF.5 to Pluto: . ---- do tliou to Sophocles Consign my seat, to keep possession of it, In case I should not again return; for he Doubtless, conies nearest me in tragic powers?. . And again, in a scene between Xanthias and jEachusj the- lat- ter being asked why Sophocles did not put in his claim for 1hr iirst rank in tragedy, replies : not he, by Jove! When hither he came down, he instantlv Embraced ./Eschylus, shook him by the hand , And in his favor gave up all pretensions. The few tragedies of Euripides now extant, have been trans- Blair' e Lecturea, p. 471 . HISTORY OF LITERATURE- 75 iated into English by Potter. From his tragedy of "Iphigenia in Aulis," we will make a few extracts, for the purpose of showing something of the genius and style of the author, so far as they can be exhibited in a translation, affording, at the same time, an oppojtu- nity of comparing the style and manner of the three great tragic poets of Greece. This tragedy is founded upon the sacrifice of the daughter by Agamemnon, to appease the wrath of Diana, whom he had offended; the oracle having declared, that the Grecian fleet would not be permitted to reach the Trojan coast, unless this sacrifice was offered. Agamemnon had been pre- vailed upon to send to Argos for his daughter, under pretence of giving her in marriage to Achilles; but afterwards repenting his determination, and feeling a return of that natural affection which prompts a parent to protect his offspring, he endeavors to prevent her coming; his schemes, however, are detected by the vigilance of his brother Menelaus, and disappointment ensues. Iphigenia and her mother Clytemnestra, arrive at Aulis, but in- stead of being united to Achilles, the former learns that her in- nocent blood is to be shed upon the altar of Diana. The play opens with a dialogue between Agamemnon and an attendant, whom he determines to despatch to Argos with a" let* ter to Clytemnestra, in which he says: Whate'er my former letter gave in charge, Daughter of Leda, this I write to thee, That to Eubcea's winding bay thou send not Thy daughter, nor to Aulis rising high Above the waves; for to some other time The nuptials of thy virgin daughter we defer. The messenger is detected by Menelaus, and the letter wrest- ed from his hands. Menelaus reproaches Agamemnon for his "secret baseness:" , when thou cam'st to Aulis, with the tjoopa Of Greece in arms, to nothing didst thou sink, Astonish'd at thy fortune, by the gods Denied a gale to swell thy sails. The Greek* Required thee to dismiss the ships, nor toil In vain at Aulis; how dejected then Thy visage, thy confusion then how great Not to command the thousand ships, and fill The fields of Priam with embattled hosts? Me then thou didst address; what shall I do, Or what expedient find, of this command. 76 HISTORY OF LITERATURE Of this high honor not to be deprived? When Chalcas at the hallow'd rites declar'd That to Diana thou must sacrifice Thy daughter, and the Grecians then should sail, With joy thy thoughts were heighten'd, willingly The virgin as a victim didst thou promise, And freely, not by force, (urge not that plea,) Dost thou despatch a message to thy wife To send thy daughter hither, the pretence Her nuptials with Achilles. But thy mind Was soon averse, and secretly devised Letters of different import; now in sooth, Thou wilt not be the murderer of thy daughter. When informed by a messenger of the arrival of his daughter* the unhappy father laments his hard fate in the following beau- tiful and pathetic language: . In what a chain of fate Am I enfolded? Fortune, wiser far Than all my vain designs, hath closely wrought Beneath me. What advantages attend Ignoble birth? They are allowed to weep, And utter sad complaints; but to the noble This is denied ; led by the pride of rank Which rules us, to the people we are slaves. how shall I address My wife, or how receive her? For all my former ills. Coming unbidden, she hath added weight Of new distress: yet decency required Her presence with her daughter, to attend Her nuptials, and present the dearest gifts: There will she find me false. But thee, O thee, Unhappy bride, (bride call I thee! how soon To Pluto to be wedded!) how I pity! Methinks I hear he* 1 suppliant voice thus speak: "My father, wilt thou kill me? May'st thou make Thyself such nuptials, and whoe'er to thee Is dear." Unhappy me ! what ruin hath the son Of Priam brought on me ! There is much of the simplicity of nature in the first interview between Agamemnon and Iphigenia: Jph. My father, to thy arms I wish to run, Clasp'd to thy bosom ; dear to me thy sight After such absence: be not angry with me. Aga. Enjoy thy wish: of all my children thou Hast of thy fathei* been most fond. Iph. Absent so long, with joy I look on thee. Aga, And I on thee : so this is nmtaal joy. HISTORY OF LITERATURE, ^jtf 77 Clytemnestra having learnt from a servant of her house, the determination of Agamemnon to sacrifice his daughter, to ap- pease the rage of the goddess Diana, endeavors to dissuade him from his purpose, but without effect, although aided by the pa- thetic and eloquent appeal of Iphigenia: Had I, my father, the persuasive voice Of Orpheus, and his skill to charm the rocks To follow me, and soothe whome'er I please With winning words, I would make trial of it; But I have nothing to present thee now, Save tears, my only eloquence, and these I can present thee. Ah ! kill me not in youth's fresh prime. Sweet is the light of heaven : compel me not What is beneath to view. I was the first To call thee father, me thou first didst call Thy child : I was the first that on thy knees Fondly caress'd thee, and from thee received The fond caress: This was thy speech to me Shall I, my child, e'er see thee in some house Of splendor, happy in thy husband, live And flourish as becomes my dignity? My speech to thee was, leaning against thy cheek, Which with my han4 I now caress, and what Shall I then do for thee? Shall I receive My father when grown old, and in my house Cheer him with each fond office, to repay The careful nurture which he gave my youth? These words are on my memory deep impress'd, Thou hast forgot them and wilt kill thy child. To this speech so affecting, and so well calculated to touch the heart of the most obdurate, Agamemnon replies: to dare this, is dreadful to me, And not to dare it, is as dreadful. I perforce Must do it. What a naval camp is here You see, how many kings of Greece array'd In glittering arms; to Illium's towers are these Denied to advance, unless I offer thee A victim ; thus the prophet Cbalcas speaks. Iphigenia is led to the altar, and as Chalcas is about to strike the fatal blow, she suddenly disappears, and a goat of uncom- mon size and beauty, is found in her stead. the sons of Atreus stood, And all the host, fix'd on the ground their eyes. The priest then took his sword, preferr'd his prayer, And with his eye raark'd where to give the blow, 79 HISTORY OP LITERATURE when sudden to the view A wonder; for the stroke each clearly heard, But where the virgin was none knew; aloud The priest exclaims, and all the host with shouts Rifted the air, beholding from some god A prodigy, which struck their wondering eyes Surpassing faith when seen; for on the ground Panting was laid a hind of largest bulk, In form excelling; with its spouting blood Much was the altar of the goddess dew'd. Euripides having incurred the displeasure of his own country- men, retired to the court of Archelaus, king of Macedonia, who honored him with his favor and friendship. His end was unfor- tunate, having been devoured by dogs in the seventy-eighth year ef his age. When the news of his death was received at Athens, Sophocles, who was about to exhibit one of his tragedies, not- withstanding their mutual enmity, appeared in mourning, and made his actors come on the stage without crowns. The Athe- nians requested his bones from Archelaus, that they might be- stow upon them the rites of an honorable burial. Archelaus, desirous of preserving in Macedonia the remains of so distin- guished a man, refused their request. The Athenians after- wards raised a cenotaph to his memory.* After the time of the three great poets, we have thus briefly noticed, no other tragic poet of distinction rose in Greece. The poetic talents of succeeding writers appear to have been exclu- sively directed to comedy, and Thalia assumed the seat of Mel- pomene. * Potter's trans, of the works of Eschylus and Euripides. Anachar. Travels, vol 6. Potter's Grec. Ant. Cours de Litterature par La Harpe. Francklin's Sophocles. Lem preire's Class. Pic. Gillie's Greece. Mitford'a Greece. Plutarch's Lives. HISTORY OF -LITERATURE, CHAPTER IV. Literature of the Greeks. Greek comedy the old, the middle and the new : Eupolis, Cratinus, Aristophanes, Crates, Alexis, Antiphanes, Menander, Philemon. Pastoral poetry : Theocritus, Appolonius Rhodius. WHAT is properly called comedy, is supposed to have been invented by Epicharmus, a Pythagorean philosopher of Syracuse, Who flourished about four hundred and sixty years before the birth of Christ. Although a philosopher, he cultivated the gar- den of polite literature, and was the author of about forty co- medies, most of which were distinguished for a refined morality, and were selected as models for imitation by Plautus, a celebra- ted Roman comic writer. Greek comedy was divided into the old, the middle and the new. In the first it was common to represent on the stage known indi- viduals by name, who happened to be remarkable either for their follies or their vices, any peculiarity of outward demeanor, or for their moral doctrines and opinions in philosophy. To repress this license, thus freely indulged, in which, to gratify personal feel- ing, the most illustrious and distinguished characters were intro- duced in ludicrous situations, laws were enacted, forbidding the mention of the names of living persons, which gave rise to what was called the middle comedy. The comic poets, being thus pro- hibited from introducing and holding up to ridicule, the names and characters of living individuals, adopted a plan, that by means of masks, dress and imitation of gesture and manner, they so plainly designated the persons intended to be satirized, that they were at once recognised. This was distinguished by the name of the middle comedy. The public rulers perceiving that the poets thus eluded the law which forbade the mention of names, and which was designed to protect the characters and feelings of individuals from wanton and malicious attacks, found it necessary to enact another, banishing from the stage all allu- sion to individuals, and restricting the representation to the deli- neation and exposition of general manners. This was called the new comedy. We now design to notice the most distinguished 3Q HfSTORY OF LITERATURE poets, in these several departments 01 divisions 01 ancient comedy. In the old comedy, Cratinus, Eupolis, and Aristophanes, were contemporaries and competitors for the comic wreath. They each enjoyed a high reputation, but Aristophanes appears to have been the most successful candidate, having been distinguished by the title of "Prince of the old comedy." During the period of their rivalship, the magistracy prohibited the representation of comedies at Athens, which was in force two years. When Enthymenas was chosen archon, he revoked the edict, and Thalia was reinstated in her honors by the abovementioned comic poets, who were in high favor with the people, on account of the boldness with which they attacked, and the severity with which they lashed, the vices and follies of the times, and par- ticularly of certain elevated individuals. Eupolis atque Cratinus, Aristophanesque poetae, Atque alii, quorum comoedia prisca virorum est, Si quis erat dignus describi, quod malus, autfur, Quod moechus foret, aut sicarius, aut alioqui Famosus; multa cum libertate notabant. Her. Lib. I, Sat.. 4 The comic poets in its earliest age, Who form'd the manners of the Grecian stage. Was there a villain who might justly claim A better right of being damn'd to fame; Rake, cut-throat, thief, whatever was his crime, They freely stigmatized the wretch in rhyme. Francis* Cratinus was an Athenian by birth; he composed thirty co- medies, which were distinguished for a lively and highly orna- mented style ; scarcely a single fragment, however, is now to be found. He lived to the great age of ninety-seven, notwithstand- ing he led a dissipated life. He was greatly addicted to wine, so much so, that he asserted no author could be good for any thing, who did not love his bottle, and offer frequent libations to Bacchus. It is to him Horace alludes in his epistle to Maecenas: Frisco si credis, Maecenas docte, Cratino, Nulla placere diu nee vivere carmina possunt, Quae scribuntur aquas potoribus. Hor. Ej>. 19. To sage Cratinus if you credit give, No water-drinker's verses long shall live r Or long shall please. _ - Francis. "! '. ', HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 1 r rile last dramatic production of Cratinus was a comedy, en- titled ^The Flagon," which he wrote in consequence of an at- tack made upon him by Aristophanes, in one of his comedies, in which he was held up to ridicule in consequence of his excessive love of wine. In this comedy Cratinus contrived to turn the laugh against Aristophanes, who was himself a devotee of the jolly god. In his comic writings he is said to have pos- sessed the severity of Archilochus and the energy of JEschylus. Cratinus died in the ninety-seventh year of his age. Eupolis was also an Athenian, and exhibited great dramatic powers at a very early age. He is said to have written seven- teen comedies before he attained the age of seventeen years an effort of genius seldom, if ever, equalled. He soon became a popular writer, and the boldness of his satire, which was level- led at the vicious and profligate characters of Athens, recom- mended him to public esteem. The manner of his death is un- certain; it is supposed, however, that some of those persons, whose vices he had exposed in his comedies, suborned assassins to throw him into the Hellespont, and even Alcibiades, whom he had satirized, is suspected for having been concerned in the plot. He was the author of about twenty comedies, of the greater part of which little more than the titles have been pre- served. Aristophanes was born in the island of Rhodes, but went early to Athens, where he subsequently distinguished himself as a comic poet and received the olive crown in a public assembly. In private life he is represented to have been free and open in his temper, of a social disposition, and intemperate in the use of wine a vice from which, however, very few in his time, could claim exemption. He was one of the most popular men in Athens, and his fame soon spread abroad. "The comedies of Aristophanes," says a competent judge, "are of a mixed species; sometimes personal, at other times inclining to parody ; he varies and accommodates his style to his subject and the speakers; on some occasions it is elevated, grave, sublime and polished; on others it sinks and descends into humble dialogue, provincial rusticity and coarse obscenity. In some passages he starts out of the ordinary province of comedy, into the loftiest flights of poetry, in which he is scarcely surpassed by ^Eschylus or Pin- dar." Aristophanes was the author of above fifty comedies, of 11 gc; HISTORY OF LITERATURE. which only eleven have come down to us. In one of them, "The Clouds," he attacked Socrates, the celebrated philosopher, bj bringing him upon the stage, and exposing his person and char- acter to ridicule. Socrates was present at the representation of this play, at the time when the theatre was crowded with stran- gers, and in a great degree destroyed the intended effect of the piece by his magnanimity. When the person representing So- crates came forward, observing the anxiety of the strangers to know the person the poet meant to satirize, the philosopher, with great coolness, rose up and continued standing during the re- mainder of the performance. It was in consequence of this at- tack upon Socrates, that the law prohibiting the representation of living characters upon the stage was enacted. The principal object of Aristophanes in"The Clouds," appear? to have been, to expose the doctrines taught by Socrates, al- though he sometimes hints at his personal infirmities. He IF introduced upon the stage, suspended in a basket, and is accost- ed by Strepsiades, a wild fellow, who has been in conversation with some of the disciples of the philosopher: Strep. Hoa! Socrates what hoa, my little Socrates! Soc. Mortal, how now ! thou insect of a day, What would'st thou? Strep. I would know what thou art doing. Soc. I tread in air, contemplating the sun. Strep. Oh! then I see you're baskettd so high That you look down upon the gods good hopr You '11 lower a peg on earth. Soc. Sublime in air, Sublime in thought, I carry my mind with me, Its cogitations all assimilated To the pure atmosphere, in which I float; Lower me to earth, and my mind's subtle power?. Seized by contagious dulness, lose their spirit; For the dry earth drinks up the generous sap. The vegetating vigor of philosophy, And leaves it a mere husk. Strep. What do you say 1 Philosophy has sapt your vigor? Fie upon it. But come, my precious fellow, come down quickly And teach me those fine things I 'm here in quest 01 Soc. And what fine things are they? Step. A new receipt For sending off my creditors, and foiling them By the art logical ; for you shall know By debts, pawns, pledges, usuries, execution?, I am racked and rent in tatter?. HISTORY OF LITERATURE. g Socrates inquires of Strepsiades, if he is desirous of being in* atructed in "celestial matters," and being answered in the affir- mative, he commences the ceremony of initiation: Keep silence then, and listen to a prayer, Which fits the gravity of age to hear Oh air, all powerful air, which dost enfold This pendant globe, thou vault of flaming gold, Ye sacred clouds, who bid the thunder roll, Shine forth, approach, and cheer your suppliant's soul! Strep. Hold! keep 'em off a while, till I am ready. Ah luckless me, would I had bro't my bonnet And so escaped a soaking. Soc. Fly swift ye clouds, and give yourselves to view ! Whether on high Olympus' sacred top Snow crown'd ye sit, or in the azure vales Of your own father Ocean sporting weave Your misty dance, or dip your golden urns In the seven mouths of Nile ; whether ye dwell On Thracian Mimas, or Maeotis' lake Hear me, yet hear, and thus invok'd approach! A large cloud is seen floating in the air, from which a song is heard, at the conclusion of which, Socrates says, Yes, ye divinities, whom I adore, I hail you now propitious to my prayer, Did'st thou not hear, then speak in thunder to me Strep. And I too am your cloudship's most obedient And under sufferance trump against your thunder. - Nay, take it how you may, my frights and fears Have pinch'd and cholick'd my poor bowels so, That I can't choose but treat their holy nostrils With an unsavoury sacrifice. Soc. Forbear These gross scurrilities, for low buffoons And mountebanks more fitting. Hush! be still, List to the chorus of their heavenly voices, For music is the language they delight in. Much in the same strain, the author continues his satire upon Socrates, to the conclusion of the piece. Aristophanes possess- ed such boldness and independence of character, that he never swerved from his purpose from fear of consequences. He as- sailed the powerful as well as the weak, whenever he believed their conduct merited censure. He attacked Cleon in a piece abounding with the bitterest satire, but as he could find no work- man who would make a mask to represent him, or performer who would undertake the part, he appeared upon the stage 34 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. himself, with his face smeared with wine lees, and the multitude applauded, although Cleon was then at the height of his power, and even adored by the populace.* Besides the writers of the old comedy we have mentioned, there were others of inferior note. Jlmipsias was contemporary with Aristophanes ; of his comedies we have the titles of ten, and judging therefrom, they appear to have been directed against the prevailing follies and vices of the age at all times fit subjects for the pen of the satirist. Crates was also contemporary with Cratinus and Aristophanes. He was at first a principal actor in the plays of Cratinus, but afterwards turned his attention to comedy, and produced more than twenty plays, distinguished for their lively sallies of wit, and their exemption from offensive personalities. Of his works a few fragments only remain ; the following translation of one of them "On old age," is from the pen of Cumberland. These shrivell'd sinews and this bending frame, The workmanship of time's strong hand proclaim; Skill'd to reverse whate'er the gods create, And make that crooked which they fashion straight. Hard choice for man to die or else to be That tottering, wretched, wrinkled thing you see: Age then we all prefer; for age we pray, And travel on to life's last lingering day ; Then sinking slowly down from worse to worse, Find Heaven's extorted boon, our greatest curse. About this period also flourished Phcrecrates, who is said to have written twenty-one comedies, in a style of the purest Attic. He invented a kind of verse which was distinguished by the name of Phcrecratian. This poet was the personal friend of Plato, the philosopher. The writers of the middle comedy were numerous, not less than thirty were celebrated; of their respective merits, however, we have but little opportunity of forming any judgment, as all their productions have perished, except a few fragments. Cumber- land has collected many of these fragments in his "Observer," and has translated them with taste, spirit and elegance. Among the most distinguished comic poets of the middle comedy, was Alexis, a native of Thurium, in Magna Graecia, which compre- hended the southern parts of Italy. He is said to have written * Mitchel's Aristophanes. EdinEncy. Anaehav, Travels, vol. VI. 25 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. ^ , ^ no less than two hundred and forty-five comedies, which Plu- tarch says were "crowned with the trophies of success, and tri- umphed in the plaudits of the theatre." Prolific as the muse of Alexis appears to have been, that of Antiphanes of Smyrna, was more so, having produced, according to some writers, two hundred and ninety comedies, according to others three hundred and sixty-five, a number equalled among modern dramatists only, by Lope de Vega, a Spanish writer of the 16th century, who is said to have written eighteen hundred dramatic pieces. Antiphanes gained the prize with thirty comedies. Of the works of this author, nothing but a few fragments remain, which were scattered through the works of others, but have been collected in a work entitled "Po- etae Minores Graeci." From these few fragments it is im- possible to form a correct judgment of his peculiar merits as a comic writer. In one of his comedies, a part of which is preserved by Athenaeus, (who composed a miscellaneous work, in which were collected many anecdotes of ancient authors, and many scattered pieces of poetry,) is described a singular contri- vance of the king of Cyprus to cool his chamber. This monarch when he sups Is fann'd by living doves. There is a juice drawn from the Carpen tree, To which your dove is instantly wedded With a most loving appetite; with this The king anoints his temples, and the odour No sooner captivates the silly birds, Than straight they flutter round him, nay, would fly A bolder pitch, so strong a love-charm draws them. And perch, O horror ! on his sacred crown ; If that such profanation were permitted Of the bystanders, who, with reverend care Fright them away, till thus retreating now And now advancing, they keep such a coil With their broad vans, and beat the lazy air Into so quick a stir, that in the conflict His royal lungs are comfortably cool'd, And thus he sups as Pathian monarchs should. This extract, we think, affords a favorable specimen of the style of composition and train of thought, which distinguish his comic writings, and judging from it, we may fairly infer, that his powers were of no common order. Anaxandrides of Rhodes, was the author of sixty-five come- dies, with ten of which he gained prizes in public contests. A #fc HISTORY OF LITERATURE. few fragments only of his numerous productions, have been preserved, and from them no certain opinion can be formed of his claims to eminence. He appears to have destroyed in his fits of passion, to which he was greatly addicted, some of his best comedies. To the middle comedy also belong Epicrates of Ambrasia, and Eubulus of Atama in the island of Lesbos, who is said to have written fifty comedies, and to have been one of the most celebrated poets of his age. In his comedy of the "Cup Bearers," he puts the following language in the mouth of Bac- rhus: . . ! Three cups of wine a prudent man may take ; The first of these for constitution's sake; The second to the girl he loves the best; The third and last to lull him to his rest, Then home to bed! but if a fourth he pours, That is the cup of folly, and not ours; Loud noisy talking- on the fifth attends; The sixth breeds feuds and falling out of friends; Seven begets blows and faces stain'd with gore; Eight, and the watch-patrol breaks ope the door; Mad with the ninth, another cup goes round And the swilPd sot drops senseless to the ground. The above lines contain maxims well worth attention at the present day, and were they observed, society would have to de- plore fewer wrecks of genius. With Menander commences the new comedy, distinguished from the old by being superior to it in delicacy, regularity and deco- rum, and avoiding or refraining from all attacks upon living cha- racters. The writers of the new comedy attacked the vices and follies of the age, regardless of the garb which covered them, in the fearless spirit of bold invective. Menander was born and flourished two hundred and eighty years before Christ. He was educated by Thcophrastus, a philosopher of the school of Aristo- tle. At an early age he began to write for the stage, and his comedies soon acquired a high reputation for their elegant lan- guage, refined wit and judicious observations, so different from his predecessors in the old and middle comedy. The very bees, oh sweet Menander, hung To hear the muses lisp upon thy tongue ; The very graces made the scenes you writ Their happy point of pure expression hit, Thus still you live ; you make your Athens shine And raise its glory to the skies in thine," HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 37 The united voice of Greece conferred upon Menander the proud title of "Prince of the New Comedy," as upon Aristopha- nes it had before conferred that of "Prince of the Old Comedy." Of one hundred comedies written by him, only a few fragments have survived the ravages of time, which exhibit him rather as a gloomy and morose misanthrope, than possessing any amia- ble and social qualities, or as the "Gay Menander charming each youthful heart." His discontented and misanthropic disposition may be fairl) inferred from the following fragment, translated by Cumberland: Suppose somegocl should say: Die when thou wilt. Mortal, expect another life on earth; And for that life make choice of all creation, What wilt thou be ; dog, sheep, goat, man or horse : For live again thou must ; it is thy fate ; Choose only what form ; then thou art free So help me Cato, I would fairly answer Let me be all things, any thing but man ! He only of all creatures feels affliction. But what is man? Truth, virtue, valor, how do they avail him? Of this world's good, the first and greatest share Ts flattery's prize ; the informer takes the next, And barefaced knavery garbles what is left. I 'd rather be an ass than what I am, And see these villains lord it o'er their betters." Aristophanes was the head of the old, and Menander of the new comedy, and being thus distinguished, they have had their respective advocates and admirers. Plutarch has drawn a pa- rallel between these two great comic poets, in which he gives his judgment in favor of Menander. Of the justice of his deci- sion we have no sufficient means of judging at the present day, so small a portion of the writings, at least of one of them, having reached us. Of Menander, he says, that he knew how to adapt his style and language to the character represented, and at the same time preserving the truly comic that he never lost sight of nature, and that his comedies may be read and may be seen represented with equal satisfaction, affording pleasure in all places and under all circumstances. On the other hand, he re- presents Aristophanes, as going beyond nature, and adopting language calculated rather to please the populace, than correct 38 HISTORY OF LITERATURE, the manners, and gratify men of taste and refinement that his style is very unequal, sometimes elevated even to bombast, and immediately descending to low buffoonery, and disgusting pue- rilities. A victim of discontent, Menander drowned himself in the Pe- raean sea, in the 52d year of his age. Philemon was contemporary with Menander, and is said to have triumphed over him several times in trials of poetic skill. The vanity of Menander would not permit him to believe that the victory was obtained by fair means, and he is said to have accosted him thus "Do you not blush, Philemon, when you prevail over me?" Philemon was born at Syracuse, and lived to the great age of one hundred and one years, and composed ninety comedies. The fragments of his writings which have reached us, are, in general, of a tender and sentimental cast, breathing a soft and placid spirit, and in no instance exhibiting the gloomy misanthropy of Menander. The following fragment of Philemon, is of an opposite character from that of his rival, quoted above: Philosophers consume much time and pains To seek the sovereign good, nor is there one Who yet hath struck upon it; virtue some And prudence some contend for, whilst the knot Grows harder by their struggle to untie it. I, a mere clown, in turning up the soil Have dug the secret forth all gracious Jove! 1 T is peace, most lovely and all beloved ; Peace is> the bounteous goddess, who bestows Weddings and holidays, and joyous feasts. Relations, friends, health, plenty, social comforts, And pleasures which alone make life a blessing. Besides the writers above named, were Diphilus, a native of Sinope, a city of Pontus; Apollodorus, a native of Gela in Sicily; Philipidas, whose death was occasioned by the unexpected suc- cess of one of his comedies ; and lastly, Posidippus, a Macedo- nian, horn at Cassandra, and who may be reckoned the last of the comic poets.* From what has already been said, it will be seen, that poetry in Greece, from the time of Pindar to that of Theocritus, was almost exclusively confined to the drama. fto great poet in any * Anach. Travels. Cumberland's Observer. Quint. Ins. Potter's Ant. of Greece Cours deLitterature, tome II. HISTORY OF LITERATURE. other walk appeared. This encouragement of dramatic poetry, .shows the strong attachment of the people to an art, which deeply interested their feelings, and which they used great ex- ertions to keep alive. If it were not for this almost exclusive attachment to dramatic poetry, in that fertile field of genius and talent, other poets of a different class would have arisen. It is not to be inferred, however, that dramatic literature was the only species cultivated far from it. During the above- mentioned period flourished her greatest historians, philosophers and orators, of whom we shall hereafter speak men who have conferred immortality on the land which gave them birth. Pastoral poetry, although of early origin, was not much cul- tivated, as a distinct species, until the time of Theocritus, to whom it is indebted for the interesting form in which it is at present exhibited, not only in his own pastorals, but in those of Virgil, Gesner, Shenstone, Pope and Allan Ramsay. The scene is universally laid in the country amidst shady groves, de- lightful meadows and purling streams; and to render it interest- ing, the poet ought to possess a talent for describing the magni- ficent scenes of nature, which are constantly presented before him, when beyond the smoke of a crowded city, or populous town ; and he ought, moreover, to be perfectly familiar with the kind of life pastoral poetry is intended to describe and illus- trate. His language should be simple but refined, plain but not It is thus a most interesting and agreeable form of com- position, with which the best feelings of our nature mingle and harmonise; "It recals to our imagination those gay scenes and pleasing views of nature, which, commonly, are the delight of our childhood and youth ; and to which, in more advanced years, the greatest part of men recur with pleasure. It exhibits to us ii life, with which we are accustomed to associate ideas of peace, of leisure and of innocence; and, therefore, we readily set open our hearts to such representations as promise to banish from our thoughts the cares of the world, and to transport us into "calm elysian regions.*'* Theocritus, who may be called the father of pastoral poetry, flourished about two hundred and eighty years before Christ. He was born at Syracuse in Sicily. He received all the advan- '* Blair's Ler.p.388. tlcll3 disciples. The novel doctrines he taught made such an impres- sion, and instituted such an inquiry into the nature and causes, not only of material but immaterial things, that it was subse- quently divided into nine different sects, viz: the Ionic, (proper,) the Somatic, the Cyrcnaic, the Megaric, the Eliac, the Academic, the Peripatetic* the Cynic and the Stoic. The immediate successor of Thales in the Ionic school, was Aridximander, his friend and companion. His general doctrine differed but little from that of his master, although in some par- ticular subjects he may have deviated. He was the first who delineated on a globe or map, the surface of the earth, and marked the divisions of land and water. Like his master he taught, that the stars are fiery bodies, but that they are inhabited and animated by portions of the divinity; and that the sun oc- cupies the highest place in the heavens, the moon the next, and the planets and fixed stars the lowest. To him succeeded Anaximenes, a Milesian, who was born about 556 years before Christ. He taught that the first principle of all things is air, which, animated with a divine principle, is the origin of all beings; that the sun and moon are fiery bodies, whose form is that of a circular plate ; that the stars are fiery substances fixed in the heavens, and that the earth is a plane table resting upon air. The successor of Anaximenes was Anaxagoras, who was born about 500 years before Christ, at Clazomene, a city of Ionia, In the twentieth year of his age he went to reside at Athens, but attracted by the fame of Anaxi- menes, he left Athens to attend his school. After making him- self acquainted with the doctrines of the Ionic school, as taught by Anaximenes, he returned to Athens, and taught philosophy in private. Among his pupils were some of the most celebrated men of his time; Pericles, Euripides and Socrates, were by him instructed in the philosophy of the Ionic school. He supposed the sun was inflammable matter, and that the moon was inhabited. He believed the material world to have originated from a con- fused mass, consisting of different kinds of particles, and that the peculiar form and properties of each body, depend upon the nature of that class of particles, of which it is chiefly composed. With Anaxagoras, great nature's law fo 'imilarity ; and every compound form HISTORY OF LITERATURE. Consists of parts minute, each like the whole; And bone is made of bone, and flesh of flesh ; And blood, and fire and earth, and massy gold, Are, in their smallest portions, still the same. The similar particles of matter, which he supposed to be the hasis of nature, being without life or motion, induced the con- clusion, that there must have been from all eternity, a supreme and intelligent mind, which gave motion, life and being to the whole. He, therefore, maintained, according to Plato and others, that there was an infinite and disposing mind, the cause of all things. Because he taught, that the sun was an inanimate fiery substance, and, therefore, not a proper object of worship, Anaxagoras was charged with impiety and sentenced to death, which sentence, Pericles with much difficulty got changed to fine and banishment. The successors of Anaxagoras were Diogenes Apollionates, a disciple of Anaximenes, and Archdaus of Miletus. The former taught that air is the first principle in nature, but that it par- takes of a divine intelligence, a doctrine similar to that of Anax- imenes. The latter taught, that heat is the cause of motion and cold of rest; that the earth, at the beginning, was a muddy mass, whence living animals were produced and nourished, and that animals have souls which differ in their powers, according to the structure of the bodies in which they reside. Archelaus is considered the last preceptor of the Ionic school. The Socratic sect was founded by Socrates, to whom has been assigned, if not the first, at least a very distinguished place among ancient philosophers. His father, Sophroniscus, was a statuary; for some time Socrates followed the occupation of his father, but was at length seduced from the workshop to the school of philosophy, and under the instructions of Anaxagoras and Archelaus, he laid the foundation of his fame. Whilst other philosophers of his time were occupied in refined speculations on the nature and origin of things, he conceived the true end of philosophy to be, to free mankind from the dominion of perni- cious prejudices; to correct their vices; to inspire them with a love of virtue, and thus conduct them in the path of true piety. He taught that the Supreme Being is seen in his works, which demonstrate, to the most superficial, his existence and benevolent Providence. Besides the Supreme Being, he admitted the ex- HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 95 istence of beings who possess a middle station between God and man, whom he supposed to be concerned in the management of human affairs. He believed that the human soul is a divine principle, which, when it passes out of the body, returns to hea- ven, and that the existence of good men will be continued after death, in a state in which they will receive the reward of their virtues. The whole system taught by this philosopher, incul- cated a sublime morality, worthy a distinguished place by the side of the most approved systems of modern times, and endea- vored to impress upon the mind that true felicity is not to be derived from external possessions, but from wisdom, which con- sists in the knowledge and practice of virtue. Socrates had no settled or established place where he taught the principles of his philosophy. It was his custom in the morn- ing to visit the different public places of exercise; at noon the market places, and to spend the rest of the day in those parts of the city most frequented. These occasions he made use of for the purpose of communicating lessons of wisdom. Some- times he collected an audience in the Lyceum, a grove on the banks of the Illyssus, and delivered a discourse. His usual me- thod of instruction, however, was to propose a series of questions to the person with whom he conversed, and having first gained his assent to some obvious truths, he obliged him to admit others, because of their resemblance to those to which he had already assented. He never assumed the air of a morose and rigid pre- ceptor, but communicated instruction with the ease and pleasan- try of polite conversation. By this easy and familiar mode of conveying information, he gained many disciples, and his doc- trines became extremely popular. Xenophon, the celebrated historian, was one of the favorite disciples of Socrates, and while he was an ornament of the So- cratic school he strictly adhered to the tenets of his master. JEschines was an obscure Athenian, who, although oppressed by poverty, devoted himself to the pursuit of wisdom and became highly respectable and distinguished. He wrote seven dialogues in the spirit of his school, on temperance and other virtues. Simon^ another disciple of Socrates, was originally a leather dresser in Athens, but acquired distinction for his adherence to the Socratic system of philosophy, and the zeal and talent with which he endeavored to unfold it* principles. Tbo Jnt of the 96 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. immediate disciples of Socrates we will mention, was Cedes, b \ birth a Theban, who was the author of an allegory entitled "A picture of human life," which is still extant. From this school arose many philosophers, who became the founders of other sects, entertaining opinions widely different from each other, and from the school from which they sprung. The Cyrenaic sect, was founded by Aristippus, and was so cal- led from the city of Gyrene, in Africa, the birthplace of the founder. While Aristippus was attending Olympic games, he- heard of the wisdom of Socrates, which inspired him with the desire of becoming one of his disciples, and having been admit- ted, he soon became one of the most prominent members of th ( school. A certain freedom of manners, however, which he had long indulged, was not entirely subdued by the austerity of So cratic discipline, and in consequence thereof, having become displeasing to the sect, he withdrew from Athens and established a school of his own. He passed some time at the court of Dio- nysius, tyrant of Syracuse, where, from a certain versatility of disposition, he accommodated himself to the manners of the court, and ridiculed the severe discipline and gravity of de- meanor of other philosophers, among whom was Plato, then also resident at the court of Dionysius. With that accommodating spirit for which he seems to have been distinguished, he depart- ed from the rigid morality of his master, and established a much more indulgent system, which soon had many followers, but which was of but short duration. After his death his doctrines were taught by his daughter Arete. The most eminent of his disciples was Hegesias, who wrote a book to prove that death, as the cure of all evil, is the greatest good a doctrine, which so far regards the cure of an evil, may, without a scruple, be ad- mitted, but mankind are too much attached to this life, and too much addicted to its enjoyments, to admit that it is the greatest good. The Megaric or Eristic sect, was founded by Euclid of Megara ; it was called Megaric, from the birthplace of its founder, and Eristic, from its disputatious character. Euclid was endowed by nature with a quick and penetrating genius, and early applied himself to the study of philosophy. He removed from Megara io Athens, to attend the lessons of Socrates, but evincing a strong propensity for disputation, which Socrates disliked, a separa- HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 97 uoii took place, and in a shoit time he became the head of a school at Megara, in which his chief employment was, to teach the art of disputation. The moral doctrines taught by Euclid, differed but slightly from those of Socrates. He taught that there is one supreme good, which he called by the different names of Intelligence, Providence, God; and that evil consider- ed as an opposite principle to the sovereign good, has no physi- cal existence. Euclid was immediately succeeded in the school of Megara, by Eubulides, a strenuous and violent opposer of A- ristotle. The most distinguished disciple of this sect, was Stilpo of Megara, who successfully applied the moral precepts of phi- losophy to the correction of his natural propensities. So fa- mous did he become, that when he visited Athens, the people ran out of their houses to see him, and the most eminent philo- sophers attended his discourses. After the death of Stilpo, this sect fell into disrepute. The Eliac sect was founded by Phczdo of Ellis, who adhered so closely to the doctrines of the Socratic school, that the differ- ence is scarcely to be perceived. On his death the school was continued by Mencdemus of Eretria, from whom it also had the name of the Eretraic school, on its being removed from Ellis to Eretria. Menedemus studied philosophy under Plato, and it is related of him, that he was so poor, that in order to enable him to pursue his studies, he went among the criminals in the public prisons every night and ground corn, by which means he was able to spend the day in attendance upon the schools. He pos- sessed great versatility of genius, and a comprehensive mind; he declared his opinions with freedom, inveighed against the vices of others, and by the purity of his own manners commanded universal respect. After his death the Eliac or Eretraic sect, losing its main support, did not long exist as a separate school^ its disciples embracing the doctrines of one or the other schools then in existence. The Academic sect was founded by Plato^ the most illustrious and distinguished of the disciples of Socrates, under whose in- structions he placed himself at twenty years of age, and continu- ed eight years. He was born in the island of jEgina, about 430 years before Christ, and is said to have been descended on his father's side from Codrus, and on his mothers from Solon. He possessed a versatility of talent, which first induced him to turn 13 93 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. his attention to poetry, and particularly dramatic poetry. He i? said to have been the author of about forty comedies, a few frag- ments of which only remain. Happening to hear a discourse from Socrates, he forsook the muses and applied himself to the study of philosophy. In the pursuit of knowledge he visited Magna Grcecia, where he was instructed in the mysteries of the Pythagorean school, and afterwards travelled into Egypt, where he was initiated into the mysterious learning of the priesthood. Returning thence he settled in Athens, and opened his school in a public grove, called the Academy, adorned with statues and temples and planted with lofty trees. This new school soon be- came celebrated, and attracted disciples from various quarters. Plato was more attached to speculative, than useful science, and some of his speculations and opinions, appear not only extrava- gant, but absurd, according to our present views, when the light of reason is assisted by the superior light of revelation. But when we remember, that Plato and the other philosophers of his day, were directed in their researches solely by a vigorous un- derstanding, and were compelled to combat the corruptions of a long established system of idolatry, we cannot but admire tlu- grandeur and sublimity of their conceptions, and the general justness of the doctrines they taught. Plato taught, that mairs highest good consists in the contemplation and knowledge of the first good, which is mind or God that the only power in human nature, which can acquire a resemblance to the supreme God, is reason that the soul of man is immortal, and after death will be admitted to a participation of the blessings prepared for the virtuous that the great end of knowledge is to render man as like to God, as the condition of human nature will permit, and that the body is a prison from which the soul must be re- leased, before it can arrive at a knowledge of those things which are real and immutable. He maintained the existence ot two beings, one self-existent and the other created ; that the world was created by the self-existent cause, from the rude and indigested mass of matter, which had existed from all eternity, and which had even been animated by an irregular principle of motion. From these materials were formed the four elements, and the heavens and the earth; and, into the active principle of matter, the divinity infused a rational soul the souls of men were formed from the remainder of the rational soul of th v HISTORY OF LITERATURE, world, which had previously given existence to the invisi- ble gods and demons. He divided the passions into two classes; the irascible, seated in the breast, and the sensual, seated in the belly and inferior parts of the body. This division induced the fanciful comparison of the soul to a small republic, of which the reasoning and judging powers were stationed in the head, as in a citadel, and of which the senses were the guards and ser- vants. This distinguished philosopher was the first in the hea- then world, who supported the immortality of the soul by argu- ments, deduced from truth and experience. He contended that death could not destroy the soul, which was of divine origin, and of an uncorrupted and immutable essence, and which, though inherent for a while in matter, could not lose that power which was an emanation of God. The works of Plato are divi- ded into physical, logical, ethical and political, and are, with the exception of a few letters, written in the form of dialogues. He lived to the advanced age of eighty-one years, and died about 349 years before the birth of Christ. Statues and altars were erected to his memory, and the day of his birth long continued to be celebrated by his followers as a festival. Soon after the death of Plato, the Academic sect, having lost its chief pillar, was split into the old, the middle and the new aca^ demy. The old consisted of the followers of Plato, who taught the doctrines of their master without mixture or corruption; among whom were Spcusippus, Xenocrates, Polcmo and Grantor. Speusippus was a nephew of Plato, and filled the chair of the Platonic school during eight years, when being rendered incapable of attending to its duties, in consequence of a paralytic stroke, he resigned in favor of Xenocrates, who first studied under jEschines, but af- terwards became a disciple of Plato. He was of a gloomy and severe temper, which was, in a good measure, corrected by the instructions of his master. He was celebrated not only for his wisdom, but his virtues, and such perfect reliance had the Athe- nians on his integrity, that when called upon to give evidence in a certain case, his word was deemed sufficient, and Philip of Ma- eedon said, that of all those who came to him on embassies from foreign states, Xenocrates was the only one he had not been able to purchase. He died in the eighty-second year of his age, about 316 years before Christ. Pohmo* in his youth, was ad- , er jQO HISTORY OF LITERATURE. dieted to a licentious course of life, but was happily turned from his dissipated and irregular habits by the arguments of Xenocrates. So ardently did he afterwards pursue the study of philosophy and the path of virtue, that he was judged worthy to fill the chair of the Academy on the death of Xenocrates. Grantor was celebrated for the purity of his moral doctrines ; Cicero calls his discourse "On Grief," a small, but golden piece, adapt- ed to heal the wounds of the mind, not by encouraging stoical in- sensibility, but by suggesting arguments drawn from the purest fountains of philosophy. The middle academy consisted of those who receded from the Platonic school, without entirely deserting it, and was founded by Arcesilaus, a native of jEolis. He was early instructed in mathematical science and polite literature, but-becoming ena- moured of the study of philosophy, he first attended the lectures of Theophrastus, then those of Polemo, and at length founded the middle academy, in which he adhered, mainly, to the doc- trines of Plato. The doctrines taught by Arcesilaus, and which appear to differ from those of Plato, were, that although there is a real certainty in the nature of things, every thing is uncer- tain to the human understanding, and consequently, that all con- fident assertions are unreasonable. He thought it disgraceful to assent to any proposition, the truth of which is not fully esta- blished, and maintained, that in all questions opposite opinions may be supported by arguments of equal weight. He disputed against the testimony of the senses, and the authority of reason ; but at the same time acknowledged, that 'they are capable of furnishing probable opinions sufficient for the conduct of life. Arcesilaus himself seems to have been a singular compound of virtue and vice. He united many moral qualities which pro- cured him esteem, but he was at the same time fond of splendid entertainments and luxurious living, and died at the age of sev- enty-five, from excessive drinking. rThe new academy was founded by Carneades 9 a native of Cy- rene, in Africa, who is represented as one of the most illustrious ornaments of the academy, and who received the first knowledge in the art of reasoning from Diogenes, the Stoic. It was the doctrine of the new academy that the senses, the understanding arid the imagination frequently deceive us, and therefore cannol bo infallible judge? of truth: bnf that, from the impression HISTORY OF LITERATURE '' which we perceive to be produced on the mi nd','by> moans orffc senses, we infer appearances of truth, or probabilities. These impressions were called phantasies or images, which, it was main- tained, did not always correspond to the real nature of things, and that there is no infallible method of determining when they are true or false, and consequently that they afford no certain criteria of truth. As the foundation of morals, Carneades taught, that the ultimate end of life is the enjoyment of those things towards which we are directed by the principles of na- ture. Carneades was succeeded by Clitomachus, a native of Carthage. He is said to have written four hundred books on subjects of philosophy. He was preceptor in the academy from the death of Carneades until about 100 years before Christ, a period of thirty years. Antiochus of Ascalon, was the last pre- ceptor of the Platonic school in Greece. He resigned the chair about eighty years before the birth of Christ. The Peripatetic sect was founded by Aristotle, a philosopher o^ extensive and penetrating genius and various talent, fitted to shine in any department of human knowledge. He was a na- tive of Stagyra, a town of Thrace, and was hence called the Stagyrite. At the age of seventeen he entered the school of Plato, under whose instructions he continued twenty years, at the expiration of which time he established a school of his own. He held his master Plato in great veneration, and on his death he erected a monument to his memory, with the following in- scription: To Plato's sacred name this tomb is rear'd; A name by Aristotle long rever'd ! Far hence, ye vulgar herd ! nor dare to stain With impious prayer this ever hallow'd fane. Plato held Aristotle in equal esteem, and so highly did he prize his vigorous intellect, that he called him the mind of his school. Aristotle opened his school in the Lyceum, a grove in the suburbs of Athens, where he held conversations on the sub- jects of philosophy, walking as he discoursed; whence his fol- lowers were called Peripatetics. The doctrines taught by A- ristotle were divided into two classes, namely, the Exoteric, com- prehending such subjects as he judged proper for the public ear, such as logic, rhetoric and other sciences of a general ap- 102 . HISTORY OF LITERATURE, . pflatibft to tlit; 1 Common affairs of men: and the Esoteric, which treated of the more abstruse doctrines concerning existence, nature and the Divinity, and which were too exalted for the great mass of his countrymen, corrupted as they were by the influence of the idolatrous worship which surrounded them. The Esoteric doctrines he delivered in the morning, to select dis- ciples, whom he required to have been previously instructed in the elements of learning, and to have given evidence of posess- ing minds capable of receiving and comprehending the more- sublime truths of philosophy. The Exoteric doctrines he deli- vered in the evening, to a promiscuous auditory. The former he called his morning, the latter his evening walk. The works of Aristotle were voluminous, and treated of a variety of subjects, logical, physical, metaphysical and ethical; and his inquiries into the arcana of nature, in the various de- partments of animal, vegetable and mineral, greatly exceeded the investigations of preceding philosophers there was scarce- ly a subject then known but exercised his pen. Most of his writings, particularly those* on subjects which he communicated to his select disciples, are extremely difficult to comprehend, owing to the concise and obscure manner in which he treats them, affording a striking example of the truth of the maxim. I strive to be concise, I prove obscure The philosophy of Aristotle was divided into three branches Instrumental, Theoretical and Practical. Under the first are in- cluded his doctrines concerning logic and rhetoric; under the second, physics, pneumatology, ontology and mathematics; un- der the third, ethics and policy. As the founder of a new sect, he would, of course, differ in many essential particulars from his teachers. With regard to the formation of the world, he believed there were in nature opposite principles, independent and underived, from which all things proceed. These principles he denominated, Form, Pri- vation and Matter; the two former contrary to each other, the latter the common subject of both. Matter and form he consi- dered the constituent principles of things privation making no part of their constitution, but accidentally associated with them. Primary matter, eternal and uncreated, he considered destitute HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 10 3 wt' all qualities, and therefore not body, but the subject on which it might be impressed. The causes or principles of the universe he divided into material, of which things are made; formal, by which every thing was made to exist as it is; efficient, by the agency of which any thing is produced; and final, or the end for which any thing is produced. During the dark ages of Christianity as well as of literature, the philosophy of Aristotle was held in great veneration by the most influential of the Chris- tian fathers, who adopted and incorporated many of his opini- ons with the doctrines of the scriptures. Aristotle continued his school in the Lyceum twelve years ? when becoming apprehensive, from the versatile character of the Athenians, of meeting the fate of Socrates, he retired to Chalcis, where ho died about 320 years before Christ, in the sixty-third year of his age. Previously to his removal from Athens, at the request of his disciples, he nominated as his suc- cessor in the chair of the Lyceum, his favorite disciple Theophras- tus, who, although he deviated in some particulars from the doc- trincs of his master, well sustained the reputation of the school. Th&ophrastus was a native of Eresuim, a town of Lesbos, and was born three hundred ancl ninety years before Christ. He re- ceived the rudiments of learning in his own country, but was afterwards sent to Athens, where he was first a disciple of Plato and afterwards of Aristotle. When he succeeded to the chair of Aristotle, he conducted the school with so much reputation, that he had about two thousand scholars, and became so great a favorite with the Athenians, that when one of his enemies ac- cused him of impiety, the accuser himself with difficulty escap- ed the punishment he endeavored to bring on Theophrastus. As a writer he was voluminous, having composed upwards of two hundred books on various subjects. Some of his works are still extant, among which are treatises in several departments of natural history, to which he seems to have turned his attention particularly, and his "Characters," an excellent treatise on mo- rals, exhibiting the moral philosophy of the Peripatetic school. Theophrastus, according to some, died in the 85th, according to others, in the 107th year of his age. He is supposed to have written his "Characters" when upwards of ninety. Theophrastus was succeeded by Strata of Lampsacus, who filled the chair with great reputation for eighteen years. In - j04 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. some of his doctrines he departed from those of Aristotle. Hr taught that the world has neither been formed by the agency of a Deity, distinct from matter, nor by an intelligent animating principle, but has arisen from a force innate to matter, originally excited by accident, and since continuing to act, according to the peculiar qualities of natural bodies. He also taught that the seat of the soul is in the middle of the brain, and that it only acts by means of the senses. After the death of Strata, thr school of Aristotle continued to be supported by many distin guished men, until the fall of Grecian liberty. The Cynic sect was founded by Antisthenes, who, because of the severe censures he passed upon the manners of the age, was surnamed the Dog. He was an Athenian by birth, and in his youth acquired some fame for his valor in the battle of Tanagra. At- tracted by the wisdom of Socrates, he became one of his disci- ples, and was so diligent and persevering in the pursuit of wis- dom, that he visited Athens every day, although he resided about five miles distant. Inimical to every thing like luxury in diet and dress, when he opened his school, in order to exhibit an example of the doctrines he taught, he wore no other garment than a coarse cloth, and suffered his beard to grow, while his diet was of the coarsest kind. In these particulars he was close- ly followed, if not exceeded, by some of his disciples. The pe- culiarities of this sect were, a contempt for effeminate vices, and a rigorous adherence to the rules of moral discipline. Its great objects were, to subdue the passions and produce simplici- ty of manners among all ranks of people. The Cynics were, for some time, regarded as "The stern defenders of pure virtue's cause," and commanded attention and respect from the austerity of their morals; but at length regarding themselves as the exclusive cen- sors of the public morals, their censures degenerated into low and vulgar scurrility, and the whole sect fell into deserved con- tempt. One of the most celebrated philosophers of this sect was Diogenes, well known for his affectation in selecting a tub as the place of his residence, and over whose tomb was erected a column of Parian marble, terminated by a figure of a dog, a fit emblem of his churlish humor. Diogenes was born at Sinope, city of Pontns. His father being obliged to leave his country. HISTORY OF LITERATURE. visited Athens, where Diogenes became the pupil of Antisthe- nes, and embracing with zeal all his doctrines, soon become the intimate friend and companion of his master. He determined to become distinguished ; he, therefore, wore a coarse cloak, carried a wallet and staff; made the porticos and other public places his habitation, and depended upon charity for his daily bread. Diogenes possessed a penetrating genius, and was well acquainted with mankind. His natural talents, and his acquired information, fitted him to shine in society, and he might have become useful to his fellows in his day and generation; but his usefulness was destroyed by his eccentricity of character, and instead of commanding respect and esteem, he was generally regarded, as he deserved to be, with contempt. The Cynic sect had many followers, among others Hippurchia^ the wife of Cra- tes, a Theban philosopher of the same school. She had adopt- ed all the peculiarities of the founder, and was a zealous advo- cate of his doctrines. The Stoic sect was a branch of the Cynic, and was founded by ZenO) a native of the island of Cyprus. Zeno first received his instructions from Crates, the Cynic, and afterwards from other philosophers, and having thus stored his mind with the doctrines and tenets of different sects, he set about forming a system of his own. He at length founded a new school, which he held in a public portico called 2ra, the porch, hence his followers were Called Stoics, or philosophers of the porch. Zeno soon obtained numerous followers, and on account of his integrity was held in such high estimation by the Athenians, as to be entrusted with the keys of the citadel. In his person Zeno was tall and slen- der, of severe and unbending aspect. In his mode of living he was remarkably abstemious, being satisfied with the most frugal meals. In his dress he was plain, but neat, therein exhibiting a striking contrast to the mode of dress adopted by the Cynics. He lived to the great age of ninety-eight, and then voluntarily put an end to his life. As he was walking out of his school he fell and broke one of his fingers, upon which, striking the earth, he exclaimed, "Why am I thus importuned? I obey thy sum- mons," and immediately went home and strangled himself. The Stoic system of philosophy, although it possessed some doctrines peculiar to itself, was a mixture of the doctrines of Pythagoras, and those of different sects of the Ionic school, with 14 j0 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. all of which he was familiar. The absurdities and extravagan- cies which are to be discovered in the doctrines of Zeno, are to be attributed to his endeavors to amalgamate the opposite and conflicting doctrines, on which his system was principally found- ed, and also to the frequent and vehement contests between him and the disciples of the academy, and between him and Epicu- rus. In those controversies, Zeno and his disciples were in- duced to extend their arguments and defence of their own sys- tem, to their utmost limit, and as is usual on such occasions, they were frequently inconsistent with themselves. Notwith- standing, however, the absurdities and extravagancies alluded to, the philosophy of Zeno was, perhaps, as much to be approv- ed and admired, as that of the most celebrated of the ancient philosophers. Zeno taught, that there existed from eternity a dark and con- fused chaos, in which was contained the first principles of all future beings that this chaos being at length arranged, became the world as it now exists that the universe^ though one whole, contains two principles, distinct from the elements one passive, the other active; the passive principle is pure matter without qualities, the active principle is reason, or God that the active principle or God, is pure ether, or fire, inhabiting the exterior surface of the heavens, where every thing divine is placed that this active principle is underived, incorruptible and eternal; possessed of intelligence, good and perfect; the efficient cause of all the peculiar qualities, or forms of things, and the constant preserver and governor of the world: "One source of life, one animating soul That dwells in all, and forms and guides the whole." With regard to the structure of the universe, he taught thai the world is spherical in its form, and surrounded by an infinite vacuum; that the sun is a sphere larger than the earth, consist- ing of fire of the purest kind that it is an animated being, and the first of derived divinities that the stars are fiery bodies pos- sessed of perception and intelligence, and that they are nourish- ed by exhalations from seas and rivers that being possessed of intelligence, they are versed in the will of fate And unfold what good and ill on mortals wait;" HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 107 a doctrine held by the Chaldean and Egyptian astrologers. He also maintained that the moon is spherical, and occupies the lowest part of the etherial regions that the earth is the most dense part of the world, and is the main support of nature, and that it is the centre of the world and unmoveable. If Zeno himself did not teach, some of his most distinguished disciples believed, that man is one whole, composed of body and mind. That mind is a spark of the divine fire, which is the soul f the world. That eternal reason, by which all nature is ani- mated, and which, by its productive power, communicates essen- tial qualities to every thing that exists, impressed the forms, qualities and powers of man, upon certain portions of matter. The soul of man, being a portion of the Deity, is then of the same nature; a subtle, fiery substance, endued with intelligence and reason. They believed the soul to consist of eight parts; the five senses, the productive faculty, the power of speech and the ruling part or reason. Some of the philosophers of this school, believed in the existence of the soul after death, and sup- posed it to be removed into the celestial regions, there to remain until at the general conflagration, all souls, both human and divine, will be lost in the Deity; others suppose that it was ne- cessary before the soul could be admitted among the divinities, that it should be purged of its inherent vices and imperfec- tions, by a temporary residence in the aerial region between the earth and moon, or in the moon itself a doctrine not very dif- ferent from the catholic doctrine of purgatory. The opinion of the later Stoics, with regard to a future state of existence, is evi- dently derived from the doctrines of Christ; thus Seneca, in his letter to Marcia, on the death of her son, says, "The sacred as- sembly of the Scipios and Catos, who have despised life, and obtained freedom by death, shall welcome the youth to the re- gion of happy souls. Your father himself shall embrace his grandson, and shall direct his eyes, now furnished with new light, along the course of the neighboring stars, with delight, explaining to him the mysteries of nature, not from conjecture, but from certain knowledge. Like a welcome guide in an un- known city, he will unfold to the inquiring stranger the causes of the celestial appearances." The Stoic sect continued in Greece, until about fifty-two years before Christ, and had many disciples and followers, dn- jyg HISTORY OF LITERATURE. ring the flourishing period of the Roman empire. The imme- diate followers of Zeno in Greece, were Pers&us, Aristo, Herillus and Cleanthes; the most celebrated of whom was Cleanthes, a native of Assus in Lydia, who first appeared at Athens as a wrestler, but catching the general spirit of philosophising which then pervaded all ranks, he first became the disciple of Crates^ the academic, but afterwards embraced the doctrines of Zeno ? and became one of his most zealous advocates. Cleanthes was succeeded by Crysippus, a native of Solis, in Ci- licia, who was celebrated for his adherence to the doctrines of Zeno. He is said to have written about seven hundred books, on the various subjects connected with philosophy. He died about 208 years before Christ, in the eighty-third year of his age. Posidonius, a native of Apamea, in Sicily, taught with great reputation at Rhodes, and visited Rome about 52 years before Christ. Among those who attended his lectures, in the latter city, was the renowned Cicero.* CHAPTER VI. Literature of the Greeks. Greek philosophers of the Italic, or Pytha- gorean school. Pythagoras. Eleatic sect. Heraditcan sect. Epicu- rean sect. Sceptic sect. The Italic or Pythagorean school^ was founded by Pythagoras* It was first instituted in that part of Italy called Magna Gratia, and hence took the appellation of the Italic school. The histo- ry of the celebrated founder of this school of philosophy is en- veloped in mystery; a mystery which he himself, in order the more effectually to impose upon his disciples, endeavored to maintain in his explanations of the doctrine of the transmigra- tion of souls. It is uncertain where he was born ; the common opinion, however, is, that he was born in the island of Samos, * Potter's Arch. Grsec.; Enfield's Hist, of Philos.; Edin. Ency.; Lemp. Class. Die.; Rees'sGycl.; Plut. Lives; Seneca. Ep.; Cic. Tus. Cic. de ora. La Harpe, Cours de Lit.; Gillie's Arist.; Xen. Memo, of Socrates.; Oeuvres de laBruyere; Discours sur. Theo.: Travels of Anacharsis, HISTORY OF LITERATURE. loa about 580 years before Christ. Early impressed with the desire of distinction in the various departments of learning, he departed for Egypt, then the seat of learning and philosophy. He soon acquired the confidence of the priests, and was by them initiated into a knowledge of all their mysteries and learning. On hi* return from Egypt, after an absence of more than twenty Years, he opened a school at Samos, but the Samians, being too igno- rant to profit by his instructions, he retired to Magna Grcecia, and established his school atCrotona, where he propagated his doc- trines with such success, as soon to effect a wonderful reforma- tion in the morals of the people. The mode of instruction adopted by Pythagoras, was exoteric and esoteric, or public and private, in which he followed the man- ner of the Egyptian priests, who successfully practised it, and thus obtained and preserved an extensive influence over the people. The exoteric instructions were delivered publicly, and related to subjects of a general nature, but none were admitted to a knowledge of, or a participation in, the esoteric doctrines, until after a long and severe probation. This probationary dis- cipline was a most severe system of self denial, intended to sub- due every inclination towards luxurious indulgence; nor was any one admitted, until he was assured of the docility of his disposition, and his power of keeping secrets. After such trial as was judged necessary, which extended from two to five years, if the candidate was esteemed worthy of confidence, a full ex- planation of the secret doctrines was delivered, but was not suf- fered to be committed to writing. In order to inure his disci- ples to self denial, a virtue which he regarded of primary in> portance, he resorted to various expedients; he sometimes caus- ed a table richly furnished, to be spread before them, and when they were impatiently expecting to gratify their appetites, he commanded the whole to be taken away, and dismissed them without refreshment. He suffered them to wear no garments but of the simplest kind, nor would he indulge them in any thing calculated to inflame their passions, cherish voluptuous desires, or produce any thing like effeminacy of character. The philosophical doctrines of this distinguished philosopher, differed in many important particulars from those of the Ionic school, so far as we are able to judge from such as have been hfinded down to us. To ascertain with precision, what those j'lO HISTORY OF LITERATURE. doctrines were, is difficult, because of the uncertain mode in which they were preserved they were taught in a secret man- ner and transmitted by oral tradition, and were, therefore, liable to misrepresentation. Pythagoras considered the end of phi- losophy to be, to free the mind from whatever has a tendency to hinder it from the contemplation of immortal truth, and the knowledge of divine and spiritual objects to produce this effect, it was necessary to proceed by easy and regular gradations. The first step towards wisdom, he considered the study of math- ematics, or the science of numbers and magnitude, which he divided into four parts; two respecting numbers, and two res- pecting magnitude ; the two former treat of arithmetic and music, the latter of geometry and astronomy. These were of course considered as preparatory to a knowledge of more exalted sub- jects. In these preparatory exercises, arithmetic held the first place, and music the second; he considered music not only as an art to be judged by the ear, but as a science to be reduced to mathematical principles and proportions, and is said to have been the first who discovered the musical chords. Pythagoras cultivated geometry, which he had learned in Egypt, with great success, and reduced it to a regular science. In astronomy he taught that the sun is the centre of the universe, and that all the planets move around it in eliptical orbits, an opinion considered chimerical and improbable until the 16th century of the Chris- tian era, when it was revived and demonstrated to be true by Copernicus, a native of Poland. With regard to God, he taught that God is the universal mind, diffused through all things, invisible and incorruptible that subordinate to the Deity there are three orders of intelligence, gods, demons and heroes, each entitled to the homage and ado- ration of man that the air is full of spirits, who cause sickness or health toman or beast, by means of dreams that the soul of man is a self-moving principle, compounded of two parts, the rational, seated in the brain, and the irrational, which includes the passions, and is seated in the heart that the sensitive soul perishes, but the rational soul is immortal, because the source from whence it is derived is immortal that after the rational soul is freed from the chains of the body, it assumes an etherial vehicle and passes into the regions of the dead, where it remains until it is sent back to this world, to inhabit some other bodv. HISTORY OF LITERATURE. Ill Thus it appears that he taught the doctrine of the transmigra- tion of souls, and hence forhade his disciples to eat the flesh of animals, or offer animal sacrifices, in their religious ceremonies. What then is death, but ancient matter drest In some new figure, and a varied vest? Thus all things are but altered, nothing dies; And here and there the unbodied spirit flies, By time, or force, or sickness dispossess'd, And lodges where it lights, in man or beast; Or hunts without, till ready limbs it find, And actuates these according to their kind ; From tenement to tenement is tost, The soul is slill the same, the figure lost; And as the soften'd wax new seals receives, This face assumes, and that impression leaves; Now call'd by one, now by another name, The form is only chang'd, the wax is still the same; So death, thus call'd, can but the form deface, The immortal soul flies out in empty space, To seek her fortune ia some other place. Dryden Tran. OviJ, Mela. XV". 15*5. A certain celebrated society of the present day, whose pow- erful influence is felt in every quarter of the civilized world which lays claim to a high antiquity, and whose peculiar doc- trines are delivered after the esoteric manner of Pythagoras* rank him in the number of their fraternity. It has adopted as one of the mysterious symbols of the order, that geometrical problem, on the discovery of which he is said to have sacrificed a hecatomb.* Empcdodes was a distinguished philosopher of this school ; he was born at Agrigentum, in Sicily, and flourished about 450 years before Christ. With the character of a philosopher, he united that of a poet and historian, and his poems were publicly recited at the Olympic games, and shared with Homer and Hesiod the applause of the multitude. In his general system of philosophy he differed but little from his master. He was a firm believer in the doctrine of the transmigration of the soul, which he in- geniously and warmly supported in a poem "On Nature." He believed the soul to consist of two parts, namely, the sensitive, produced from the first principle with the elements; and the ra- * This sacrifice of a hecatomb or one hundred oxen, does not agree with the Pytha- gorean doctrine of the transmigration of souls, and which prohibited thp shedding o< hlood. Jfc H% HISTORY OF LITERATURE. tional, a demon, sprung from the divine soul of the world, and sent down into the body as a punishment for its crimes in a former state, to remain there till it is sufficiently purified to return to God. He entertained the singular opinion that in this transmi- gration of the soul, it may inhabit not only different human bodies, but the body of any animal or plant. Lucretius, a philosopher of a different sect, in his poem "On the nature of things," thus speaks of Empedocles: in honest fame, First of his sect; whom Agrigentum bore In cloud-capt Sicily Here vast Chary bdis raves; here ./Etna rears His infant thunders, his dread jaws unlocks And heaven and earth with fiery ruin threat :- Here many a wonder, many a scene sublime As on he journeys, checks the traveller's steps; And shows, at once, a land in harvest rich And rich in ages of illustrious fame. But nought so wondrous, so illustrious, nought So fair, so pure, so lovely, can it boast, Empedocles, as thou! " Good's Trans, of JLucr. The manner of his death is uncertain. Whilst some say that Fie closed his life in Greece, others assert, that his curiosity led him to a close inspection of the crater of Mount ^Etna, when in a state of fiery eruption, and that he perished in the flames. On the death of Pythagoras, his doctrines were taught for many years by a succession of his disciples, until his school was split into the Eleatic^ the Heraditean^ the Epicurean and the Scep- tic sects. In his school of Crotona, he was succeeded by AristeuS) who was eminent for his knowledge of mathematics. He taught the doctrines of his master thirty-nine years, and was succeeded by Mncsarchus, the son of Pythagoras. Pythagorean schools were afterwards established at Heraclea, a town of Sicily, near Agri- gentum; at Metapontum, a town of Lucania, in Italy, and at Tarentum, a town of Calabria, near the mouth of the river Ga- lesus, now the Galeso. These schools were conducted by cele- brated philosophers, and attained considerable eminence. Let us now take some notice of the different sects which sprung from the Italic or Pythagorean school. The Eleatic sect, was founded by Xenophancs, a native of Co- tii - HIST071Y OF LITERATURE. 1 1S lophon, a town of Ionia, and numbered among its disciples, Par- menides, Zerio of Elea, Democritus and Diagoras. Xenophanes early left his native country and settled in Sicily, where he lived some years ; he then passed over into Magna Grcecia, where he became a disciple of the Pythagorean school, and afterwards a distinguished preceptor. With the freedom which characterizes a liberal mind, he ventured to differ from some of the doctrines of Pythagoras and his followers, and introduce opinions of his own, and at length founded a new sect, afterwards called the Ele- atic, from the town of Elea, the birthplace of Parmenides and Zeno. Some of the doctrines of this school are, that whatever is, always has been from eternity, without deriving its existence from any prior principle that nature is one and without limit that the one infinite, eternal and homogeneous universe, is immu- ble and incapable of change that God is one incorporeal, eternal being, and, like the universe, spherical in form that he is of the same nature with the universe; is intelligent and per- vades all thing?, but bears no resemblance to human nature either in body or mind. They also taught, that there are innumerable worlds that there is in nature no real production, decay or change that there are four elements, and that the earth is the basis of all things that the stars arise from vapours, which are extinguished by day and ignited by night that the sun consists of fiery particles collected by humid exhalations and daily re- newed, and that his course is rectilinear that there are as many suns as there are different climates of the earth, and that the moon is an inhabited world. From some of the doctrines here laid down, it would seem that Xenophanes widely departed from the doctrines of Pythagoras, particularly in that relating to the heavenly bodies. Pythagoras entertained much clearer and more distinct ideas of the formation of the universe, than to sup- pose that the stars were, like some meteors, produced by exhala- tions from the earth, and were renewed every night, and that the sun was produced in the same way and daily renewed. It is probable that the doctrines thus attributed to Xenophanes, are the invention of later times, or have originated in the misconcep- tions of those who have but superficially examined the opinions of his school. The Heraclitean sect was instituted at Ephesus by Heraditus^ one of the disciples of Xenophanes* His natural temper is rep- 15 114 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. resented as being splenetic and melancholy, and he shunned all intercourse with the world, devoting himself to retirement and contemplation. He made choice of a mountainous retreat for his place of residence, and lived upon the natural products of the earth. He flourished about 504 years before Christ, and died at sixty years of age. He taught that fre is the principal from which all things in nature are produced that this principle consists in small indivisible parts or atoms, which are simple in their natures and eternal that there is no such thing in the uni- verse as rest, all the particles composing the fiery principle being perpetually in motion that the world comprehends the eternal, living or self-moving fire, which was neither made by gods nor men, but always was and will be that this principle, or soul of the world, is God, the maker of all things. He further taught,-, that the heavenly bodies are in the form of boats, having thr hollow side towards us, and they become luminous when certain fiery exhalations from the earth are collected within them that the sun is no larger than he appears to the sight, and become? eclipsed when its convex surface happens to be turned towards the earth that the moon is of the same form and nature, and its monthly variations are caused by the gradual changes of its po- sition towards the earth, from concave to convex, and the re" verse that all the stars are nourished by exhalations from thr earth, and these, as they a re more or less splendid and warm, cause the varieties of day and night, of the seasons and of won ther. The moral part of the philosophy of Heraclitus, consisted in the belief, that the end of life is to enjoy happiness that for this purpose, it is necessary that the body should have repose. and its wants be confined into as narrow limits as possible thai it is of more importance for men to know themselves, than to acquire knowledge that human life is the death of the soul, as, whilst it continues in the body, it is confined and depressed, and never gains its true freedom and activity, till it returns to the divine nature from which it emanates, and that the first virtue is to be temperate. Heraclitus, it is said, took great pains trr conceal his doctrines, unlike other philosophers, whose object was to promulgate theirs, and gain as many diseiples as possible. He deposited his writings in the temple of Diana, where the) were read by many philosophers, who incorporated a part of hiF 71 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. j 15 system with their own among others Plato is said to have a- dopted that part of the Heraclitean philosophy, which treated of the nature and motion of matter. Zeno also transferred some of the tenets of Heraclitus to his own system. The Hera- clitean sect became extinct soon after the death of Socrates. The celebrated Hippocrates belonged to this sect. The Epicurean sect was founded by Epicurus, who was born at Gargettus, in the vicinity of Athens, and was hence called the Gargettian, as Aristotle was called the Stagyrite, from the place of his birth. This sect attained to very great distinction, and could number among its disciples some of the most distinguish- ed citizens of Greece and Rome. Epicurus first opened his school at Mitylene, in the island of Lesbos, but soon after remov- ed to Athens, where he purchased a small garden, and there taught his system; hence his disciples were called "philosophers of the garden." The moral tendency of the doctrines of Epicu- rus having been violently assailed by some of his contempora- ries, and particularly by Zeno and his disciples, have, as we be- lieve, been much misrepresented doctrines and opinions in mo- rals have been attributed to him, which he never taught, and we think a fair examination of his principles, as they have been transmitted to us, will show that the charges made against him were prompted by envy of his superior talents and reputation, rather than any just ground of censure. Epicurus in his own conduct was exemplary for his temperance, and he inculcated npon his followers, plainness, if not severity of manners, and a strict government of the passions, as the best and surest means of passing a tranquil and happy life. In his diposition Epicurus Was lively and cheerful; he loved to be surrounded by persons of similar character, and he possessed a captivating facility of address, that lured many a disciple to his school. He taught his disciples to walk through life tranquilly and innocently to look on death as its gentle termination, which it became them to meet with ready minds, neither regretting the past, nor anxious for the future. The school of Epicurus soon became exceedingly po- pular, rivaling that of Zeno, then enjoying great reputation, and disciples came from all parts of Greece to attend his lectures and instructions. With regard to nature, Epicurus taught that the universe always existed, and will always remain, for there. is nothing into HISTORY OF LITERATURE. which it can be changed that it consists of body and space, and is infinite, and, of course, without limits that all bodies consist of parts of which they are composed, and into which they may be resolved, and these parts are either themselves sim- ple principles, or may be resolved into such that these first principles or atoms, are divisible by no force, and. therefore, must be immutable that as these atoms are perpetually in mo- tion, or making an effort to move, they must be moved by an in- ternal impulse called gravity. He further taught, that this world is not eternal, but began at a certain time to exist that as every thing in the world is liable to the vicissitudes of produc- tion and decay, the world itself must be so too. He considered that the world was formed by that infinite number of atoms, which, with infinite space, constituted the universe, falling into the region of the world, were collected into one rude and indi- gested mass. In this chaos, the heaviest and largest atoms first subsided, whilst the smaller, and those which from their form would move most freely, were driven upwards, and rising into the outer region of the world, formed the heavens; those which were suited to form fiery bodies, collected themselves into stars, and those which could not rise so high, formed themselves into air; from those which subsided, the earth was produced, which is situated in the middle of the system. With regard to the soul of man, he believed it to be a subtle, corporeal substance, composed of the finest atoms; that it is composed of four dis- tinct parts, namely, fire, which causes animal heat; an etherial principle, which is moist vapor; air and a fourth, called sensa- tion, this latter principle differing from the three former. His chief argument in favor of the materiality of the soul, is, thai if it were not corporeal and material, it would neither touch nor be touched, and consequently could neither act nor suffer. He considered the soul as only capable of exercising its facul- ties of sensation by means of the bodily organs; that thus the body partakes of the sensations of the soul, and upon its separa- tion becomes wholly insensible. The mind, that part of the soul which consists in the power of thinking, judging and deter- mining, he believed to be formed of particles most subtle in their nature, and capable of the most rapid motion that in whatever part of the body it resides, it exists as a portion of the soul, with HISTORY OF LITERATURE 117 which it is so closely united as to form one nature with it, at the same time retaining its own distinct power of thinking. In morals he taught, that the end of living is happiness, and that since it is the business and interest of every man to be happy in life, he ought to employ philosophy in the search of it not that species of philosophy, which, according to the Cynic rule, consisted in austerity of manner and contempt for the re- finements and common courtesies of society, but that rational pleasure which refines and improves existence, and leads us in the more flowery paths of wisdom and virtue for certainly, man can be wise without being austere, virtuous without being morose. Epicurus strongly recommended to his disciples to be prudent, that they might secure their own tranquillity, and tem- perate, that they might be enabled to enjoy the pleasures of life without its inconveniences. He enjoined upon them, to be mo- derate in the pursuit of honors and riches, as the only security against disappointment and vexation to curb their passions in all things, and to be just in all their transactions with their fel- low men. By the practice of these virtues, they would, in the bright examples of their lives, disprove the assertions of (her enemies. The doctrine of the Epicureans differed from their rivals, the Stoics, in the following particulars: the latter held God to be the soul of the world, diffused through universal na- ture the former held atoms and space to be the first principle of all things ; the Stoics conceived the active and passive princi- ple of nature to be connected by the chain of fate; the Epicure- ans ascribed every appearance in nature to a fortuitous collision and combination of atoms. The Sceptic sect was founded by Pyrrho, a native of Elea. The distinctive character of this sect, was, that its disciples doubted the truth of every system of philosophy adopted by other sects, and held no settled opinion, but that every thing is uncertain ; hence it was called the Sceptic. Pyrrho, the founder of this sect first studied philosophy under Bryson, the son of Stilpo, a philo- sopher of the Megaric sect. He afterwards accompanied the army of Alexander to India, where he embraced some of the doctrines of the Brahmins and Gymnosophists ; on his return to Greece he attended the lectures of other philosophers, and at length established his own school, in which he taught that every object of human inquiry IP involved in uncertainty. The prin- 118 HISTORY OF LITERATURE cipal supporter of this sect after Pyrrho, was Timon, who was first a disciple of the Megaric sect. This school was almost ex- tinct in the time of Cicero, existing only at Alexandria under jnesidemus, who wrote a treatise on its principles. The Grecian philosophy, with the exception of the Stoic school, was chiefly confined to Greece and the neighboring countries, until about the time of the conquests of Alexander the Great, when it was disseminated by the philosophers of his train into other and more distant lands. After the final conquest of Greece, by the Roman arms, her philosophy, literature and elegant arts, no longer meeting encouragement in a "land of the free," was transferred to Rome, and under the patronage of Au- gustus, contributed to make the city of Romulus as renowned in learning, as she was renowned in arms.* CHAPTER VII. Literature of the Greeks. Greek Historians: Cadmus of Miletus, He- rodotus, Thucydidcs, Xenophon, Philistus, Megasthenes, Polybius. Diodorus Siculus, Dionysius of Halicarnassus. Grecian Orators : Gcorgias, Lysias, Isocrates, Demosthenes, JEschines. WE should but very imperfectly fill the task we have un- dertaken, were we to close our historical sketch of the litera- ture of Greece, without some notice of her historians and her orators. They not only demand a place in this imperfect sketch, but their peculiar merits entitle them to the regard of all who wish to be considered as possessing any knowledge of the varied and interesting history of times long past of warriors and statesmen who have played their parts on the grand theatre of life, and have long since slumbered in the dust, leaving to poste- rity the inheritance of their mighty names. It is to their indus- try and research, we are mainly indebted for the knowledge we possess, not only of ancient Greece, but of other ancient nations * Potter's Arch. Grcec.; Enfield's Hist, of Phil.; Eden. Ency.; Lempriere's Class Die.; Reese's Cycl.; A few days in Athens; Gibbon's Rom. Emp. ; Mont. Gran, et Dec Adams' Rom. Ant.: Kennet's Rom. Ant,: Plutarch's Lives. HISTORY OF LITERATURE. jjg distinguished in the annals of history. Without their light, how imperfect would be our information with regard to the mighty empire founded by Cyrus and overturned by Alexander! and how little would we know of those great events which exalted the Grecian name to the pinnacle of renown, and placed the names of a host of heroes and patriots upon the records of im- perishable glory. The first Grecian historian, of whom we have any account, is Cadmus of Miletus, surnamed the ancient. He lived about 550 years before the birth of Christ, and wrote an historical account of the cities of Ionia, in four books. After him was another historian of the same name and place, who was the author of a history of Attica, in sixteen books. None of their works are ex- tant. Between this period and the time of Herodotus, are enu- merated several other historians, who enjoyed considerable re- putation in their day, but whose works are now lost. The most distinguished are Phenecydes of Athens, and Hecateus of Miletus. The former collected the traditions relative to the ancient histo- ry of Greece and some of the neighboring states; the latter tra- velled into Egypt, and composed an historical work interspersed with interesting geographical details. The earliest historian, whose works have reached us, is Hero- dotus. His history is the oldest extant, except the historical books of the old testament. Herodotus was born at Halicar- nassus, a city of Caria, in Asia Minor, and flourished about 445 years before the Christian era. When Herodotus attained to manhood, in conse'quence of the tyrannical and oppressive con- duct of Lygdamu?, prince of Halicarnassus, he removed to the island of Same , where he studied the Ionic dialect, in which he composed his history. After several years residence at Samos. a favorable opportunity having presented itself, he united with a party of his countrymen and succeeded in expelling Lygda- mus from his native city. He remained there but a short time, when contentions having arisen, and factions formed, he again withdrew, and travelled into Egypt, where he collected those materials relative to the Egyptians and other nations, which he has so skilfully wrought into his history. After this great work was finished, he returned to Greece, and recited it at the Olym- pic games, at which people from all parts of Greece were as- sembled, and was listened to with universal delight. This hi*- 1 20 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. tory is divided into nine books, each book distinguished by the name of one of the Muses, and comprises an account of the Lydians, lonians, Lycians, Egyptians, Persians, Greeks and Ma- cedonians, from about 713 years before Christ, to the year 479 before Christ. Herodotus has obtained the distinguished and flattering title of "Father of History," as well on account of his being the oldest profane historian whose works are extant, con- taining the history of nations in a regular and methodical man- ner, as on account of the fidelity of the narrative, although sometimes tinctured with the marvellous. His language is simple, elegant and perspicuous, but in the whole course of his history, he seldom inquires into the causes of the particu- lar events he relates, appearing to be satisfied with the simple narration. He describes things as they were, and events as they occurred, without the prejudices and partialities, so distin- guishable in modern historians. Before the time of Herodotus, nearly all the Greek historians confined their histories to the transactions and events of a single country or city, seldom going into other lands; they never attempted to connect a series of events relating to different nations, in which all were concern- ed, so as to form a regular and connected whole. This plan Herodotus was the first to conceive and execute, and thus placed before his countrymen, in one view, all the political transactions in which they had been immediately, or even remotely interest- ed, for a space of two hundred and forty years. Herodotus is supposed to have died at Thurium, a city of Italy, founded by a colony of Athenians, where it is said his tomb was found, with an inscription declaring that "This earth contains in its bosom, Herodotus, son of Lyxes, a Dorian by birth, but the most illustri- ous of the Ionian historians."* Contemporary with Herodotus, but several years younger, was Thucydides, celebrated for his history of the Peloponessian war. He was present, with his father, at the Olympic games, when Herodotus recited his history, and was so sensibly affected by the recitation, as to shed tears. This circumstance made so deep an impression, as to have a great effect upon his future literary pursuits, as it determined him to employ his talents in a similar undertaking. Thucydides entered the Athenian army ? Beloe's Herodotus: Lemp. Class. Dk HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 12 j during the Peloponessian war, and was appointed to the com- mand of a detachment for the relief Amphipolis, but being un- successful in the enterprize, he was deprived of his command, and banished from Athens. During his banishment, which con- tinued twenty years, he employed himself in the composition of the history of the Peloponessian war, which has rendered his name immortal. He spared neither labor nor expense to render it perfectly accurate: for this purpose he visited different states and consulted soldiers and generals who were concerned in the different actions which he describes. This work is written in the Attic, the purest of the Grecian dialects, and was so much admired by Demosthenes, for the purity and elegance of its style, that he not only studied it attentively, but transcribed it eight times. Although a faithful narrator of events, and profound and judicious in his reflections, it is objected to him, and with justice, that he puts into the mouths of his principal characters, too many rhetorical and fictitious speeches, calculated to exhibit the inventive and sprightly genius of the author, without en- hancing the reputation of the work for accuracy and fidelity. Another objection will lie as to the arrangement, or the manner in which he carries forward the history of events; he often breaks off in the details of transactions, when he has brought them down to a certain period, and then takes up others which he left unfinished, to carry them forward to the same period, thus ren- dering it tedious, and the perusal less agreeable than it would otherwise be, had he pursued a different method. His history of the Peloponessian war, is brought down to the twentieth year. Thucydides died at Athens, In' the eightieth year of his age, 391 years before the birth of Christ.* Xenophon was born about 450 years before Christ, and was distinguished as an historian, a general and a. philosopher, three characters rarely found united, at least in modern times. He was one of the favorite disciples of Socrates, from whom he re- ceived those instructions and imbibed those precepts, which were of infinite service to him in after life, in the various scenes through which he was destined to pass. Whilst yet a youth, Socrates met him by accident in a narrow passage, and being struck with his external appearance, put forth his staff across the ' Smith's Thucydides ; Cic.de Ora. ; Quint. Ins. 22 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. path, and, stopping him, asked where those things were to be purchased, which are necessary to human life? Xenophon ap- pearing at a loss for a reply, Socrates inquired of him where- honest and good men were to be found? Xenophon still hesita- ting, Socrates said to him, "Follow me and learn." From that time Xenophon became a disciple of Socrates; he was distin- guished for his strict adherence to the principles of his teacher, and his integrity, piety and moderation rendered him an orna- ment of the Socratic school. As a general he is celebrated for the masterly manner in which he conducted the march of a body of ten thousand Greeks, after the battle of Canuxa, through an enemy's country, on their return to Greece. He relates their adventures in his work entitled Anabasis. After his return to Greece, Le joined the standard of Agesilaus, king of Sparta, and fought against the Thebans in the battle of Cheronea. The Athenians displeased with his conduct, brought a public accusa- tion against him, for this alliance and his previous engagement in the service of Cyrus, and condemned him to exile. The Spar- tans, mindful of his services, provided him a comfortable retreat at Scilluntes in Elea, where he remained with his family until war broke out between the Spartans and Eleans, when he re- moved to Corinth, where he died, in the ninetieth year of his age, about 359 years before the birth of Christ. The writings of Xenophon were numerous. Besides Anaba- sis, above-mentioned, he wrote the Cyropedia, containing an ac- count of the life and actions of Cyrus the Great, in which the relation materially differs, in many important particulars, from that of Herodotus. Some critics are of opinion, that this work was written for the purpose of delineating the character of a perfect prince, and not with a view of exhibiting a faithful nar- ration of historical facts. His Hdlenica is a continuation of the history of the Peloponessian war, which he takes up where Thu- cydides left off. His Memorabilia of Socrates, contains an ex- planation of the precepts and doctrines of the Socratic school, of which, as we have already seen, he was a distinguished dis- ciple. The language of Xenophon is remarkable "for sweet- ness, variety, perspicuity and elegance. Rich, without a su- perfluity of figures, and smooth without sameness and tedious uniformity. His sentiments, are such as might have been ex- pected from the most faithful and judicious of the disciples of HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 12 3 Socrates." The three abovementioned, occupy the first rank among Grecian historians. Immediately succeeding Xenophon, were Philistus, who killed himself 356 years before Christ, arid Megasthenes, who flourished about 300 years before Christ. Philistus wrote a history of Si- eily in twelve books, 'during a period of banishment from his native country. Mcgasthenes wrote a history of the nations of the east, particularly of I; dia, which was highly valued in his time, and was frequently quoted and referred to by ancient au- thors, when they had occasion to speak of that distant, and al- most unknown land. The works of these historians have perish- ed. About this period also lived Ctesias ofCnydus, who was physician of Artaxexes and long lived in the capital of Persia, and having had an opportunity of consulting the archives of the empire, he was enabled to correct some of the errors into which Herodotus had fallen. About 170 years before Christ, flourished Polybius, a native of 3egapolis, in Peloponessus. Polybius was distinguished as a warrior, a statesman and historian. Having been carried as a hostage to Rome, after the dissolution of the Achaian league, he attracted the notice of the great Scipio Africanus, whom he accompanied in his expedition to Africa, and was present at the taking of Carthage ; by these means he gained a complete know- ledge of the military institutions arid discipline of the Romans. On the death of his friend and patron, Polybius returned to the place of his birth,, where he died, in the eighty-second year of his age. His history consisted of forty books, five of which only remain, comprehending a period of fifty-three years, from the commencement of the second punic war, to the conquest of Ma- cedon by Paulus ^Emelius. Polybius took great pains to inform himself correctly of the events which he describes, and his work is held in high esteem, on account of the fidelity with which it is composed. Dwdorus Siculus was a native of Argyra in Sicily, and flourish- oii about 44 years before Christ. He composed an universal history, on which he was occupied thirty years. He spared neither labor nor expense in the collection of materials, in order that his work might be full and complete. This work was di- vided into forty books, of which only fifteen are extant; the first jive, which bring the history of the world to the Trojan war. and 424 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. from the eleventh to the twentieth hooks, inclusive. Mitford, whose political predelictions are well known, in his "History of Greece," although evidently opposed to Diodorus, probably on account of the warmth with which he supports the cause of liberty, admits, that notwithstanding certain deficiencies in his narra- tive, he is an honest historian. About the same time flourished the last of the Grecian histo- rians, Dionysius, of Halicarnassus. He left his native country and resided at Rome, where, after twenty years diligent study and research, with a view of making himself acquainted with the antiquities and customs of the Romans, he composed and pub- lished his history. This work consisted of twenty books, of which the eleven first are extant, comprising a period of three hundred and twelve years. It is valuable, principally, for the description of the manners, customs and laws of the Romans, as observed by himself, and obtained by a diligent examination of such ancient records as were then at Rome. In addition to his merit as a historian, he is said to have been an eloquent and ac- complished orator, a critic and a politician ; but with all these qualities, he was superstitious and credulous, and was conse- quently often led into absurdities and improbabilities. In the preceding pages we have noticed the principal histori- ans of Greece men, whose genius and talents, have reflected honor upon the land that gave them birth. VVe might have mentioned many others, but all that we could have said, would have amounted to scarce any thing more than a mere enumera- tion of names, so little do we know of their works. A sketch of her orators will conclude all we have to say on the subject of Grecian literature. The separation of Greece into a number of small and inde- pendent states, the popular form of their governments, and the spirit of liberty which pervaded them, afforded a favorable op- portunity, and an ample field, for the exercise of the art of ora- tory, and the display of the powers of eloquence. Hence we find, that oratory attained its highest eminence during the period of Grecian liberty, and declined when her energies were cramp- ed by the weight of a foreign yoke, and the standard of her glory trampled in the dust. In no state of Greece was elo- quence cultivated with the same assiduity and success as at Athens, and it was considered of so much importance, that there HISTORY OF LITERATURE. ^5 arose a set of men called rhetoricians, who professed to explain the principles of the art, and teach a man to be an orator hy rule. The influence of eloquence is universally felt and ac- knowledged; it may be witnessed in barbarous as well as civil- ized nations in the rude assemblies of the Scythians and around the council fire of the American savage, as in the congress of the United States, or the imperial parliament. "The eminent orator," says Tacitus, u is the model which every parent recom- mends to his children. Even the common people stand at a gaze as he passes by ; they pronounce his name with pleasure, and point at him as the object of their admiration. The provinces resound with his praise. The strangers, who arrive from all parts, have heard of his genius; they wish to behold the man, and their curiosity is never at rest, till they have seen his person, and perused his countenance."* The origin of this art may be assigned to Pitheus, the uncle of Theseus, who opened a school of rhetoric and oratory, fifty years before the Trojan war, or 1 200 years before the Christain era. when the warlike chieftains of the age were equally ambitious "To shine in councils or in camps to dare." From this time we find no orator worthy of mention until the time of Georgias, a native of Leontium, in Sicily, who lived 500 years before Christ, and was the first who professed to prepare his pupils for extemporaneous declamation. He acquired a high reputation, and was admired for his eloquence, as well in Athens, as in his own country. He is, however, represented by- Plato in one of his dialogues, as possessing no fit talent for the art he professed to teach. Lysias was contemporary with Herodotus and Thucydides. He was born at Athens, and in his fifteenth year removed to Thurium, where he continued about thirty years. He was greatly admired by his contemporaries for his oratory, and is said to have written upwards of two hundred and forty orations, of which only thirty-four are extant. Cicero says, that his com- positions were so pure and elegant, that you might venture to pronounce him, a perfect orator; and Quintillian says of him, that he is acute and elegant, and if to teach the art of spenking weie the only business of an orator, nothing more perfect can * Tacitus; Pia on Oratory, ch. 8 i 26 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. be found. He has no redundancy, nothing superfluous, nothing, too refined, or foreign to his purpose: his style is flowing, but more like a pure fountain, than a noble river. He died in the 81st year of his age. Isocrates flourished about 400 years before Christ, and although called an orator, his talents as a public speaker were never dis- played, with any striking effect, in the assemblies of the people. His failure as a speaker before a public assembly, was occasion- ed by his diffidence, which he found it impossible to overcome. He may, therefore, with more propriety be considered as a teach- er of eloquence, and a writer of orations delivered by others. Not more than thirty of his orations are extant. It is worthy of remark, and much to the honor of Isocrates, that on the death of Socrates, he alone of all his disciples, had the courage to ap- pear in the streets of Athens in a mourning garb. The orations of Lycias and Isocrates have been clothed in an English dress by Dr. Gillies, the elegant historian of Greece, accompanied by an historical preface, reflecting much light upon the state of oratory at that period. The style of the oratory of Isocrates i e admitted to be much inferior to that of jEschines, and far below Demosthenes. Lysias and Isocrates, says Hume, when compared with Demosthenes and Cicero, were eclipsed like a taper when set in the rays of a meridian sun. We have now arrived at that period of Grecian history, wlien oratory attained its utmost height, and when the public assem- blies resounded with the eloquence of the rival orators, JEschines and Demosthenes. ^Eschines was some years older than Demos- thenes. At twenty years of age, lie entered the Athenian army, and distinguished himself for courage and conduct in several engagements, particularly in that of Mantinen. When peace was restored, he became a clerk to the council of five hundred, and was at one time an actor, and although remarkable for a fine voice and other qualifications for the profession, he quitted the stage for the rostrum; to qualify himself for his new course of life, he attended the school of Plato. He was the rival of De- mosthenes, and the most powerful one he ever encountered in v > the field of eloquence. From honorable rivals for public favor. they became avowed enemies, and in their orations bitterly as- sailed and denounced each other. This enmity commenced when they were associated together, in an embassy from the HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 127 government of Athens to Philip, king of Macedon, on which oc- casion .Eschines permitted his avarice to get the better of his patriotism, and is said to have tarnished his reputation by the acceptance of a bribe from Philip. When the Athenians were about to bestow upon Demosthenes a golden crown, as a reward for his patriotic exertions in the cause of Grecian liberty, it was warmly opposed by ^Eschines, who was, no doubt, stimulated to the opposition by jealousy of the superior fame of his rival. In consequence of this he was banished to Rhodes, where he opened a school for teaching oratory. Only three of his orations are extant. Demosthenes was born about three hundred and eighty years before Christ. His father was a sword cutler, and had amassed considerable wealth, which enabled him to give his son all the advantages of education. He gave early indications of those great talents which were afterwards so preeminently displayed in the public assemblies of Athens, in asserting the rights, and supporting the liberties of Greece, and encouraging his coun- trymen to repel the invasions of Philip. To gain the eminence which he attained as an orator, Demosthenes had to encounter andf overcome many difficulties, particularly that of defective utterance, or stammering, which he is said to have conquered by speaking with pebbles in his mouth. The character of Demos- thenes, when divested of the glare cast around it by the splen- dor of his eloquence, does not appear to be entitled to very high commendation ; he is represented as an unpleasant companion, a faithless friend, a contemptible soldier, (a rare character in those times,) and mean and sordid in his disposition, often receiv- ing money as a compensation for insult, and for blows inflicted upon him. As an orator, however, he stands preeminent; his orations which have been preserved, are considered as models of eloquence, and all unite in yielding to him the title of "Prince of Orators," a title, which it would be considered literary infi- delity to dispute. Fenclon, archbishop of Cambray, in his "Dialogues concerning eloquence," expresses himself in the fol- lowing language, with respect to Demosthenes: "Every oration oi Demosthenes is a close chain of reasoning, that represents the generous notions of a soul who disdains any thought that is not great. His discourses gradually increase in force by greater Jight and new reasons, which are always illustrated by bold } 28 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. figures and lively images. One cannot but see that he has the good of the republic entirely at heart, and that nature itself speaks in all his transports; for his artlful address is so masterly that it never appears. Nothing ever equalled the force and vehemence of his discourses." In another place* the same elo- quent writer remarks, that Demosthenes "is above admiration. He uses speech, as a modest man does his clothes, only to cover himself. He thunders; he lightens; he is like a torrent that hurries every thing along with it. We cannot criticise him, for he is master of our passions. We consider the things he says, not his own words. We lose sight of him: we think of Philip alone who usurps every thing. Tully's prodigious art and mag- nificent eloquence, affect me less than the vehement simplicity of Demosthenes." With regard to the abilities of this great orator, we might present the opinions of numerous authors who have written on the subject of oratory; and although some decree the palm to Cicero, all unite in just commendation of that powerful eloquence, which seizes and captivates the heart.t In addition to the orators above-mentioned, we might enu- merate a Pericles, a Pisistratus and others who were distinguish- ed for their eloquence, but being statesmen and not professed orators, they do not come within our present plan. While we look back upon the illustrious band of poets, phi- losophers, historians and orators, who contributed so much to elevate their country in the scale of nations, we cannot but mourn over the melancholy reverse, which has laid her prostrate in the dust. Instead of beholding in the land of Themistocles a nation of independent freemen, we behold a remnant of a generous and high born race compelled to bow before the c *:ent of the haughty Turk. Yet to the remnants of thy splendor past Shall pilgrims, pensive, but unwearied, throng; Long shall the voyager, with the Ionian blast, Hail the bright clime of battle and of song; Long shall thine annals and immortal tongue Fill with thy fame the youth of many a shore; Boast of the aged ! lesson of the young! Which sages venerate and bards adore, As Pallas and the Muse unveil their awful lore. Childe Har. Can. 11. XCI. Letter to the French Academy. f See Fenelon's dialogues concerning eloquence; the Abbe M^ury's principles oi eloquence; Blair's lectures; Longinus on the sublime; Rullin's belles lettn-s: Knox essays; Adam's lectures; Hume's essays ; Anarcharsis 1 travels ; Cic.de Ora.; Quin.Ine- HISTORY OF LITERATURE, 1 39 CHAPTER VIII. Of the literature of the Romans. Dramatic poets : Andronicus^ En- niiis, Accius, JVmws, Pacuvius, Pldulus, Cecilius, Terence. OUR brief sketch of the literary history of ancient Greece having been brought to a close, we now proceed, according to our plan, with a sketch of that of Rome. The early history of Rome, like that of other ancient nations, is involved in fable. Those who have investigated this subject with most care, have been disappointed in their anticipated re- sults. With all their skill and industry, they have been unable to remove the veil that conceals the actual circumstances attend- ing the foundation of that mighty city, which, in a few centu- ries, spread her victorious eagles over the most distant lands ? and, from the most obscure and humble beginnings, became the mistress of the world. But where is she now? Where sits the "Queen of cities," that encircled with her protecting walls an immense population? Where her glorious heroes and her migh- ty legions? Where the monuments of her ancient glory, her triumphal arches and her columns? Alas! we look in vain. Nations, like individuals, have their times of prosperity and their seasons of adversity. A mitred bishop, with his pastoral staff, now holds sway where a Cincinnatus triumphed and an Augus- tus ruled ; an assembly of cardinals occupies the place of the conscript fathers; her mighty legions, in whose train victory followed, have dwindled into a lawless rabble and banditti; her consuls into priests and monks. The monuments of her ancient glory have been destroyed by the ravages of time, or defaced and mutilated by the ruthless hand of Gothic violence; the tombs of her heroes have been violated, and their sacred ashes disturbed to gratify the curiosity of the idle, or the whim of the antiquary. Oh Rome! my country ! city of the soul ! The orphans of the heart must turn to thee, Lone mother of dead empires! -and control In their shut breasts their petty misery. What are our woesome! sufferance ? Come and see The cypress, hear the owl, and plod your way 17 ] 30 HISTORY OF LITERATURE O'r steps of broken thrones and temples. Ye! ; Whose agonies are evils of a day A world is at our feet, as fragile as our clay. The JViobe of nations ! there she stands Childless and crovvnless.in her voiceless wo; An empty urn within her wither'd hands, Whose holy dust was scatter'd long ago ; The Scipios' tomb contains no ashes now; The very sepulchres lie tenantless Of their heroic dwellers. ChildeHar.C.ir.18. 4 According to the generally received opinion, Rome was found ett 753 years before the Christian era, by Romulus and Rcmuv* twin brothers, and sons of Rhea Sylvia, daughter of Numitor, who was driven from the throne of Alba by Amulius, his younger brother. Scarcely were the lines of the new city marked out. when it was proclaimed an asylum for fugitives "a city of refuge" for the oppressed of all nations, as well as for those whose crimes had driven them from the neighboring towns and cities. All who came were received with open arms, without any inquiry into their characters. On the death of Remus, which happened soon after the foundation of the city, Romulus assumed and exercised the sovereign power, and by his wisdom and policy, established discipline and subordination among a band of needy and rapacious adventurers, and his city soon oc- cupied a conspicuous rank amidst surrounding nations. Romulus being illiterate himself, and, therefore, ignorant ot its advantages, the encouragement of learning and tiie diffusion of general knowledge formed no part of his political system. His great object was, to establish a firm and efficient govern- ment, capable of resisting all encroachments upon his growing power, by his warlike neighbors; to infuse into his subjects thai military spirit which was absolutely necessary for the protection of his infant kingdom against their hostile attacks. No other consideration was permitted to interfere with that military dis- cipline, that contempt of danger and death, so carefully incul- cated by him, which made every man a soldier, and which was so conspicuously displayed in after times, when a Roman legion would have stood against the world. This almost exclusive attachment to war and all its "pomp and ircumstance, 7 ' continued for near six hundred years from the HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 131 foundation of the city, during which time literature made but little progress at least none worthy of notice. Numa, the im- mediate successor of Romulus, has been called a philosopher, and "possessed a mind," says Livy, "deeply tinctured with virtue and well furnished with good principles;" and he endeavored, by the introduction of wholesome laws, to soften the manners and tame the turbulent temper of the people, and infuse into them somewhat of his more gentle and philosophic spirit. But whatever portion of general literature he possessed, or whatever may have been the peculiar doctrines of his philosophy, he kept locked within himself, or communicated only to his secluded as- sociate, the nymph Egeria; for even the books he had writ- ten he ordered to be buried with his body. During the long period abovementioned, literature had made so little progress, that when the Roman ambassadors returned from Athens with a copy of the laws of Solon, and the Decemviri were about to compile the ten tables, they were obliged to procure the assist- ance of Hermodorus of Ephesus, a pupil of Plato, to serve them as an interpreter. As in all rude nations, poetry appears to have been first culti- vated among the Romans, and was employed in celebrating the praise of their gods and their deified heroes. About 400 years after the building of the city, poetry was employed in a species of dramatic entertainment, borrowed from the Tuscans, called the Fescennine verses, from Fescennia, a town in Tuscany, where that species of entertainment was first practised. This enter- tainment was introduced by the Romans at many of their festiv- als, particularly at harvest home, when they rallied each other i-n rude and unpolished verse. Our ancient swains, of hardy vigorous kind , At harvest-home, used to unbend the mind With festal sports. Here, in alternate verse, with rustic jest The clowns their awkward raillery express'd. A custom similar to this was retained in their Saturnalia, or feast of Saturn. This entertainment was gradually improved into what was called Satyrce, or Satires, which were accompanied with music and dancing. The Salym are said to have possessed f.very thing: that was agrfpnble and amusing in the Fescennine 132 HISTORY OF LITERATURE Verses without their vulgarity, and were intended to ridicule and expose vice ; hence those poems, afterwards written for a similar purpose, were called satires. Livius Andronicus, a freed man of Rome, was the first who ventured to write a regular play, about 241 years before Christ, As was the custom in those days, he acted a part in his own compositions, although the Roman law declared the profession of an actor to be infamous, and deprived those who exercis- ed it, of the rights of citizens. In the representations of his pieces, he was usually assisted by a boy, who sang to the music of the flute. Thus we find, that nearly three hundred years after the drama had attained its utmost height in Greece, under its great masters JSschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, it was yet in its infancy in Rome. The Roman people, however, were so highly pleased with the improvements introduced by Androni- cus, that they abandoned, fora time, their old entertainments of satires, but subsequently caused them to be represented after their comedies or tragedies, in the same manner as farces are exhibited in modern times. After Andronicus, appeared the comic poet Ennius. He was born at Rudii, in Calabria, about 230 years before the Chris- tian era, but was admitted to all the privileges of a Roman citi- zen. Blessed with a fertile genius and poetic fancy, and pos- sessing also, a taste for the drama, he contributed much to its refinement and improvement, by following in the steps and adopting the manner of the great dramatic writers of Greece. Although his style is, in general, rough and unpolished, Virgil did not scruple to transfer many of his lines and incorporate them with his own works, after having polished them, as the lapidary does the diamond. Ennius, although distinguished in the history of Roman literature, as a dramatic writer, did not confine himself solely to dramatic poetry, but wrote also a kind of history of the Roman Republic, in heroic verse, and hence was called, as appears from Horace's epistle to Augustus, a "se- cond Homer." Ennius et sapiens, et fortis, et alter Homerus Utcritici dicunt. Ennius, the brave, the lofty and the wise, \nother Homer in the critic's eyes. HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 133 None of the works of this writer, now extant, are com- plete; a few fragments scattered through the works of other ancient authors, have been collected and published in a separate volume. Ennius appears to have been intimate with some of the most distinguished men of his age, among others Cato and Scipio. He died in the 70th year of his age, 169 years before the Christian era. About the time of Ennius, and a few years subsequent, Rome could boast of the tragic poet Accius^ and the comic poets JVe- vius, Pacumus and Plautus, who at that early period of her lite- rary history, shone as "burning lights," but whose splendor was subsequently eclipsed by the brighler glories of a Terence, a Horace and a Virgil. Notwithstanding they are thus cast into shade, and their fame overshadowed by the reputation of menmore highly gifted in intellectual powers, who enjoyed all the advan- tages to be derived from a superior state of refinement and greater advances in knowledge, still their names are worthy of commemoration, as the fathers of Roman poetry, and particu- larly of that called dramatic. Accius was the first who introduced the tragic muse to a Ro- man audience. Although much refined and improved by Ennius, the majesty of the drama was still unknown. The loftier pas- sions and prouder feelings of our nature, which give force, dig- nity and elevation to man, were never represented; comedy and farce occupied the stage and attracted public attention; men were content to witness the representation, and laugh at the fol- lies and vices of the times. Accius, impressed with the idea that the stage might be converted into a source of more refined and rational amusement, and desirous of adding to the dignity of the drama, turned his attention to tragedy, and not only trans- lated some of the most celebrated tragedies of Sophocles, but composed several himself. None of his plays have come down to us entire, but some fragments have been preserved in the works of Cicero. The rhetorician and critic Quintillian, speaks of his style as being rather rough, uncourtly and unpolished, which he attributes rather to the age in which he lived, than to any want of ability to decorate it with the choicest flowers. Ac- eius was held in great honor by the Roman people, on account of the opinion they entertained of his merit as a poet. died about 180 years before Christ. 134 HISTORY OF LITERATURE Nevius, besides various comedies and other dramatic wrote a poetical account of the first Punic war, in which he was personally engaged. His dramatic writings were calcula- ted to please the people, but the satirical vein which ran through them, and in which he was fond of indulging, gave such offence to the consul Metellus, as to cause his banishment from Rome. He passed the remainder of his days at Utica, where he died about 203 years before Christ. None of his comedies, nor his poem on the Punic war, are extant; all we possess of his writings, consists of a few r fragments, from which but a very imperfect opinion can be formed of his real merit as a poet or a dramatist. PacuTius was the son of a sister of Ennius, and was born at Brundusium, a city of Calabria. He united the kindred arts of painting and poetry; he is, however, more indebted for his re- putation, to his talents as a poet, than his skill as a painter. He was the author of many dramatic pieces, consisting of tragedies, comedies and satires, which were represented with much eclat on the Roman stage. He possessed a genius that elicited the praise of some of the Roman critics in the Augustan age of criti- cal refinement, although his verse partook of the rough and un- polished character of the times in which he lived. Horace, in his epistle to Augustus, in which he brings to view nearly all the old Roman poets, speaks of him as deserving the character of "learned." Only a few fragments of his works remain. He died at Tarentum in the 90th year of his age. Plautus deservedly acquired a much higher reputation than any of his predecessors, or contemporaries. He was born at Sarsina, in Umbria, a country of Italy, but early fixed his resi- dence at Rome, where he soon attracted public attention. Ha- ving a talent for poetry, the cultivation of it became the object of his ambition, and as the stage was then the field from which the richest harvest was to be reaped, he became a dramatic poet. In his dramatic compositions, he selected for his model the co- medies of Epicharmus, of Syracuse, who has already been men- tioned as the inventor of comedy, making, however, such alte- rations in the plan and arrangement, as were suited to the Roman stage, and selecting for his subjects such peculiarities in Roman manners, as he believed ought to be lashed with the whip of sa- lire. and could be introduced with the greatest advantage. Al fi& jr I HISTORY OF LITERATURE. ^5 though he acquired a high reputation among his contemporaries, and his writings were admired for purity, eloquence and energy, even in the days of Augustus, he has not been quite so fortunate in modern times modern critics are unwilling to assign him so conspicuous a niche in the temple of fame. The modern writer most severe upon Plautus, is Laharpe, whose opinions as a correct and judicious critic, are entitled to much consideration. He censures his comedies as being defective in their plots, the same characters continually recurring with but slight variation; dis- gusting in style and dialogue, and mingling with his wit and hu- mor too much low buffoonery. At the same time, however, that he pronounces this severe judgment, he admits that he posses- sed a strong mind and a fertile genius. As an apology for the style, manner and language of Plautus, which have been so se- verely reprehended, it ought to be remembered, that the Ro- mans were then just emerging from a rough and unpolished state, and only beginning to assume a politeness of manner, and it would have been impolitic and unwise to have attempted a complete and thorough reformation, in a species of amusement to which they were much attached. Improvements in public taste, as in every thing else, are not the work of a moment; they must be introduced by degrees, and they gradually take effect; thus Plautus introduced such improvements in dramatic poetry, as were enlarged and extended by the superior genius of Te- rence and other succeeding poets. Plautus was the author ol twenty-five comedies, twenty of which, either in whole, or in part, are extant. QcBcilius was a native of Gaul ; he removed to Rome, where he fixed his residence, as the capital of the empire afforded a better field for the display of his peculiar genius, than the wild regions of his native land. He commenced his career as a can- didate for public favor, by writing for the stage. He produced many comedies and other dramatic pieces, none of which have- escaped the fate that attended the works of his contemporaries. His style and manner are highly commended by Quintillian and Cicero, whose taste and judgment, in all things relating to Ro- man literature, cannot be doubted. The Roman people had such confidence in the judgment of Ccecilius, that when Terence offered his first play to the Ediles. thry referred him to Ociliu* to decide upon its merit-. HISTOR1 OK LITERATURE Terence was by birth an African a native of Carthage. He was sold as a slave to a Roman senator, who observing in him a brilliant and aspiring genius, educated him with great care, and afterwards liberated him. Having a taste for dramatic poetry, he applied himself to the study of the Greek dramatic writers, and not only chose Menander as his model, but translated, it is said, no less than one hundred of his comedies, from which cir- cumstance, some of his contemporaries, who were envious of his rising fame, accused him of plagiarism a charge often made by those who "hate that excellence they cannot reach." In dra- matic composition, he could not have selected a better model for imitation than Menander, who, as we have seen, was styled the "Prince of the new comedy," as a just tribute to his superior merits, and if he had done no more to deserve their approbation, the Roman people were greatly indebted to him for introducing to their acquaintance the works of this distinguished poet. When Terence offered the "Andrian," the first production of his muse, to the Ediles for representation, they directed him to sub- mit it to the judgment of Cascilius, and when, with all the trepi- dation of a young author, Terence presented himself before the old poet, he found him seated at table ; Caecilius placed him on a low seat near him, and Terence began to read. He had scarcely finished the first scene, when Cascilius invited him to sup with him, and after the repast, having finished the piece, he highly praised the performance, and recommended it to the Ediles. This recommendation was the more flattering, and is the morr remakablc, as authors, particularly poets, arc not much in the habit of bestowing praises upon those who may be considered rivals. Quintillian entertained a much higher opinion of the talents of Terence, and his skill in dramatic composition, than any of his predecessors, and pronounced his comedies the most refined and elegant which had appeared upon the Roman stage. An English author, speaking of the works of the "elegant disci- ple of Menander," as he called Terence, remarks, that "delicacy and sweetness are the characteristics of Terence. His poetic images are all represented in the most clear and conspicuous ex- pression; but his characters are too general and uniform, nor are they marked with those discriminating peculiarities that distinguish one man from another, and his plots are too compli- cated and intricate." . HISTORY OF LITERATURE, 137 Horace in his epistle to Augustus, speaks of the dramatic poets we have mentioned in the following language: Enniuset sapiens, et fortis.et alter Homerus Ut critic! dicunt, leviter curare videtur Quo promissa cadant, et somnia Pythagorea. JNaeviusm manibus non est, at mentibus haeret Pene recens; adeo sanctum est vetus ornnepoema, Ambigitur quoties, uter utro sit prior; aufert Pacuvius docti faraam senis, Accius alti ; Dicitur Afrani togaconvenisseMenandro; Plautus ad exemplar Siculi properare Epicharmi; Vincere Cascilius gravitate, Terentius arte. Hor.L.^Ep.l r Ennius the brave, the lofty and the wise, Another Homer in the critic's eyes, Forgets his promise, now secure of fame, And heeds no more his Pythagorean dream. ]Vo longer Nevius or his plays remain; fl Yet we remember ever pleasing scene; So much can time its awful sanction give In sacred fame to bid a poem live. Whate'er disputes of ancient poets rise, In some one excellence their merit lies: What depth of learning old Pacuvius shows 1 With strong sublime the page of Accius glows, Menander's comic robe Afanius wears; Plautus as rapid in his plots appears AsEpicharmus; Terence charms with art, And grave Caecilius sinks into the heart. Francis. CHAPTER IX. Literature of the Romans : Lucretius, Terrentius Varo. Reign of Augustus; Virgil, Ovid, Tibullus, Propertius, Catullus, Horace, Lucan, Persius, Juvenal, Martial, Phcedrus. DIDACTIC poetry, or that more elevated species of poetic composition, the direct object of which is, to convey instruction on religious, moral or philosophical subjects, was almost, if not altogether, unknown, until the time of Lucretius, who was con- temporary with Cicero. Before this period, dramatic poetry was the only species cultivated to any extent, which was calcu- lated to excite attention, and reward the poet, or advance his 18 j 38 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. literary fame. About this time, however, a visible and impor- tant change took place, not only in the manners and customs of the Roman people, but in their modes of thinking on subjects connected with literature. The stern maxims of Cato the cen- sor, although supported by a few of his school, were fast yield- ing to more liberal and elevated ideas, and Rome began to esti- mate the value and feel the influence of literary attainments. The conquest of Greece had introduced among them the elo- gant literature of that celebrated land : When conquer'cl Greece brought in her captive arts, She triumph'd o'er her savage conquerors' hearts; Taught our rough verse its numbers to refine, And our rough style with elegance to shine. Francis' Hor. The works of Socrates, of Plato, of Aristotle, of Homer and others, were becoming familiar to the Roman youth, and exci- ting that spirit of inquiry and emulation, which burst forth in full splendor, under the munificent patronage of Augustus and Maecenas. Lucretius, a celebrated poet and philosopher, was descended from an illustrious family, and was born about 100 years before- Christ. He received the rudiments of his education at Rome* but was sent to Athens for instruction in philosophy and the dif- ferent branches of science. At Athens he embraced the philo- sophical doctrines of the Epicurean sect, of which he became a zealous and able advocate. Much of our knowledge of the doc- trines of Epicurus, is derived from his poem "On the nature ol things,'' in which he has set forth and explained, the peculiar tenets of the sect, in a style of much sweetness and harmony of versification. This celebrated poem, which has given deserved immortality to the name of Lucretius, was principally written in the retirement of his villa, whither he had withdrawn, as well to avoid engaging in the political divisions that distracted the em- pire, as to pursue at leisure his philosophical studies. An admi- rable translation of this poem has been presented to the public by Dr. Good, well known for his medical and other writings, in which he has not only carefully preserved the true meaning of his author, but has presented him to his English readers, in a .4.yle of versification that cannot fail to attract. In this poem are displayed a bold and towering genius, and a HISTORY OF LITERATURE. mind capable of grasping the most abstruse and difficult subjects. In common with his master, he considered the soul a subtle cor- poreal substance, and consequently, not immortal, but subject to decay, and that man is the "blind idolater of chance," destined to " wander through eternity; To perish rather, swallow'd up and lost In the wide womb of uncreated night, Devoid of sense and motion." These doctrines are repugnant to our ideas of the wisdom and justice of the Creator, but we should remember that, before the "sun of righteousness" enlightened the world, and brought salvation on his "healing wings," the greatest and most learned of the ancient philosophers had very imperfect ideas of the Supreme Being, or a future state of existence the light of reason and philosophy, as then taught, afforded but faint glim- merings of a blessed eternity. It is even wonderful that this celebrated poem is as perfect as it is, and so free from greater absurdities and extravagant fancies, as a great portion of it is said to have been written during the intervals of mental derange- ment, with which he was afflicted. Lucretius put an end to his own existence, about 54 years before Christ. Contemporary with Lucretius was Terrentius Varro, who was both poet and philosopher, as well as Lucretius, and was distin- guished for his great learning. Varro wrote a great many vo- lumes, embracing the whole circle of learning then cultivated, namely, antiquity, chronology, geography, natural and civil his- tory, philosophy, criticism and poetry, in all of which he was dis- tinguished. All that remain of the works of this voluminous writer, are a treatise "On Agriculture" and a few fragments on various subjects. Varro was the friend of Cicero, by whom he was recommended to Brutus as questor. After the celebrated battle of Philippi. which proved so fatal to the fortunes of Brutus, Varro attached himself to Pompey, and, in the time of triumvirate he was proscribed with Cicero, but more fortunate in the sequel than his illustrious companion in misfortune, he escaped the dagger of the assassin. After the restoration of tranquillity and the establishment of Augustus in the empire, he was permitted to return to Rome, where he died in the 88th year of his age. About thirty-one years before the Christian era, the affairs of the Romans took a new turn. After a long series of civil ^140 HISTORY Of LITERATURE. proscriptions and assassinations, the republic, whose victorious standard so long waved over a prostrate world, ceased to exist, and on its' mighty ruins rose the feeble fabric of the Roman empire; the simple insignia of her consuls were exchanged for the sceptre of royalty, which, in its turn, has been exchanged for the crozier. The decisive battles of Philippi and Actium had put down the rivals and opponents of Octavius, and had given him the empire of the world, with the title of Augustus, by which he has since been known. Notwithstanding the charge, that during his connexion with Anthony and Lepidus, Augustus even exceeded his associates in cruelty, he was naturally inclined to humanity, and after the establishment of his power, he became the patron of all that was refined in literature and elegant in art. Protected by his power and encouraged by his patronage and that of Maecenas, a numerous corps of candidates for fame in the different departments of literature, entered the lists, and contended for the prize which is so highly valued in all civilized 'nations. During his reign, learned men, and such as were dis- tinguished for their skill and proficiency in the fine arts, enjoyed a consideration and influence never before enjoyed in Rome. Among the distinguished men of the time of Augustus, Virgil holds a conspicuous place. He was born at Andes, a village near Mantua, about 70 years before Christ. He was educated at Cremona, and the first years of his life were spent there in the peaceful occupation of agriculture, and occasional devotion to the muses. When Augustus received the Roman empire, in order to reward his veteran troops, he distributed among them the lands that lay about Cremona and Mantua. In this distribu- tion, Virgil not only lost his land, but narrowly escaped losing his life, in a contest with a soldier with whom he ventured to dispute the possession of his "pleasant fields and native home." After the loss of his land, accompanied by his father, he repair- ed to Rome, where he attracted the notice of Augustus, who re- stored him his lost property. As a tribute of gratitude he com- posed the first eclogue, in which, whilst he relates his own good fortune, he feelingly portrays the calamities and distresses of his Mantuan friends, and the gloomy prospects which lie before them : Atnos hinc alii sitientes ibimus Afros, Pars Scythiam , et rapidura Cretaeveniemus Oaxem. HISTORY OF LITERATURE. Et penitus toto divisosorbe Britannos En unquam patrios longo post tempore fines, Pauperis et tuguri congestum cespite oulmen, Post aliquot, mea regna videns mirabor aristas? Impius haec tarn culta novalia miles habebit? Fir. cL 1,65. But we must beg our bread in climes unknown, Between the scorching or the freezing zone, And some to far Oaxis shall be sold ; Or try the Lybian heat or Scythian cold. The rest among the Britons be confined, A race of men from all the world disjoin'd. must the wretched exiles ever mourn, Jor after length of rolling years return? Are we condemned by fate's unjust decree, JNo more our houses nor our homes to see? Or shall we mount again the rural throne, And rule the country kingdoms once our own? Dryden. % I ^-- After the eclogues, he wrote the Georgics, a philosophical and practical poem on agricultural pursuits, the first idea of which he received from the "Weeks and Days" of Hesiod. This poem he dedicated to his friend and patron Maecenas. Quid faciat Isetas segestes ; quo sidere terrain Vertere, Maecenas, ulmisque adjungere vites. Conveniat; quaecura bourn, qui cultus habendo Sit pecori : atque apibus quanta experientia parcis: Hinccanere incipiam. ---- Geo. Lib. 11. What makes a plenteous harvest, when to turn The fruitful soil, and when to sow the corn; The care of sheep, of oxen and of kine; And how to raise on elms the teeming vine; Thebirth and genius of the frugal bee, 1 sing, Maecenas, and I sing to thee. Dryden. Having been himself a practical agriculturalist, he gives di- rections with regard to the different kinds of tillage, proper for different soils the management of fruit trees the proper me- thod of cultivating the different kinds of vegetable productions, useful to man in short, he gives ample instructions in every thing relating to agriculture, not in the homely style of modern writers on such subjects, but with all the eloquence of the most attractive versification. His last and greatest work, that upon 142 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. which his lame, as a poet, principally rests, was the sEneid, upon the composition of which he employed eleven years, and unfor- tunately died before he applied to it his last corrections. It is not our purpose, nor does it come within our plan, to enter into a minute analysis, or criticism of this celebrated and immortal poem. It is intended to celebrate the escape of 7Eneas from the destruction of Troy, his subsequent settlement in Italy and the foundation of a kingdom that was the cradle of Rome. The adventures of jEneas and his companions, who had escaped the Grecian sword and the flames of their native city, and set out in search of some retreat from their misfortunes, are of themselves calculated to enlist the feelings and excite atten- tion yet, as if fearful of wearying his readers by a continued recitation of hairbreadth escapes, and "moving accidents by flood and field, 5 ' he has ingeniously contrived to introduce se- veral episodes of peculiar interest and striking beauty such as that of Nisus and Eurydice, the funeral of Pallas and others these relieve the monotony of the narrative and enhance the interest of the poem. Although defective in many particulars, which, perhaps would have been corrected, had the author lived to have applied the finishing hand, it is nevertheless, "distin- guished for its elegance and tenderness, and although it is less animated and less sublime than the Illiad,it has fewer negligen- cies and greater variety, and supports more of a correct and re- gular dignity throughout the whole." Virgil was also a philosopher, having been early instructed in the doctrines of Epicurus, which run through most of his wri- tings. Notwithstanding he may be properly considered as be- longing to the Epicurean sect, he sometimes introduces the opi- nions of other sects, as in the fourth Georgic, he gives the doc- trines of the disciples of Zeno with regard to the origin of things: His quidam signis atque haec exempla secuti, Esse apibus partem divinae mentis, et haustus jEtheriosdixere: deum namque ire per onines Terrasque, tractusque maris, coelumque profundum Hincpecudes, armenta, viros, genus omne ferarum Quemque sibi tenues nascentem arcessere vitas, Scilicit hue reddi deinde, ac resoluta referri Onmia: nee morte essc locum; sed viva volare Sideris in numerum, atque alto succedere coelo. Gear. Lib. IV. 22f HISTORY OF LITERATURE, ^VftJ 1 143 . Induced by such examples some have taught That bees have portions of etherial thought; Endued with particles of heavenly fires; For God the whole created mass inspires Through heaven and earth and ocean's depth he throws His influence round and kindles as he goes, Hence flocks and herds, and men, and beasts, and fowls, With breath arequicken'd,and attract their souls. Hence take the forms his prescience did ordain, And into him at length resolve again. No room is left for death, they mount the sky And to their own congenial planets fly. Dryden. In the 52d year of his age, Virgil set out for Greece, with the design of putting the finishing hand to the ^Eneid, and of devo- ting the remainder of his days to the study of philosophy, be- neath the shade of the venerable groves, where Socrates, Plato and Aristotle delighted the listening crowd; but being seized with illness he returned to Brundusium, where he died. At his re- quest his body was conveyed to Naples, and interred near that city, at the entrance of what is now called the Grotto of Posil- lipo. The reign of Augustus was also distinguished by the genius oi Ovid, Tibullus, Propertius and Horace. These celebrated poets were caressed and flattered by the courtiers of Augustus, and enriched by the liberal bounty of the emperor himself, in a man- ner hitherto unprecedented among literary men. Augustus became the theme of their warmest panegyrics, and his deeds and character were particularly celebrated by Horace, who was an accomplished courtier, and well knew the susceptibility of his imperial patron to the blandishments of flattery, and who lost no opportunity of paying his court. The numerous odes, satires and epistles which he addressed him, may be considered either as so many evidences of fawning adulation, or the effu- sions of a grateful heart for protection and patronage. Thus in the first epistle of the second book, which is regarded bv critics as one of his best performances, he thus addresses him: Praesenti tibi matures largimur honores Jurandasque tuura per nomen ponimus aras, Nil oriturum alias, nil ortum tale fatentes. Yet Rome to thee her living honors pays; By thee we swenr. to thee our altars rai? 144 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. While we confess no prince so great, so wise, Hath ever risen, or shall ever rise. Francis. The works of Ovid have rendered his name immortal in the annals of literature, while his misfortunes have excited a feeling of compassion, not so much on account of their severity, as the mystery in which the causes which gave rise to them are veiled. He was born at Sulmo, ninety miles from Rome, about forty- three years before the birth of Christ. Being intended for the bar, his father sent him to Rome, and afterwards to Athens, to improve himself in oratory. He made considerable progress in the studies necessary to prepare himself for the arena of forensic controversy, and would, probably, have made a conspicuous figure at the bar, but seduced by the charms of the muses, he de- termined to abandon the dry technicalities of law, and devote himself to the cultivation of poetry an art more consonant with his feelings and better suited to the natural bent of his genius. His talents soon acquired for him the patronage of Augustus, and gained the friendship of the wits arid poets who crowded his court. For a time he sailed smoothly on the current of life, gently propelled by the breath of princely favor, but suddenly a storm gathered, which burst upon him, and he was banished by the emperor to Tamos, on the western shores of the Euxine sea. Various causes have been assigned for this rigorous treat- ment of the poet, all of which, however, are little more than mere conjecture; but whatever may have excited his displea- sure, all the entreaties and all the flatteries of Ovid could hot procure his recal from Augustus, or his successor, Tiberius. He died at Tamos, in the 59th year of his age, 17 years after Christ. Et jacet Euxinis vates Romanus in oris; Romanum vatem barbara terra tegit.' ' Terra tegit vatem, tenerosque Jusit amores Barbara; quam gelides aluit Ister aquis. Politianus. A Roman bard lies on the Euxine's side! Barbarian earth a Roman poet holds! Barbarian earth wash'd by cold Ister's tide, The poet of the tender loves enfolds. Ardtn. His greatest work, that on which he bestowed most labor, is a man of letters, as an historian, and the historian of wars in which he himself bore a prominent part. The times when, and cir- cumstances under which, he composed his "Commentaries," ar< striking evidences of the energy of his mind and the vigor of his talents. It was not in the calm retirement of his closet, where he heard only the dulcet notes of peace, but amidst the tumuli of war, the noise and bustle of camps, and the distraction of civil feuds. In this history he speaks of himself in the third person, and it is remarkable with what perfect coolness, self possesion and impartiality he records his own actions. To tliK HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 163 valuable work, we are indebted for much of the information we possess, with respect to the early history of Britain, Gaul and Germany, and of the manners and customs of the inhabitants of the respective countries. The fame of Caesar principally rests upon his warlike achievements when he is spoken of, or allu- ded to, it is generally as a hero and a general, or as the subverter of Roman liberty, scarcely ever as a historian and accomplished orator his civil virtues and talents are lost in the blaze of his glory as a military chieftain. Were he only known as the author of the "Commentaries," his name would deserve to be held in veneration, and indeed, so anxious was Cagsar for his literary fame, that when he was near being lost in the bay of Alexandria, he swam ashore with his commentaries in one hand and his arms in the other. Cresar is said to have written a tragedy entitled CEdepus, founded upon events in the history of that royal family of Thebes, whose misfortunes have been the foundation of many tragedies from the time of Sophocles to the present. Some- what associated with the name of Caesar, is Hirtius, who is sup- posed to have written the 8th book of the "Wars of Gaul," and the history of the wars in Spain. After the death of Cagsar IIP was made consul, and was killed at the battle of Mutina. Cornelius Nqpos, another historian of these times, was born at Hostilia, a town situated on the Po. Attracted and encouraged by the munificence of Augustus to learned men, he removed to Rome, where he enjoyed the favor and shared the patronage of the emperor. He is said to have written several historical works, which are no longer extant. His lives of distinguished Greek and Roman generals and statesmen are still extant, and if they have not the popularity of the lives of Plutarch, they are at least equal for elegance of style and perspicuity of narration, and exhibit a faithful epitome of the principal transactions of the respective periods spoken of. A Roman writer, in the reign of Theodosius, A. D. 380, desirous of conciliating the favor of the emperor, endeavored to rob Nepos of the honor to which he was entitled, by publishing his "Lives." The cheat, however, was soon detected, and the property restored to its right owner. One of the brightest ornaments of the times which we are reviewing, was Titus Livy. He was a native of Padua, and was born about 50 years before Christ and died 17. years after. His great work on Roman history, which has rendered his name in> I )64 HISTORY OF LITERATURE mortal in the annals of literature, commenced with the lounda tion of Rome, and was brought down to the death of Drusus, the grandson of Augustus. It was divided into decades, including one hundred and forty books, of which are extant the first, third, fourth and part of the fifth. The first decade comprises a period of four hundred and sixty years, the third eighteen years and the fourth twenty-three years. The second decade is entirely lost. To supply the chasm occasioned by the lost books, an epitome of Roman history has been compiled which is usually incorporated with the books of Livy. On this work he was employed upwards of twenty-two years, and as he was among the number of those literary men, who were peculiarly favored by Augustus, he enjoyed every opportunity of procuring authen* tic information, by consulting the public records. As a histo- rian, Livy occupies a high rank, not only on account of the fide- lity of his narrative, but for a style full of energy, clear, com- prehensive and intelligible, and a majesty of expression superior to any of his contemporaries, and equalled by but few of his sue- cessors, in the same species of composition. Quintillian, the celebrated rhetorician and critic, entertained the highest opinion of Livy as a writer, and, speaking of his history, says, that his narrative is perfectly clear and singularly agreeable; that the harangues which he puts into the mouths of his principal spea- kers, are distinguished by a peculiar eloquence, and are in per- fect accordance with the situations and circumstances, under which they are supposed to have been delivered, and that he excels in pathetic descriptions. With all his excellencies, he had his defects, the most grevious of which is, an apparent fond- ness for the marvellous, which induced him to insert accounts of omens and prodigies, at that time very frequent to the eye of superstition. Such accounts, although they may add to the so- lemnity of description, certainly diminish the dignity of history, and although they may be in accordance with the general belief of an ignorant people, they subject an author to the imputation of being too credulous and superstitious. The fame of Livy spread over the Roman empire, and so high was his reputation, that a citizen of Gades (now Cadiz,) visited Rome for the sole purpose of seeing him. St. Jerome, one of the Christian fathers, this circumstance remarks, "that it was trulv wonde**- HISTORY OF LITERATURE. jg^ fui, that a stranger should enter Rome in search of any thing but Rome itself." Patr.rculus was a military tribune, and served several years in the armies of Tiberius. He wrote a history of Greece and Rome, of which only a fragment remains, embracing the period that intervened between the overthrow of Persius, king of Mace- don, one hundred and sixty-eight years before Christ, by Plautus, a Roman general, in the reign of Tiberius. His work is con- sidered as candid and impartial, until he comes to treat of those great events which overturned the republic, and established the throne of the Caesars. He wrote under the reign of the tyrant Tiberius, and being anxious to secure the favor of the emperor, he depreciates the characters of Cicero and Pompey and elevates their rivals, whilst he flatters Tiberius and Sejanus in the style of the slave of a despot, whose very frown was to be dreaded. The lot of Tacitus was cast in more favorable times. This most celebrated of Roman historians was born in the reign of Nero, and was the only son of a Roman knight, who had been governor of a province in Belgic Gaul. Of his early pursuits and education little is known; it is supposed, however, that he attended the school of Quintillian, a distinguished rhetorician, and received from him instructions in oratory, to fit himself for the bar, at that time a situation in which a man was least ex- posed to the malicious tyranny of the emperors. Quintillian was quickly struck with the extent of his genius and talents, and predicted that he "would deserve and acquire the admira- tion of posterity," which prophetic declaration has been re- markably fulfilled. It was a fortunate circumstance for Tacitus and the world, that his infant years were passed under the reigns of the most cruel of the Roman emperors, and before his great talents be- gan to display themselves. Under the reign of Vespasian, who patronised and protected literary merit, the foundation of his fortune was laid, and he peaceably pursued those studies, the fruits of which have rendered him so conspicuous. Tacitus passed through the several subordinate offices, until he at- tained the dignity of consul on the death of Virginius, in the reign of Nerva. The works of Tacitus consist of his "Roman History," which begins with Galba and ends with Domitian ; his "Annals," which ItJti -HISTORY OF LITERATURE begin with the reign of Tiberius, and are brought down nearly to the conclusion of the reign of Nero, of which only two com- plete books, and parts of two others remain; his "Manners of the Germans," "Life of Agricola" and "Dialogues concerning oratory." At what time these works were published, is uncer- tain ; but it is probable it was during the reigns of Nero and Tra- jan. It is a subject of much regret, that the historical works of so distinguished a writer should have come to us so incomplete, having suffered from the depredations of the ignorant barbarians who overturned the Roman empire, and who set no value upon any other quality than valor. As an historian, he is faithful and impartial. He relates things as they were, in a style energetic and dignified, pure and classi- cal, worthy the brightest period of Roman literature. He nei- ther flattered the follies nor extenuated the vices of living great men, nor misrepresented the characters and achievements of the mighty dead. Strict justice to all appears to have been his gov- erning principle, and the foundation on which he erected the fabric of his fame as an historian. His life of Agricola is a splen- did specimen of biographical composition, which will not suffer by a comparison with the best production of Plutarch. In it he celebrates a virtuous Roman, and has erected a proud trophy to the memory of a man endeared to the people, as well by his amiable, gentle and virtuous character, as by his victories as a general ; and who, no doubt, fell a victim to the jealousy and suspicion of Domitian. The fame of Tacitus is not confined to his celebrity as a writer; he also held a high rank as an orator. In the language of one of his biographers, "he could thunder and lighten in his discourse; open every source of the pathetic; draw the tear of compassion and mould an audience according to his will and pleasure." That he possessed these qualities in a high degree, we may justly conclude, from the eloquent and pathetic manner in which he has detailed some of the events of the reigns of Tiberius and Nero. Quintus Curtiusis supposed to have flourished in the reign of Vespasian. By some critics he is confounded with Curtius Ru- /MS, who lived in the reign of Claudius, and atttained the dignity of consul. By those who have undertaken to rank the ancient historians according to their respective merits, he is placed in *hr first cln?, but who HIP r do-orvedly. is very questionable. HISTORY OF LITERATURE. i67 His fame, however, rests upon his history of Alexander the Great; his other works, whatever they may have been, having been lost. This work was written in ten books, of which the two first, and part of the fifth and sixth, are lost, which have been supplied by a modern writer. It is the record of the achieve- ments of the most extraordinary man of his age, who was as re- markable for the rapidity and extent of his conquests, as his boundless ambition. The difficulty of an enterprize presented v but a feeble barrier to his progress; it only stimulated him the more in the prosecution of his designs. He was brave, liberal, and a patron of learning, but proud, haughty, and enamored of his regal dignity. "Give me kings for competitors," said he, "and I will enter the lists at Olympia." With all his virtues, he was sometimes cruel; as is evinced in the death of Calisthenes and Clitus; and being often intoxicated he was sometimes led into great extravagancies, as in setting fire to the palace of Per- sepolis. Curtius, in his style, is flowery and highly ornamented, exhibiting, perhaps, more of the decoration of the rhetorician, than the sober gravity of the historian. He is, nevertheless, entitled to the merit of having portrayed the character of his hero, without concealinghis defects, or exaggerating his virtues. Suetonius was the son of a Roman knight, and gained some distinction at the bar during the reign of Trajan. Having at- tracted the notice of Adrian, he made him his secretary, but having given some offence to the emperor, on account of his want of attention to the empress, he was deprived of his office and banished the court. Suetonius employed the period of his banishment in study, and composed several historical works and treatises on the games and spectacles of Greece, besides his "Lives of the Twelve Caesars," which is the only production of his pen that has reached our times. This work is more biogra- phical than historical; the great object of the writer seems to be, without regard to the order of events, to bring together whatever could reflect light upon the characters of those, whose lives he had undertaken to portray, omitting nothing in which they were concerned. He is, therefore, very exact and metho- dical in his details, and, judging from a comparison with contem- porary authors, he has executed his work with fidelity. Justin was an historian who flourished in the reign of Antoni- nus Pius, about one hundred and fifty vears after Christ. Hf HISTORY OF LITERATURE wrote an abridgment of the history of Trogus Pomjjeius,\v\:io lived about 41 years before Christ. This work, comprised in forty-foin books, embraces the history of the Assyrian, Grecian, Roman and Macedonian empires; the greater part of the work, howev- er, is devoted to the empire of Philip and his successors. It is composed in a pure and elegant style, and is interspersed with many judicious reflections on the great and important events de- tailed, and to it we are indebted for many historical facts with regard to the Assyrian and Macedonian monarchies, not to be found in any other ancient writer now extant. Arrian was born at Nicomedia, a city of Bythinia, and flou- rished under Adrian and the Antonines. He was a general as well as a philosopher and historian. Having been appointed prefect of Cappadocia, he carried on the Avar with success against 'the AlaunL and Messagetae. He was the author of several works, which have perished in common with a thousand other works ot ancient literature; he is, however, advantageously known as the author of the history of the "Expeditions of Alexander the Great." This work is distinguished for that candor and faithful detail of events, that should always mark the historian, else his- tories will become mere fanciful romances, in which it will be impossible, after a lapse of time, to separate truth from fiction. An instance of this occurs in the Cyropedia of Xenophon, who has so blended truth with fiction, in order to set off the charac- ter of his favorite hero, that it is now a matter of doubt, whe- ther it is to be considered as a true history of the life of Cyrus. or as a "moral romance," intended to exhibit the writer's opinion of what a monarch ought to be. It appears to have been the object of Arrian to present the character and exploits of his hero in their true light, divested of that high coloring which too often casts a false glare about the great men of the earth. He seems to have consulted the best authorities, particularly those who lived in the time of Alexander. On account of his style, he has been called another Xenophon. In philosophy, Arrian was a stoic; he collected and published the "Moral Ma- nual," or "Enchiridion" of Epictetus, a celebrated philosopher of the school of Zeno, who flourished in the reign of Nero and the end of the reign of Adrian. The "Enchiridion," contains a faithful exposition of the stoic philosophy, as then taught. Pausanias was another Roman historian who flourished about HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 16B the year A. D. 170. He wrote a history of Greece, in which he did not confine himself to military and political history; but entered into details with regard to the geography and antiquities of each state of Greece respectively. This history was compri- sed in ten books, and is still extant. It is regarded as a valuable -addition to the history of the times of which he speaks, and the countries he describes.* CHAPTER XL Literature of the Romans. Roman orators and miscellaneous writers : Hortensius, Cicero, Quintillian, Pliny the elder, Pliny the younger ^ Lucian, Plutarch. As we remarked in a former chapter, the Greeks were early distinguished for their cultivation of the art of oratory, and for their displays of eloquence, bold, nervous and animated. The peculiar form of their government, particularly that of Athens, favored the improvement of this art, and as all laws, and every thing relating to public matters, were generally discussed in the assemblies of the people, where all had a voice, it became neces- sary that instructions in oratory should form a part of their sys- tem of education. Their orators had an unbounded influence, directing and controlling every public measure ; indeed, no mea- sure of importance was decided without them. We find, there- fore, that schools were early established for the express purpose of teaching the rules necessary to form an accomplished ora- tor. Throughout all Greece, (with the exception of Lacede- mon, where "much speaking" was condemned,) the talent of speaking in public with grace and eloquence, was the most im- portant, next to military talents, a citizen could possess, and was certain to lead him to distinction. Oratory, as an art, was not cultivated in Rome at so early a period as in Greece ; she had, however, her public speakers in the early ages of the republic, and in later times some of her * Caesar's Com.; Baker's Livy.; Adams' Rom. Ant.; Rennet's Rom. Ant.; Plutarch's Lives; Murphy's Tac. ; Ferguson's Rome; Priestley's Lee. ; Enf. Hist, of Phil. ; Cours fa Lit. par Lajiarpe, &c. v 32 Iftf lllSTORY OF LITERATURE. orators attained to a proud distinction, rivaling, if not surpass ing the most celebrated among the Grecians. The relation of patron and client, which existed between the Patricians and Ple- beians, afforded opportunities for the former to appear as advo* cates in the defence of the latter, and thus not only to cement more closely the union which existed, but also to make them- selves known to the people in general, and strengthen their po- pularity. The places where these displays of forensic eloquence were exhibited, were generally the forum, before the tribunal of the praetor, the centumviri and other magistrates, and in the presence of the assembled people. These displays, however, were more the result of momentary excitement, than of studied preparation. In them they were confined by no rules; they were ignorant of the division of the oration into the exordium, the narration or explanation, and the peroration ; and it was not until the Greek rhetoricians opened their schools, that they laid aside their natural and unstudied effusions, for the studied regu- larity and artificial manner of the schools. The establishment of schools of rhetoric, soon gave a new im- pulse to oratory, and its rules became subjects of careful stud\ and attention. As these establishments acquired celebrity, the most distinguished of the Roman youth entered themselves as disciples. Among the rest we find Tiberius and Cciius Gracchus, who were distinguished as belonging to the family of the Scipios, and for their popular eloquence and seditious practices prac- tices which, notwithstanding their uncommon popularity with the people, conducted them to an untimely and violent end. In- stead of dying gloriously on the field of battle, in a manner wor- thy of their great ancestors, they fell by the hand of the assassin. To bring to view the various persons who, after this period, dis- tinguished themselves as orators, we should be led greatly be- yond our limits; we shall, therefore, content ourselves with a brief notice of Hortensius and Cicero, two of those who were most celebrated, when oratory had attained its highest point of excel lence in Rome. Hortensius was born 113 years before Christ, and died at Ihf age of sixty-three years. After having studied in the schools oi rhetoric, he made his first appearance as a public speaker in the Roman forum, at the age of nineteen, and even at that early age acquired much fame. When Cicero entered on the arena of HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 171 ibrensic oratory, Hortensius was in the height of his fame, and no ne had been daring enough to enter the lists as his competitor* Cicero, notwithstanding their rivalship, with that generosity that belongs to great minds, speaks of him as an orator in high terms, and says that he sustained his reputation to the end. Quin- tillian disssents from this opinion of Cicero, and considers his commendations as undeserved; it should, however, be borne in mind, when weighing these opposite opinions, that Cicero was the contemporary of Hortensius, and Quintillian flourished near a century after. We think, therefore, that more confidence ought to be placed upon the judgment of one who was contem- porary, and had not only daily opportunities of witnessing his powers, but who had also felt their force. The manner of Hor- tensius, in his delivery, was censured by some as being better suited to the theatre'than the tribunals of justice, and hence he received the appellation of Dionysia, after a celebrated dancer of the time. None of his orations are extant. Marcus Tullius Cicero was born at Arpinum, a town of the Volsci, celebrated also as the birthplace of Marius. During his childhood he is said to have given strong testimony of supe- rior talents, and anticipations of future promise. He studied philosophy and rhetoric under Philo of Laressa, a platonic phi- losopher, held in high esteem by the Romans. In his eighteenth year he commenced the study of law under Mucius Sccevola, dis- tinguished for his skill and knowledge in the civil law. He made his first appearance as a public speaker, at twenty-six years of age, in defence of Roscius, against the accusation of Scylla. Soon after, under the plea of ill health, but really through fear of Scylla, he left Rome and visited Athens, where he attended the several schools of philosophy. Leaving Athens, he visited Asia, where he availed himself of the instructions of Xenocles of Adramythum, a celebrated rhetorician, and at Rhodes studied under Apollonius, another rhetorician of dis- tinction, who subsequently opened a school at Rome. Whilst under the instructions of Apollonius, it is related of Cicero, that his master not understanding the Latin language, desired him to declaim in Greek, which he done with so much effect, that Apol- lonius exclaimed, "As for you, Cicero, I praise and admire you ; but I am concerned for the fate of Greece. She had nothing left her but the glory of her eloquence and erudition, and voy 172 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. are carrying that too to Rome."* On his return to Rome, he applied himself with remarkable diligence to the study of orato- ry, and soon removed the prejudice that had heen excited against him, that he was better fitted for the grave pursuits of philoso- phy, than the active duties of life. In the year of the city 691, he was chosen consul, and obtained immortal honor by his bold and successful opposition to the conspiracy of the dissolute and desperate Cataline, on which occasion the glorious title of "Fa- ther of his country" was conferred upon him, by the almost una- nimous consent of the nation. No one, except Demosthenes, has ever attained the high cha- racter of Cicero, as an accomplished orator. These two bril- liant lights of ancient eloquence, are still held forth as beacons to guide the youthful candidates to the wished-for goal. The elo- quence of Demosthenes was of a character different from that of Cicero. The orations of the former were delivered in the as- semblies of the people ; those of the latter in the senate house, in the presence of the conscript fathers, or in the forum, before the tribunals of justice; ^ The eloquence of Demosthenes was directed to rouse and influence the passions of a whole people, on subjects in which the interests of a* whole people were con- cerned, and in which all had a voice ; that of Cicero was employ- ed to convince the judgment of a limited number of individuals, who were not as likely to be swayed by appeals to the feelings, as a mixed multitude ; therefore, the eloquence of Demosthenes was more declamatory and impassioned ; that of Cicero more sober and discreet. The fame of Cicero, as an orator, appears to be established on such solid foundation, that it will endure until The great globe itself And all which it inherits shall dissolve. His orations are all composed with much art, and according to rhetorical rules. In his exordiums he carefully attends to all the requisites for gaining the attention of his audience, and in his narrations his arguments are all arranged in such a masterly manner, that they could scarcely fail of producing the desired result. The powerful effect of his eloquence in no instance ap- *" Plut. Life of Cicero- HISTORY OF LITERATURE 173 pears to us to have been more apparent, than in his orations against Cataline, when, although his situation was critical and required much circumspection and discretion, he seems to have laid aside the natural timidity of his character, and attacked the desperate conspirator with such boldness, that he was exposed to the daggers of two hired assassins of Cataline. This great man was involved in the proscription under the triumvirate, and was sacrificed to the vengeance of Anthony. In addition to his "Orations," he wrote a treatise "On the na- ture of the Gods;" the "Tusculan questions;" "Dialogues on old age;" on "Moial offices;" "On laws," and several other works on "Rhetoric and oratory." After the subversion of the republic, and the establishment of imperial rule, and particularly during the inglorious reigns of the tyrannical and blood-thirsty successors of Augustus, the schools of rhetoric declined, and oratory was confined to simple pleadings at the bar. Contemplating the fallen and degraded state of his favorite art, Quintillian attempted to revive its faded glory and restore it to its former splendor. Quintillian was a native of Spain; he was born in the reign of Claudius, and pro- bably first visited the capital of the Roman empire in the reign of Nero. Talents like his, could not long remain concealed, and he soon acquired considerable reputation at the bar, and subsequently attained the honors of the consulship. To rescue the art of rhetoric from the degradation into which it had fallen inconsequence of the despotic and arbitrary nature of the gov- ernment, in the reign of Vespasian, Quintillian opened a school, in which rhetoric was taught according to certain rules, and, in addition to the tuition fees received from his pupils, he obtained a stated salary from the public treasury, the first ever granted to a public teacher; this circumstance serves to show in what estimation his learning and talents were held by the ruler of the empire. To this useful and honorable, though laborious, em- ployment, he devoted twenty years, and, under his instructions we find many became distinguished public speakers; amongst others, the historian Tacitus and the younger Pliny. He retired from public life in the reign of Domitian; his leisure was still employed in literary studies, and in preparing, for the benefit of posterity, a treatise on the causes of the corruption of eloquence, and that celebrated system of rhetoric, which is still studied it* 574 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. our institutions of learning, and is the most complete systenvof ancient rules on that subject now extant. The latter work is divided into twelve books. In it he points out with great care, that system of education he considers necessary to constitute an accomplished orator not a mere declaimer, who thinks that eloquence consists in stringing together a number of high sound- ing words. His great object was to exhibit rules to form the eloquent and argumentative orator the logician as well as rhe- torician. To attain this object, he even begins with the infant in his cradle, and conducts him through a certain course of stu- dy, until his faculties are fully developed, and are capable of full and vigorous exercise in that field in which they are to be exerted. The youthful orators of the present day seem averse to established rules, and, giving way to a natural ardor, become too much addicted to that declamatory style which belongs not to true oratory: high sounding epithets, a flowing diction, and beautifully rounded periods, appear to strike their imaginations with more force, than that correctness of arrangement, energy and boldness of style and closeness of reasoning, recommended by Quintillian. To such the works of Quintillian will be found highly useful; and were they studied with more care, after the youthful orator has left the walls of a college, we would not wit- ness so many violations of rhetorical rules, and declamation would soon give place to a chaste and manly style of oratory. "Genius," says the Abb6 Maury, "needs to be guided in its pro- gress, and the curb which preserves it from wandering, restrains by salutary checks, and renders it the greatest service* It is thus that genius becomes strengthened and increased, when it proceeds under the guidance of reason and judgment." The close of Quintillian's life was embittered by the loss of his wife and his two sons, and notwithstanding imperial favor and the success of his writings, he was reduced to indigence, from which he was relieved by the younger Pliny. He died A. D. 95. In the whole catalogue of literary men among the ancient^ we know none more worthy of remembrance than the elder and younger Pliny. Pliny the elder was born at Verona, in the reign of Tiberius A. D. 23. Having distinguished himself as a sol- dier, he was made governor of Spain, the duties of which he faithfully and diligently discharged. He was remarkable for his studious habits, even when engaged in the turmoils and HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 17 perplexities of public business. So earnestly was he devoted to the acquisition of knowledge, that even at his meals one of his servants read to him, and when in the bath, his active mind dictated to an amanuensis. Pliny was particularly devoted to the study and investigation of subjects of natural history, and to his love for natural science he fell a victim. Being at Mise- num A. D. 79, where he commanded a fleet, he was suddenly surprised by a violent eruption of Mount Vesuvius. Impelled by curiosity to examine more nearly this great phenomenon, he immediately set sail for the mountain, and landing on the coast, he found it deserted by the inhabitants; he determined, how- ever, to remain during the night, the better to observe the erup- tion. As the eruption increased, and the fire approached where he was, he endeavored to make his escape, but was unfortunately suffocated by the thick vapor that surrounded him. At the time of his death, he was in the fifty-sixth year of his age. Of the various works of which he was the author, none remain but his works on natural history, in thirty-seven books. It treats of the various phenomena of the natural world, of earthquakes, eclipses, meteors, the mineral, vegetable and animal kingdoms, and is highly valuable for the innumerable facts it contains, and as showing the state of natural science at the time in which lie lived a science which has obtained, by the diligent labors and investigations of modern naturalists, a high rank in some of our seats of learning, and which ought to be taught in all. The Younger Pliny was the nephew of Pliny the Elder, and was born at Como, in the reign of Nero, A. D. 62. He was the contemporary and intimate friend of the historian Tacitus, and with him attended the lectures of Quintillian on rhetoric and oratory. In the reign of Domitian, he filled the several offices of questor, tribune of the people and prastor. Under Trajan he was appointed pro-consul of Bithynia, in which situation he ren- dered essential service to the cause of Christianity, by putting stop to the persecution of the Christians, declaring to the emperor, that they were a meek and inoffensive set of men, of pure and innocent morals, who bound themselves by solemn oaths to ab- stain from vice. Attached, from policy or conviction, to the pagan worship, Pliny regarded the chfistians as mistaken en- thusiasts, who would be sooner converted from what he consid- ered the "error of their ways," by gentle than by violent means. 17 G HISTORY OF LITERATURE. Influenced by such feelings, and by a generous spirit of humanity ? he used his utmost efforts to turn aside the arrows of persecu- tion, and stay the effusion of Christian blood, not only by his rep- resentations to the emperor, but by virtue of his office of pro- consul. For his benevolent and successful exertions, his name deserves to be held in grateful remembrance by the Christian world. Pliny wrote the history of his own times, which is lost; he is also said to have been a poet, but of his poetical talents we have no specimens by which to form a judgment. Of all his writings, nothing is at present extant but his panegyric on the emperor Trajan and his letters, in ten books. Few works of the same description deserve higher commendations than his epis- tles ; they are perfect models of that species of composition, and are remarkable for that easy and familiar, yet graceful style, which form the charm of epistolary writing. Besides their merit, regarded merely in a literary point of view, they contain many curious and interesting facts, concerning the history of the limes, and anecdotes of individuals who have made prominent figures in Roman history. The English reader h under many obligations to Melemoth for his elegant and spirited translation of these celebrated letters. Pliny died in the 52d year of his age, A. D. 113. Lucian was a celebrated writer who flourished in the reign of the Antonines, and was a native of Samosata, a town of Syria, near the Euphrates. Like many others who have risen to dis- tinction, as warriors, statesmen and men of letters, he was born of parents of humble rank in society and in narrow circumstan- ces. To his very poverty may be attributed the distinction he attained in the learned world. Had the coffers of his father overflowed with wealth, he might have rioted in pleasure, and his talents would probably have remained concealed for want of some inducement to call them into exercise. Early in life, how- ever, disliking the profession for which his father designed him, he was thrown upon the world with nothing but his own genius and talents to conduct him through its various difficulties. His peculiar powers being thus called into action, by a careful and diligent cultivation, they ultimately conducted him to honor and fame. It is thus at the present day; the greater number of those who are distinguished in public life, when the road to prefer- ment is not obstructed by privileged classes, are those who hav^ HISTORY OF LITERATURE. |~ 7 rirtun horn obscurity, and have made their way by the mere force of their own talents. Lucian was, early in life, bound to one of his uncles, who was a statuary; but, having no taste for the profession, or being unfortunate in his first attempts in the art, he left his uncle, and determined to turn his attention to some other employment more consonant with the bent of his genius. In those times, dreams and omens had a great effect upon the most powerful as well as the weakest minds the wise as well as the ignorant, were influenced by them, although in different degrees. Lucian having had a dream, in which a figure representing learning appeared before him, in an enouraging attitude, and beckoned him to approach the temple of fame, he removed to Antioch, where he engaged with some success in the profession of an advocate; but growing tired of the profession, he determined to pursue the study of rhetoric and philosophy, rind afterwards give instructions in the former as he travelled through Gaul, Spain and Greece. As a philosopher, his creed seems to have been made up of all the existing sects, which he studied and examined with the care of one who was in search of information. Lucian enjoyed the peculiar favor of Marcus Aurelius, by whom he was appointed register to the Roman governor of Egyptian office of honor and profit. The . friendship and pro- tection of such a man as Anrelius, is an evidence of the high esti- mation in which he was held. The works of Lucian are written in the Attic, the purest of the Grecian dialects, and are not only composed in a style easy, elegant and animated, but abound in that attic salt, which gives so keen an edge to his satires. Many of the productions of Lucian are entirely lost; the greater part of those extant consist of dialogues. He had a peculiar turn of mind for satire, which led him to censure unjustly, some of the most illustrious men of whom antiquity can boast. Even the great Socrates did not escape the malice of his pen, nor diuit oi knowledge, were Scipio Africanus, Lelius, Furiu?, Quin- tius Tubero, a nephew of Scipio, and the consul Lucullus. They did not attach themselves to any particular sect, but exa- mined and studied with care the systems of all, so that they made the principles and doctrines of each, subservient to their subse.- quent advancement in civil and military life. Lucullus, in or- der to promote a taste for learning and philosophy, made a large collection of valuable books, and established schools, to which he invited learned men of whatever sect, and he himself often appeared among them, engaging in conversation on subjects of literature and science. When Greece was finally conquered by the Roman arms, Rome opened her gates to receive within her walls, Grecian professors of wisdom and eloquence; all the pre- judices which before existed, in a few years entirely vanished^ and philosophers and rhetoricians, who were but lately proscri- bed, were held in honor and liberally rewarded. It is worthy of remark, and only to be attributed to the disposition and character of the Roman people, which encouraged nothing but a warlike spirit, that the doctrines of the Pythagorean school, although first established in Italy, did not extend beyond that part of it called Grcccia Magna, until the final conquest of Greece, five hundred years after the time of Pythagoras. It was then introduced into Rome, and shared, for a time, with the philoso- phers of the Ionic school, the countenance and patronage of the Roman people. The most distinguished Roman disciple of this mysterious school was Publius -Nigidius, who was contemporary with Cicero, and who is described as an acute and penetrating inquirer into the operations of nature. Nigidius having attach- ed himself to the cause of Pompey, when Cassar assumed the su- preme power, was banished from Rome, and the doctrines of Pythagoras having lost their chief support, fell into disrepute. In the variety of opposing and conflicting opinions of the dii 1 ferent sects, whose disciples were heard in Rome, the Platonic or Academic^ had the greatest number of votaries, owing perhaps, as well to the influence of Carneades, one of its most illustrious ornaments, and the impressions made by his instructions, as to the sublime and fascinating character of the doctrines them- selves, which laid open new views of nature, and inculcated the most important principles in morals. To this school the cele- brated C-rrp was eh ieflv attached, although ho made himself ac- j gc? HISTORY OF LITERATURE. quainted with the tenets of each, drawing upon the rich store of information thus obtained, for some of the materials employed in his powerful displays of eloquence, to which senates listened with wonder and delight, and which, after a lapse of eighteen hundred years, continue to improve and instruct mankind. The stoic sect found also many disciples. In Cato of Utica, whose life was an exemplar of the doctrines he professed, it pos- sessed a distinguished advocate. This celebrated man was a descendant of Cato the censor, and exhibited throughout his whole life an example of the most rigid virtue, inflexible integri- ty and determination of purpose, which nothing could shake. He was unmoved and inflexible at the head of his cohorts and in the field of battle, as in the Roman senate in the midst of his little senate of Utica, while deliberating upon measures for the public good in a trying time of the republic, as when, surround- ed by his friends, he gave the fatal blow that deprived himself of life, and his country of a brilliant ornament, at the same time exhibiting a striking instance of the unsubdued firmness of a noble mind. The Peripatetic philosophy, or that of which Aristotle was the founder, was introduced into Rome in the time of Scylla, who, when the city of Athens fell into his hands, purchased the writings of Aristotle and Theophrastus, which were found in the possession of some of their descendants and carried them to Rome. Being much defaced and some parts entirely destroyed, Scylla placed them in the hands of Tyrannis, a celebrated gram- marian and critic, who transcribed the greater part, himself and some of his friends supplying the deficiencies. Thus we have the works of Aristotle imperfect and mutilated, and disfigured by interpolations. This system found many admirers and advocates, among whom were Crasstis^ who employed a philosopher of his school as a preceptor, and Cicero, notwithstanding his predilec- tion for that of Plato. The Epicurean philosophy met with considerable opposition, in consequence of the irregularity of some of its followers, whose deviations from the path of rectitude were attributed to the er- rors and defects of the system itself. It was violently assailed by the followers of Zeno, to whose sterner maxims it was oppos- ed, by giving greater license to the inclinations and propensities of mankind. Cicero also opposed it with great vehemence, and HISTORY OF LITERATURE. took every opportunity of inveighing, not only against the prin- ciples of the sect, but against the character of Epicurus himself. Montesquieu says, that the introduction of the philosophy of Epicurus, was one great cause of the corruption of the Roman people, and the downfall of the republic.* This sect has, how- ever, found ingenious, if not able, defenders, in modern times, who represent its founder as no less the friend of strict virtue and rational pleasure, than the enemy of vice and those low and groveling passions, that disgrace our nature. t Notwithstanding the violent opposition of the Stoics, backed by the weight and influence of Cicero, it found many powerful friends among the most respectable characters of Rome, particularly in the cele- brated poet Lucretius, of whom we have already spoken, and Atticus, the bosom friend of Cicero, to whom many of his epis- tles are addressed, and who, to make himself better acquainted with the doctrines of the sect, visited Athens, and studied under Phidius, and Zeno the Sidonian. Having thus briefly sketched the state of philosophy as it ex- isted at Rome, before the introduction of Christianity, we will offer a few remarks upon that great event, and then bring to view some of those philosophers of different sects, both pagan and Christian, who made themselves conspicuous by their wisdom and learning. all the events recorded in history which have occurred since the creation of the world, the most wonderful, interesting and important, is the introduction of Christianity. The change? and revolutions which taken place in the political world, the rise and fall of empires, are interesting and important events, involv- ing as they do, the happiness and prosperity of nations; but how little do all the mighty schemes of politicians for national ag- grandisement appear, when compared with the stupendous re- volution produced in the moral world, by the introduction and promulgation of the Christian religion. Scarcely had its author offered himself and cemented with his blood, the religion he pre- sented to mankind, when his favored disciples, clothed in the sacred mantle of his righteousness, and invested with full pow- ers as ambassadors of God, began to propogate his doctrines among the gentile nations, who were then the slaves of a super- " C?ran. etDeC. desRom. cb.10. f See Miss Wright's "Few days in Athens. 1 . ^4 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. stitious idolatry, and to undermine the deeprooted prejudices, which the influence of many centuries had established. The edifices which heathen superstition had erected for the worship of false gods, were converted into temples, wherein the suppli- cations of repentant and contrite hearts, were offered upon al- tars consecrated to the service of the one true God. Besides the wonderful effect wrought in the moral and religi- ous world, the promulgation of Christianity, by pointing to new objects, introduced new modes of thinking, and suggested new subjects for discussion and investigation. It presented a much more extensive field for speculation, and a much wider range for thought, and for the exercise of those reasoning faculties with which man is so liberally endowed, and which are given him to be employed not for his own exclusive benefit, but for the good of the whole human family. At the important period of which we are speaking, the schools of philosophy exercised a very great influence over the minds of men, and the doctrines of some by enlightening the understandings of their disciples, pre- pared them, in some degree, to the reception of the principles of the Christian faith. Some of the ancient systems, particularly that of Plato, inculcated opinions in morals remarkable for subli- mity, and not a few approached very nearly to some of the great and fundamental doctrines taught by the apostolic teachers, ...It was for this reason, that the philosophy of Plato, not only became a favorite system among the early Christians, but many of the fathers incorporated the opinions of that philosopher with the doctrines of divine truth, thus, indeed, corrupting the purity of the Christian faith, and giving to their pagan adversaries the: opportunity of asserting, that Christ was indebted for his doc- trines to the heathen philosophers and not to divine inspiration; that his principles were the "enticing words of man's wisdom the philosophy and vain deceit after the traditions of men," not the "demonstration of the spirit." The corruptions which thus crept into the system through ignorance, have not only caused much trouble to divines and theologians in after-times- to ex- plain away, but have been productive of many of the unfortu- nate disputes which have divided, and still continue to divide, the Christian church. Jesus Christ, as the founder of the Christian system of reli- gion. v,-n HISTORY OF LITERATURE of that period, who were all more or less tinctured with its prin- ciples. Tertullian was a native of Carthage, and was the con- temporary and opponent of Celsus. After he renounced the errors of paganism and embraced Christianity, like Saul of Tar- sus, he became one of its zealous advocates. Although he was not brought up at the feet of Gamaliel, he was instructed in the learning of the times, and was intimately acquainted with the doctrines and opinions of the different sects of Grecian philoso- phy. As many Christians, who had been educated in pagan schools, mingled the doctrines of philosophy with the doctrines of the church, he attributed most of the heresies which had theo crept into its bosom, to their influence, and styles philosophers the "patriarchs of heretics." Tertullian possessed a lively and vivid imagination, rather than a strong and discriminating mind, and, in his zeal against what he esteemed a vain philosophy, he adopted and gave currency to opinions almost as much at war with the sober dictates of reason, as the wildest theories of those against whose doctrines and opinions he was contending. Of this we might cite many instances, did our limits permit. The most celebrated of his works is his "Apology for the Chris- tians," in which he refutes the various calumnies that were cir- < ulated against them. About this time flourished Clemens Alexandrinus. He receiv- ed his education in the schools of Alexandria. He had various preceptors, by whom he was initiated into all the learning of the oast, as w r ell as the philosophy and literature of the Greeks. Al- though celebrated as a Christian father, and one of the suppor- ters of the church in perilous times, in consequence of blending the tenets of the heathen philosophers, with the chiistian doc- trines in his Writings, he was, in many respects, injurious to the cause he supported; and particularly in after ages, when the opinions of the primitive fathers were regarded as divine, and of equal authority with the scriptures themselves. Like others, he transferred many of the opinions of the Platonic and other schools to the Christian, and thus contributed to impair the sym- metry of the Christian edifice. To such writers and such theo- logians, who mingled the doctrines of contrary and opposing sys- tems, most of the errors which disfigured the rites, ceremonies and doctrines of the church may be traced, which over- spread the whole Christian world with darkness, until illuminated HISTORY OF LITERATURE. J93 by the glorious rays of the sun of the reformation. So much was Clemens captivated with the Grecian philosophy, that he declared, that "philosophy was communicated to the Greeks from Heaven, as their proper testament or covenant, and that it was to them what the law of Moses was to the Hebrews." Among the peculiar doctrines taught by Clemens, are the following, which will show to what extent he mingled the doctrines of Plato with those of Christ. He taught that the Logos is the image of the Father, and man the image of the Logos that the Logos proceeded from God for the purpose of creation that the world was produced from God, as a son from a father that there are two worlds, the sensible and the intelligible that an- gels are corporeal that man has two souls, the rational and ir- rational, and that the stars are animated by a rational soul. Origen) the celebrated opponent of Celsus and the zealous de- fender of Christianity, was born at Alexandria A. D. 184, during the reign of Commodus. He was a pupil of Clemens of Alexan- dria, and was instructed in the tenets of the several sects of phi- losophy, as preparatory to the study of the sublime doctrines of Christianity a course of instruction which the Christians of the present day, would consider as not very well adapted to prepare the mind for the reception of the truths of the gospel. Origen afterwards became a disciple of Ammonius, an eclectic philoso- pher, whose school was attended by Christians as well as pagans, who equally received the benefit of his instructions* In this school Origen continued until he made himself master of the learning of the times, and at eighteen years of age, he opened a school himself, for the double purpose of teaching, and procuring the means of subsistence for his mother and her family of six children. His school soon became celebrated, and was crowd- ed with pupils, both Christian and pagan, so that he was not only enabled to support his mother and family, but gained a considera- ble surplus. On the death of Clemens, he took possession of the Christian catechetical school which he had established, and in this new situation he employed every means to convince his pu- pils of the superiority of the Christian, over every other system of religion, and, at the same time, inculcated, by precept and ex- ample, a most rigid system of morals. Some of his opinions, however, partaking of that mixture of pagan philosophy and Christianity, which he imbibed from Clemeps ajid Ammonius, are 25 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. at variance with the doctrines of the bible, at least as we under- stand them, and his fanciful mode of interpeting certain pas- sages, was the fruitful source of many errors. This mode of in- terpretation this "spiritualising" the scriptures, arose from an opinion he adopted, that "wherever the literal sense of scripture was not obvious, the words were to be understood in a spiritual and mystical sense." This same mode of "spiritualising," we have heard employed by modern divines, and carried to a ridi- culous extent. As Origen possessed lively talents, and a ready and fluent manner of delivery, he was successful in the dissemi- nation of his opinions and gained many proselytes. He taught that the divine nature is the fountain of matter, and is, in some sense, material that God, angels and the souls of men, are of one and the same substance that the son proceeding from the Father like a solar ray> differs from, and is inferior to him that every man is attended by a good and bad angel, and that human souls were formed by God before the bodies, into which they are sent as into a prison, for the punishment of their sins, and that they pass from one body to another. Origen was the first who taught the doctrine of universal salvation, a doctrine that has gained, and is still gaining, many followers. Origen. died A. D. 254. Plotinusy a celebrated disciple of the eclectic school, was born at Lycopolis in Egypt, about the year 205. After attend- ing the different schools of Alexandria, he attached himself to Ammonius, with whom he continued eleven years. Before he became a public teacher, he travelled into Persia and India, for the purpose of making himself acquainted with the philosophy of the Magi and Gymnosophists, which he had heard highly commended. Plotinus was enthusiastically attached to the eclec- tic system, and for ten years confined himself to oral instruction, always conversing freely with his disciples, encouraging them to propose questions on every subject. He afterwards committed the substance of his lectures to writing, as well for his own con- venience, as that of his disciples. His disciples were not very numerous, but he was so highly esteemed for his wisdom and probity, that the most difficult controversies between individu- als were referred to his decision. He died A. D. 270, aged sixty-eight years; and just Before he breathed his last, repeated a leading doctrine of his system, that "the divine principle HISTORY OF LITERATURE. j9^ within was hastening to unite itself with that Divine Being which animates the universe," intimating that the human soul is an emanation from the divine nature, and will return to the source whence it proceeded. To the same school belonged Porphyry, a learned and zea- lous supporter of the pagan theology. He was born A. D. 233,, and was first placed under the instructions of Origen, but his education was completed by Longinus, to whom he is supposed to be indebted for a certain elegant and artificial style, whicli distinguishes his writings from most of the writings of the times. At thirty years of age, he became a disciple of Plotinus, then celebrated as a teacher, and made great proficiency in the ac- quirement of general knowledge, and particularly of the philo- sophy of the eclectics. He was esteemed by Plotinus as one of the greatest ornaments of his school, and was frequently employ- ed, not only in explaining the difficulties of his system, but in refuting the objections of his opponents. After the death of Plotinus, he appeared as the open and avowed enemy of christia- nitv, even more rancorous in his hatred than Celsus, and in op- position to its doctrines, he wrote fifteen distinct treatises, which the emperor Theodosius, in his mistaken zeal, ordered to be de- stroyed. A few fragments are preserved in the writings of his contemporaries. Like some of our modern enthusiasts, he pre- tended to have been favored with communications from Heaven, and to have beheld the Supreme Being. He died A. D. 304. Porphyry was a voluminous writer, independent of his writings against the Christians, and was esteemed a man of great learn- ing, but deficient in judgment and integrity. The immediate follower of Porphyry, in the eclectic school, & was Jamblichus, a native of Chalcis in Syria. He taught the eclectic philosophy with so much success, that his school was crowded with disciples, whom he attached to himself by the freedom with which he conversed with them laying aside the authority of the master and appearing in the amiable character of friend. He differed but little from his predecessor. We might introduce many other Christian fathers and philo- sophers, whose names have swelled the long list of saints in the Romish calendar, whose works w r ere held in high esteem in the dark ages, but which were so interpreted by an assuming clergy, as to corrupt the most beautiful system of religion ever offered HISTORY OF LITERATURE to man, and instead of diffusing light and knowledge among the people, rendered them the obedient slaves of the mitre. But, as it would greatly exceed our limits, we will conclude the view we designed to take of the history of literature, to the reign of Constantine, with a brief notice of Longinus, the celebrated au- thor of the "Treatise on the sublime." Longinus is supposed by some to have been an Athenian by birth, by others, a native of Emessa in Syria, and was educated by Cornelius Pronto^ a nephew of Plutarch. His youth was de* voted to study, and for the acquirement of knowledge he visited various cities, and attended the most eminent teachers in elo- quence and philosophy. At Athens, where he fixed his resi- dence, he acquired so great a reputation as a writer, that every literary production was approved or rejected according to his decision; and in consequence of his extensive learning, he was distinguished by the title of the "living library." His reputa- tion having reached Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, she invited him to her court, and not only placed her sons under his care, but took lessons herself in the Greek language, being already con- versant with the Latin, Syriac and Egyptian. Longinus having enjoyed the bounty, shared the misfortunes of Zenobia, who hav- ing been defeated by the emperor Aurelian, near Antioch, shut herself up in Palmyra. The city being taken, the queen and Longinus attempted to escape into Persia, but were taken in crossing the Euphrates. Zenobia was reserved to grace the tri- umphal entry of Aurelian into his capital, but Longinus, through the weakness of the queen, was sacrificed to his resentment. "Genius and learning," says Gibbon, "were incapable of moving a fierce and unlettered soldier, but they had served to elevate and harmonise the soul of Longinus. VVithout uttering a com- plaint, he calmly followed the executioner^ pitying his unhappy mistress, and bestowing comfort on his afflicted friends."* Longinus was the author of many philosophical and critical works, only one of which, his "Treatise on the sublime," has escaped the ravages of time, and the more destructive ravages of Gothic violence and ignorance. At the present day this ce- lebrated treatise enjoys, perhaps, a much higher reputation than when first published, not only on account of its intrinsic * Gibbon's Rom. Emp. vol. 1, ch. 11. HISTORY OF LITERATURE. { y , merit, but a certain veneration we feel for the proud remains oi ancient learning. It is a standard work in our seminaries of learning, and is regarded as a monument of the critical acumen of the author, as well as the best work on sublimity of writing, that has ever been published* A learned writer has observed, that he "not only discovers a lively relish for the beauties of fine writing, but is himself an excellent, and in several passages^ a truly sublime writer." From his remarks upon the influence of free institutions upon literature, and particularly upon orato- ry, it would appear, that he knew how to estimate that liberty for which Greece was once so renowned. "Liberty," says he, "is the nurse of genius; it animates the spirit and invigorates the hopes of men; it excites honorable emulation and a desire of excelling in every thing that is laudable and praiseworthy." These sentiments, so accordant with the genuine spirit of liberty, were advanced long after the liberties of Greece had been sacrificed at the shrine of Roman ambition, and the liberties of Rome herself we^e prostrated at the feet of her emperors.* CHAPTER XIV. History of literature, from the accession of Constantine, to the founda- tion of the French monarchy by Clovis. Constantinc the great, ascended the imperial throne on the ab- dication of Dioclesian and Maxirnian A. D. 306, and soon after, Christianity became the religion of the empire; that is, instead of Christians being the subjects of persecution, they were pro- tected by the emperor, and the pagan institutions proscribed in their turn. The conversion of Constantine from the errors of idolatry to the true religion, was caused, it is said, by one of those extraor- dinary circumstances, which, if true, was well calculated to strike the mind with great force in a superstitious age. But r whether his conversion was really occasioned by the miraculous * Mosh. Eccl. Hist.; Enf. Hist, of Phil,:, Cours de lit. parLaharpe; Abbe Maury D Ora f ; Gibbon'* Rom, Emp 19-3 HISTORY OF LITERATURE light he is represented to have seen in the heavens, or, as with Clovis at a subsequent period, it was the result of deep-sighted policy, is as difficult to determine, as it is to penetrate the secret motives of designing men. This event is thus related by Euse- bius, bishop of Cresaria, whom Constantine particularly favored; "while marching with the forces in the afternoon, the trophy of the cross appeared very luminous in the heavens, higher than the sun, bearing this inscription, "!N HOC SIGNO VINCES," by this sign thou shall conquer. He and his soldiers were astonished at the sight, and continued pondering on the event till night, when Christ appeared to him, while asleep, with the same sign of the cross, and directed him to make use of the symbol as his milita- ry ensign." Ambitious men have often made, and still make, religion an instrument to favor their own designs, and by this means imposing upon an ignorant and credulous multitude, ad- vance themselves to power and authority. Constantine was not only ambitious and cunning, but was contending for the empire of the world, and he well knew how to operate upon the minds of a superstitious soldiery. He immediately embraced chris- tianitv, and animating his soldiers by calling their attention to this striking manifestation of the favor of heaven, they rushed to battle, and gained a signal victory over Maxentius, his rival. Henceforth Constantine adopted the cross as his standard, and that which was before an object of horror, in consequence o$ the terrible punishment it called to mind, became the badge of honor and distinction. "The same symbol sanctified the arms of the soldiers of Constantine: the cross glittered on their shields, was interwoven in their banners, and the consecrated emblems, which adorned the person of the emperor himself, were distinguished only by richer materials and more exquisite work- manship. "* The political and religious character of Constantine is vari- ously estimated, as the particulars of his history are drawn from Christian or pagan writers. By the one he is represented as a glorious prince, the friend of learning and the arts, possessing every quality necessary to constitute a great man; by the other he is represented as destitute of every principle of virtue and honor, a bigot in the new religion he had embraced, and often (iibbon's Rom.Euip.: Euseb. Life of Cons. Mosh. Ecc. Higt. HISTORY OF LITERATURE. jgi) sacrificing his subjects to the gratification of his passions and his own personal vanity. In the front rank of his apologists stands his friend arid biographer, Euscbius, who fails not to place the character of his hero in the most favorable light, and extol him as a pious and devout Christian. In the variety of opinions with regard to his character, the remarks of Lardner, appear to us perfectly judicious; "it is next to impossible," says he, "for human wisdom and discretion, in the course of many years filled with action, not to be surprised into some injustice, through the bias of affection, or the specious* suggestions of artful and de- signing people. Though, therefore, there may have been some transactions in this reign which cannot be easily justified, and others that must be condemned, yet we are not to consider Con- stantine as a cruel prince or a bad man." During the reign of Constantine general literature made but little progress; it required more than ordinary encouragement and exertions to recover from the blow it received after the ac- cession of Commodus. Constantine having declared Christianity to be the religion of the empire, the schools of the pagans were closed, and among the Christians there was not learning enough to supply their place: hence it rapidly declined, and, in a short time, the Christian world presented little more than incoherent treatises on controverted points of doctrine, to procure the parch- ment for which, many of the most celebrated productions of an- cient genius were erased, to the great loss of future ages. Th^ greater number of the bishops and presbyters were entirely des- titute of all learning and education, and inculcated the idea that all sorts of erudition, were pernicious to true piety and religion.* The influence of Christianity upon learning, or rather the in- fluence of its professors, in this and'after ages, was very differ- ent from what appears to us to be its natural and obvious ten- dency, namely, to encourage learning and science, and whatever is connected with them, that by enlightening the mind, truth may dispel error, virtue triumph over vice, and universal charity unite all men, in the benevolent purpose of promoting each others' happiness. It is an observation confirmed by experience, that wherever the Christian doctrines, pure and undefiled by the errors of superstition, exercise an influence, the mind of mAnex- ^MosheinrsEcc. Hist. vol. 1 2(j(j HISTORY OF LITERATURE, pands; new sources of information open before him, and he grasps with avidity at whatever seems calculated to enlarge and im- prove his faculties, and fit him in a greater degree, for the active and useful purposes of life. His mental energies are not called into action, for the sole purpose of supporting the opinions of one particular sect, to which he may be attached, to the exclu- sion of every other object. He walks abroad, and contempla- ting the wide expanse of nature's works, and how equally the all wise and benevolent Creator has dispensed his blessings, he feels none of the spirit of persecution, but a generous and libe- ral disposition towards all. It was not so during the period un- der review. Christianity had been persecuted for three centu- ries with the most rancorous violence its professors had been exposed to every indignity, and the most cruel and horrid pun- ishments were inflicted upon those unfortunate and unhappy be- ings who had the hardihood to profess Christianity, in opposition to the decrees of the ruling powers. When, however, Christiani- ty became the dominant religion, and Christian princes wielded the sceptre, the pagans were persecuted in their turn; "the gods of Rome were publicly insulted ; their statues broken and their worshippers oppressed. The thunder of penal laws was point- ed against the ancient rites; it was made capital to offer sacri- fices which had formerly been enjoined by law; the altar of vic- tory, that altar so dear to the nation, was demolished before the eyes of the senate, and every pagan, every man who did not con- form to the Christian creed, was excluded from all employments, civil and military." In this disastrous state of the empire, torn to pieces by civil and religious dissensions, the seminaries of learn- ing came in for their full share of affliction, particularly such as were under the direction of pagan teachers, and in which some- thing like a literary taste and spirit still existed. The pagan schools being closed, schools were opened in their stead under ignorant monks, or inferior clergy, in which little was taught that could enlighten the mind or improve the understanding, be cause the superior clergy, whose influence was already great, found it very convenient to suppress all kinds of learning except among their own body. Wjth the exception of a few writers who attained some dis- tinction, the learning of the times was chiefly directed against the supporters of Arian heresy. Jriw. the father of this heresy. HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 20 j was a presbyter of Alexandria, of more than usual learning and eloquence; he possessed a bold and daring spirit, and his natu- ral talents had been greatly improved by the frequent controver- sies in which he had been engaged. Arius maintained, in an assembly of presbyters at Alexandria, that the Son was essen- tially different from the Father; that there was a time hid in the depths of eternity, when he did not exist; Ibit he was a creature brought into being by the will of the Supreme God ; that al- though a created being, inferior and subordinate to the Father, he was the framer of the world, and governed the universe as the representative of the eternal and unchangeable divinity. These doctrines were making such rapid advances in the public mind, that they excited the attention of Alexander, bishop of Alexandria, who publicly excommunicated Arius and his follow- ers. Arius retired to Palestine, where he found a protector in Eusebius, bishop of Caesaria. The contest still continued, and at length reached such a height, that sober argument was aban- doned, and, in its stead, every epithet that malignant and fiery zeal could employ, was used on both sides. Constantine, in or- der to heal the breach, first wrote to the bishop of Alexandria and to Arius, exhorting them to cease quarrelling, and restore peace to the church, but, finding his exhortations of no avail, he summoned a general council A. D. 325, at Nice, a city of By- thinia. This celebrated council consisted of two thousand ec- clesiastics, from all parts of the Christian world, amongst whom were three hundred and eighteen bishops. In this council Con- stantine presided in person, but neither his presence or authority could prevent the most indecent and disgraceful contests among the fathers of the council, who appear to have thought, that the principal object of this great convocation was, to adjust their own private disputes, and not the important question that brought them together. At length, by the exertions and influence of the emperor, the council was brought to consider the main question, and decided igainst the doctrines of Arius, and ordered his books to be burnt and himself banished to Illyria. His follow- ers were compelled to give their assent to a creed composed and adopted by the council, which, of course, essentially differ, ed from the doctrines he taught, and Constantine ordered all those who should conceal any of the works of Arius to be put to death, even without the form of trial, but at the same time, with 26 HISTORY OF LITERATURE singular inconsistency, permitted the great author of the heresy to live. Among the few writers worthy of notice in the reign of Con- stantine, the most distinguished were Landantius and Eusebius. Lanctantius was born at Firmium, a town of Italy, from whence he received the sirname ofFirmianus. There is but little known of his family, or of his early life. At Rome he attracted the no- tice of Dioclesian, as a rhetorician, and was by him selected to teach rhetoric in Nicomedia, where he continued some time af- ter the persecution of the Christians under Dioclesian. He es- caped the fate which threatened him, but whether by the special favor of the emperor, or by his own ingenuity, is not known. On the accession of Constantine, when Christianity became the religion of the empire, and the persecution of the Christians had ceased, Lanctantius was appointed to teach Crispus, the son of Constantino, the Latin language. He was a voluminous writer, and his pen was principally employed in defence of the Christian religion, or on subjects immediately connected therewith, which were calculated to display its superiority over the institutions of paganism. His works are wriHen with greater purity, and dis- cover more erudition, than was usual in his age. His principal works are, "On the works of God," and "Divine Institutions." In the first he treats of the magnificent works of the Creator, and his "Divine Institutions," is an able defence of Christianity against the attacks of the pagans. On account of the eloquence c-f his style, he was called the "Christian Cicero." Eusebius was born in Palestine, in the city of Caesaria. He was ordained a presbyter at an early age, and taught a school in his native city with considerable reputation. During the persecution of the Christians under Dioclesian, he first removed to Tyre and then retired to Egypt, where he was imprisoned, but in a short time was released. When the persecution ceased he returned to Palestine, and was elected bishop of Ctesaria. He was a distinguished member of the celebrated council o Nice A. D. 325, and opened the proceedings by an address to the emperor. He was also a prominent member of subsequent councils, and although he favored the Arians, he was honored with particular marks of the regard of Constantine. He died about the year A. D. 340. Eusebius was one of the most learn- ed men of his time, and was not only remarkable for his extraor- HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 203 dinary and critical knowledge of the scriptures, but was even distinguished for his acquirements in general literature. He was a voluminous writer, but "his language," says a learned cri- tic of modern times, "is neither elegant nor perspicuous; and where it aims at elegance and sublimity, it is usually turgid and perplexed." The most valuable of his works extant, and, per- haps the most valuable of any he wrote or published, is his "Ec- clesiastical History," which contains the history of the church from the birth of Christ to the death of Licinius, a period of 324 years, and furnishes the principal information we possess con- cerning the first ages of Christianity. About the time of Constantine flourished Ossian, the bard of Morven, one of Caledonia's most celebrated bards, and who is justly entitled to a conspicuous place in the history of literature. Few poets of ancient or modern times surpass this "son of the mist," in the chief requisites of a poet; in energy and boldness of language, sublimity of style and grandeur of imagery. Op- pressed as polite literature was, under Commodus and his suc- cessors, the "tuneful nine" seem to have fled the mild and genial climates of Greece and Rome, and taken refuge among the mountains of the north ; and amidst the dearth of political talent in the south of Europe, it is grateful and refreshing to listen to the notes of the minstrel, resounding among Caledonia's cloud- capt hills. Ossian was the eldest son of Fingal, king of Morven, whose dominions lay among the mountains in the west of Scotland. Fingal was celebrated as a warrior amongst the warlike chief- tains of his time; "he was terrible as the spirit of Trenmor, when in a whirlwind he comes to Morven to see the children of his pride; he was like a dark and stormy cloud, edged round with the lightning of heaven." Early in life Ossian married Everallin, the "dark haired" daughter of Branno, one of the many kings who then ruled in Ireland; by her he had one son, Oscar, afterwards distinguished as a warrior, and who was killed in battle with Cairbar, king of Ireland. In the fourth book of Fingal, he speaks of his courtship of Everallin. To her he ap- pears to have been tenderly attached, and frequently alludes to her in his poems. Everallin died in giving birth to Oscar, and it does not appear that Ossian ever married again. At the peri- od, and in the country, of which we arc now speaking, it was not ,204 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. unusual for the warrior and the bard to be united, hence we find that Ossian was as renowned in war, as became his high lineage r as he was distinguished as a bard ; thus, we often find him in the thickest of the fight, dealing death among his foes; "were his steps covered with darkness, yet would not Ossian fly; his soul would meet him and say, does the bard of Selma fear the foe? No: his joy is in the midst of battle." Ossian lived to an advan- ced age, and became blind; he survived all his family and the companions of his earl} days. In the decrepitude of age, and blind withal, he appears to have enjoyed the society ofMalvina, the betrothed wife of Oscar, whom he also survived, and whose death he thus feelingly laments: "Malvina! where art thou with thy songs, with the soft sound of thy steps? Pleasant be thy rest, O lovely beam! Soon hast thou set on our hills! the steps of thy departure were stately, like the moon on the blue trem- bling wave. But thou hast left us in darkness, first of the maids of Lutha! Soon hast thou set, daughter of generous Toscar! But thou risest like the beam of the east, among the spirits of thy friends, where they sit in their stormy halls, the chambers of the thunder." Ossian lived in a rudo and barbarous age, and in a country where the refinements and luxuries of Roman manners had not reached. He is a poet of nature, and his works will hold a high rank, not only among the existing monuments of the literature of ancient nations, but as an example of grandeur and sublimi- ty of style, which the artificial poetry of modern times has not been able to reach. In his poems we have a striking picture of the manners of the age in which he lived, and of the chieftain in his hall, in his camp, in battle and in the chase. Valor and skill in war are the themes which generally occupy his pen, be- cause in all rude nations, such qualities are most highly valued. He is, however, not unmindful of the more gentle and amiable virtues of parental and filial tenderness, and his frequent allu- sions to the death of Everallin and Oscar show, that he posses- sed a heart susceptible of the most refined feelings and tender emotions. The style of Ossian, like that of all the an- cient bards, is bold, energetic and highly figurative, expressing the noblest sentiments by the most apposite images. He does not indulge in that redundancy of expression, with which mo- HISTORY OF LITERATURE. ^Ob dern poets too often clothe their ideas, frequently making obscu- rity more obscure. On the publication of a translation of the poems of Ossian by Macpherson, they were immediately pronounced forgeries, and the existence of such a person as Ossian declared fabulous. The authenticity of the poems being thus assailed, a wide field fordis- cussion was opened, into which some of the most distinguished scholars of the day entered with much zeal, and their genuineness was combated and defended with great learning and ability. Although we find some who regard them as the sole productions of the genius of Macpherson, yet, from careful researches in the Highlands and the Hebrides, so many poems of a similar charac- ter are found to have been preserved among the people, that their authenticity is now generally admitted, and Ossian, in- stead of being looked upon as a creature of the imagination, is acknowledged to have possessed a "local habitation," and was renowned in "days of yore" as a warrior and a poet. 4 As Ossian belonged to that class known by the name of min- strels or bards, we will here take the opportunity of saying a few words concerning them. The Celtic and Scandinavian na- tions, were distinguished for their bards or minstrels.* The use of letters being unknown to them, the history of the times and the martial deeds of their heroes and chieftains, were trans- mitted from age to age, in the songs of their bards. According to Tacitus in his "Manners of the Germans,"! the recital by their bards, of the valiant achievements of their warriors, was cm- ployed by the Germans to inflame their courage on the eve of battle. In much later times the Scandinavian bards, or Scalds, as they were called, were in high estimation; they always at- tended their kings, and were often employed by them in offices of the highest trust. Among the Celtic nations, the bards also enjoyed high privileges; they were exempted from taxes and military services, and their persons were held sacred and invio- lable. When they attended in the field of battle, for the pur- pose of noting passing events, they were protected by a guard, and at all festivals and public assemblies, they were seated near * Scandinavia included Norway, Sweden and Denmark, and the Celtic nations that part of Europe which lies west and south of the Rhine beyond the Pyrenees, to- gether with the Britons, Irish, Welch, Highlanders, and the inhabitants of the Western IJe. t Chap III. 20(5 HISTORY OF LITERATURE the king or chieftain. The bards of Britain were originally di- vided into two classes, namely : the sacred or religious bards, who sung hymns in honor of the gods, and the secular bards, who sung of battles. In Wales an annual congress was held, in which he who was most distinguished, was honored with a silver chain. As writing was then unknown, and tradition was the only means of preserving the history of events, these assem- blies were of great importance, and show the consequence of the bards in other respects than mere reciters of poetry they were the "brief abstract and chronicles of the times." In these assemblies whatever was considered of sufficient importance to be transmitted to future ages, was examined with the most scru- tinizing care, and, if approved, was afterwards recited at pro- vincial meetings, and committed to the memory of their disci- ples. It is not the least remarkable fact, with regard to this in- stitution of the bards, that it is considered by many as the parent source from whence freemasonry sprung. The fraternity, if they choose to examine the subject, can readily determine, whe- ther there is such a resemblance between their manner of com- municating and preserving the tenets of their order, and the practices of the bards as would justify such an opinion. In the time of Edward III. the bards were numerous in Wales, and so great was the effect of their songs, in recounting the warlike deeds of their ancient warriors, they so inflamed the courage of their countrymen, that the conquest was far from being an easy one. Edward afterwards commanded a general massacre of the Welch bards, to prevent any future excitement of their na* live courage to avenge their wrongs. Cold is Cadvvallo's tongue That hush'd the stormy main: Brave Urien sleeps upon his craggy bed . Mountains ye mourn in vain Modred, whose magic song Made huge Plinlimmon bow his cloud-topp'd hear!.' On dreary Arvon's shore they lie, Smear'd with gore and ghastly pale: Far, far aloof th' affrighted ravens sail, The famish'd eagle screams and passes by. Gray. Among no people were the bards or minstrels, held in higher estimation than among the Highlanders of Scotland. They iJfa HISTORY OF LITERATURE. ^07 almost always employed as ambassadors between contend- ing chiefs, and their characters were held in the same reverence as in the days of Homer; even he who would not have hesita- ted to murder his brother to gratify his ambition, would have "feared to stretch his sword to the bards." In later times, a s-uccession of bards was retained in the service of every High- land chieftain, whose special care it was, to hand down the me- morable actions of the chieftains and warriors of the clan. As soon as the knowledge of letters became generally diffused, the custom of retaining bards in the service of great families fell into disuse in most countries, and they degenerated into strolling ballad singers. Scotland alone retained them until about the time of the union of the two kingdoms, in consequence of the Highland chieftains maintaining a stubborn freedom among their mountains, even after their independence as a nation had fallen before British power. Constantine died A. D. 337, and was succeeded by his three sons, Constantine II, Constantius and Constans. The impru- dent division of the empire between the three brothers caused, as such divisions ever will, discontent and disturbances, which terminated in the defeat and death of Constantine in a petty conflict, and in the assassination of Constans. On the death of his brothers Constantius became sole emperor. He possessed, perhaps, more religious zeal than his father, and was mores deeply versed in theology, but he possessed few of the qualifica- tions necessary for the government of a mighty empire, particu- larly when agitated by domestic troubles and foreign wars. His reign was nearly one continued scene of religious disputation, occasioned by the violent and disgraceful contests between the Catholics and Arians, who appeared to think, that true religion consisted in fiery controversies about points of doctrine, and not in pursuing the humble path of duty, prescribed by their "Lord and master," and in practising the principles of benevolence and brotherly love laid down in the scriptures, which they professed to take for their guide. This reign, therefore, presents nothing remarkable, or worthy of notice in the history of literature, unless the volumes written in favor of, and against the doctrine of consubstaniiality^ which agitated the church, should be so re- garded. On this point we think there can be but one opinion, that such controversies are as uninterQsting as they are useless. 208 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. and tend rather to injure than promote, the cause of true reli- gion. From these disputes Constantius was scarcely diverted by the formidable power of Sapor, king of Persia, which threa- tened to overturn the throne of the Caesars, already tottering to its base ; and whilst Mesopotamia was overran by the Persian host, the attention of Constantius was directed to the ecclesias- tical councils of Rimini and Silencia, instead of adopting means to repel the invader. This conduct of the emperor was far from pleasing the army, and made way, A. D. 361, for the ele- vation to the imperial dignity, of Julian, surnamed the Apostate. Few princes have ever ascended a throne under more favora- ble circumstances, so far as regarded public opinion, than Julian. He had gained the affections of the soldiery by his strict atten- tion to their wants, and by sharing in all their fatigues. As go- vernor of Gaul, he discharged the duties of his office with mode- ration and justice ; and so effectually did he conceal his religious opinions, that even the watchful eye of Hillary, bishop of Poic- tiers, was deceived. The pious prelate took every opportunity of sounding his praise, and spoke of him as one who would main- tain the honor of the church, and uphold the true faith. But the bishop was deceived. Julian in the early part of his life Avas carefully instructed in literature and science by Christian professors, and while residing in ISicomedia, he was expressly forbid by the emperor Constantius, to attend the lectures of the heathen philosophers, particularly those of Libanus, a philoso- pher of great reputation at that time. This prohibition, how- ever, only excited a desire to attend the pagan schools, and be- come acquainted with their different systems. Regardless of the positive injunctions of the emperor, he took every opportu- nity of conversing with pagan philosophers, and soon became at- tached to that system of Platonic philosophy, of which we have spoken above, but which differed so essentially from the genuine and uncorrupted system of its renowned founder. Julian finish- ed his studies at Athens, and was there initiated into the Eleusy- nian mysteries, which, no doubt, had the effect of strengthening and confirming his predilection for the ancient worship. Be- sides, he there studied the purer system of Plato, and adopted the costume of a philosopher. Thus educated, it was not at all surprisig that Julian, when fcrmly seated upon the throne, should have exhibited strong HISTORY OF LITERATURE. ^ fe 20$ symptoms of attachment to the pagan, and aversion to the Chris- tian system of religion. He determined to restore the pagan worship, and to that end assumed the almost forgotten office of sovereign pontiff, and often descended from the throne to em- brue his hands in the blood of the slaughtered victim. Although with apparent frankness he proclaimed free toleration to the Christian worship, his great object was, its final subversion, and the complete restoration of the pagan rites and ceremonies. Under the mask of moderation, he attacked Christianity with consummate art. He dismissed by degrees, Christian professors from all public employments and closed their schools, whilst he was himself surrounded by philosophers, whose hatred of Chris- tianity equalled his. Julian possessed great abilities, he was equally qualified for the cabinet or the field, and had he not been cut off in the thirty-second year of his age, in a battle with the Persians, he might, in a considerable degree, have effected his ob- ject. The portrait of Julian, like that of the first Constantine, has been variously exhibited, as the lineaments have been por- trayed by a pagan, or a Christian pencil. It is acknowledged, however, by both, that he was more distinguished for a love of learning, and afforded it more encouragement, than any empe- ror who had, for a series of years, filled the throne of Augustus. He possessed an intimate acquaintance with the tenets of the Platonic school, as taught by the Alexandrian and Athenian phi- losophers, but his philosophy was tinctured with magic and other superstitious observances, unworthy his otherwise enlight- ened mind. Amidst all his public duties, and the cares of empire, he still found leisure to devote to literary pursuits, and to the composition of various works on different subjects, many of which are lost. Besides other works still extant, he wrote a history of Gaul, and a satire upon all the Roman emperors, from Julius Caesar to Constantine. Having heretofore spoken of the decline of arts and literature in Athens, after its subjection to the Roman empire, and having several times alluded to its schools subsequently established, we will here observe, that although for many years almost deserted by learned men, the schools of Athens again came into notice under the reigns of Adrian and the Antonines, who did much to restore them to their ancient honors and celebrity. Adrian, a patron of learning, founded a library and established schools of 27 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. rhetoric and the principal sects of philosophy. These schools were liberally endowed, and soon became distinguished for the number of scholars that attended them, and the erudition of their instructers. Adrian assigned to the teachers salaries from the public purse, which were discontinued by Constan- tine and his sons, but were restored by Julian. Having ordered the Christian schools to be closed, those of Alexandria and Athens were the chief instruments by means of which, Julian expected to overturn the Christian system and restore paganism to its for- meri nfluence. He hoped, that by disseminating the principles of philosophy by means of celebrated teachers, by ridiculing the Christian religion, and by rekindling the fatal dissensions of the Catholics and Arians, which had already been productive of so much mischief, that in a short time every vestige of Christianity would be rooted out, the professors of which he pretended/ to re- gard "rather as objects of compassion than hatred, who aban- doned the worship of the gods, to adore the remains of carcasses or the bones of dead men." Julian was succeeded by Jovian^ captain of the guards, who had been educated in the principles of Christianity, and 1 who^ on his accession, was as zealous in his endeavors to restore the Christian worship, as his predecessor had been to destroy it. For this purpose, therefore, he issued an edict re-establishing the Christian as the religious system of the empire, and abolishing the pagan worship, at the same time observing such a course of conduct as was sanctioned by the public good, and the dic- tates of sound policy. He left every one free to exercise his own religion according to the dictates of his own conscience, and in a council held at Antioch, where the Nicene creed was confirmed, he declared his intention to molest no man for his be- lief. Jovian reigned only one year, but in that short time, "the genius of paganism, which had been fondly raised and cherished by the acts of Julian, sunk irrecoverably in the dust." Jovian was succeeded by Valentinian I, Valens, Gratian, Valentinian II, and lastly by Theodosius the Great, who ascen- ded the throne A. D. 379, and died A. D. 395. Between the time of Julian and the reign of Theodosius, flou- rished several Latin writers and philosophers of some note, among whom was Augustine, a distinguished father of the church, af- terwards canonised. He was horn atTagaste. in Africn. in (he HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 211 year 354. He possessed, says one of his admirers, a "sublime genius, an uninterrupted zeal and zealous pursuit of truth, an. indefatigable application, invincible patience, sincere piety and a subtle and lively wit." At an early age he appears to have had considerable taste for learning, and became familiar with the writings of Cicero, and deeply studied the works of Aristotle. The abstract notions of the divine nature, which he collected from the philosophy of the latter, made such an im- pression upon his mind, that he rejected some of the leading- principles of the Christian faith, and was led to adopt the Mani- chean doctrine of two independent principles, one good, the other evil, which, in its turn, he rejected, and adopted others equally untenable. Unsettled in his faith, he opened at Milan a school of rhetoric, for which he seems to have been well qua- lified. Here he met with St. Ambrose, then, or afterwards, bishop of Milan, who, by dint of argument and the force of elo- quence, brought him back to the fold of Christ. After this he devoted himself exclusively to the service of religion, becoming one of its most able and -zealous advocates, and was finally ad- vanced to the dignity of bishop of Hippo in Africa. St. Au- gustine wrote many treatises in support of the doctrines of the church, which enjoyed considerable celebrity in his day; his principal and most celebrated work is entitled, *De Cwitatc -De/," in which he sets forth the beauties of the Christian system, and enforces the necessity of obedience to the commands of God, in order to insujre peace of mind here, and eternal happiness hereafter. Contemporary with St. Augustine flourished a female philo- sopher of the eclectic school, named Hypaiia, celebrated for her extensive learning, her devotion to the principles of her school and her tragical and untimely end. She was the daughter of a distinguished mathematician of Alexandria, and possessing an acute and penetrating judgment, her talents were cultivated with great care by her father and her preceptors in the various branches of education. She entered with uncommon ardor upon the study of philosophy, and prosecuted it with so much success, that she at length became a public teacher, and her house was the resort of persons of learning and distinction. At this time Cyril filled the patriarchal chair of Alexandria. He was a man of great violence of temper, and suspecting that Hypatia was HISTORY OF LITERATURE. concerned in the opposition that Orestes, the prefect of Alexan- dria, offered to his ecclesiastical tyranny, he caused a mob to seize her, as she was one day returning from the schools, and carry her to the Cassarian church, where she was inhumanly murdered, and her body, after being torn limb from limb, was committed to the flames. This disgraceful event occurred in the reign of Theodosius II, A. D. 415. Contemporary writers speak of her as being remarkable for the correctness of her de- portment and purity of life slander did not dare to whisper a syllable against her virtue. From any participation in this cruel and unexpected murder, Cyril endeavored to exculpate himself, but as the chief person concerned in the outrage was not only protected by him, but enjoyed his special favor, his participation in the foul crime cannot be doubted. During this period also flourished Ausonius, who was born at Bourdeaux in the fourth century. He was educated at Tou- louse under the direction of his uncle, who was a professor of rhetoric, and he is said to have made uncommon progress in the various studies assigned him. At thirty years of age, he was appointed teacher of grammar, and soon after teacher of rheto- ric, in his native city. He lived to a great age, and under suc- cessive emperors, he filled various public offices, among others that of consul. He enjoyed considerable reputation as a poet in his day, but his poetical genius and talents have been gene- rally overrated. His productions bear evident marks of negli- gence, but faulty as they are, they rise above the ordinary level of his contemporaries. Under the government of Theodosius, the most vigorous and effectual measures were taken for the suppression of the pagan worship throughout the empire. The historians of his time re- present the character of Theodosius in the most favorable light, and as eminently deserving the epithet of great, which his grate- ful subjects spontaneously bestowed upon him. He, no doubt, possessed great qualities, and had his reign been longer, many of those unfortunate events that occurred under his successors, might have been averted, and the Roman empire preserved, at least for some time longer, from destruction. He appears to have received a liberal education, liberal at least for the age in which he lived, when literature was rapidly declining; and he appears, also, to have liberally encouraged such talents and such HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 213 arts as were useful in their nature, and calculated to improve the condition of mankind. Happy would it have been for the world, had the successors of Theodosius possessed his enterpri- sing genius, his vigorous mind, and his anxiety to improve the condition of the human race suhject to their control, by the enactment of wholesome laws. Theodosius reigned but sixteen years, and on his death, A. D. 395, the Roman empire was divi- ded between his two sons, Arcadius and Honorius; the former was styled Emperor of the East, the latter Emperor of the West. Neither of them were capable of wielding the sceptre of their father, and the consequence was, that the western empire soon fell before the victorious arms of the northern barbarians, who commenced their incursions in the reign of Valens, but were kept in check by the power of Theodosius. These invaders were wandering tribes who traversed the immense plains of Tartary, and were renowned for their invincible courage, and the rapidity of their conquests; war was an occupation in which they delighted, making a sport of danger and even braving death with marks of joy. They left their native deserts in search of milder climates and more fertile lands, with no other title than their swords. To such enemies, inured to hardships and all the vicissitudes of war, with victory perching on their standards, and commanded by such generals as Alaric,Genseric and Atilla, the feeble and dissolute legions of Arcadius and Honorius, could oppose no effectual resistance, and in less than one hundred years the mighty fabric of Rome's imperial power crumbled into ruins. The Visigoths possessed themselves of Spain; the Franks of Gaul; the Ostrogoths of Italy, and the Huns of Pan- ronia, or Hungary. The incursions of the barbarians, and the consequent fall of the western empire, in the reign of Romulus Augustus, and its division into separate kingdoms, were extremely prejudicial to the cultivation and dissemination of learning. The continual wars and tumultuous scenes which followed, the religious con- tests that agitated Europe, and the general dislike of the new settlers to the arts of peace, would have totally extinguished what remained of a knowledge of the liberal arts and sciences, had they not found protection among the higher clergy, and a refuge in the cells of the monks. They were cultivated just enough to keep them from perishing, by those who scarcely un- ,>J4 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. derstood their value, and in a manner more the result of chance* than any real desire for their preservation. Those persons who had devoted themselves to a monastic life, were obliged to em- ploy a portion of the day in studying the works of the fathers and doctors of the church, which were regarded as rich trea- sures of heavenly wisdom, scarcely inferior to the sacred scrip- tures themselves. In collecting the various works of the fathers to form monastic libraries, many volumes of ancient Greek and Roman learning found their way to their shelves. These works were transcribed by 'monks, whose bodily infirmities rendered them incapable of more severe labor, and who thus employed themselves, as much to relieve the ennui attendant upon their secluded and monotonous life, as the actual desire of multiply- ing copies of pagan works, and disseminating a knowledge of pagan literature. To these men, who were really too ignorant to avail themselves of the mental treasures within their grasp, are we indebted for the preservation of those ancient writings which now delight the scholar, and instruct and improve man- kind. In the schools which were, in -some places, attached to the churches, but little attention was paid even to the rudiments of learning, because those who were appointed to teach, were not qualified for the office, and because the dignified clergy in- culcated the pernicious maxim, that learning was injurious to piety, and obstructed the progress of religion. Under such cir- cumstances it will be readily seen, that learning would rapidly decline, and ignorance and superstition occupy its place. For some time the state of learning was more flourishing in the eastern empire, which did not suffer so much from the hos- tile invasion of the barbarians. The emperors, although deep- ly engaged in the religious disputes of the times, encouraged a spirit of emulation by the rewards and honors they distributed among those who cultivated the different branches of learning. In the sixth century, the sciences were cultivated with much Jess ardor, and literature became so depressed by the strong arna of power, that the number of men of learning was greatly dimi- nished. Much of this depression may be attributed to the nar- row and contracted views of the emperor Justinian, who reigned in the sixth century, and whose pandects and institutes have con- tributed more to his renown, than his talents for government, or ?-he victories of his generals, Justinian was a zealous Christian. HISTORY OF LITERATURE. and valued himself upon his knowledge, and his skill in theology, and as the schools of pagan learning offended his orthodoxy, he determined to shut up the schools of philosophy that remained at Athens, and deprived the professors of the salaries which his predecessors had allowed them from the public purse. By thus closing the schools of Athens, which, at that time, were the prin- cipal, if not the only seats of learning, in which the literature and philosophy of the ancients were taught, and the chief means of acquiring knowledge being cut off, the consequence was, that in a short time the Greek language fell so much into neglect, that in the western empire few were found capable of reading the ancient Greek writers in the original, but were obliged to content themselves with careless and imperfect translations. In consequence of the edict of Justinian above-mentioned, the sect of modern platonics, of which we have already taken some notice, ceased to exist, and upon its destruction arose the mo- dern peripatetic school, or school founded upon the principle? of Aristotle, which were made known to the Christians of E cope, through the Arabian philosophers of Spain.* CHAPTER xv. History of literature ^ from the foundation of the French monarchy by Clovis, to the reign of Charlemagne. BEFORE the introduction of Christianity into France, or Gaul, as it was then called, learning was confined to the Druids, with the exception of the Greek colony at Marseilles. The Druids were the philosophers as well as the priests of Gaul, and exercised great influence over the minds of the peo- ple. They were divided into several orders, and the whole were governed by an arch-Druid, whose authority was supreme. He was chosen from among those who were most distinguished for their knowledge, and as the station was one of great power,, the election often produced such excitement as to cause a resort * Mosh. Ecc. Hist. ; Enf. Hist, of Phil. ; Gib. Rom. Emp. ,- Millot's Gen. Hist. ; Mao pherson's Ossian; Edin. Enc.art. Ossian; SismomU's Hist, des Rep. Ital 21 ti HISTORY OF LITERATURE. to arms. There were three orders, the Bards, the Eubates and the Druids. The Bards sung the praises of their illustrious men, and were the poets and musicians; the Eubates made re- searches into the order of things, and endeavored to lay open the hidden secrets of nature, and the Druids, who possessed the highest power, gave laws to the Bards and Eubates, who were obliged, on every occasion, to give precedence to them, and were not allowed to do any thing without their consent and approba- tion. The powers and privileges enjoyed by the Druids, properly so called, were very extensive. No sacred rite could be per- formed without their aid, and through them the people offered up their thanksgivings, sacrifices and prayers. Their persons were esteemed sacred and inviolable; they were exempted from all taxes and military services; they exercised a civil and crim- inal jurisdiction, and those who did not obey their decrees, were interdicted the sacrifices, after which no person dared to hold communication or converse with them. They held an annual court in a consecrated grove, and before them, all who had any private suits or controversies appeared, and were bound to sub- mit to their decrees. Like the Egyptian priests they had two sects of religious doctrines and opinions, one of which they com- municated to their favored disciples, who at the time of their initiation took a solemn oath to keep this system of doctrines a profound secret. In order that they might be delivered with more solemnity and preserved with more care from vulgar eyes, they taught their mysteries in the deepest recesses of gloomy forests, or in the still more gloomy caves of the earth. Caesar informs us that the principal doctrines of the Druids were, the immortality of the soul, and the existence and power of the gods; that they believed in one living and true god, whom they repre- sented in various forms, and under different characters and names, adapting their public worship to what they conceived to be suited to vulgar minds. Their doctrines were contained in many thousand verses, which their disciples were obliged to commit to memory, and which required no less than twenty years. Some writers are of opinion, that they taught the doc- trine of the transmigration of the soul, differing, however, from some of the philosophers of the Pythagorean school in this, that the transmigration was from one human body to another, and HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 2 j*j that it did not inhabit the bodies of other animals. Besides the male Druids, there were also Druidesses, who were divided into three classes. The first class lived in great retirement, arid pre- tended to supernatural knowledge and power, to foretell future events, to cure diseases, and to raise storms and calm them at their will. They were held in great veneration by the people, and consulted upon almost every occasion in which they felt themselves interested. The second class were the assistants and companions of the Druids, and were married women. The third class performed the servile work of the temples, the sacri- fices and dwellings. The Druids regarded the oak and the mistletoe that grew upon it, with peculiar veneration, and as the immediate gift of heaven for the most valuable purposes. In their own language they called it the all-healing, to express the healing virtues arid qualities they attached to it. The sixth day of the moon was chosen as the proper time to gather it, which was done with great ceremony by one of the priests, who, clothed in white, as- cended the tree and cut it off with a golden knife. The plant called vervain was also highly esteemed by them for its rare qual- ities; from it they extracted an ointment considered efficacious in preventing and curing all diseases. This plant they gathered in the dog days and in a moonless night. Things of this sort, although superstitious and absurd, are innocent in their nature, but how can we reconcile with their boasted refinement, their sacrifices of human victims? With circumstances of savage cruelty, upon solemn and important occasions, they sacrificed human victims, and Pliny says, that to feed upon the dead bodies thus offered in sacrifice, they esteemed most wholesome. The victims were usually selected from among the criminals con- demned to death; but when none of these were to be had, they did not scruple to sacrifice innocent persons. With regard to the learning of the Druids much has been said oy different writers, in order to establish their claims to a high state of intellectual improvement. Diogenes Laertius, who flourished about A. D. 210, places them in the same rank, in point of learning and philosophy, with the Chaldeans, the Magi of Persia, and the Gymnosophists of India; and Caesar, who had ample opportunities of making himself acquainted with their vF HISTORY OF LITERATURE pursuits, says, that they had formed large systems of philosophy, that required twenty years of unremitted application to master, and that they entertained various opinions concerning the stars and their motions, the magnitude of the earth and the world, and the general nature of things. Dr. Henry, the learned au- thor of "The History of Great Britain," has labored at som< length to prove, that the British Druids, from whom it is supposed the Druids of Gaul received their origin, were skilled in everv science, particularly in astronomy, geometry, geography, rheto- ric, medicine, anatomy, surgery, botany and the mechanic arts. We readily admit, that the knowledge of this singular order ol men, in the above branches of learning, were greatly superior to that of the people by whom they were surrounded, but we think the extraordinary knowledge attributed to them, is far beyond that state of society in which they lived, and cannot be fairly inferred from' the existing accounts of those who were contem- porary with them, and who were most familiarly acquainted with the state of learning amongst them. These accounts arc neither numerous nor explicit, and are confined to the details oi a few Roman writers. The Druids themselves, although the 7jse of letters was probably not unknown to them, never commit- ted to writing the peculiar tenets of their philosophy, or the fruits of their learning; hence, we can form but a very imperfect opinion of the true state of science among them, and we may >afely conclude that they possessed no more philosophy or learn- ing, than the priests of other religions in the same state of society, ind that what they did possess, they employed rather for the purpose of encouraging a slavish superstition, and maintaining their assumed authority over the people, than for any purpose of general good. Certain it is, that whatever benefits their learn- ing was capable of conferring, was never felt beyond the limits of their own order. To support a favorite theory, men of lively fancy too often wander into the field of conjecture, and give to the public the suggestions of a heated imagination, as the result of sober inquiry and laborious investigation, and hence it is, that we are so often misled and induced to adopt erroneous opinions 'of men and things. The Romans were much opposed to Dpuid- ism. Augustus issued a decree for its suppression, which wa> revived by Tiberius and Claudius, in whose reigns it was nearly HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 219 suppressed in Gaul, and a few years thereafter almost every vestige of this ancient superstition was entirely obliterated.* We have, heretofore, taken no notice of the pagan schools of Gaul, from which issued some of the most distinguished men of the Roman empire. We will, therefore, advert to that subject, before we introduce to our readers the few distinguished writers between the reigns of Clovis and Charlemagne. About five hundred and eighty-nine years before Christ, a colony of Phocians, attracted by the mildness of the climate and its advantageous situation for commerce, established themselves at Masilia, now Marseilles. They brought with them consider- able knowledge of Grecian literature, which they cultivated with so much care, that the Romans, when they first discovered them, were charmed with their advancement in arts and science. As soon as they had established themselves in their new situation, they instituted schools for teaching eloquence, philosophy, medi- cine, mathematics, and other branches of learning, but the ad- vantages to be derived from their schools, do not appear to have spread beyond the limits of the colony, until after the conquest of Gaul by the Romans. The Romans were so highly pleased with the gentle manners and regular conduct, and the genius and .skill manifested by this distant colony of Greeks, that they con- ferred upon them all the privileges of Roman citizens, and in re- turn found the colonists faithful allies; but in the civil war be- tween Caesar and Pompey, having embraced the fortunes of the latter, the victorious Caesar reduced their privileges. From the schools of Marseilles issued many learned men, who were distinguished even in the reigns of the degenerate success- ors of Augustus; some of these we have already noticed. Their example and influence contributed to excite a spirit of learning and literary emulation in other cities of Gaul. Schools were consequently established at Narbonne, Aries, Vienne, Thoulouse and Autun, which attained a celebrity almost equal to that of Marseilles, and which also furnished men who acquired great reputation in their respective professions, even in the capital of the Roman empire itself. With respect to the manner in which learning was communi- cated in the schools above-mentioned, it appears that the student * Henry's Hist, of G, Brit.; Rankin's Hist, of France; Eden. Ency. art Druid; Caes om. \ HISTORY OF LITERATURE began with the study of the Greek and Latin grammar, in order that he might speak and write the language fluently. Having made himself acquainted with these, he pursued other elemen- tary studies, a knowledge of which were necessary to form the scholar, but his attention was principally directed to such branches of learning as were considered essential to make an accomplished public speaker. The ancient philosophy of the Greeks was studied with care, as containing a vast fund of use- ful information on almost every topic; the prevailing systems were those taught by Zeno and his disciples and the philoso- phers of the middle academy Aristotle and Epicurus had but few followers. The schools of Gaul attained so great a reputation, that they were considered as the high roads to honor and power; they multiplied exceedingly, but, at length, shared the fate of all human institutions from an exalted station from which they promulgated literature and science over a considerable portion of the Roman empire, they sunk into comparative insignificance from being the seats of learning, they became the abodes of ig- norance and superstition. For this decline of learning, various causes have been assigned; the principal, however, may be traced to the civil wars that so frequently raged on the succes- sion of the emperors, and the irruptions of the tribes of barba- rians who finally subverted the empire, and overturned the splendid fabric of Roman greatness. The progress of literature was thus so often interrupted, that the attention of men was di- rected to other objects of more immediate concern; their own personal safety and the preservation of their property, left but- little time or inclination for study, hence the schools gradually fell into decay. The introduction of Christianity, as might reasonably have been expected, seeing its influence at the present day, in no way contributed to prevent the downfal of the schools, or to the pre- servation of learning. This heavenly system was already cor- rupted by the devices of men, who sought their own aggran- disement by keeping the people in ignorance, and who, on em- bracing Christianity, mingled with the pure precepts of the gos- pel, the dogmas of the schools to which they had been previous- ly attached. Ignorant themselves, the Christian teachers were incapable of restoring learning to its former glory, and until the HISTORY OF LITERATURE. ^21 reign of Charlemagne, there are but few writers worthy of no- tice. Sidonius was a learned man of this period. His father was a tribune and a secretary of state under the emperor Honoring, and afterwards prefect of Gaul. Under the best masters of his time, he went through a regular course of study, and became intimately acquainted with the learning of the times. He early discovered a genius for poetry, which he cultivated to a consi- derable extent, having written several poems, which were much esteemed in his day, and possess no small share of merit. Sido- nius married the daughter of the prefect Avitus, by whom he acquired an estate that rendered him independent, and enabled him to pursue his favorite studies. On the accession of his father-in-law to the imperial throne, he accompanied him to Rome, where he pronounced a glowing panegyric upon him in the presence of the senate. The reign of Avitus lasted but a few months, and Sidonius soon secured to himself the favor of Majorianus and Athenius, his successors; by the latter he was appointed prefect of Rome and created a patrician, and was also admitted among his counsellors. Whilst thus enjoying the favor of the emperor, he was suddenly seized with a religious spirit, and having relinquished his civil offices, he became bishop of Clermont. He soon after abandoned poetry as profane and un- becoming the Christian character; he withdrew from the world, became a recluse in his mode of life, and his mind was solely occupied in the contemplation of the mysteries of religion. As a writer Sidonius occupied a high rank among his contem- poraries; "his descriptions are animated and his writings are not destitute of sensibility or judgment. His prose and verse flow smoothly, though there is a considerable want of purity in his language, and of harmony in his periods ; there is a quaint- ness of expression, and a general defect of simplicity in his style. Some parts of his works will admit of comparison with any of the authors of the Augustan age." He published nine books of letters, and began the history of the wars of Attila. He died in the fifty-eighth year of his age. Fortunatus was born at Poictiers A. D. 530. He was educa- ted at Ravenna, where he pursued with success the prescribed studies, which were limited in their character. Near the close of his life he was made bishop of Poictiers. His genius and HISTORY OF LITERATURE. learning are highly extolled by his contemporaries. As a wri- ter he seems to have devoted most of his attention to poetry, to which he was much attached. The principal feature that dis- tinguished his poetical compositions, is an easy and flowing style, which few writers of that period were able to reach. His chief poetical work is a poem on the life of Saint Martin, filled with all the absurdities that a superstitious age could in- vent, and a credulous mind adopt. He wrote many smaller poems, chiefly on religious subjects, and addressed to different bishops and other clerical men of his time. Among his prose writings the most celebrated is his "Exposition of the Lord's prayer," which is said to be not only "pious and rich in theology, but surpassing all his other prose writings, in purity, perspicuity and precision. It is free from that overflowing stream of words* which being poured forth tumultuously and without arrange- ment, obscure and embarrass the sense." From his genius and talents Fortunatus was worthy to have flourished in a more re- fined and literary age. About this time also flourished Boethius. He was born at Rome, and at an early age was sent to Athens to learn the Greek language, and study philosophy. He there prosecuted his studies under the direction of Proclus, a distinguished pro- fessor of the eclectic school. On his return to Rome he continu- ed to pursue his studies with unabated ardor, and soon gave proofs of his extensive learning in the various works which he published on different sciences and in defence of the orthodox faith against the host of heretics that beset it. Devoted him- self to the study of the sciences, he was anxious to impress his countrymen with a similar devotion; for that purpose he trans- lated, and illustrated by commentaries, the geometry of Euclid, the music by Pythagoras, the arithmetic of Nicomachus, the mechanics of Archimedes, the astronomy of Ptolemy, the theo- logy of Plato and the logic of Aristotle. Boethius, who possessed the generous and independent spirit of an ancient Roman, by the freedom of his speech offended Theodoric,who threw him into prison, where he was afterwards put to death. During his confinement he composed his celebra- ted work entitled the "Consolation of Philosophy." This work, which contains a vast treasure of sublime moral sentiments, is written partly in prose and partly in verse, and is thrown into the 1 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 223 form of a conference between the author and philosophy, who endeavors to soothe his afflictions, and prepare him for the last great trial. He begins by complaining of the miserable state to which he is reduced, when his divine instructer, to assuage his distress, reminds him of the instability of fortune, and of the large portion of happiness which he had so long enjoyed. She also reminds him, that although the wicked may enjoy apparent felicity, and the virtuous may be sometimes afflicted, the Deity will equitably judge, and reward and punish them according to their deeds. This work has been frequently translated. Another distinguished writer of this period was Gregory of Tours. He was descended from an illustrious family of Auvergne, and was principally educated under the inspection of an uncle, distinguished for his piety and virtue. Early in life he determined to devote himself to the church, and in order to pre- pare himself for the responsible duties of his station, he employ- ed much of his time in suitable studies. Being raised to the dignity of bishop of Tours, he preserved a firm and indepen- dent course of conduct which gained him the esteem of all, and was frequently consulted by his sovereign on matters of state. He died in the fifty-second year of his age A. D. 595. The principal work of Gregory which has reached us, is his history of France, in ten books. The first and second book is a mere sketch of the history of the world from the creation t<5 the death of Clovis, A. D. 511. The other eight books contain a more copious narrative of the history of France, from the death of Clovis to the year A. D. 591. Gregory also wrote eight books of the "Lives of the Saints," beginning with the miracles of Christ and his apostles; also a "Commentary on the Psalms" and a "Treatise on Ecclesiastical Offices." The style of Gre- gory cannot be admired; nor can we place sufficient reliance upon him as an historian, on account of his credulity and that superstition which belonged to the age in which he lived. With a notice of the French historian Frcdegarius, and the ve- nerable Bede, we shall close our account of distinguished writers between the time of Clovis and Charlemagne. Fredegarius flou- rished about the middle of the seventh century the place of his birth and his early education are alike unknown. As a French historian he ranks next to Gregory of Tours. His his- tory, like that of Gregory, begin? with the rrration. and is 224 HISTORY OF LITERATURE, brought down to the year A. D. 640. From his own accouni t he took great care in investigating the subjects which he records, and its accuracy may be generally depended upon. His work has been continued by other hands to the year A. D. 768. Beda, or the venerable Bede, was born at Weremouth, in North- umberland, in the year 672, and acquired the elements of learn- ing in the monastery of St. Peter. Possessing a heart devoted to learning and an uncommon degree of application, he made himself familiar with every branch of literature which could be acquired at that time. He became so celebrated, that his fame reached the ears of Sergius, the sovereign pontiff, who invited him to Rome to consult him on subjects of great importance to the church the temporal aggrandisement of which, then formed one of the prominent objects of the papal court. Bede, how- ever, preferred the retirement of the cloister, and the peaceful pursuit of knowledge, to the bustle of a court. He continued hi? studios, therefore, with renewed application, and drawing largely from all the stores of ancient learning within his reach, he made himself master of every branch of literature that it was possible for any man to acquire in the age in which he lived. He com- posed and published many works, the most valuable of which is his "Ecclesiastical History," which is still relied upon by mo- dern historians as a work of high authority. He was held in high estimation for his moral and icligioQs, as well as literary character, and his homilies were appointed to be read publicly in the churches. He was the first who translated parts of the Bible into the language of the country, which was then Saxon. All his other works were composed in the Latin language, in an easy and perspicuous style, but often deficient in purity. He died A. D. 735, and was buried in the monastery at Tarrow: his body, however, was not sutfered to remain there, but was re- moved to Durham, and placed in the same coffin with that of the renowned St. Cuthbert. After the death of Beda, learning having lost its principal support, rapidly declined in England. William of Malmsbury, one of the earliest and best of the English monkish historians, says, that "the death of Beda was fatal to learning, and particu- larly to history, in England; insomuch, that it may be said, that almost all knowledge of past events was buried in the same grave with him, and hath continued in that condition even t* HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 225 our times. There was not so much as one Englishman left be- hind him, who emulated the glory which he had acquired by his studies, imitated his example, or pursued the path of know- ledge he had pointed out. A few indeed of his survivors were good men, and not unlearned; but they generally spent their lives in an inglorious silence ; while the far greatest number sunk into sloth and ignorance, until by degress the love of learn? ing was quite extinguished in this island for a long time."* CHAPTER XVI. Sketch of the history of the literature of the Arabians, from the time of Mahomet to the expulsion of the Moors from Spain, with a sketch of Spanish literature after that period. BEFORE we proceed any farther with our sketch of the li- terature of the European nations, we will attempt a review of the state of literature among the Arabians. We have adopted this plan because, when the Christian world was sunk in igno- rance, literature among the Arabians was in a high state of cul- tivation, and because the success of learning among the Arabs of Spain, contributed to its revival in the other kingdoms of Europe. The Arabians are supposed to be the descendants of Ishmael, and occupied that portion of Asia, known by the several names of Arabia the Stony, the Sandy and the Happy, appellations in- tended to express the nature of the soil and climate. The for- mer lies adjoining Egypt, and is of a rocky and unfruitful soil; the second extends along the foot of the mountains of Chaldea, and is washed on the north by the Euphrates ; it presents to the eye nothing but barren deserts, relieved by fertile spots like islands in the sea, upon which the wandering Arabs pitch their tents and remain until the pasturage is exhausted; the latter, or Arabia the Happy, is surrounded by the Red sea, the Indian * Rank. Hist, of France; Edin. Ency.; Gib. Rom. Emp.; Millet's Gen. Hist.; BnA Hist, of Phil.; Mosh. Eccl. Hist. 29 ^26 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. Ocean, the Persian Gulf, and the Sandy and Stony Arahia. From the fertility of its soil, mild climate and pure air, it acquired the name by which it is distinguished. The Arabians were divided into two classes; those who dwelt in towns and cities, and carried on the operations of trade and commerce; and those who lived in tents, and led a wandering and unsettled life, like the aborigines of our country a kind of life still pursued by the Bedowin Arabs. Their religion was originally that known by the name of Sabianism or Zabianism, or the worship of the heavenly bodies, which they probably derived from the Chaldeans. With regard to this system of religion, we have already had occasion to speak; it is, therefore, unne- cessary to repeat what has already been said. This system of star- worship was afterwards changed by the inventions of the priest- hood, until their religious system settled into one much less ra- tional, and in the Caaba or sacred temple of Mecca, they had no less than three hundred and sixty idols. This sacred temple, until the time of Mahomet, was visited with superstitious vene- ration every year, by crowds of devout and enthusiastic pilgrims r who resorted thither to present their offerings, kiss the sacrejrt stone, and walk seven times round the sacred edifice that con- tained the objects of their idolatrous devotion. The learning of the Arabs before, and some time after, the rime of Mahomet, consisted only of a slight knowledge of astro- nomy, such as could be obtained by observing the appearance of the heavenly bodies, without the aid of instruments, and that species of poetry which was common to almost all rude nations. When the Alcoran was published, they were so utterly ignorant, that even in the district of Yemen, one of the most populous and flourishing of Arabia, not a single person could be found who could read or write Arabic^ and the Jews and Christians of the country were distinguished by the title of "the people of the book." Such was the superstition and ignorance that prevailed in Arabia, that Mahomet, the Arabian prophet and legislator, de- termined not only to found a new empire, but overturn the pre- vailing system of idolatry, and establish in its stead, a system, liaving for its basis the fundamental doctrine,, that "there is but one only God." Mahomet was one of those extraordinary mefc ivho are only permitted to appear on earth at intervals, to an HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 22* some great design of the all-wise Creator. Illiterate and uneducated, but valiant and persevering, and possessing in no inconsiderable degree, that kind of eloquence which is calculated to strike a rude and illiterate people, he succeeded in establishing an empire which continued under fifty-six suc- cessive caliphs, and a religion which has spread over almost all the eastern world. Mahomet was not, as many have asserted, of low and obscure parentage, but being a Korashite, he be- longed to the noblest tribe of all Arabia, arid he thus enjoyed advantages, that to an adventurer of humbler origin, would have been denied. He declared he was commissioned by God to de- stroy polytheism and idolatry; for this purpose he delivered a new law, known by the name of the koran, or alcoran, the ori- ginal of which he taught them, was laid up in the archives oi heaven, and that the angel Gabriel brought him the copy of it, chapter by chapter, as circumstances rendered it necessary they should be published to the people. The success of Mahomet and his successors in the propogation of the new religion, was rapid beyond example, but was in a great measure occasioned by the terror of their arms. Besides, his religion was artfully adapted to the corrupt nature of man, and the particular man- ners and opinions of the eastern nations, where its success was most rapid; and the bitter dissentions and cruel animosities, which at that time existed among the different Christian sects, rendering the very name of Christian odious and contemptible, assisted the propogation of Mahometanism, among many of the nations which were then united with the eastern empire. Mahomet, as we have observed, was illiterate himself, and he seems to have thought it necessary to keep his followers ignorant of every thing, except what was contained in the koran; for we find that soon after his power was established, he issued an edict, whereby the study of the liberal arts and sciences was declared a capital offence, at the same time proclaiming, that the koran contained every thing that was necessary to be known. Agree- ably to this principle, Omar, the third caliph in succession from Mahomet, ordered his general Amrou, to destroy the books in the libraries of Alexandria, that had been accumulating for ages* and contained inestimable treasures of ancient learning. This 'jvent took place in the year A. D. 64 U and if true, is a strong 228 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. proof the contempt of the Arabians for learning, at that period of their history.* Ali and Moawihah, the fourth and fifth caliphs after Mahomet, extended some protection towards learning and learned men, notwithstanding the edict of Mahomet above-mentioned, but it was not until the accession of Abbas, the founder of the dynasty of the Abbasides, in the 749th year of the Christian era, that the light of learning began to spread abroad over the Arabian empire. Abbas himself, in consequence of being involved in wars for the establishment of his throne, did not do much more than open the way for the promotion of literature, by rejecting the absurd notion, that every thing necessary to be known was contained in the koran, and giving his countenance and protec- tion to men of letters. Abbas died in the 30th year of his age, and was succeeded by his brother Al-Manzor, a renowned patron of learning, and from whose reign the Arabian writers date the origin of their literature. Al-Manzor, as a sovereign, is represented as cruel and impla- cable, but as a private individual, mild and affable; he greatly contributed to soften and subdue the ferocious character of his subjects, and, in order to instil into them a taste for refined and elegant pleasures and amusements, his attention was directed to the encouragement of the liberal arts and sciences. Al-Manzor removed the seat of empire from Dnmascus to Bagdad, which, by him and his immediate successors, was quickly embellished with splendid palaces, and in a short time it became the seat of commerce, as well as of literature, science and art. Bagdad, when it became the capital of the caliphate, was the residence of many Christians, who were celebrated for their knowledge of medicine and other sciences, some of whom Al-Marizor caused to be introduced into his court, where they soon confirmed his taste for literature and philosophy, and under them, he himself studied astronomy. He offered liberal rewards to those who would translate the works of the Grecian philosophers, in the various branches of learning, many of which were introduced into the empire by the Nestorians and Jews, who had been com- pelled to fly from the persecution of the orthodox Christians of the empire of the east. By this means, the Arabians became * Prideaux's Life of Mah. ; Gibbon's Rom. Bmp. HISTORY OF LITERATURE. ^ possessed of many of the works of the ancient philosophers, which being translated into Syriac, the vernacular tongue of the people of Bagdad, a knowledge of the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle was so generally diffused, that a taste for literature and a desire of learning was introduced, which rapidly spread under Al-Raschid and Al-Mamon. It is said, that most of the translations thus made by order of Al-Manzor, which are still ex- tant, are very defective, in consequence, no doubt, of their having been translated from the original into Syriac, and after- wards into Arabic. The seeds of science thus planted by Al-Manzor, grew and flourished under the protection of his more renowned successor Harun Al-Raschid, who ascended the throne A. D. 786. Al- Raschid himself was an enlightened scholar, and applied him- self, during his leisure from the cares of government, with great assiduity to the pursuits of literature, under the direction of learned men, who were attracted to his court bv his munificence. It is said, that he never undertook a journey without having with him at least one hundred men of science, whose duty it was to preserve whatever they might discover valuable in science. He collected a considerable number of valuable manuscripts, in the Greek, Persian, Chaldean and Egyptian languages, which he caused to be translated into Arabic; but it is much to be re- gretted, that on account of his partiality for his native language, after the translations were completed, he ordered the originals to be destroyed. He instituted a number of schools, in which philosophy and other branches of useful and ornamental learn- ing were taught, and so much did he differ in his ideas with re- gard to the diffusion of knowledge, from most of his predeces- sors, and from the founder of his religion, that he caused schools to be attached to every mosque he erected, so that "whenever the faithful assembled to adore the Deity, they found in his tem- ple an opportunity of rendering him the noblest homage his crea- tures can pay, by the cultivation of those faculties with which their creator has endowed them." Al-Raschid died A. D. 809, His immediate successor was his eldest son Al-Amin, a prince remarkable for his vices and incapacity, which soon hurled him from the throne to make room for his brother Al-Mamon. As soon as he had secured himself in power, Al-Mamon, after the example of his father, turned his attention to the cultivation 230 HISTORY OF LITERATI/HE, of learning and the diffusion of knowledge among his subjects, which had met with some interruption during the short, but turbulent reign of Al-Amin. He established an academy at Bagdad, and invited thither the most eminent philosophers, without regard to their religious creeds, observing when spoken to on the danger of subverting the established religion, that he employed them as teachers of learning and science, not of reli- gion. He collected from his subject provinces the most valua- ble books that could be discovered, and the governors of pro- vinces were directed to collect the literary remains of the con- quered countries, in order that they might be preserved for future generations, When he dictated the terms of peace to the Greek emperor, Michael the stammerer, the tribute he de- manded, was a collection of Greek authors. Surely a man who could make, at such a time, a demand of a tribute so singular and so unusual, must have been devoted to literature, and de- mands from the lover of science even more than a mere passing tribute of praise. Al-Mamon was himself celebrated as an as- tronomer, and was much devoted to the study of that sublime science, which expands the mind by the grand and elevated ideas it unfolds of the wisdom and goodness of the great Creator. To extend the knowledge of astronomical science, he caused to be translated the Almagest of Ptolemy, a celebrated geographer and istronomer, who flourished during the reigns of Adrian and the Antonines; this work contained a body of astronomical science, embracing a catalogue of the fixed stars, and a collection of as- tronomical problems. Like his father, he also caused transla- tions to be made at a great expense, of the most valuable works from the Greek, Persian and other languages into the Arabic, and by thus inspiring his subjects with a love of learning, he softened and refined their manners, and induced a spirit of in- quiry, which afterwards spread and illuminated the benighted region of Christian Europe. When we look at the present con- dition of Arabia, and the almost universal ignorance that pre- vails in the Mahometan world, we would find it difficult to believe, that the Arabians were, at any time, as enlightened as we have represented them, were it not well authenticated by impartial history; and that when the fairest portions of Europe were en- veloped in darkness, bigotry and superstition, the empire of Arn Hia wa c the seat of science, literature and art. HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 231 Al-Mamon was succeeded by Al-Motassem, whose short reign of eight years was more distinguished by the pomp and magnifi- cense he displayed, than any great encouragement he extended to learning and learned men. In 841 he was succeeded by Al- Wathek, who liberally encouraged learned men, particularly those who were skilled in mathematics and astronomy, his favor- ite sciences. From this period until near the close of the thir- teenth century, when the empire of the Arabs, under Al-Motas- sem II. the last of the Abbassides, yielded to the power of the Turks, learning flourished. The Arabians could enumerate among their literary institutions, schools of great celebrity, to which Christians, as well as the followers of Mahomet resorted ; the principal of which were at Bagdad, Bassora and Bochara; at Alexandria and Cairo in Egypt; at Morocco and Fez, in what is now the kingdom of Morocco; and at Cordova and Grenada, in Spain. The college of Bagdad, at the beginning of the twelfth century, was in so flourishing a condition, that it contain- ed six thousand students, and that of Bassora contained nearly as many. These colleges and several others were large and mag- nificent structures, adorned with the most splendid specimens of art, and furnished with valuable libraries, abounding in works in every department of literature. Such was the anxiety for distinction and the spirit of emula- tion that actuated the respective schools, that every depaitment of learning was carefully and assiduously cultivated, nor was the improvement of their language forgotten; to this object the ef- forts of the two rival schools of Cufa and Bassora, were directed., and with great success. "The Arabian language," says a cele- brated orientalist,* "is expressive, strong, sonorous, and the most copious, perhaps, in the world ; for, as almost every tribe had many words appropriated to itself, the poets, for the convenience of their measure, or sometimes for their singular beauty, made use of them all, and, as the poems became popular, these words were by degreess incorporated with the whole language, like a number of little streams, which meet together in one channel, and, forming a most plentiful river, flow rapidly into the sea." Although the literary efforts of the Arabians were directed to various useful and important sciences, they seem to have had a peculiar fondness for poetry, and to have treated their poet* ** Sir William Jonf= ^eo his essay onthe poetry of Eastern nations.- 0^2 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. with great respect. The number of Arabian poets, if we may believe those who are skilled in oriental literature, is greater than that of all other nations united. At the beginning of the seventh century, the Arabic language was brought to a high degree of perfection by a sort of poetical academy, that used to assemble at stated times, in a place called Ocadh, where every poet produced his best composition, and which was sure to meet with an impartial judgment and the applause it deserved: the best of these poems were transcribed in characters of gold, and hung up in the temple, whence they were named Modhahebat or Golden and Moallakat or Suspended. Seven of these ancient poems were suspended on the wall or gate of the Caaba, or Tem- ple of Mecca. The following extracts from the poem of Amri- olkais, as translated by Sir William Jones, will serve as speci- mens of their style of composition. The author gives the fol- lowing description of his horse : "Ready in turning, quick in pursuing, bold in advancing-, firm in barking; and per- forming the whole with the strength and swiftness of a vast rock, which a torrent has pushed from its lofty base;" "A bright bay steed, from whose polished back the trappings slide, as drops of rain glide hastily down the slippery marble." "Even in his weakest state he seems to boil while he runs; and the sound, which he makes in his rage, is like that of a bubbling chaldron." "When other horses, lhat swim through the air, are languid and kick the dust, he rushes on like a flood, and strikes the hard earth with a firm hoof." "He make? the light youth slide from his seat, and violently shakes the skirts of a heavier and more stubborn rider;" "Rapid as the pierced wood in the hands of a playful child, which he whirls quickly round with a well fastened cord." "He has the loins of an antelope, and the thigh of an ostrich; he trots like a wolf, and gallops like a young fox." "Firm are his haunches; and, when his hinder parts are turned towards you, he fills the space between his legs with a long thick tail, which touches not the ground, and iii'-lines not to either side." "His back, when he stands in his stall, resembles the smooth stone on which per- fumes are mixed for a bride, or the seeds of coloquinteda are bruised." He thus describes a violent storm of rain and lightning: "O friend, seest thouthe lightning, whose flashes resemble the quick glance of two hands amidst clouds raised above clouds?" "The fire of its gleams, like the lamps of a hermit, when the oil, poured on them, shakes the cord by which they are suspended." "I sit gazing at it, while my companions stand between Daaridge and Odhaib; but far distant is the cloud on which my eyes are fixed.' ' "Its right side seems to pour its rain on the hills of Katan, and its left on the moun- tains of Sataar and Zadbul." s . I HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 933 *'It continues to discharge its waters over Cotaifa till the rushing torrent lays pros- trate the groves of Canahbel trees." "It passes over mount Kenaan, which it deluges in its course, and forces the wild goats to descend from every cliff." . "On mount Taima it leaves not one trunk of a palm-tree, nor a single edifice which is not built with well cemented stone." "Mount Tebier stands in the heights of the flood like a venerable chief wrapped in a striped mantle." "The summit of Mogaimer, covered with the rubbish which the torrent has rolled down, looks in the morning like the top of a spindle encircled with wool." "The cloud unloads its freight on the desert of Ghabeit, like a merchant of Yemen alighting with his bales of rich apparel." "The small birds of the valley warble at dpybreak, as if they had taken their early draught of generous wine mixed with spice." "The beasts of the wood, drowned in the floods of night, float like the roots of wild onions, at the distant edge of the lake."* The seven poems above-mentioned, were written some time before Mahomet, but how long, is uncertain, and their authors were Amralkeis, Tarafa, Zopeir, Antara, Amru, Hareth and Lebeid. The originals with translations of the whole are pre- served in the works of Sir William Jones. Although the ex- tracts above are sufficient to show the style of Arabic poetry, so far as it can be shown by a translation, we cannot refrain from presenting the following beautiful version of apart of the poem of Lebeid, by the above celebrated writer: But ah! thou know'st not in what youthful play Our nights, beguil'd with pleasure, swam away; Gay songs, and cheerful tales, deceiv'dthe time, And circling goblets made a tuneful chime; Sweet was the draught, and sweet the blooming maid, Who touch'dher lyre beneath the fragrant shad; We sip'd till morning purpled ev'ry plain; The damsels slumbered, but wesipp'd again: The waking- birds that sung on every tree Their early notes, were not so blithe as we.f Besides the poems above-mentioned, there are some other col- lections of Arabic poetry, preserved in European libraries, the most distinguished of which is called Hamasa, and contains a number of epigrams, odes and elegies, composed on various oc- casions; it was compiled by a poet named Abu Teman. In Arabian literature, that species of poetry so early and so * See the works of Sir William Jones, vol. 10. ) Ibid, vol. 10, p. 343, Essay on the Poetry of the Eastern Natioits 30 234 HISTORY 01 LITERATURE. successfully cultivated by the Greeks, namely, dramatic, seems to have been entirely unknown, and, of course, theatrical repre- sentations formed no part of their amusements. This kind of entertainment was supplied by the recitation of tales by persons who gained a livelihood by srtch employments, of which we havo still extant many interesting specimens in the "Arabian Night's Entertainments." These tales, decorated with all the beauty and variety of eastern imagery, convey us into fairy regions and bewilder the imagination with the most brilliant descriptions splendid palaces adorned with diamonds, rubies and emeralds dazzle the eye gardens loaded with every variety of fruit, and vocal with the music of a thousand birds, captivate the senses, whilst females adorned with every grace and arrayed in match- Jess beauty, convey us, in imagination, to the gardens of the Houri, the paradise of Mahomet.' These tales, of which the ''Arabian Nights" form but a small portion, are still recited in the coffee-houses of the east. "The reciter, or story teller, walks to and fro in the middle of the coffee-room, stopping only now and then, when the expression requires some cmphatical attitude. He is commonly heard with great attention; and not unfrc- quently in the midst of some interesting adventure, when the expectation of the audience is raised to the highest pitch, he breaks off abruptly, and makes his escape from the room, leav- ing both his hero and heroine, and his audience, in the utmo&t embarrassment. Those who happen to be near the door, en- deavor to detain him, insisting on the story being finished before he departs; but he always makes his retreat good, and the au- dience, suspending their curiosity, are induced to return at th< same hour next day to hear the sequel."* "The physicians," says Sismondi, "frequently recommend these story tellers to their patients, in order to soothe pain, to calm agitation, or to pro- duce sleep after long watchfulness; and, accustomed to sick- ness, they modulate their voices, soften their tones, and gently suspend them, as sleep steals over the sufferer."! The influence of Arabian learning was very sensibly felt upon (he literature and science of Europe, and particularly after the conquest of Spain, when their schools were resorted to by chris- See the preface and introductory chapter to Scottf? translation of ihe "Arabian Sights." ,/ * ' Literature of the South of Europe, p. 38. * HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 235 ? tians, who carried back with them many of their peculiar no- tions in philosophy, which almost insensibly became incorpora- ted with the doctrines of Christianity. The influence thus ex- erted, although it may, in some degree, have added to the cor- ruptions of the Christian faith, in the process of time introduced such a love for learning, and such a desire to investigate almost every subject, and elucidate every science, that it opened the way for that flood of light which burst upon the Christian world *n the fifteenth century. The reign of Al-Mamon produced several learned and distin- guished men, celebrated in the history of Arabian literature; to notice all would greatly exceed the limits of this work; we must, therefore, content ourselves with giving a brief sketch of the most distinguished, among whom was Al-Kendi, a native of Bas- sora, who attained such distinction among the learned men of his time, as to be called "The Philosopher." He received his earliest instructions in literature in the schools of Bassora, which were afterwards perfected in the more celebrated semi- naries of Bagdad, then the resort of the learned under the im- mediate protection of the commander of the Faithful. As a philosopher, he was devoted to the doctrines of Aristotle, whose writings were his chief study, and much of his time was occupi- ed in explaining and illustrating the peculiar principles of the peripatetic. He was also a mathematician and astronomer of considerable eminence, and his acquirements in medicine, and skill as a physician, were held in high repute. Al-Kendi, in his great zeal to render the principles of philosophy subservient to every useful purpose, attempted the difficult task of reconciling the doctrines of the koran, with the principles of reason, which gave great offence to some of the learned doctors of the Maho- metan law, and subjected him to the heavy charges of impiety and heresy. Al-Kendi, however, found means not only to sub- due the prejudices and opposition of the principal person oppo- sed to him, but actually became his teacher in that very system, of philosophy he had previously condemned and persecuted, so far as he had power. Jll-Farabi, was another celebrated philosopher of the school of Bagdad; he flourished in the tenth century, and acquired so much celebrity, that he attracted the particular notice of his so- who was anxious to load him with honor?, which IIP do 236 HISTORY OF LITERATURE clined, and devoted himself entirely to the study of philosophy. He was naturally of a gloomy temper, and in a great measure withdrew from the world, leading a solitary and abstemious life. Like all the philosophers of his time, he was a devoted disciple of the peripatetic school, and wrote no less than sixty distinct treatises on the philosophy of Aristotle, which were riot only ad- mired by the Arabians, but by the Jews who translated them into Hebrew. Al-Rasi, Al-Ashari, Abul-Husein and Avicenna,all flourished in the tenth century and the beginning of the eleventh. They were all distinguished for their knowledge and skill in the vari- ous departments of literature and science. Al-Rasi was distin- guished as a physician, and wrote many treatises, which were considered very valuable, on medicine and chemistry. Al-Ashari was the founder of a new sect among the Mahometans, known by the name of Asharites, which became exceedingly popular, and his writings were so much esteemed, that they were read and explained in the schools. Abul-Husein was eminent as an astronomer, and is said to be the first who described a celestial planisphere. But few of the Arabian literati attained as high a reputation as Avicemui. This distinguished philosopher and physician, was a native of Bochara, and was born in the year 978. Before he reached his eighteenth year, he was well acquainted with the sciences, with several languages, and was conversant with the Mahometan law. He removed from Bo- chara to Bagdad, in order, by attending that celebrated school, to become a perfect master of the doctrines of philosophy. He prosecuted his studies with great zeal and industry, but in the pursuit of knowledge, he was influenced by a superstitious feel- ing, inconsistent with his great reputation. It is related of him, that whenever he was perplexed with any subject, he repaired to the mosque and prayed for divine direction; after which he fancied that all he desired to know was communicated to him in his sleep. He was a voluminous writer, and wrote with great rapidity and ease. He was the author of many works on morals, metaphysics, astronomy and medicine. At twenty-one years of age, he planned and completed a work entitled "The Utility of Utilities," embracing a view of all the sciences, which extended to twenty volumes. Although Avicenna was held in high estimation, and was regarded by his contemporaries as a HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 237 luminous; profound and methodical writer, who never touched a subject without adorning it, some modern critics have attempted to snatch the wreath from his brow, and reduce him to a mere compiler without taste or judgment. He died in prison in the 58th year of his age. His imprisonment was occasioned by his refusal, to take off by poison the brother of the Sultan, who was meditating a rebellion. The last Arabian writer we shall notice until we speak of the Arabs of Spain, is Al-Gazel, who flourished in the twelfth cen- tury. He was celebrated among the Mahometan doctors for his zeal in defence of Islamism, and his writings against the Jews and Christians. All his zeal in favor of, and his devotion to, the doctrines of Mahomet, did not save him from the charge of he- resy, and some of his writings were ordered to be burned. Al- Gazel, after living some years at Bagdad, in the character of teacher, assumed the habit of a pilgrim, and travelled to Mecca, where, after having visited the shrine of the prophet, he travelled through Syria and Egypt, and returned to Bagdad, where he died. In the year 712, the Arabians (or Saracens, as they were also called.) having made themselves masters of that part of Africa which, at present, includes the empire of Morocco and the kingdoms of Algiers, Tripoli and Tunis, were invited to make a descent upon Spain, by count Julian, whose daughter king Roderic had dishonored, while her father was engaged in the defence of Cueta. At this time Walid was Caliph of Bag- dad, and Musa was his lieutenant, or vice-roy of Africa. Musa, after receiving permission of the caliph, despatched a conside- rable army, under the command of Tarik, a celebrated general, which landed at Gibraltar. Roderic immediately raised an army consisting of ninety thousand men to repel this invasion. Both armies met near Xeres, in Andalusia, where Roderic was defeated and slain, and Spain became, in a few years, subject to the Moors, as the Arabians, or Saracens, were called after they conquered Mauritania. "They come! they come! I see the groaning lands White with the turbans of each Arab horde, Swart Zaarah joins her misbelieving bands, Allah and Mahomet their battle word THR choice they yield the koran or the sword." Vision of Don Roderic, 238 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. After the battle of Xeres, count Julian recommended to the victorious Tank, to march directly to the city of Toledo, then the capital of the Gothic monarchy, in order that the Christians might not have time to elect a new monarch. Tarik followed his advice Toledo surrendered to his arms, and in a few months Spain was overran by the Saracens. Musa, on being informed of the success of Tarik, passed over into Spain, at the head of ten thousand Arabs and eight thousand Africans, and completed what his general had so auspiciously commenced. Musa, how- ever, was envious of the fame of Tarik, who had left him so lit- tle to do. "Their first interview was cold and formal: a rigid account was exacted of the treasures of Spain; the character of Tarik was exposed to suspicion and obloquy ; and the hero was imprisoned, reviled and ignominiously scourged by the hand, or the command, of Musa. Yet so strict was the discipline, so pure the zeal, or so tame the spirit of the primitive moslems. that, after this public indignity, Tarik could serve and be trusted in the reduction of the Tarragoncse province."* Musa, in or- der to secure his conquests, granted to the inhabitants the free exercise of their religion and laws, on condition they would pay the same tribute they paid their former sovereigns. In the treaty between the son of Musa and Theodemir, it was express- ly stipulated, that "no injury should be offered to life or pro- perty, the wives and children, the religion and temples of chris- tians." Such moderation served, in a great degree, to reconcile the Goths to Arabian rule, and soften the rigors usually attend- ant upon conquest. The conquests of Musa were rapid and brilliant, and his am- bition prompted him to cross the Pyrenees, and extinguish the kingdoms of the Franks and Lombards. For this purpose he was preparing a powerful army, and he would probably have overrun Europe, had he not been deprived of his command by the caliph, who sent a special messenger, by whom he was ar- rested in his camp at Lugo in Gallicia. He was conducted to Damascus, then the seat of the caliphate, and after being fined two thousand pieces of gold, he was publicly whipped. He was succeeded in the government of Spain by Abdurrahman, who, ' J f\ ibboa's Rom. Einp. vol. 6, p. 394 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 239 having invaded France, was defeated and slain in a battle be- tween Poictiers and Tours, by Charles Martel. The Emirs* or governors of Spain were appointed by, and were dependant upon, the viceroy of Africa, as he was himself on the caliph of Bagdad or Damascus. They were, therefore, more busily employed in levying contributions on the Spaniards, in order fill their own coffers, than in promoting their comfort and happiness. This state of things continued until A. D. 756, when, the dignity of caliph having passed from the family of the Ommiades to that of the Abbassides, an independent govern- ment was established in Spain by Abdurrahman, (called also Almanzor,) a prince of the Ommiades, who escaped that general destruction of his family, which secured the throne of Bagdad to the house of Abbas. Abdurrahman fixed his residence at Cordova, a city beauti- fully situated on the northern bank of the Guadalquiver, in a spacious plain, bounded by the mountains of the Sierra Morena. Abdurrahman, who had imbibed a taste for learning, which had made its appearance among the Arabs before the destruction of his family, was celebrated for his munificent protection and en- couragement of whatever could contribute to the happiness of his subjects, and the'splendor of his reign. He made Cordova the seat of learning, of arts, magnificence and pleasure ; by which means he softened and refined the manners, not only of his own countrymen, but of the native Spaniards, who, under the Gothic kings, were rude, illiterate and almost strangers to the "gentler passions of our nature. He embellished the city with many splendid edifices, one of which, the present cathedral of Cordova, still remains a monument of Moorish grandeur and magnificence, notwithstanding the many changes it has undergone since it was converted into a Christian temple. Although master of nearly the whole of Spain, and at the head of a victorious army, he did not persecute the Christians he rather chose to overturn their religion by other mean?, similar to those adopted by Julian, the npostate, and which produced a striking effect. By reserving all offices of honor and profit for the followers of the prophet by promoting marriages between Christians and Mahometans, and other strokes of policy, he soon extirpated almost every vestige of Christianity in Spain; indeed the followers of Christ were scarcely sren. except in tho rprr-pses of tho mountains of ^40 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. Asturias, were Pelagic founded a Christian kingdom, whihc boldly and successfully resisted every attempt of the Moorish kings. About the beginning of the eleventh century, the race of Abdurrahman became extinct, and the kingdom of Cordova was divided into a number of petty sovereignties. Cordova continued the principal seat of learning until A. D. J013, when the royal residence was transferred to Grenada, a city built by the Moors, and in the embellishment of which their kings spared no expense. Of the magnificence of their build- ings, the royal palace of the Alhambra still remains a striking arid splendid evidence, although now fast hastening to decay. The love of learning became so general, that universities, colleges, and schools were established in almost every city; the most celebrated, however, of these seats of learning, were Cordova and Grenada. In the latter city, in the year 1126, there were two universities, two royal colleges, and a public library, con- taining many thousand volumes, of the most esteemed and cele- brated Greek and Arabic writers literary foundations of more value than existed in the whole of Christian Europe at that pe- riod. At this time, which may be considered as the period when Spanish literature attained its zenith, there were established in the several cities of the kingdom, about seventy public libraries, containing upwards of six hundred thousand volumes an im- mense number, when we remember that the art of printing being then unknown, books were all in manuscript, a tedious and ex- pensive* process for the preservation of the results of human learning. The Arabian writers enumerate a vast number of authors who were eminently distinguished for their great attain- ments, and although their pride and national vanity may have induced them to swell the list, it will be acknowledged by all who have looked into the subject, that they excelled in almost fcvery branch of learning and science, whilst the rest of the world were sunk in mental barbarism. To their zeal in the sacred cause of learning we are indebted for the preservation of many ancient writers, whose works would otherwise have been lost: so little were they prized by their Christian neighbors, and so ignorant were they of their real value, that the most valuable treatises were frequently erased to make room for the legend of some saintly impostor. To such distinction did the schools of Cordova and Grenada attain among the Christians of Europe. HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 241 that Catholic bishops resorted thither to attend the lectures and instructions of Mahometan doctors. If we look only to the present ignorant, enslaved and degraded condition of the followers of Mahomet, and the present "high and palmy" state of literature in the Christian world, we may find it difficult to reconcile the intellectual superiority to which the former attained, under the auspices of the Abbassides in Arabia, and Ommiades in Spain. But the wonder ceases when we turn over the pages of history, and compare these monarchs with the Christian rulers of Europe, and we sigh when we con- template the contrast. The caliphs of Bagdad and the Moorish kings of Spain, of the dynasties alluded to, were, in general, learned, liberal and enlightened ; enjoying the benefit of learning themselves, they were enabled to appreciate its blessings, and its salutary effects upon the human mind, they had, therefore, no fear of its injurious influence when generally diffused among their subjects, but rather rejoiced in its dissemination. The Po- tentates of Christian Europe, although surrounded with the em- blems of royalty, were "rude in manners and in speech," and delighted only in scenes of war and rapine. Beneath their battlements, within their walls, Power dwelt amidst her passions; in proud state Each robber chief upheld his armed halls, Doing his evil will, nor less elate Than mightier heroes of a longer date. Lord Byron, They were under the complete control of an ambitious and profligate clergy, who, seeking only to extend their own power and influence, had usurped almost all the prerogatives of gov- ernment; instead of leading the minds of men in the ways of truth and righteousness, they were usually found in the courts of princes promoting and encouraging, almost every species of crime; they appeared more like the emissaries of the prince of darkness, than the meek and humble followers of the lamb of God; they were interested in keeping up this general ignorance, because, in the diffusion of knowledge, they saw the certain downfal of their power and influence. To the influence of the clergy, therefore, may be mainly attributed the low and degra- ded state of learning throughout Christian Europe, at the time it flourished among the Arabians. - 31 x. 5. > 242 HISTORY OF LITERATURE*. The Moorish kingdoms of Spain were equally prolific in i nious and intelligent authors, as the empire of Arabia, a few of whom we will notice. Avenpacc, who flourished in the twelfth century, wrote a commentary upon Euclid; he was inti- mately acquainted with the philosophy of Aristotle, but applying it to the explanation of the koran, he was suspected of heresy and was thrown into prison. Avcnzoar, was a native of Seville, anct was celebrated for his skill in the practice of medicine, and the improvements he introduced into the science. Amongst the most learned and celebrated of the Spanish- Arabian writers of the age in which he lived, was Avcrroes, who was born about the middle of the twelfth century, of a noble family of Cordova. He was instructed at an early age in the law of the prophet, to which he added a knowledge of the Aristotelian philosophy, a favorite study, as before remarked, with the Arabian philoso phers. Under Avenzoar he studied medicine, and under com- petent teachers made himself master of mathematics. In con- sequence of his learning and talents, ho \va< advanced to high and important offices, which he filled with honor. His rapid ad- vancement and extraordinary fame, induced his rivals to charge him with heresy, and in order to prove the charge, they engaged several young persons to receive instructions from him in philo- sophy. These young men took minutes of every opinion ad- vanced by their preceptor, which appeared to contradict the doctrines of Mahomet, and thus the charge of heresy being proven, he was commanded in future to reside among the Jews, and his goods were confiscated. After undergoing a variety of persecutions, Averroes removed to Morocco, where he died aboui the close of the twelfth century. Ho was highly celebrated for his personal virtues, and practised the most rigid temperance. He spent large sums in liberal donations to learned men, with- out making any distinction between his friends and his enemies: for which his apology was, that in giving to his friends and rein lions, he only followed the dictates of nature; but in giving t< his enemies, he obeyed the command of virtue. Averroes was a voluminous writer, and his pen was employed on a variety of subjects. As the philosophy of Aristotle was the favorite sys tern, he partook of the enthusiasm of the age, and much of his time was employed in writing commentaries upon the works of the peripatetic, which he regarded as "so perfect, that none o.f HISTORY OF LITERATURE. his followers, through a space of fifteen hundred years, were able to make the smallest improvement upon them, or to dis- cover the least error in them; a degree of perfection, truly mi- raculous, that proved him to have been rather a divine than a human being." So exalted was his admiration of Aristotle, that lie says of him, "that he was created and given to the world* by Divine Providence, that we might see in him, how much it was possible for man to know." The extravagant opinion en- tertained by Averroes, with regard to Aristotle and his philoso- phy, was common to all the Arabian writers, particularly those who had any pretensions to the character of philosophers; they looked upon him as one to whom all the secrets of nature had been laid open, and who alone was capable of explaining its mysteries; and he who was most conversant with his writings was regarded as the ablest philosopher. Although philosophy was a favorite study with the Arabians, their researches extended to other subjects, and if we are not indebted to them for the discovery of certain sciences, we owe to their zeal and intelligence many important improve- ments. The natural sciences were pursued with considerable ardor; to mineralogy and botany, two interesting branches of natural history, several Arabian naturalists, devoted great part of their lives, collecting specimens and describing their various properties; their descriptions, however, were not so minute and particular as modern science requires, nor was the classical ar- rangement of the different subjects, so plain and intelligible, as that of modern naturalists. What they wanted in knowledge they made up in zeal, and they thus opened the ways of science which have been successfully followed by the learned of later times. To the Arabians we are indebted for many important discoveries in the useful and instructive science of chemistry a science which is daily laying open the most sublime views of the operations of nature, and developing and explaining facts which, without its aid, would be inexplicable. Besides the advantages in science we have derived from them, we are indebted to their skill and ingenuity, for many useful and important inventions. Of these inventions it is unnecessary to make any precise enu- meration in this place. Whilst we feel and acknowledge the influence of Arabian learning, in introducing that revival of letters in the fifteenth cen- :'-.<, HISTORY OF LITERATURE. * >* tury, which has shed such a brilliant light over the world, in the language of the eloquent Sismondi we ask, "What remains of so much glory? Not more than live or six individuals are in a situation to take advantage of the manuscript treasures which are enclosed in the library of the Escurial. The boundless re- gions where Islamism reigned, and still continues to reign, are now dead to the interests of science. The rich countries of Fez and Morocco, illustrious for five centuries, by the number of their academies, their universities and their libraries, are now only deserts of burning sand, which the human tyrant disputes with the beast of prey. The smiling and fertile shores of Mau- ritania, where commerce, arts and agriculture attained their highest prosperity, are now the retreats of corsairs. Egypt has, by degrees, been swallowed up by the sands which formerly fer- tilized it. Syria and Palestine are desolated by the wandering Bedowins,less terrible still than the Pacha who oppresses them. Bagdad, formerly the residence of luxury, of power and of knowledge, is a heap of ruins. The celebrated universities of Cufa and Bassora are extinct. The prodigious literary riches of the Arabians, no longer exist in any of the countries where the Arabians and Mussclmen rule. It is not there we must seek, either for the fame of their great men, or for their writings. What have been preserved are in the hands of their enemies, in the convents of the monks, or in the royal libraries of Eu- rope. And yet these vast countries have not been conquered. It is not the stranger who has despoiled them of their riches, who has annihilated their population, and destroyed their laws, their manners and their national spirit. The poison was their own; it was administered by themselves, and the result has been their own destruction."'* To the defeat of Almanzor A. 1). 998 the extinction of the race of Abdurrrahman, in the beginning of the eleventh century, and the consequent division of the kingdom of Cordova into se- parate sovereignties, the downfal of the Moorish power in Spain may be ascribed, although the Moors were not finally conquered until A. D. 1402, when the city of Granada, the last hold of Moorish power, fell before the united arms of Ferdinand and Isabella, the sovereigns of Castile and Leon. This conquest ter- minated the contests between the Moors and Christians in Spain, * Sismondi's Lit. of the South of En. vol 1. p. 43 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 345 which had existed upwards of seven hundred years. The long dominion of the Arabs, the intermarriages of the proudest fami- lies of the Visigoths, with their Arabian conquerors, and the consequent union of interests, must, of necessity, have exercised an extensive influence, not only upon the relations of life, but upon the religion, the language and the literature of Spain* The language of Spain, as spoken during the rule of the Visi- goths, was a mixture of the German with the Latin; this remark, however, must be considered as applying generally, as some of the provinces spoke a different dialect. After the conquest of Spain by the Arabs, the language was enriched by the introduc- tion and adoption of many Arabic words, which increased its -energy and copiousness. The influence of Arabian upon Spa- nish literature, was felt and acknowledged long after the expul- sion of the Moors, more particularly in their ballads arid their love songs, which were distinguished for that simplicity of lan- guage and tenderness of feeling that marked the early poets of Arabia. The earliest Spanish poem of celebrity, of which we have any account, is the "Cid;" there are, however, many minor pieces extant of an earlier date, consisting principally of songs and bal- lads. The "Cid" is regarded as the national poem of the Spa- niards, and was written about the middle of the twelfth century. It is founded upon the warlike exploits of Don Roderigo Laynes, sirnamed the CzW, who eminently distinguished himself in the wars between the Christians and Moors, in the eleventh centu- ry. Although the language of the poet is far from being refined, or elegant, and seldom rises above that of a barbarous chroni- cler, he relates the incidents of his hero's life with great fideli- ty, not even omitting or extenuating such as place his character, at least for morality, in no very elevated light. In addition to the information we collect, with regard to the history of the times, we learn something of the manners and customs of the age. The following extracts will serve as a specimen of this celebrated poem. The Cid, at the solicitation of the king, had married his two daughters, Donna Elvira and Donna Sol, to Don Diego and Don Ferdinand, sons of Gonzales, count of Carion, who proved them- selves unworthy of such an alliance. Having espoused the daughters of the Cid from avaricious motives, they determined 24$ HISTORY OF LITERATURE. ? to rid themselves of them on their journey to their own castles Arriving at the forest of Corpes, they resolved to put their bloody design into execution: The mountains there are high, and the branches seem'd to rest Upon the clouds, and wild beasts did the travellers molest. They found a pleasant orchard, through which a streamlet went, And there they presently resolved that they would pitch their tent; That by them and those they brought with them the night might there be spent. They press'd their ladies to their hearts, with the words which love affords; But when the morning came, it seem'd they had forgot those words. Orders were given by them to load their baggage a rich store ; The tent in which that night they slept was folded up once more! And the servants who had care of them had all push'd on before. The Infants so had order'd it, that no one should remain, Excepting Donna Elvira and Donna Sol, their wives twain. The Infants then took their bridle reins and lashed their wives until the blood started from the wounds, and falling senseless on the ground, their cruel and unfeeling husbands, supposing them dead, left them and proceeded on their journey. Fortunately, Felez Munos, whom the Cid had directed to ac- eompany his daughters, discovered their situation, and having restored them to their senses, conducted them to a place of safe- ty. The Cid on being informed of the treatment his daugh- ters had received at the hands of their husbands, demanded of the king, that the outrage should be judged by the cortes of the kingdom. The king grants his request, and the Cid having re- covered two swords he had presented his sons-in-law, and th* jowry of his daughters, he thus addresses the king: Justice and Mercy, my lord the king, I beseech you of your grace' I have a grievance left behind, which nothing can efface. Let all men present in the court attend and judge the case, Listen to what these courts have done and pity my disgrace. Dishonor'd as I am, I cannot be so base But here before I leave them, to defy them to their face. Say, Infants, how had I deserv'd, in earnest or in jest, Or on whatever plea you can defend it best, That you should rend and tear the heartstrings of my breast? I gave you at Valencia my daughters in your hand, I gave you wealth and honors, and treasure at command: Had you been weary of them, to cover your neglect, You might have left them with me, in honor and respect. Why did you take them from me, Dogs and Traitors as you were? In the forest of Corpes, why did you strip them there? Why did you mangle them with whips? why did you leave them bare To the vultures and the wolves, and to the wintry air? The count will hear your answer, and judge what you have done,. name and honor henceforth is lost and gone. HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 341 The king decides that the matter shall be, settled by combat between the Infants of Carion and the champions of the Cid on the following day, but the Infants demand three weeks to prepare themselves, which is granted. At the time appointed, the combatants meet, and having entered the lists, the combal ensues, which is thus described: The heralds and the king are foremost in the place, They clear away the people from the middle space: They measure out the lists, the barriers they fix: They point them out in order, and explain to all the six : "If you are forc'd beyond the line where they are fix'd and trac'd, You shall be held as conquer'd and beaten and disgrac'd." Six lances length on either side an open space is laid, They share the field between them, the sunshine and the shade. Their office is performed and from the middle space The heralds are withdrawn, and leave them face to face, Here stood the warriors of the Cid, that noble champion Opposite on the other side, the Lords of Carion, Earnestly their minds are fix'd each upon his foe; Face to face they take their place, anon the trumpets blow. They stir their horses with the spur, they lay their lances low, They bend their shields before their breasts, their faces to the saddle bow Earnestly their minds are fix'd each upon hia foe. The heavens are overcast above, the earth trembles below. The people stand in silence gazing on the show ; Bermues the first challenger, first in combat clos'd, He met.Ferran Gonzalcs, face to face oppos'd; They rush together with such rage that all men count them dead. They strike each, other on the shield, without all fear or dread. Ferran Gonzales with his lance pierce'd the shield outright, ft pass'd Bermues on the left side, in his flesh it did not bite The spear was snapp'd in twain, Bermues sat upright, He neither flinch'd nor swerv'd like a true steadfast knight. A good stroke ho received, but a better he has given; He struck the shield upon the boss, in sunder it is riven Onward into Ferran's breast the lance's point is driven, Full upon his breast plate, nothing would avail, Two breast plates Fernando wore and a coat of mail : The two are riven in sunder, the third 'stood him instead The mail sunk in his breast, the mail and the spear head The blood burst from his mouth that all men thought him dead The blow has broken his girdle and his saddle girth, It has taken him over his horse's back, and born him to the earlh The people think him dead as he lies on the sand ; Bermues left his lance and took his sword in hand. Ferran Gonzales knew the blade which he had worn of old , Before the blow came down, he yielded and cried, "hold! 1 ' Antolines and Diego encounter'd man for man, Their spears were shiver'd with the shock, so eagerly they ran Antolines drew forth the blade which Diego once had worn, i fiagerly he aimed the blow for the vengeance he had sworn J4 HISTORY OF LITERATURE, Right through Diego's helm the blade its edge has borne, The crest and helm are lopt away, the coif and hair are shorn, He stood astounded with the stroke, trembling and forlorn, He waved his sword above his heath he made a piteous cry, "O save me from that blade, Almighty Lord on high !" Antolines came fiercely on to reach the fatal stroke, Diego's courser rear'd upright, and through the barrier broke. Antolines has won the day, though his blow was miss'd He has driven Diego from the field, and stands within the list. The heralds proclaim that the champions of the Cid have conquered, and the injuries inflicted upon his daughters aveng- ed.* The exploits of the Cid formed the subject of numerous ballads and romances, by Spanish writers, and the tragedy of the Cid, by Corneille, is one of the noblest in the French lan- guage. In the thirteenth century flourished Gonzales de Berceo. He was a monk of the monastery of St. Millan, where he passed the greater part of his life, and he became strongly impressed with that peculiar feeling and mode of thinking that belonged to the monks of his age. He was a poet; nine of his poems have been preserved, all of which treat on sacred subjects, and the mira- cles attributed to saints. As a poet he was equally careless, common-place and dull, and his works shew that the inspirations of nature were banished from the cells of monasteries. A distinguished writer of the thirteenth century, was Alphon- zo X, king of Castile. He was a great patron of letters, and in- vited to his court many of the philosophers and learned men of the east, whose works he caused to be translated into the Cas- tilian. He caused a general history of Spain to be composed in the Castilian language he prohibited the use of Latin in law proceedings, and directed them to be carried on in the language of the country he compiled and published that code of Spanish law known by the name of Las Partidas. He was celebrated as an astronomer, and in order to improve the science, invited, from all parts of Europe, persons who were skilled in it, and employed them in correcting the astronomical tables of Ptolemy. He eomposed a variety of treatises on various subjects, besides sev- eral poems, one of which "The Book of Leisure," is an exposi- tion of the secrets of alchymy, written in a manner that renders it totally unintelligible. His zeal in the cause of literature and * Srsmond'rsLit.offheSouthof Eur.,vol.8. HISTORY OF LITERATURE, 249 his own writings contributed in a considerable degree to the progress of knowledge, and on that account is worthy the re- membrance of posterity. In the fourteenth century flourished Prince Don Juan Manual. He was alike distinguished for his bravery and his talents as a general, as for his learning and genius. As a writer, his princi- pal work is "Count Lucanor" a collection of novels or tales, de- signed to convey instruction not only in morals but in politics. He sometimes laid aside the gravity of the statesman and mor- alist, and indulged himself in the composition of romances and love verses, which were written in that natural style that affects the heart and interests the feelings. Contemporary with Prince Juan, was Vasco de Lobeira, the author of Amadis de Gaul, the most celebrated of the romances- of the age of chivalry. He flourished in the beginning of the fourteenth century. The Amadis of Gaul is said to have been borrowed from the works of the French writers of the twelfth century. Although the scene is laid in France, and the hero never enters Spain, or engages in any adventures with the Moors, the contests with whom possessed the highest interest for every Spaniard, yet it became the favorite romance of the Spaniards, and was read with an avidity and enthusiasm, ex- cited by few other works of a similar character This work is easy and graceful in the narrative, and full of that animation and gaiety which render such works interesting. It breathes an amiable spirit of gallantry without that insipidity which characterizes love stories, arid is remarkable for a chastity of expression which adds new grace to the images of voluptuous- ness.* This celebrated romance was imitated in a variety of works, which were held in the highest repute. They were sung by soldiers on their march, by the rustics in their daily labors, and by the women during their domestic occupations. On the revival of learning, Spain produced several writers in the various walks of literature and science, who would do honor to any nation, particularly during the reign of Charles V, when she could boast of an Almagaver and Garcilaso de la Vega, distinguished as poets, and Hurtado de Mendoza, distill- 'i Cours cle la Lit. tome 13, p.' 368 : Sis. Lit. of the South of Eu. vol. 2, p. 112 32 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. guished as a poet and prose writer. A further notice of them does not come within the plan of the present work. CHAPTER XVII. History of literature from the accession of Charlemagne to the be- ginning of the eleventh century. CHARLEMAGNE was the wonder of his age, the most extraor- dinary man who had appeared for many centuries. Endowed by nature with talents of a superior order, he projected and ex- ecuted enterprises that elevated him to the highest rank among earthly potentates, and his empire to the highest pitch of glory. His vices, which we are constrained to acknowledge were many, may be attributed to the rude and uncultivated manners of the times, and the looseness of morals which then prevailed, rather than to a natural depravity. of heart, or attachment to vicioi^ indulgences. The restraints of religion were not then so effica- cious as in modern times; its principles and directions were but imperfectly understood; the best Christian was he who best sup- ported the interests of the clergy. The virtues which Charle- magne often displayed in public and private life; the zeal he- manifested for the good of his subjects and the prosperity of his empire, ought, like charity, to cover the vices with which contem- poraneous history has stained his character. By the power of hi^ genius alone, he was enabled to unite the discordant parts of his vast empire, and keep his nobles in subjection, who, in those tur- bulent times, were continually inclined to revolt. "In the histo- ry of the times," says the historian of the middle ages, "he stands alone like a beacon upon a waste, or a rock in the broad ocean. His sceptre was the bow of Ulysses, which could no! be drawn by any weaker hand. His reign a solitary resting place between two long periods of turbulence and anarchy, de- ' ivinor the advantages of contrast, both from those of the pro< <) HISTORY OF LITERATURE, 251 ing dynasty and of posterity, for whom he had formed an em- pire, which they were unworthy and unequal to sustain."* Charlemagne appears to much greater advantage, when com- pared with the greater number of his predecessors, from the time of Clovis, the founder of the French monarchy, after whose de- mise, with few exceptions, the kings of France were totally un- worthy of the high stations they occupied. Ignorant, supersti- tious, and directed and controlled in every thing, whether rela- ting to church or state, by an aspiring and ambitious priestyiood, they were incapable of accomplishing any thing, either for their personal or for the national glory ; indeed, so much had they degenerated from the parent stock, that after Cloitaire II, the great grandson of Clovis, they were distinguished by the name of insensati, or idiots, and the royal power was exercised by the mayors of the palace. The turbulent and unsettled condition of the country, the internal commotions and contests for empire, and their almost continual wars with the Saracens of Spain, and with other neighboring nations, left the kings of France but lit- tle leisure, had they even possessed the taste and inclination to cultivate the seeds of science and nourish the plant of literature. It was reserved for Charlemagne, whose conquering sword, and (irmly rooted power, had established peace at home, to set an example, as a patron of literature, worthy to be followed by his successors. The early years of Charlemagne are said to have been passed after the manner of the youth of those times, in military and other manly exercises and amusements; he paid but little atten- tion to learning, until he was about thirty years of age, when, being struck with his importance, he invited to his court Alcuin, an Englishman celebrated for his extensive acquirements, and deservedly so, for the age in which he lived. Under Egbert? archbishop of York, Alcuin acquired a knowledge of the Latin, Greek and Hebrew languages, and also considerable knowledge of mathematics and other branches of science then taught. Hi^ arrival in France introduced a new era in her literary history. He became the instructer of the emperor himself in the various sciences then known and taught, in which he soon acquired considerable knowledge; he also made himself perfect master Hallam'? VHHV of the Middle Ages, vol. 1 252 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. of the Latin language, and attained such a knowledge of the Greek, as to be able to read it a rare accomplishment even among the higher clergy. He was so assiduous in the prosecution of his studies, that in addition to the acquirements above-men- tioned, he was able to converse with foreign ambassadors in Arabic, Scotch, German and English. Charlemagne collected about his person all such as were distinguished for learning, and established in his palace an academy, or literary society, com- posed principally of ecclesiastics. Of this academy or society, he was himself a member. At its meetings, those subjects which constituted the chief learning of the times were discussed, and as Charlemagne valued himself on his great skill in theology, the discussion of subjects connected therewith, occupied a conside- rable portion of their time. The discussion of points of doc- trine, although of itself, not very well calculated to promote ge- neral literature, in this particular instance had, no doubt, a con- siderable influence in extending knowledge, as it induced those concerned in the discussion, to examine more minutely, the grounds of their respective opinions, and by thus instituting a spirit of inquiry, led them sometimes to enter the more expanded field of science. Charlemagne established schools, academies and universities in various parts of his empire, particularly at Paris, Tours and Soissons, and rewarded Alcuin with princely munificence. He conferred upon him three abbeys of great value, the lands at- tached to which, contained a population of twenty thousand souls, all contiibuting to support the splendor and dignity of this powerful abbot. This unexampled liberality, on the part of the emperor, affords conclusive proof, if other proofs were wanting, of his disposition to encourage learned men, and extend the be- nefits of learning. As Alcuin, under the patronage of Charlemagne, may be con- sidered as the restorer of learning in France, some of our rea- ders may be curious to know something of the plan of education recommended by him. Great attention to orthography and pronunciation, which had been previously much neglected, was first recommended to the pupil; he was then instructed, in suc- cession, in grammar, dialectics, rhetoric and the higher branches of philosophy ; this constituted the whole course of study, and was communicated in Latin, the language of the learned, ir HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 253 which all the works of the times were composed. The mode of instruction adopted by Alcuin, and which was probably followed in all the schools, appears to have been catechetical, as the best means of making a lasting impression. The following ex- tract from his "Treatise on Dialectics," will serve as a specimen of his manner. It purports to be a dialogue between Charle j magne and Alcuin: Charlemagne. Into how many parts is philosophy divided ? Alcuin. Into three, viz. physics, ethics and logic. C. Express these in Latin phrase. A. Physics is natural philosophy; ethics is moral philosophy, and logic is rational philosophy, or the art of reasoning. C. Explain their meaning more fully. A. Physics is the investigation of natural causes; ethics, of the principles and con- duct of life; logic, the principles or method of understanding. C. Into how many parts are physics divided? A. Into four arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy. C. Into how many parts are ethics divided? A. Into four also, viz. prudence, justice, fortitude and temperance. C. Into how many parts is logic divided? A. Into two dialectics and rhetoric. C. What is dialectics? A. It is the art of inquiring, of defining and of disputing or arguing. C. What is the difference between dialectic and rhetoric? A. The same difference as between a closed and an open hand. The former con- tracts, the latter copiously enlarges the subject; the one is more acute to invent, the other more eloquent to address and persuade; the first requires retirement and study, the second an audience; it may be one or more persons, or a crowded assembly. Although Charlemagne established schools and encouraged learned men by his liberality, literature did not make that pro- gress throughout his empire, that might have been expected. His efforts were directed to this great end with a praiseworthy perseverance, but neither his power nor his example, could overcome the barbarism of the times, and inspire his nobles with a love of literature. Could they have been induced to have se- conded his generous design, and encouraged learning among their vassals, we might have beheld it throwing aside the shac- kles which had so long bound it to the earth, and springing into vigorous existence. The state and condition of learning will be best understood by mentioning some of the literary foundations of Charlemagne, and the different branches of science taught in them. Primary schools were established in different parishes for the instruction of children. These schools were under the direction of the 254 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. curates, whoso learning se^pm extended beyond reading the Lord's prayer in Latin; of course, the amount of instruction there received was very limited. A After learning the alphabet, the children were taught to read the psalter and commit it to memory. This constituted the whole course of instruction in the primary schools, beyond which a great proportion of the pupils never advanced. Next to these, schools were attached to cathedrals and monasteries, intended for the education of those designed for the church, in which the course of study was more extended. Jn these schools were taught grammar, rheto- ric and church music the latter then considered an important branch of the education of a priest. Lastly, the universities or colleges; these were established at Paris, Soissons, Tours and other cities, where the system of instruction was still more am- ple, and the course of study more extensive, which embraced what was then called the Trivium and the Quadrivium. The Trivium included grammar, rhetoric and dialectics; the Quadri- vium, music, arithmetic, geometry and astronomy. He who was master of these several sciences, was thought to possess every qualification necessary for the complete investigation of every department of human knowledge, and was esteemed a philoso- pher. Although these institutions of learning were opened to all who chose to enter their portals in search of knowledge, but few availed themselves of the advantages they offered, except those who were destined for the church. The nobles devoted to war and warlike amusements and exercises, thought them- selves degraded by the pursuits of learning. They were con- tent to hear a minstrel recite the exploits of their warlike pro- genitors, or a monk relate the legendary story of their patron saints. The inferior laity were equally careless and indifferent on the subject of learning, which indifference and carelessness, were encouraged by the monks and clergy, who had no inclina- tion to foster and protect institutions which would awaken a spi- rit of inquiry, or have a tendency to diminish their influence. How different from the conduct of the more enlightened clergy of the present day, whose mental energies are devoted to the diffusion of knowledge as the most effectual means of propoga- ting that gospel, of which they are the ministers! This perni- cious policy of the clergy of keeping the people in ignorance oi y thing but what they thought proper to teach, so general) v HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 355 prevailed, that, notwithstanding the expressed wishes of the emperor, literature and science were but little known beyond the walls of the cloister. Yet, these very monks and clergy exhibit to the world the singular fact, of being at once the preservers and the enemies of learning. They were its enemies because, actuated by a selfish policy, they used their influence to prevent its extension beyond the circle of their own body its preser- vers, because, although unable to comprehend or appreciate, the literary treasures they possessed, their monasteries were the depositaries of some of the most valuable works of the ancient poets, philosophers and historians of Greece and Rome. At this period the art of writing had arrived at greater per- fection than any other branch of education. The copying of manuscripts was one of the principal occupations of the monks, in the retirement of their cloisters, and while they conferred a benefit upon posterity, by their labors in transcribing the works of ancient authors, the employment afforded some relief to their monotonous course of life. Their breviaries, the legends of their saints and other religious books, were written with peculiar beauty in letters of gold, and in ink of various colors. The margins and the heads of the chapters were often adorned with delicately executed drawings, and not unfrequently with the miniatures of those fair dames who graced the halls of baronial castles, and whose presence softened the rude manners of the times. Many of these illuminated volumes are still carefully preserved in the public and private libraries of Europe, as mo- numents of the skill and patience of the monks. Among the writers of this era, we must rank Charlemagne himself. He was not a voluminous author, but his writings en- title him to high commendation, particularly when we remem- ber the age in which he lived, the time of life at which he be- gan his literary pursuits, and the multiplicity of concerns that engaged his attention. His "Capitularies" or the body of laws drawn up and published during his reign, were, probably, pro- duced by the united labor of himself and his counsellors, but his letters and poetical effusions, are less equivocal testimonies of his abilities. His letters were numerous, and were principally addressed to the clergy, or his public officers. They are written in an easy style, not unworthy brighter periods of literature, in some of which he expre^e? an anxious desiro for the diffusion of HISTORY OF LITERATURE. learning, and a laudable spirit for inquiry. He was a great ad- mirer of the muses, and sometimes paid his devotions at their altar. Several of his poems have been preserved, one of which addressed to Winifrede, a monk of Cassin, and the author of a ifistory of the Lombards, we will offer as a specimen of his style of composition, and his poetical genius: Him celeregrediens celeri mea charta volatu, Persylvas, colles, valles quoque prsepete cursu, Alma Deo chari Benedicts tecta require, Est nam certa quies fessis venientibus illuc; Hicolus hospitibus; piscis, hie panisabundat, Pax pia, menshumilis, pulchra et concordia fratruin. Laus, amor, et cultus Christi simul omnibus horis ; Die Patri.et sociis cunctis, salvete valete. Colla mei Pauli guadendo amplecte benigne, Dicito multoties, salve Pater optime. Salve. Go swift my card, o'er hills and valleys fly, Surpass the wind, to equal thought go, try ; Enter the holy mansion of my Paul, His hospitable welcome 's known to all: There you may rest, and there the gen'rous mind Contemplate of my pious, learned friend; Humble, though eminent amidst the throng Of monks, who all to Mount Cassin belong, And soon as matins cease these lines present, They show how much on him my mind is bent. Salute him much, salute the brethren all, But chief and oft salute the noble Paul. One of the most learned men and principal literary ornaments of the court of Charlemagne, and of his empire, was Eginhard, his son-in-law and secretary. He was a native of Germany, but the place of his birth is unknown. Early in life he visited the French court, where he received his education, as appears from the preface to the "Life of Charlemagne," wherein he says, that he was induced to engage in the work, because of the obliga- tions he was under to the emperor for his education. He en- joyed so much of the esteem and confidence of Charlemagne, that he not only made him his secretary, but gave him his daugh- ter Imma in marriage, and appointed him to the lucrative office of superintendent of public buildings. The principal writings of Eginhard are his "Life of Charlemagne" and his "Annals," to which we are principally indebted for the information we pos- sess, relative to the life and character of the extraordinary per- sonage whose reign they commemorate. His "Annals" contains HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 257 the history of France, from the year 741 to A. D. 829, embra- cing the reigns of Pepin, Charlemagne, and part of that of Louis, and is composed with a degree of judgment and discrimination greatly exceeding the other works of the times of a similar cha- racter. His "Life of Charlemagne," contains the private and domestic history of that monarch, in which he enters into a mi- nute account of his character, as the head of a family and a pri- vate man. He also gives a brief account of his wars and con- quests, and the many useful public works he caused to be erect- ed. In most of the transactions he describes, he professes to have been either personally engaged, or an eye witness of the manner in which they were conducted. As a writer, Eginhard is acknowledged to have been much superior to any of his age, particularly in historical composition, and his letters are remark- able for purity and perspicuity of style. His wife died A. D. 837, and he seems to have deeply lamented her loss; he himself died A. D. 839. and was buried in the church of the monastery of Selgenstadt in Germany. Had the successors of Charlemagne possessed equal abilities, with the same energy and decision of character, .the seeds of science he had sown, might have brought forth good fruit; but his sceptre unfortunately fell into hands too feeble to wield it. His son and successor, Louis le Debonnaire, was a generous but superstitious prince, and soon fell a victim to his father's impru- dent policy of dividing his empire between his three sons, and to the machinations of the clergy who sought to establish a right to dethrone kings at pleasure. Louis, however, had imbibed something of the spirit of his father with regard to literature, and was well disposed to advance its interests, and, had his reign been less turbulent, his generous efforts might have re- sulted in something beneficial. Charlemagne in his own person had overcome the prejudices of the age, that confined the pursuits of learning almost exclusively to the cloister, and had done much to promote the cause of science, but his example made but little impression upon his successors. In addition to a disinclination on their part to undergo the fatigues of study, the disorder of the state, the almost continual revolts and contests for sovereign- ty, during the government of the Carlovtngean race, contributed in a great degree, as such a state of things ever will, to retard- and check the general diffusion of; knowledge. In these boiste- ' ' HISTORY OF LITERATURE. rous and troublesome times, even the monasteries, heretofore generally regarded as sanctuaries, were violated they were in- vaded by the din of arms, and the war-cry echoed from cloister to cloister. In the destruction of these houses of religious re- tirement, many valuable libraries, rich in ancient manuscripts, were burnt or otherwise destroyed, to the great loss of after times. In such a state of society, when almost every political and social tie was severed, when the retreats of learning were broken up, and when war was the almost exclusive occupation of all classes, it is not to be expected that literature would flourish. "In circumstances so adverse to study," says a writer on the history of France, when speaking of the literature of the age, "the mind itself degenerates, the attention is distracted; the train of thought turns materially on thedungers which have with difficulty been escaped, and on the evils which are still ap- prehended; the mind is almost continually in a state of anxiety and passion, very unfavorable to the exercise of judgment and the cultivation of taste."* During the period under review, in addition to those already mentioned, the empire of Charlemagne produced but few wri- ters, either distinguished for weight of talents, or originality of genius. Between the death of Charlemagne and the accession of Hugh Capet A. D. 897, when a new dynasty ascended tho throne of France, twelve kings are enumerated, not one of whom gave themselves any trouble about the concerns of literature or the advancement of science, except Charles the Bald, son of Louis le Dcbonnaire. This monarch exerted himself in the propoga- tion of letters, as far as he was able from the internal condition of his empire. He increased- the number of schools throughout the empire, and endeavored to excite a spirit of emulation among the learned, whom he invited to his court but all hb efforts availed but little; learning was rapidly retrograding to the state in which it was before the time of Charlemagne. Some- thing more was wanting than mere royal patronage, to remove the cloud that was fast gathering, and which overspread Chris- tian Europe in the following century. In Italy Lothaire endea- vored to revive the sciences, for which purpose he erected * Rankius' Hist, of France, vol. 1. HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 259 schools in the principal cities, but little success attended his ef- forts. Historical writing, or the composition of annals or chronicles, and disquisitions on abstruse points in theology, principally oc- cupied the attention of those who were distinguished by the- -appellation of learned. The useful and interesting sciences which, at the present day, form so prominent a part of a libe- ral education, were but little known, and so little regarded, that the close of the tenth century, Gerbert, archbishop of Rheims, was regarded as a magician, because he understood something of geometry, and was so much of an astronomer, as to be able to understand and explain the motions of the heavenly bodies. Poetry and belle-lettres were but little -cultivated; they were nnsuited to so barren a soil. Historical composition was more attended to but how unlike the works of those ancient histo- rians who have given immortality to Greece and Rome! How unlike the polished writings of Herodotus and Tacitus, of Xeno- phon or Polybius! Their histories, if they deserve the name, are little more than meagre chronicles of passing events, with but little variety in the style, and as little judgment in the ar- rangement of the materials of which they are composed. Their authors seldom indulged in reflections upon the causes which led to any great event they record ; they leave their readers to draw their own inferences. The most celebrated works relat- ing to the history of the times, were, the "Annals of the Abbey of Saint Bertin," written by different authors, which contains the history of France, from the year 741 to A. D. 861; the "An- nals of Fulda," which embraces a period of one hundred and eighty-six years, from A. D. 741 to A. D. 000; the "Annals of Metz," which begins with the foundation of the French mon- archy, and is continued to the tenth century; the "Memoirs of Louis le Debonnaire," by Thegan, which, besides the personal history of that unfortunate monarch, contains also, the history of the monarchy from his accession to the year A. D. 837. 77iegYW,mentioned above as the author of the memoi rs of Louis le Debonnaire, like all the learned men of his time, was an ecclesias- tic, and had received such an education as fitted him for the high office of coadjutor to the bishop of Treves. After receiving this appointment, he applied himself with great zeal to the duties of his office, attending more to public preaching, than to private 260 HISTORY OP LITERATURE. study. His principal work is the one above-mentioned, which, being written in the form of annals, has no beauty or decora- tion of style to recommend it. He does justice to the character of Louis, his benefactor, and does not spare the bishops, who. after being raised by him from the lowest condition in life, to rank and power, became his most violent and unrelenting perse- cutors. Few princes suffered more from the violence of the clergy, than this unfortunate son of Charlemagne, whose virtues ought to have secured him a milder fate. With a temper pecu- liarly gentle, and almost incapable of being excited to anger, and withal, remarkable for his piety and devotion, he was a fit sub- ject for the machinations of aspiring bishops, who had obtain- ed over him an unbounded influence. This influence they ex- erted in dethroning him, and subjecting him to the most humi- liating penance. They caused him to be clothed in hair-cloth, and prostrating himself on the ground before them, he humbly requested that he might be admitted to discipline according to the canons of the church, for the expiation of his sins. On this occasion, Hebo, bishop of Rheims, whom he had raised from the lowest condition to the highest order of the church, presided with all that insolence and haughtiness common to the clergy of the times, who affected to believe, that they received their au- thority immediately from God himself. Of Hebo, who, forget- ful of his generous benefactor, thus returned evil for good, The- gan thus speaks: "Is it thus, perfidious wretch! thou requitest his beneficence who raised thee from a state of slavery? He clothed thee with purple, and thou hast covered him with sack- cloth; he exalted thee to the summit of ecclesiastical honor and power, and thou hast deposed him from the throne of his fa- thers." This burst of honest indignation and noble feeling, should impress us with an opinion highly favorable to the moral and religious character of Thegan, who, amidst the corruption of the times, regardless of the frowns of his superiors, was bold enough to step forth the defender of his injured and unfortunate benefactor. Contemporary with Thegan was Walafrid, abbe of Richenou, supposed to be the author of the "Annals of Fulda," of which religious house he had been an inmate. He was remarkable for his early display of genius, and was among the few authors of his time who courted the muses. His principal prose work HISTORY OF LITERATURE. y^ is "An account of the ordinances and worship of the Christian church," in which he gives a history of the origin of the cere- monies used by the church. His poetical works consist of the "Acts and Life of Mamma," a saint and martyr of Cappadocia ; a poem entitled the "Flower Garden," and other minor poems. The Life of Mamma, consists of twenty-six chapters, and de- scribes all the miracles and striking events, that distinguished the life of the saint, and gave him a high character for sanc- tity. The "Flower Garden," consists of about two hundred lines, in which he treats of the names and virtues of plants, and gives a variety of directions on the subject of gardening this work shows him to have been one of those who could walk abroad, and admire the wonderful works of creation. In the literary history of France he is mentioned as one who deserved to "be ranked among the most eminent writers of his time. There were few authors who wrote better than he did, in either verse or prose. In his prose there is a purity, a smoothness and ar- rangement of language, which, though imperfect, was then very rare. His poetical pieces have not all the same beauty ; in some, there is a want of fire, of elevation, of poetic genius, but in some of them we see all those qualities beautifully united." We will now turn our attention to the state of learning in England. Before the reign of Alfred, justly sirnamed the Great* the literature of England, like that of France before the reign of Charlemagne, was in a very humble condition, although her history boasts the name of the venerable Bede, already mention- ed. A brief sketch of the condition of England, previous to the reign of Alfred, will give some idea of the causes of this state of things.* From the reign of Augustus until that of Valentinian the younger, about A. D. 440, Britain was a Roman province, and made considerable progress in acquiring a knowledge of the arts and sciences introduced by her enlightened conquerors. But when the magnificent fabric of Roman power and greatness, which had so long towered above that of all other nations, was, through the folly and weakness of her emperors, shaken to the foundation, the situation of the inhabitants of Britain was changed. Pro- tected by the Roman arms, they enjoyed a state of comparative ease and comfort, and were enabled not only to cultivate such arts as contributed to their domestic convenience, but to pay so HISTORY OF LITERATURE. such attention to learning, that many schools were instituted for the education of youth in the various branches of science then known. The exigencies of a fallen empire, however, required the withdrawal of her legions from a distant province to defend the "Eternal City" itself from the threatened attack of her Go- thic invaders, and the deserted Britons were exposed to the in- roads of their more rude and warlike neighbors. These unhappy people were reduced to so low a state, that in a letter to Aetius, the victorious general of Valentinian, they complained, that "the barbarians on the one hand, drive us into the sea; the sea, on the other, drives us back upon the barbarians. We have only the hard choi-ce left us of perishing by the sword, or being drown- ed in the deep." In this deplorable condition, relying upon their own skill and prowess to repel invasions, and protect them- selves from the assaults of their enemies, they had but little time to devote to the cultivation of learning hence it not only lan- guished, but the little that had been previously known was nearly lost. In the wretched and humiliating condition above-mentioned, the Britons, almost driven to despair, applied for succor to the Saxons, a bold and restless people a swarm from the great "northern hive." They represented themselves as almost worn 'out by hostile invasions, and harrassed by the continual incur- sions of their enemies. "We are," said they, "possessed of a wide extended and fertile country; this we yield wholly to be at thy devotion and command. Beneath th6 wings of your va- lor we seek for safety, and shall willingly undergo whatever ser- vices you may hereafter be pleased to impose." In consequence of this invitation, a considerable body of Saxons arrived in Bri- tain under the command of two brother chiefs, Hengist and Horsa. They united with the Britons and gained a complete victory over the Picts and Scots, and being highly pleased with the fertility of the soil and the mildness of the climate, they persuaded a larger body of their countrymen to follow them. They succeeded, without much difficulty, in establishing themselves, and from friends and protectors of the Britons, they became their conquerors and oppressors, and, on the ruins of the independ- ence of those they came to succor, they established the seven kingdoms of the Algo-Saxons, called the Heptarchy. The divi- sion of the country into so many petty monarchies, whose eon- HISTORY OF LITERATURE. Dieting interests, or motives of ambition, occasioned continual wars, left but little leisure for the cultivation of learning and the successful march of intellect. The conversion of the Anglo- Saxons to Christianity in the seventh century, had a considerable effect upon the interests of learning; by embracing Christianity, they were led to make inquiries, and enter into speculations U-pon the various subjects, as well literary and scientific, as reli- gious: schools were founded in different places, one of which, that of Canterbury, was enriched by many valuable books brought from Rome. The union of the kingdoms of the Hep- tarchy under Egbert, formed a happy era in the history of the country; united under one monarch, it was freed from those scenes of internal war which had long disturbed its peace. Eg- bert, early in life, withdrew from Briton into France, where he applied himself to study with so much diligence, that he made rapid progress in all the learning then known in the court of Charlemagne, and acquired such a fund of useful information, as subsequently enabled him to wield the sceptre with so much glory. Egbert encouraged learning and protected learned men. so far as he could consistently with the spirit of the times. His influence, however, was but little, notwithstanding his exalted station, when placed in competition with that of the clergy, whose interest it was to prevent the light of knowledge from spreading its beams too widely among the people. Alfred succeeded his brother Ethelred A. D. 871. He was scarcely seated on the throne before he had to contend with the Danes, a formidable enemy, who, in the reigns of his predeces- sors, had gained a footing in the kingdom, and committed great outrages. It was reserved for Alfred to rid the country of these bold invaders, and give peace to his people, while he establish- ed his throne in security. Few monarchs are entitled to higher commendations than Alfred, as well on account of his military qualities, and his capacity for government, as for the encourage- ment he afforded to learning. His merits as a general are evin- ced in the skill with which he encountered the warlike Danes, led on, as they were, by skilful and experienced leaders; his capacity for government is evinced in the judicious laws he enacted for the security of the lives and property of his subjects; his zeal for learning is manifested in the measures he took for the instruction of theen diminished, they would have raised themselves to the en- HISTORY OF LITERATURE. viable rank of benefactors of the human race. They would have erected to themselves monuments more durable than brass or marble, in that intellectual light which might have equalled the proud era of Augustan literature. But regardless of future fame, they permitted the light of learning to be hid behind dark clouds for nine hundred years, and it was not until the middle of the eleventh century the clouds began to disperse, and that light began to illuminate the world, which shone in full splendor in the fifteenth century. After the conquest of England, by William of Normandy, A. D. 1066, and the consequent establishment of the Normans in the conquered territory, learning made some advances. The tyrannical oppression which William exercised over his new subjects, with regard to property, was most severely felt; he fleeced them of their money without scruple, and he depopula- ted whole districts to make hunting grounds, without giving the people any remuneration. No king of England was ever so opulent, or so able to support the splendor and magnificence of a court, or to have promoted the interests of learning; but Wil- liam, like all the other princes of the age, had never devoted much time to the pursuit of that knowledge to be derived from books, and if he did not directly encourage it by his liberality and his own example, he did nothing to suppress it. We, there- fore, find, that under his rigorous government, the state of learn- ing became more respectable and more prosperous, than it had been since the days of Alfred. The reign of William is distinguished by the name of Ingulph? his secretary, who received his education at the university of Ox- ford, which had assumed a high rank among seminaries of learn- ing. In addition to the sciences usually taught at this period, which, we have already seen, were very limited in number, he applied himself to the study of the philosophy of Aristotle, some books of which had escaped the fury of the Danes. He wrote an historical work which gained him considerable reputa- tion, and is still regarded as good authority for the history of the times in which it treats. With the knowledge and talents he possessed, had he devoted his life to study, he might have at- tained still higher distinction in the republic of letters, but seized with that romantic spirit which pervaded all ranks, he joined a body of seven thousand pilgrims, at the head of which was the 2^2 HISTORY OF LITERATURE, archbishop of Mayertce, who designed to vist the holy sepulchre, then the most striking object of Christian devotion. A remnant of this band, (among whom was Ingulph,) after encountering many trials and dangers, and after being robbed and otherwise maltreated by tribes of wandering Arabs, arrived at the Holy City, and, having made a solemn procession to the sepulchre, they performed those sacred rites that the devout and weary pilgrim felt himself bound to perform. These pilgrimages arc the more remarkable and interesting in the history of the world, as the treatment the pilgrims received at the hands of the fol- lowers of the koran, gave rise to those celebrated expeditions called the crusades, which caused Europe so much blood and treasure, without gaining one important end in a political or re- ligious point of view. The archbishop and the remnant of his pafrty, after encountering innumerable hardships, returned to Europe, and Ingulph reached his native land with only twenty of the numerous body that accompanied him. The difficulties and dangers attending this long and hazardous journey, seemed but to inspire new zeal, and encourage others to seek the se- pulchre of their crucified savior. Spencer, in his Fairy Queen, thus describes the pilgrim: A silly man, in simple weeds t'oreworne, And soil'd with dust of the long dried way, His anv/, to the revival of letters in the fifteenth century. THE learning and indefatigable exertions of Bacon and others, whom we have already mentioned, in the pursuit of knowledge, discovered new sources of information, and laid open new fields for the lovers of science and philosophy to ex- plore, and the admirers of elegant literature to wander through. They were followed by several learned men, who were distin- * Henry's Hist, of Gr. Brit; Enfield's Hist, of Phil.; Hughes' Life of Abelard; Spen- cer's Fairy Queen; Mills' Hist, of Chiv.; Mills' Hist, of the Crusades; Sismondi's Lit. of the South of Eur.; La Harpe Cours de Lit.; Sismondi's Hist. Rep. ItaJ.; Beattie' "Es'say on Fab, and Rom.: Hoole's Aricstb. HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 2gj guished by peculiar appellations, expressive of their particular attainments, or qualities of mind ; thus John Dun Scotus was cal- led the most subtle doctor, on account of his acuteness and subtilty in controversy. . William of Clermont, from the resolution and perseverance with which he pursued the study of the philosophy of the times, was called the resolute doctor^ and Walter Burley, one ef the preceptors of Edward III, wrote with a perspicuity so much superior to any of his contemporaries, that he was called the perspicuous doctor. Of these, and some others of the age, we will give a brief sketch. Contemporary with Roger Bacon, was Michael Scot, a native of Scotland. He received the rudiments of his education in his native land, and afterwards studied at Oxford. He subse- quently visited Paris where he obtained the highest academical honors. He became so celebrated for learning, that he was in- vited to the court of the emperor Frederick II, who employed him to make Latin translations of the works of Aristotle and ether philosophers of Greece. For this task he was extremely well qualified, because of his familiarity with the philosophy of the Greeks, particularly with that of Aristotle, and his know- ledge of the Greek and Arabic languages. At this time the study of astrology and alchemy engaged the atttention of the most learned men, and Scot not only employed no inconsidera- ble portion of his time, in these vain and unprofitable pursuits, but wrote a book on the nature of the sun and moon, which, in the language of alchymists, signify gold and silver. Scot is said by Mackenzie in his "Lives of the Scots writers," to have been "one of the greatest philosophers, mathematicians, physicians and linguists of the age, and, had he not been too much addicted to the vain studies of judicial astrology, alchymy, physiognomy and ehiromancy, he would have deserved better of the republic of letters. His too great curiosity in these matters made the vul- gar look upon him as a magician; though none speaks or writes more respectfully of God and religion than he does." Scot re- turned to Britain about the year 1250, and died A. D. 1290. John Dun Scotus was born about A. D. 1 265, but the place of his birth is uncertain; England, Scotland and Ireland, have each contended for the honor. He entered, when very young, a mo 1 - jiastery of the Franciscans at Newcastle. The brotherhood dis- covering a remarkable quickness of genius and ^superiority of 292 HISTORY OF LITERATURE, intellect, sent him to Oxford to prosecute the studies then taught in that seat of science. He soon distinguished himself among his fellow students, and the rapidity with which he made him- self acquainted with the various subjects of his studies. So successful was he in the acquirement of knowledge, that A. D. 1301, he was promoted to the distinction of theological profes- sor in the university. For this station he appears to have been well suited, and his lectures attracted immense crowds. In A. D. 1 304, he removed to Paris, where he defended the immacu- late conception of the Virgin Mary, which was impugned by the divines of that city, with such acuteness of reasoning and strength of argument, that the university of Paris bestowed on him the title of the subtle doctor. Scotus was at first a follower in theology of Thomas Aquinas, but differing from his master concerning the efficacy of divine grace, he formed a distinct sect, known by the name of Scotists. It is said of him, that "he described the divine nature, as if he had seen God; the attributes of celestial spirits, as if he had been an angel; the felicities of a future state, as if he had enjoyed them; and the ways of Providence, as if he had penetrated into all its secrets." Scotus died in the 44th year of his age. His works, which were published in twelve folio vo- lumes, are now regarded as mere objects of curiosity as speci- mens of the literature and philosophy of the age in which he lived. William Occam, another learned man of the age, was one of the disciples of Scotus^ and the founder of a sect called Occamisls. He was born A. D. 1 280, and first prosecuted his studies at Oxford, and afterwards at Paris, as appears to have been the custom of the day. Although one of the disciples of Scotus, he did not yield implicit faith to all his doctrines and opinions, but afterwards opposed some of his leading doctrines with great warmth. Occam was a man of independent spirit, and boldly stepped forth in opposition to the high claims advanced by Boni- face VIII, in which that ambitious pontiff maintained, that "all emperors, kings and princes are subject to the supreme authori- ty of the pope, in temporals as well as in spirituals," and that God has established the authority of the pope "over kings and kingdoms, to root up, to pull down, to destroy, to scatter, to build up, and to plant in his name and by his doctrine." The \vork he published on this subject is entitled "On the Ecclcsias- HISTORY OF LITERATURE. _) 9 3 tic and Secular Power." Being protected by the emperor, Louis of Bavaria, he withstood the rage of the Pontiffs who denounced him, but on the death of the emperor, he was obliged to re- nounce his heterodox opinions, and swear implicit submission to the decisions of the papal chair. He was no doubt a man of great learning, and was honored with the title of the Invincible doctor. At this period there were a number of British historians, but few of whom were remarkable for their talents or abilities as historians they were annalists, or writers of chronicles, whose works were barren of interest. Among them, however, Matthew Paris deserves a place, on account of his merit as a faithful historian, whose works are still referred to by historians of our own times. So little is known, however, of his per- sonal history, that we are not informed, either of the time or place of his birth. It appears that he took the habit of a monk, in the abbey of St. Albans, A. D. 1217. In this abbey he con- tinued many years, enjoying a high reputation for learning, piety and virtue, and was on a friendly and familiar footing with king Henry III. He is said to have been "an elegant poet, an eloquent orator, an acute logician, a subtle philosopher, a solid divine, a celebrated historian, and, which crowned the whole, a man justly famous for the purity, integrity, innocence, and sim- plicity of his manners." He was a voluminous writer; a great portion of his works treated on theological subjects, which have shared the fate of those of many of his contemporaries. His greatest work is entitled "Historia Major," and contains the history of England from the time of the Norman conquest, A. D. 1066, to the 43d year of Henry III, A. D. 1259, at which time the author died. In this work he censures without ceremony, and in the plainest language, the vices and follies of persons of the highest rank and greatest power, and the firmness of his character is plainly indicated, by the bold manner in which he attacks and exposes, the boundless profligacy and abandoned perfidy of the papal court, then in the very zenith of its power and pretensions. Having mentioned a few of the learned men of the thirteenth century, let us for a few moments, turn our attention to the dif- ferent schools and colleges, established or revived, in different parts of Europe. A desire of knowledge having been excited,, 294 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. which spread among the laity, schemes were formed for the promotion of the study of elegant literature and improving the public taste. Schools were established in the principal cities by public bounty, or private munificence, in which young men of narrow circumstances had an opportunity of being educated in the different branches of literature and science, as well as the abstract doctrines of theology, and the metaphysical subtleties of philosophy. About the year 1 225, Frederick, king of Naples and Sicily, having ascended the imperial throne, founded the university of Naples, and established professorships of law, the- ology, medicine and grammar, to fill which he invited the most learned men of Italy. He conferred upon it important privi- leges, calculated, by a proper exercise, to promote the great end in view, and extend its usefulness. Being under the royal pat- ronage it flourished, and soon could boast of numerous students; and in order to augment the number of professors and scholars, Frederick ordered those belonging to the university of Bologna, to attach themselves to that of Naples. This order was issued at a time when the former city labored under the displeasure of Frederick; the university, however, paid no attention to his commands, or his menaces, so that botli institutions were in exis- tence at the same time, each contributing their exertions for the promotion of knowledge. The academy of Paris, which had been long established, about this time extended the sphere of its usefulness, and teachers and professors were appointed in every branch of learning then known they were not confined to theology and its kindred branches. Its teachers became celebrated for their erudition, and the fame of the school being spread abroad, attracted a greater number of students than any other institution of learning, with the exception, perhaps, of some of the schools of Spain. The academy of Paris being thus distinguished, assumed the title of university, and the professors were divided into four classes, according to the branches they professed, which classes were called faculties. In each of these faculties, a doctor was chosen by the suffrages of his colleagues, to preside during a certain time, and the title of Dean was given to those who suc- cessively filled that office. The head of the university, or the presiding officer of the whole, was called the Chancellor, which office was usually filled by the archbishop of Parirgv HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 29 The examination of such as were desirous t>f being admitted as professors in any of the faculties, was long and tedious; they were obliged to give undoubted proofs of their learning and ca- pacity, before they were received as public teachers. This examination was called the academical course, and was designed to prevent the multiplication of incompetent teachers. An ad- mirable regulation! worthy of imitation at the present day, when so many take upon themselves the education of youth, who are totally unqualified, and incompetent to discharge its sim- plest duties, and who degrade a profession which ought to oc- cupy an elevated rank. Attached to the university of Paris, was the celebrated college of Sorbonne, which was founded A. D. 1250, by an opulent man 5 named Robert dc Sorbonne, and called after him. This college was founded, endowed and set apart for the study of divinity the most celebrated theologians were appointed to fill its chairs, who, in process of time, gained so great a reputation for piety, wisdom, and soundness of faith and doctrine, that the most dif- ficult and controverted points were submitted to their decision indeed, the doctors of the Sorbonne were at length considered, almost as infallible in their judgments, as the pope himself. In England the same desire was generally manifested for the extension of learning; indeed, there never had been so general an application to study. The university of Oxford, founded by Alfred, had experienced many disasters, but had recovered from them all, and was now in a flourishing condition. The city of Oxford suffered greatly by the incursions of the Danes, and af- terwards by the Normans, and about the middle of the twelfth century was reduced to ashes by king Stephen. The professors and students of the university were dispersed, but returned again in the reign of Henry II, who was a patron of learning, and used his power and interest to promote it. In the reign of king John, a circumstance occurred which threatened serious consequences. One of the students accidentally killed a woman, and made his escape for fear of punishment. A mob immedi- ately assembled and surrounded the university, but not finding the offender, they seized upon three other students, whom they afterwards put to death, by order of king John. The professors and students immediately left Oxford, and complaining to the pope, he issued a bull laying the city under an interdict* and 2 ues in his honor, and even instituted a professorship for the pur- pose of lecturing upon and illustrating his poem?. To this chai i HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 303 the Celebrated Boccacio was first appointed, with a salary of one hundred florins per annum. Although the merits of Dante are variously estimated by mod- ern citizens, he is justly entitled to the distinction of "Father of Italian poetry." Before his time the studies of those who devot- ed themselves to literary pursuits, were almost exclusively di- rected to philosophy and theology ; all else was esteemed unwor- thy the attention of those who assumed the character of philoso- phers, and undertook to be the teachers of mankind. From the time of Claudian, who flourished in the reign of Honorius, about the beginning of the fifth century, a period of nine hundred years, no poet of distinguished reputation had appeared none whose name or works are worth remembering, if we except the effu- sions of the Troubadours, before noticed. Dante was unac- quainted with the Greek language, but was perfectly familiar with the Latin, the language in which all literary works w r ere at that time composed, as if the vernacular tongue was incapable of conveying an authors meaning. Dante had taste enough to discover the beauties of his native tongue, and his genius readi- ly perceived the capability of the soft and sonorous language of Tuscany, to all the purposes of poetic composition. He was the author of several poetical works; his fame, however, rests upon his "Vision," or as it is called Divina Comedia, or Divine Comedy, in which he conducts his readers through Hell, Purga- tory and Paradise. This poem is divided into one hundred Can- tos, in which he exhibits a variety of characters, of all ages and conditions, in the various stages of happiness and misery, accord- ing to the religious creed of the church to which he belonged. Its great excellence consists in "elevation of sentiment to which .the compressed diction and emphatic cadences of the measure admirably correspond. We read him not as an amusing poet, but as a master of moral wisdom, with reverance and awe. Fresh from the deep and serious, though somewhat barren stu dies of philosophy, and schooled in the severer discipline of ex- perience, he has made his poem a mirror of his mind and life." This poem recites the events of a journey, the poet imagines himself to have taken through hell, purgatory and paradise. He travels through the two first kingdoms of the dead under the con- duct of Virgil, and through paradise under that of Beatrice, whom he had loved i n his youth, and who died A. D. 1 290. Tho : j()4 HISTORY OF LITERATUllE. two poets set out together and arriving at the gates of Hell are admitted to the dreary regions where -sighs, with lamentations and loud moans Resound through the air pierc'd by no star. They traverse these gloomy abodes, until they reach the "woe- ful tide of Acheron," over which they are transported in the boat of Charon whose demoniac form, With eyes of burning coal, collects them all, Beck'ning, and each that lingers, with his oar Strikes. Having crossed the gloomy Acheron, our traveller reaches the first circle of Hell, where he finds the souls of many, who for want of baptism, are not permitted to enter paradise. There Socrates and Plato both I mark'd Nearest to him in rank, Democritus Who sets the world at chance, Diogenes, With Heroditus, and Empedocles And Anaxagoras, and Thales sage, Zeno, and Dioscorides well read In Nature's secret lore. Orpheus I mark'd And Linus, Tully and moral Seneca Euclid and Ptolemy, Hippocrates Galenus, Avicen, and him who made That commentary vast, Averroes. Careys Dante, HeU. Can. iv. 130. In the fifth canto he describes the second circle of Hell, where -Minos stands Grinning with ghastly features Here he witnesses the punishment of those whose offences were not of the deepest die, and who were treated with some share of indulgence. Here he encounters the shade of Francesca> daughter of his friend and patron Guido da Polenta. Francesca was given in marriage to Lanciotto Malatesta, a man of extra- ordinary courage, but deformed in his person. His brother Poalo, who possessed the graces which he wanted, engaged the affections of Francesca, and being taken in adultery they were both put to death by the enraged husband. Dante thus ac- costs her? HISTORY OF LITERATURE. Francesca ! your sad fate Even to tears my grief and pity moves. But tell me ; in the time of your sweet sighs, By what, and how love granted, that ye knew Your yet uncertain wishes? She replied: No greater grief than to remember days Of joy, when misery is at hand. That kens They beam'd instruction. Yet so eagerly If thou art bent to know the primal root From whence our love got being, I will do As one, who weeps and tells his tale; one day, For our delight we read of Lancelot, How him love thrall'd. Alone we were, and no Suspicion near us. Ofttimes by that reading Our eyes were drawn together, and the hue Fled from our altered cheek. But at one pom Alone we fell. When of that smile we read, The wish'd smile, so rapturously kiss'd By one so deep in love, then he who ne'er From me shall separate, at once my lips All trembling kiss'd. The book and writer both Were love's purveyors. In its leaves that day We read no more," t Ibid, Can. v. 113. This passage has been particularly admired, for the delicaey and sensibility with which the unfortunate Francesca intimates her guilt, and the interest of the narative is increased when we remember, that she was the daughter of the liberal friend and generous protector of the author. In the sixth Canto he gives the following description of Cer berus, who, according to heathen mythology, guarded the en- trance to the palace of Pluto. Cerberus, cruel monster, fierce and strange, Through his wide threefold throat, barks as a dog Over the multitude immersed beneath. His eyes glare crimson, black his unctuous beard, His belly large, and claw'd the hands, with which He tears the spirits, flays them, and their limbs Piecemeal dispart!?. Howling there spread, as curs, Under the rainy deluge, with one side The other sceening, oft they roll them round, A wretched, godless crew. When that great worm Descried us, savage Cerberus, op'd His jaws, and the fangs show'd us; not a limb Of him but trembled. Ibid, Can. vi. 12. Under the guidance of his Mantuan friend, he visits every part r>f the infernal regions, which he minutely describes, according 39 3Qt> HISTORY Ol<' LITERATURE. to the opinions then entertained he converses freely with the shades he meets, learns from them the causes of their confine- ment and punishment in this place of horror he witnesses their torments, which he describes in language that makes the very Ibhood run cold at the recital. But, among the host whose crimes had condemned them to endless and excruciating torture, none suffer more than heretics those who were bold enough to de- ny the infallibility of the pope, and dispute some of the dogmas of the church. This sufficiently marks the temper of the times, and shows that, whatever disposition existed to promote polite literature, there was no charity for those who ventured to think and speak, upon reli-gious subject?, in a manner at variance with the established creed. These hopeless sinners were confined iii tombs burning with intense fire ; Their lids all hung suspended ; and beneath , From them forth issued lamentable moans, Such as the sad and tortur'd well might raise. I thus: "Master, say who are these, interr'd Within these vaults, of whom distinct we hear The dolorous sighs." lie answer thus return'd: "The arch-heretics are here, accompanied By every sect their followers; and much more, Thau thoubelicv'st, the tombs are freighted: like With like is buried; and the monuments Are different in degrees of heat." Ibid, Can. i\. 1 1!. } Caving traversed the first region of the dead, he emerges front ihe gloomy abode of suffering, and enters Purgatory, where th. souls of the elect are chastened by long sufferings, before they are permitted to enter the gates of Paradise. Of his entrance into Purgatory he thus speaks: Here, O ye hallow'd Nine! for in your train I follow, here the deaden'd strain revive; IVor let Calliope refuse to sound A somewhat higher song, of that loud tone, Which when the wretched birds of chattering note Had heard, they of forgiveness lost all hope. Sweet hue of eastern sapphire, that was spread O'er the serene aspect of the pure air, High up as the first circle, to mine eyes Unwonted joy renew 'd, soon as I scap'd Forth from the atmosphere of deadly gloom That had mine eyes and bosom fill'd with grief. The radiant planet, that to love invites, Made all the orient laugh, and veil'd beneath The Pisces' light, that in. his escort came. Ibid, Pur* Qnit i. "-' HISTORY OF LITERATURE. Having passed through the various departments of Purgatory, where he meets with many of those celebrated men who had a- dorned Italy, and who were going through that state of proba- tion which is to fit them for their future residence in the regions of bliss, he arrives at the terrestrial paradise, which he finds sit- uated on the summit of a mountain. He is conducted through Paradise by Beatrice, whose descent from Heaven he describes m the following beautiful language. I have beheld, ere now, at break of day, The eastern clime all roseate ; and the sky Oppos'd , one deep and beautiful serene ; And the sun's face so shaded, and with mists Attemper'd, at his rising, that the eye Longwhile endur'd the sight: thus, in a cloud, Of flowers, that from those hands angelic rose, And down within and outside of the car Fell showering, in white veil with olive wreath'd A virgin in my view appear'd, beneath Green mantle, rob'd in hue of living flame: And o'er my spirit, that so long a time '. v / Had from her presence felt no shudd'ring dread, Albeit my eyes discern'd her not, there mov'd A hidden virtue from her, at whose touch The power of ancient love was strong within me. Ibid, Pur. Can. xxx. 23. He is conducted by Beatrice through the different abodes of the blest, and their several states of beatitude are painted with the same glowing pencil. He first visits the moon, the first res- idence of the blest, which he finds inhabited by the souls of those who had pronounced vows of celibacy and religious seclusion, but who had been compelled to renounce them, as in the case of Picarda, a holy nun, whose story the poet relates. The se- cond heaven is the planet Mercury, where he meets with the Emperor Justinian, with whom he enters into conversation, and who kindly offers to satisfy his curiosity with regard to whatever he may desire to know, relating to the seoond heaven. The third heaven is the planet Venus. The fourth heaven is the Sun, where the souls of Thomas Aquinas a Dominican, and Bu- onaventura, a Franciscan, have found resting places. The for- mer enters into an account of the life and character of St. Fran- cis, while the latter in like manner celebrates the virtues and piety of St. Dominic an act of courtesy they would scarcely have performed whilst on earth. The fifth heaven is the 30g HISTORY OF LITERATURE. .. Mars, where the souls of those who had nobly drawn their swords, and combatted for the true faith against the infidels of the holy land, are rewarded. Here Dante encounters one of his ancestors, Cacciaguido, who speaks of the simple manners of his countrymen in his day, when Florence Was chaste and sober and abode in peace. He predicts the exile of our poet, and exhorts him to write his poem. The sixth heaven is Jupiter, where he finds the souls of those who had administered justice rightly in the world, so disposed, as to form the figure of an eagle. Here the poet, who seems to have entertained some doubt, respecting the possibili- ty of salvation without belief in Christ, has the difficulty solved^ by being told that None ever hath ascended to this realm, Who hath not a believer been in Christ, Either before or after the blest limbs Were nail'd upon the wood. But lo! of those Who call 'Christ, Christ,' there shall be many found In judgement, further off from him by far, Than such to whom his name was never known, Christians like these the Ethiop shall condemn: When that the two assemblages shall part; One rich eternally, the other poor. The seventh heaven is Saturn, inhabited by the souls of those who had passed their lives in holy contemplation. The eighth heaven, is that of the fixed stars, where the poet sees the triumphal hosts Of Christ, and all the harvest gather'd in Made ripe by these revolving spheres. He ascends to the ninth heaven, where he is permitted to be- hold the divine essence. In the tenth heaven he beholds the Virgin Mary, whom St. Bernard supplicates, that our poet may have grace given him to contemplate the divine majesty? which being granted, Beck'ning smil'd the sage. That I should look aloft; but ere he bade, Already of myself aloft I look'd; For visual strength, repining more and more; Bare me into the ray authentical Ofsov'reign light Such keenessfrom the living ray I met HISTORY OF LITERATURE. That, if mine eyes had turn 'd away.methinks, I had been lost; but, so embolden'd, on I pass'd, as I remember, till my view Hover'd the brink of dread infinitude. Ibid, Par. Can. xxxiii. He thus describes the Trinity: In that abyss Of radiance, clear and lofty, seem'd methought, Three orbs of triple hue, dipt in one bound: And, from another, one reflected stem'd, As rainbow is from rainbow: and the third Setm'd fire, breath'd equally from both. Ibid. The foregoing extracts from the great poem of Dante, will afford the reader who is unacquainted with his works, some idea of the style and manner of a poet who stood alone in his age, whose poem was formed after no existing model, but was the sole product of an active, vigorous, and original mind. "It stands a- lone" says an elegant writer and judicious critic,"* as the first monument of modern genius, the first great work that appeared in the reviving literature of Europe. In its composition, it is strictly conformable to the essential and invariable principles of the poetical art. It possesses unity of design and of execution; and bears the visible impression of a mighty genius, capable of embracing at once, the parts and the whole of its scheme; of em- ploying with facility, the most stupendous materials, and of ob- serving all the required niceties of proportion, without experi- encing any difficulty from the constraint* In all other respects, the powei of Dante is -not within the jurisdiction of established rules. It cannot with propriety be referred to any particular class of composition, and its author is only to be judged by those laws which he thought proper to impose upon himself." The minor pieces of Dante, consist principally of sonnets, a species of composition for a long time peculiar to Italian poetry, and which is still a favorite mode of composition in that lan- guage. Of his sonnets, we present the following written after the death of Beatrice, translated by Carey. Ah, pilgrims! ye, that happy musing, go, On aught save that which on your road ye meet From land so distant, tell me, I in treat, " Sismondi, Lit.Southof Eur. Vol. i, 210. 310 * HISTORY OF LITERATI 1; i. Come \ e,a> i-y your racin and looks) e show? Why inouru ye not, as through these gates ot wo, Ye wend along our city's midmost street, Even like those who nothing seem to meet ifc What chance hath fall'n, why she is grieving so 'i If ye to listen but awhile would stay, Well knows this heart, which inly sigheth sore, That ye would then pass, weeping on your way. Oh hear ; her Beatrice is no more ; And words there are a man of her might say Would make a stranger's eye that loss deplore. Contemporary with Dante was Petrarch or Pctrarco, who wa* born at Arezzo, in Tuscany, A. D. 1304, and at the death of Dante, was seventeen years of age. Petrarch was intended by his father for the law, and having passed through the necessary preparatory studies, he was sent to Bologna, there to enter upon its study, but instead of applying himself to the law, Petrarch was more frequently found dallying with the muses, or turning over the pages of elegant literature. When spoken to on his neglect of a profession which was calculated to lead him to honor and riches, he answered, that he "could not deprave his mind by such a system of chicanery, as the present forms of law exhibited." This neglect of his legal studies, induced his fa- ther to visit Bologna, to snatch him from the seductive influence of poetry. Petrarch, on the arrival of his father, attempted to conceal his favorite manuscripts of Cicero, Virgil and others; his father, however, found them and threw them into the fire, but moved by the distress of his son, he saved from the flames Virgil and Cicero, which he presented him, saying, "Take them, my son! here is Virgil, who shall console you for what you have lost; here is Cicero, who shall prepare you for the study of the laws."' After this Petrarch endeavoured to gratify the wishes of his father, but he was unable to conquer his repugnance to law. **i Among the professors at Bologna were two of the best poets of that time. One was Cicro de Pistoia, the other Cicco dc As- coli. The former was professor of law ; the latter of philosophy and astrology. These two poets, instead of opposing, cultivated the taste of Petrarch for poetry. Cicco de Ascoli, the astrolo- ger, was burnt at Florence A. D. 1327, as a socerer, by the tri- bunal of the inquisition. Jn 1325 Petrarch lost his mother, and the year following, hi? HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 3if father; he then left Bologna with his brother Gerard, and settled at Avignon, then the seat of the Roman Pontiff. The embar- rassed state in which they found the affairs of their father, in- duced the brothers to embrace the ecclesiastical profession. Pe- trarch soon became distinguished by his brilliant talents and his studious habits, and attracted the notice of John of Florence, canon of Pisa, who looked upon him as his son, assisted him with his advice, and comforted him in his various afflictions. Here also commenced his acquaintance with the family of Colonna, to whose patronage and friendship he was indebted for his pros- perity in after life, and which he ever remembered with grati- tude. This friendship commenced with James Colonna, a young man about his own age, who studied law at Bologna, when Pe- trarch was dividing his time between law and poetry. The year 1327 formed a new epoch in the history of Petrarch, and that ardent passion took possession of him, that seems to have had such an effect upon his future life. It was in that year he first saw Laura, whose charms inspired him with the most romantic ideas, and gave life and inspiration to some of the most sublime flights of his muse. His description of her person and appearance is such as none but a poetic fancy could describe; "her face, her air, her gait, were something more than mortal. Her person was delicate, her eyes tender and sparkling, and her eyebrows black as ebony. Golden locks waved over her shoulders, whiter than snow ; and the ringlets were interwoven with the fingers of love. Her neck was weH formed, and her complexion animated by the tints of nature, which art vainly attempts to imitate. When she opened her mouth, you perceived the beauty of pearls and the sweetness of roses. She was full of graces. Nothing was so soft as her look^ so modest as her carriage, so touching as the sound of her voice. An air of gaiety and tenderness breathed around her, but so pure and highly tempered, as to inspire every beholder with sentiments of virtue ; for she was chaste as the spangled dew- drop of the morn." Of Laura various opinions have been entertained, as well as to what concerns her family and condition in life, as to whether she was a married or single woman, at the time Petrarch first saw her. Some, indeed, have carried their scepticism so far as ID doubt hop very existence, as they have doubted that of Be- 3 1 -J HISTORY OF LITERATI III ,. atrice, to whom the sonnets of Dante were principally address- ed, regarding her as a mere creature of the poet's imagination. There appears, however, no good reasons for such a supposition; but, on the contrary, every reason to believe she was a real per- son, and the wife of Hugues de Sade, son of Paul, one of the syndics of the city of Avignon. A passion such as that which appears to have influenced Petrarch, and controlled almost eve- ry action of his life, cannot be defended upon any principle of morals, when we remember that its object was a chaste and virtuous married woman, and it is of so unusual a character, that we are inclined to believe there was more of affectation than reality in it. Be it real or affected, to this devotion to Laura, the world is indebted for those poetic effusions, which hav gained him so great a reputation, and which so brilliantly disti guished the age in which he lived. The poetry of Petrarc particularly his sonnets, is remarkable for its elegant and flowing style, and its purity of language. The greatest fault of his sonnets consists in too much of sickly whining about love and Laura a too frequent recurrence to the same object, and a consequent repetition of the same ideas. The image of Laura had taken such firm possession of his mind, that long after he had passed the meridian of life, when passion is usually sobered into reason, he declared that "she appeared in every object and was heard in every breeze." The bishopric of Lombes becoming vacant, pope John XXII conferred it upon James Colonna, the friend of Petrarch. The new bishop, when about to take possession of his see, invited Petrarch to accompany him. Lombes is situated at the foot of the Pyrenees, near the source of the Garonne. The manners of its inhabitants were rude and uncultivated, and directly op- posed to the refined manners of Avignon. Thither the bishop retired, together with Petrarch and two or three other friends. Petrarch accepted the invitation as well from inclination, as from a disposition to comply with what he conceived to be his duty to his friend. At Lombes, Petrarch passed the summer and autumn, where he pursued his studies with unabated ardor. He was much devoted to the study of the literature of the Ro- mans, and in order to make himself thoroughly acquainted with the works of her poets, orators and historians, he spared neither pains nor expense in collecting manuscripts. The collection of HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 313 manuscripts was of itself, a laborious undertaking, as they were so scarce, that to read the works of Cicero, it was necessary to travel from province to province, some books being preserved in one, and some in another. The destruction of the works of ancient writers, who had shed so much glory on their country, wot only caused the deep regrets of Petrarch, but excited his indignation even against the innocent descendants of the barba- O O rians, whose inroads caused this destruction. Petrarch travelled through France, Germany and Italy, where he spent some time in informing himself of the manners, customs and institutions of those countries respectively, and in examining the public and private libraries. Soon after his return to Avig- non, he retired to Vaucluse, a romantic retreat about fifteen miles distant. . Here he remained several years, devoting him- self entirely to literary pursuits, and the collection of valuable manuscripts, and to his exertions modern literature is indebted for the preservation of many valuable remains of ancient learn- ing, which, had they fallen into other hands, might never have benefited or delighted posterity. In this retreat he composed some of his most valuable works; among others he composed a Latin epic poem, entitled "Africa," celebrating the glorious achievements and heroic virtues of Scipio Africanus, the con- queror of Hannibal and Carthage. On this epic Petrarch rested his claims to immortality, regarding his lighter poems as pro- ductions which would soon be forgotten; his anticipations, how- ever, have not been realized; his "Africa" is now almost forgot- ten, whilst his sonnets constitute the chief memorial of his liter- ary fame. As a poet Petrarch attained to such distinction, that on the same day the laureat's crown was offered him by the senate of Rome, and the university of Paris. After consulting his friend Cardinal Colonna, he determined to accept the dignity of poet laureat from the Roman senate, and be crowned in the capital of the Christian world. The ceremony took place in April, 1341, and is thus described: "The assembly was convoked early in the morning on easter day, which happened to be very serene, and favorable to the solemnity. The trumpets sounded ; the people, eager to view a ceremony which had been discontinued for so many years, ran in crowds to behold it. The streets were siFewed with flowers, and the windows filled with ladies dressed 40 q , A HISTORY OF LITERATI I-; i in the most sumptuous manner, who sprinkled as much perfumed w.iters on the poet as would serve for a year in the kingdom of Spain. Petrarch appeared at last in the capitol, preceded b\ twelve young men in scarlet habits. These were chosen out of the first families of Rome, and recited his verses; while h< . adorned with the robe of state which the king of Naples h;uf given him, followed, in the midst of six of the principal citizens clothed in green, with crowns of flowers on their heads; after whom came the senator,* accompanied by the first men of the council. When he was seated in his place, Petrarch made a short harangue upon a verse drawn from Virgil: after which, having cried three times, 'Long live the people of Rome! Lonii live the Senator! God preserve them in liberty!' he kneeled down before the senator, who, after a short discourse, took from his head a crown of laurel, and put it upon Petrarch's, saying 'This crown is the reward of merit.' Then Petrarch recited a fine sonnet on the heroes of Rome/' When the ceremony in the capitol was ended, Petrarch was conducted with the same retinue to the church of St. Peter, where, after a solemn mass, and returning thanks to God for the honor he had received, he took off his crown to place it among the offerings, and hung it up on the arch of the temple.t This was a proud and glorious day in the life of Petrarch, as no individual had been so honored^ for more than a thousand years. The public coronation of Petrarch in the Roman capitol, with the laureates crown, spread his fame far and wide, and wherever he travelled, he was not only an object of curiosity to the idle, but was greeted by the refined and polished portion of society^ with all the enthusiasm that genius is calculated to inspire. Among the numerous instances of enthusiastic devotion which are related, we will mention one. A schoolmaster of Pontromo- , old and blind, travelled on foot, conducted by his son, from romoli to Naples, from Naples to Rome and from Rome to Parma, for the sole purpose, as he said, of seeing him, and, when introduced to Petrarch, he gave himself up to the most excessive transports. He remained three days at Parma, following him wherever he went, listening with delight to every word that fell <>, count of Anguillara, hrld that high ofli i , i.rarch arrived at I: Dob.on'e Life of Petrarch, vol. 1. book III. HISTORY OF LITERATURE. trom liis lips He returned to his home highly gratified, with the result of his long and toilsome journey. A few years after the ceremony we have described, the hap- piness of Petrarch received a severe shock in the death of Laura, jp and his patron and friend the cardinal Colonna, \vhom-JieJJiu.- pathetically laments in an address to Death: "Thou hast taken from me the two treasures which were my joy and my confi- dence; that stately column which served .me for support, and that green laurel under whose care my weary soul reposed! nothing can restore to me what I have lost. What remains for me, hut to bemoan, all my future days, such irreparable losses? Our life is like the shadow of the sun passing over the plain. We lose in one moment what we have been years in acquiring." Petrarch lived to the advanced age of seventy years, enjoying the friendship of the most illustrious men of his time. His death took place July 18th, 1374 he was found dead in his library, one arm leaning on a book. His death caused a general grief, and throughout Italy was heard the exclamation, "the father of letters is no more; the light of our age is extinguished." Peo- ple came from all quarters, to do honor to the memory of him who had been the greatest ornament of their country, since the i days of Augustus. ^*- We have said that although Petrarch himself rested his fame upon his poem of "Africa," he is remembered only for his sonnets, which are remarkable for delicacy of sentiment and elegance of style. For these powerful evidences of transcendant genius, we are indebted to his real or affected passion for Laura. There was nothing low or grovelling in his passion ever present to his thoughts, she inspired him with the most delicate and refined ideas, and filled his imagination with the most pleasing images. The sonnet has ever been a great favorite w r ith the Italians, particularly since the time of Petrarch, who may be considered as the father of the sonnet. It is true it was known before his time; sonnets were composed by the Provencal and Sicilian poets, and we have seen that Dante sometimes forgot the gloomy horrors of his Inferno, and indited sonnets in praise of Beatrice. Of all the kinds of poetic composition in which poets have in- dulged, the sonnet is, perhaps, the most difficult, being confined to a certain number of lines or verses the legitimate mimbri being fourteen. It is "essentially musical and essentially founder 1 HISTORY OF LITERATI K i upon the harmony of sound, from which its name is derived, It acts upon the mind rather through the words than by the thoughts. The richness and fulness of the rhymes constitute a portion of its grace, and the return of the same sounds makes a more powerful impression, in proportion to their repetition and completeness." The peculiar style of versification employed in the sonnet, is, however, rather uripleasing to the unpracticed ear, but when once it becomes familiar, it has all the beauty and harmony of the most polished verse. This beauty and har- mony of versification in the sonnet seems particularly to belong to the Italian, and may arise from the peculiar construction of the soft and sonorous language of Tuscany, which is better adapted to the sonnet than any other, either ancient or modern. In the English and French sonnets, there is evidently much more labor there appears to- be a constant effort and exertion to produce effect, unlike the easy and flowing style of the Italian. We will here introduce one in each language respectively, that a judgment of the merits of each may be formed. The first is by Petrarch, and is one of those exquisite and feeling produc- tions, in which he pours forth the emotions of his soul on the death of Laura : Gli occhi, di ch'io parlai si caldamenle, K le brarcia et le niani, e i piedi, e'l viso. Cbe m'havean si da me stesso diviso, E fatto singular da 1 'ultra gente; Le crespe chiome d' or puro lucente, E'l lampeggiar de 1' angelico riso, Che solean far in terra un paradise, Pocapolvere son che nulla sente. Ed io pur vivo: onde mi doglio e sdegno, Rimas o senza '1 lume, ch' amai tanto, In gran fortune, e'n disarmato legno. Or sia qui fine al mio amoroso canto: Secca e la vena de 1' usato ingegno, E la citera mia rivolta in pianto. The following is from the pen of Maynard, a French poet oi considerable reputation in the age of Louis XVI. He was well known as a writer of satires, epigrams and sonnets, which were usually written in a style of great purity and elegance. Having addressed some verses to Cardinal Richelieu, in a style of court- ly flattery, of which the cardinal took no notice, Maynard ad- dressed to him the following sonnet, which shews that if he II [STORY OF LITERATURE. jj^ could employ the language of flattery, when it suited his pur- poses, he could also dart with some effect, the arrow of satire. Par votre humeur le monde est gouverne: Vos volontes font le calme et 1'orage; Et vous riez de me voir confine, Loin de la cour, dans mon petit village ClSomedon, raes desirs sont contens, Je trouvebeau le desert oiij'habite, Et connais bien qu'il faut ceder au temps, Fuir 1'eclat et devenirermite. Jesuisheureux de veiller sans emploi, De me cacher, de vivre tout a moi, D'avoir dompte la crainte et 1'esperance;.; t, si le Ciel, qui me traite si bien, Avait pitie de vous et de la France, Votre bonheur serait egal au mien. / The following sonnet on the departure of the nightingale, breathes such, a spirit of tenderness, and is clothed in language of so much beauty, that we present it as favorable specimen of English sonnet writing. It is the production of Mrs. Charlotte vSmith, a highly gifted lady, whose sonnets are not only deserv- edly admired, but have placed her at the head of English poets* in that particular species of composition: Sweet poet of the woods, a long adieu! Farewell, soft minstrel of the early year! Ah ! 't will be long e'er thou shalt sing anew, And pour thy music on the night's dull ear. Whether on Spring thy wandering flights await, Or whether silent in our groves you dwell, The pensive muse shall own thee for her mate, And still protect the song she loves so well. With cautious step, the love-born youth shall glide i Thro' the lone brake that sheds thy mossy nest; And shepherd girls, from eyes profane, shall hide The gentle bird, who sings of pity best: For still thy voice shall soft affections move, And still be dear to sorrow and to love ! In the foregoing examples of the Italian, French and English sonnets, there is a manifest difference the most striking, per- haps, is the number of verses in the Italian of similar termina- tions, which are thought to constitute their chief beauty. This peculiarity arises from the fact, that in the Italian language, almost all the syllables are simple, and formed from a few letters^ so that it has a greater number of words of similar terminations. HISTORY OK LITERATURE. As Me remarked above, although Petrarch himself rested hi- hopes of future fame upon his "Africa" and his other Latin works, on which tie bestowed much time and labor, his sonnets at the present day constitute the chief memorial of his fame. O ;i these elegant productions he bestowed much care, and never suffered one to appear unless it reached his standard of criticism. He had in view in his Italian verses, a continuation of that improvement of the language which had been begun by Dante, and in consequence of his efforts and those of his con- temporary Boccacio, it attained the standard of perfection. By the care of these learned and distinguished men these brilliant lights of the fourteenth century, "more exact rules were intro- duced; a crowd of barbarous words were rejected; the nobler were separated from the more vulgar expressions; the latter were excluded forever from the language of verse, and poetry became more elegant, more melodious and more pleasing to the oar of tate." The greater number of the sonnets of Petrarch composed du- ring the lifetime of Laura, arc addressed directly to her in praise of her beauty and virtue, and those high qualities of mind and person which his glowing fancy pictured, and those written af- ter her death, have continual allusions to the loss he had sus- tained. The following beautiful sonnet was written by Petrarch after Laura was considerably advanced in life, and her beauty began to fade. It shows with what fervency the poet loved, or fancied he loved, and how much his thoughts dwelt upon tin- object of his affections. Waved to the winds were those long locks of gold, Which in a thousand burnish'd ringlets flow'd, And the sweet light, beyond all measure, glow'd, * Of those fair eyes, which I no more behold; i\ur (so it seem'd) that face, ought harsh or cold To me (if true or false, I know not) show'd: Me, in whose breast the amorous lure abode, it ilanies consum'd, what marvel to unfold? That step of hers was of no mortal guise, But of angelic nature, and her tongue Had other utterance than of human sounds: A living sun, a spirit of the skies, I saw htr now, perhaps, not so. But wounds Heal not, for that the bow is since unstrung. Roscoc. With the following sonnet in which the writer repents having HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 319 '" missapplied in his youth the talents with which he was .gifted, we will conclude our notice of Petrarch. Still do I weep the days that are gone by, When sublunary things my fondness sway'd, And no bold flight, though haviyg wings,! made. Haply to give me examples high. Then, who my impious, foul misdeeds dost spy, Dread Lord of heaven immortal, viewless! aid T-he soul that's frail, that has from duty stray'd: And its defect O let thy grace supply ! Thus if life's warfare, and its storm I prov'd, Peace, and a harbour may in death be mine: Though vain my stay, I'll worthily depart. For that short period ere I'm hence remov'd, And at the last, extend thy hand divine: Thou know'st, that thou alone giv'st hope unto my heart. Anon. Contemporary with Petrarch was the celebrated Italian poet and novelist Boccacio, who was born at Certaldo in Tuscany, A. D. 1313, from which circumstance he is sometimes called John of Certaldo. He was placed early in life with a merchant of Florence, with the view of being educated to mercantile pur- suits, but his taste for poetry and belles letters, getting the bet- ter of his desire for gain, he was dismissed from his employment for negligence. He then began the study of the canon law, with a view to ecclesiastical preferment, but here again his taste for elegant literature prevailed, and after making several attempts in other pursuits, the chief end of which was money, with the consent of his father he determined to devote himself to the cultivation of literature. About this time a favorable op- portunity presented itself of acquiring the Greek language, the knowledge of which was then confined to very few, not more it- is said than half a dozen persons in Italy, being acquainted with , even its rudiments. Boccacio acquired a sufficient knowledge of the language, to enable him to relish its beauties, and in or- der to make himself acquainted with all the learning of the times, he fixed his residence for a time at Naples, where learning flour- ished under the patronage of king Robert. After spending sev- eral years at Naples he returned to Florence, where he remain- ed but a short time, in consequence of the troubles inAvhich that city was involved, by the strife of opposing partio?. He spent several years in visiting different parts of Italy, until tranquility WHS restored, when he returned fn his n:Hiv r ->nntry. After his HISTORY OF LITERATURL. jp return to .Florence he filled several public offices, and was ap- pointed the first lecturer on the Divina Comedia of Dante. He died at Cataldo on the 2 st December 1375, in the sixty second year of his age. To Dante, Petrarch and Boccacio, Italian literature is indebt- ed for its fame in the fourteenth century, and to them the Italian language owes its refinement; indeed, they may be said to have fixed the language, and may be considered the fathers of learn- ing and literary taste in modern times. In thi illustrious trium- virate of genius and learning Boccacio occupies a distinguish- ed place. He was the author of many works in prose and po- etry, but after having read the sonnets of Petrarch, he is said to have become so dissatisfied with his own, that he committed them to the flames. As Dante had his Beatrice, and Petrarch his Laura, so had Boccacio his Famietta, under which name he cel- ebrated Maria, the natural daughter of Robert, king of Naples. Most of his sonnets were addressed to Maria under the name of Famietta, who was the wife of a distinguished nobleman of the court of Robert. The intercourse between Boccacio and this lady, does not appear to have been of that pure and platonic character, that distinguished the love of Petrarch. Brought up in a corrupt court, she had but little delicacy of sentiment, and returned the past-ion of Boccacio in a manner not entirely con- sistent with the character of a wife. The most celebrated of his works, and that to which he is mainly indebted for his fame, is the Decameron, a collection of tales or novels, supposed to have been recited by a party of gen- tlemen and ladies, who had retired to the country in the year 1348, when a dreadful pestilence infected the city. It was a- grced that each person, during the space of ten days, should narrate daily, a fresh story, and as the company consisted of ten persons, the number of stories amounted to one hundred. In these stories the manners of the times are brought to view, and illustrated by the skill with which he describes the customs of society. He lashes with great severity the absurdities and corruptions of the church, while the priests and monks are held up to ridicule and contempt. Being perfectly acquainted with their numerous vices, and the profligacy of their lives, he let no opportunity escape of exposing them in their true colors. In n-< drowned in broth!" This set the whole Cable a laughing, and the inquisitor w r as quite confounded, knowing it to be a satire upon their great hypocricy; and were it not that he had been much blamed for his former prosecution, he would have given him more trouble: he ordered him, therefore, in a rage, to go about his business, and to come near him no more." Boccacio was the author of many other works in Italian, be- fcidcs the Decameron, amongst which is a romance entitled "Fa- mietta," in which a noble lady of Naples, relates her adventures; also another entitled "Filocopo," formed upon the model of thr romances so captivating when chivalry was at its height. These two romances, although possessing considerable merit are en- tirely overshadowed by the celebrity of the Decameron. He was the author also of two epic poems, neither of which obtain- ed any great reputation in their day, and are now nearly forgot- ten. They are written in ottarima-, or stanza of eight lines, of HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 333 which he was the inventor. His Latin compositions were also numerous, and some of them useful and interesting he wrote in Latin an abridgment of the Roman history from Romulus to the year of Rome 724, with a parallel of the seven kings of Rome. To Boccacio was Italy principally indebted for the introduc- tion of a knowledge of the Greek language. In 1360, Leontius Pilatus, a distinguised Greek scholar arrived at Venice, where Boccacio then was, on his way to Avignon. Boccacio sought his friendship and prevailed on him to settle at Florence, where by his influence the Florentine government founded a professorship of the Greek language and literature. Boccacio himself, al- though at that time forty-seven years of age, became one of his scholars, and under his instructions studied the works of Ho- mer, and afterwards in conjunction with him translated the Illiad and Odyssey into Latin, by which means the west obtained a better knowledge of Homer than they previously possessed. Leontius remained at Florence four years, when he determined to visit his native land, notwithstanding the earnest solicitations of his scholars that he should not leave them. On his arrival in Greece, finding it almost desolated by the Turks, and his coun- trymen enduring the heaviest calamities, he set sail for Italy, but the vessel being overtaken by a violent tempest, Leontius seized hold of a mast, and was unfortunately killed by lightning. In the death of this man literature sustained a heavy loss. Boc- cacio was not a little proud of his efforts in the cause of Greek literature, and in his treatise on the "Genealogy of the Gods," he says that it was by his advice that Leontius was induced to turn from the Babylon of the west, and settle in Florence that he received him into his house, where he long enjoyed his hos- pitality that he labored with all the zeal of friendship to pro- cure his admission among the doctors of the Florentine academy, and that he obtained for him a salary from the public treasury. The friendship of Beccacio for Leontius and the zeal with which he promoted his interests, affords sufficient evidence if any were wanting, of his devotion to the cause of learning. Indeed, suc- ceeding ages are more indebted to Boccacio and his illustrious contemporary Petrarch, than is generally known. They fell such admiration for the history, poetry and philosophy of an cient Greece and Rome, that they incurred great expense in their search after ancient manuscripts, and devoted their liv< HISTORY OF LITERATURE the study of such as were recovered from the dust of ages. N 1 - oublions pas vous-memes ces obligations," says Sismondi, "et rendons grace a Boccace, a 1'universite, a la r6publique Floren- tine, de ce que les livres d'Homere sont parvenus jusqu'a nous; de ce que la langue du pere despoetes est devenue familiere dans notre Europe; de ce qu'enfin les vertus et les monumens de 1'antiquite, le patriotisme de Sparte et les artes d'Athenes, 1'eloquence, la poesie, la philosophic, le souvenir de la liberte et de la granduer d'ame des Grecs, sont restes a notre port6e, et peuvent encore Clever notre ame, former notre genie, on ^chauffer notre cceur."* At this time also lived Geoffrey Chaucer and John Gower, En- glish poets of great celebrity. Chaucer, who is called "the morn- ing star of English poetry , J> was born in London in the year 1 328. Of his early years but little is known with certainty. He ap- pears, however, to have attracted the notice of Edward III, by whom he was appointed comptroller of the customs of wool, and it also appears that he accompanied his warlike sovereign in his invasion of France A. D. 1359. He afterwards received a pen- sion from the king of twenty marks per annum, equal to two or three hundred pounds of modern money, but what particular ser- vice occasioned this exertion of royal bounty does not clearly appear. Chaucer also attracted the notice of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, whose ambition induced him to court the as- sistance of learned men, and to purchase that of Chaucer by many offices of favor and friendship. Chaucer married Phil- ippa, the sister of Catharine Rouet, one of the duke's favorites, after which the duke used his influence in promoting his inter- ests. He procured him the appointment of Scutifer, or shield- bearer to the king, and subsequently that of ambassador to Ge- noa. Having discharged his duty in his embassy to Genoa with fidelity, he was sent with two others on a mission to France, for the purpose of negotiating a marriage betwen a daughter of the French king, and Richard, prince of Wales. Chaucer was one of the followers of Wickliffe, and in conse- quence was obliged to fly his country and seek refuge in Francee He remained abroad until he thought the storm had blown over, when he returned to England. He was, however, seized and sent to the tower, where he continued in confinement until he consented to disclose all he knew of the designs of the Wick * Sismondi. Hist, des Rep. Ital. tome f>. IB? HISTORY OF LITERATURE. ^ liffites, and of the disturbances that took place when John Com- berton, a noted follower of Wickliffe, was proposed, a second time, for lord mayor of London. Notwithstanding his treason to his friends, he was deprived of his revenues, and retired to Woodstock, where he composed his "Canterbury Tales," or at least begun them. In 1389, by the influence of the duke of Lancaster, he was restored to royal favor, and an annuity of forty marks. He died 25th October, 1400, and was buried in West- minster Abbey. Before the time of Chaucer, poetry was in a very rude state in England, scarcely deserving the name. "He is called the fa- ther of English poetry, not because he was the first Englishman who wrote in verse, but because he was the first who wrote po- etically. Extensive learning and minute detail were, in his time, the qualities which entitled a writer to fame; and it was the fashion to write very long and very profound treatises in verse* There was no distinction between the rules of poetry and those of history; and writers, instead of attempting flights of the im- agination endeavored to give a faithful enumeration of particu- lars. Chaucer was the first to emancipate himself from this ser- vility, but even he did not completely emancipate himself."* His earliest production, entitled the "Court of Love," was written when he was about eighteen years of age. It is an allegorical poem, in which the poet supposes himself summoned to the court of love on Mount Citheron he is there introduced to a mistress, and sworn to observe the twenty statutes of the God, some of which he objects to on account of his inability to perform them. Whatever merit this and the other poems of Chaucer, may poss- ess, it is difficult to discover, because of the obsolete and almost unintelligible language in which they are composed. The fol- lowing description of the life of lovers is from the "Court of Love:" This is the life ofjoy that we ben in, Resembling life of heavenly paradise ; Love is the elixir aye of life and sin, Love maketh hertis lustie to devise. Honor and grace have they in every wise, That ben to lov is law obedient, Love maketh folke benigne and diligent. Aye styning them to dread in vice and shams ; * Life of Chaucer by Saaford. 3 2G HISTORY OF LITERATURE. In their degree it niakith them honorable, And sweet it is of love to hear the name. So that his love be faithful, true and stable. His most celebrated work, that upon which his fame chiefly rests, is his "Canterbury Tales." The plan of this work is bor- rowed from the Decameron of Boccacio, and is simply this ; a number of travellers are going on a pilgrimage to Canterbury, and who agree,in order to beguile the tediousness of the journey, to tell stories on the way, with an agreement, that the one who tells the best story should have a supper at the common expense on his return. The prologue describes the different characters who had determined to journey together; Of sundry folk, by adventure yfalle In felawship, and pilgrimes were they alte, That toward Canterbury wolden ride. This company embraces the different grades into which societ} was then divided, and each is minutely described. Of his man- ner take the following description of the knight: A knight there was, and that a worthy man, That fro the time that he firste began To riden out, he loved chivalrie, Trouthe and honor, fredom and curtesie. Ful worth}- was be in his lordes werre, And thereto had he ridden, no man ferre, As well in christindom as in Hethenesse, And ever honored for his worthinesse. At Alisandre he was when it was wonnt. Ful often time he had the borde begonnt Above all nations in Pruce, In Lettowe hadde he reysed and in Ruce. No christen man so ofte of his degree, In Gernade at the siege eke hadde he be Of Algesir, and ridden in Belmarie, At Leyes was he, and at Satalie, When they were wonne ; and in the Crete set At many a noble armee had he be, At mortale battailles hadde he been fiftene, And foughten for our faith at Trauiissene In listesthries,and ay slain his fo. We have given the foregoing extracts from Chaucer, in order that our readers may form some idea of the style and manner of the oldest English poet, and of the language in which he wrote. Although he has been called the "architect of English versification," it may be said that his beauties "may be compared HISTORY OF LITERATURE 337 to flowefs which we collect in a long journey, numerous in the sum, but collected widely asunder," and that in his works, "al- though there is much to reward the patience of the reader, there js also something to exercise it." John Gower was the intimate friend of Chaucer, and is sup- posed to have been born a short time before him, but in what part of the island of Britain is uncertain, for while one antiquary asserts that he was born in Kent, another says he was born in Wales. Gower wrote several works in Latin, among others one entitled "Vox Clamantis" in which he gives an account of a popular insurrection in the reign of Richard II. As Petrarch rested his fame on his "Africa," so did Gower think that he had established a solid claim to immortality by his "Vox Clamantis," but it is his "Confessio Amantis," writtenin his native language, that has the highest claims, and entitles its author to rank among English poets. It is said to have been written at the request of Richard II. "The general subject of this poem is love, but the author has contrived to write about almost every thing else. Nearly all the ancient literature and mythology are interwoven with what is called the confession of a lover; and it would, at first sight, appear really astonishing, that, at a time when books could only be multiplied by transcription, an author should think of drawing out such an endless string of verse upon so trite a series of subjects." Although Gower possessed considerable talent in the art of versification, he falls short of his countryman and contemporary Chaucer. His subjects are not managed with the same skill, and being more tedious and prolix in their details, are frequently dull and uninteresting, even to those to whom his obsolete language is perfectly familiar. Of his style and manner, the following extract on "detraction," will afford a sufficient specimen. It is taken from his poem "Confessio A- mantis :" Touchend as of enu'rous brood Iwotenot one of all goad. Butnetheless such as thei bee Yet there is one and that is hee, Which cleped is Detraction, And to confirme his action, He bath withholde Malebouche, Whose tongue nother pill ne crouche Maie hire, so that he pronounce A ploine good worde without frounce. HISTORY OF LITERATURE. \Vhere behynde a man's back For though he preise, he fint some lackc, Which of his tale is ay the laste, That all the price shall ouercaste. And though there be no cause why : Yet woll he iangle, not for thy As he whiche hath the herauldie Of hem, that vsen for to lie. . Among the poets of the period under review, we cannot m justice, omit mentioning James I, king of Scotland, the most learned and accomplished prince of the age. He was the son of Robert III, king of Scotland, who intended that he should' b( educated at the court of France, then closely united with that oi Scotland by political ties. For that purpose he set sail from Scotland for France, but was unfortunately taken and carried to England, where he was unjustly detained a prisoner by Hen- ry IV and Henry V, for thirteen years. This event happened in the year 1405, when James was about thirteen years of age. He was first confined in the Tower, then in the castle of Notting- ham, and subsequently in the castle of Windsor. The English monarchs made some amends for their injustice by causing him to be instructed in the learning of the times, and employed for that purpose the best teachers in all the arts and sciences. In his confinement his greatest pleasure was derived from books, and he applied himself with so much diligence to his studies, that when released from captivity, he was the most learned man of his age. He was a universal scholar a perfect master of grammar, rhetoric, poetry, music, natural philosophy, and was skilled in divinity and law. With such varied accomplishments, and superior talents, had his lot been cast in happier times, he would have adorned the throne of his fathers; he would have- softened the rugged features of his native land, and became one of its greatest benefactors. But, his acquirements were in ad- vance of his country, and in his attempts to ameliorate the con- dition of his subjects by restraining the power of the nobles, he became their victim. "It was the misfortune of James," says the celebrated historian of Scotland, "that his maxims and man- ners were too refined for the age in which he lived. Happy! had he reigned in a kingdom more civilized; his love of peace, of justice, and of elegance, would have rendered his schemes successful; and,^hstead of perishing, because he attempted too . HISTORY OF LITERATURE, 339 much, a grateful people would have applauded and seconded his efforts to reform and improve them."* During his confinement in England, James composed many poems, nearly all of which have been lost. From a perusal of those that remain, it will be seen that he possessed the true spirit of poetry, and the inspiration of genius. This poetic talent served to relieve the ennui of his confinement, during which he composed a poem entitled the "King's Quair," in which he fre- quently bewails his unhappy fate Qwhare as in ward full oft I wold bewaille My dedely lyf, full of peyne and penance, Saing zyt thus, qvvhat have I gilt to faille My freedome in this warld, and my plesance? Sin every weight has thereof suffisance. Bewailing in my chamber thus allone, Dispeired of alljoyeand remedye, For-tirit of ny thot, and wo-begone And to the wyndow gan I walke in hye, To see the warld, and folk that went forbye, As for the tyme, though I of mirthis fude Myt have no more, to luke it did me gude. One of our highly gifted countrymen, has devoted a chapter of his "Sketch Book," to the memory of the illustrious, but un- fortunate James, in which he has pronounced a just eulogium on his merits as a scholar and a poet. "Others," says he in the conclusion of his spirited sketch, "may speak of the illustrious deeds of James, as a warrior and a legislator; but I have de- lighted to view him as the benefactor of the human heart, stoop- ing from his high estate to sow the sweet flowers of poetry and song in the paths of common life. He did all in his power to soften and refine the spirit of his countrymen. He wrote many poems which are now lost to the world. He improved the na- tional music ; and traces of his tender and elegant taste, may be found in those witching airs still piped among the wild moun- tains and lonely glens of Scotland. He has embalmed his mem- ory in song, and floated it down to after ages, in the rich stream of Scottish melody.'"! During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries flourished a number of English historians and civilians, some of whose names have been rescued from the oblivion that was the fate of < ' Robertson's Hist, of Scot. vol. \ , 179. * Sketch Book of Geoffrey Cravon.Gent. 42 '*" S30 IllfcTORY OF LITERATURE. But even these were not remarkable either for elegance of style or perspicuity of narration; they have recorded many facts which constitute important links in the chain of history, but many of these are so disfigured with ridiculous stories of visions, miracles and portentous appearances, that it is difficult in many cases to separate truth from falsehood. These historians, like most of their predecessors, were monks, who held but little in- tercourse with the great world before them they mingled but little with the moving mass of population, and were thus incapa- ble of properly appreciating the motives, that gave rise to some of the most important events. Their histories then, were little more than a mere record of facts a dry and uninteresting detail. We will, however, take a brief notice of a few of those who ex- cited some attention in their day. and whose works are worth remembering. The best historian of the early part of the four- teenth century, is Thomas Walsingliam, a monk of St. Albans. His historical works are more full and satisfactory than that of the other annalists of those times, and contain a narrative of many important events in the civil and religious history of the country, no where else to be found. He was the author of two works which have rescued his name from the oblivion that a- waited many of his contemporaries; one is entitled "A history of England," beginning at the 57th year of the reign of Henry III, A. D. 1273, and concludes with the death of Henry V and the appointment of Humphrey Duke of Gloucester to the regency A. D. 1422; the other is a history of Normandy from the begin- ning of the tenth century, to the year 1418, in which he introdu- ces an account of the affairs of England, as connected with that important duchy. He dedicated the latter work to king Henry V, and informs his majesty that he composed it expressly to put him on his guard against the intrigues and perfidy of the courf of France. Thomas Otterbournc, a Franciscan friar, composed a history oi England, from the landing of Brutus the Trojan to A. D. 1420. This work is a compilation from the works of preceding histori- ans. Thomas de Elmham, prior of Linton, wrote a history of the reign of Henry V, which contains some valuable information with regard to that monarch, and the events of his reign. It is entitled to the more credit, as he was contemporary with Henry, and was a.n eye witness to many of the events he reeord?, A history of , HISTORY OF LITERATURE. ^ * V ^ J ^^^~ W: -*C/JL Henry was also written by an Italian, who visited England, and was protected by Humphrey duke of Gloucester, who was a munificent patron of learned men. This work is an epitome of the history of Thomas de Elmham, but much improved by leav- ing out some things that were trifling and unimportant, and ad- ding others of more consequence. The work is written in Latin, and is a professed imitation of the style of Livy, whose name he assumed. Contemporary with some of the writers above mentioned was Sir John Fortescue, famous for his knowledge of the civil and com- mon law. He was the third son of Sir Henry Fortescue, lord chief justice of Ireland, and at a proper age was entered a stu- dent in LmcolnVInn, where he was so diligent in the prosecu- tion of his studies^ that on being admitted to the bar, he soon acquired great reputation, and was appointed chief justice of the king's bench, A. D. 1442. Previous to his time the nature of the constitution of England was but little understood, even by men the most learned in the law. For the instruction of Ed- ward, prince of Wales, son of Henry VI, he composed a trea- tise entitled "De Laudibus Legum Angliae," in which he shews that the government of England, by its constitution, is a limited and not an absolute monarchy. This work is highly esteemed by English lawyers for the soundness of its political doctrines, and the justness of its views on matters that deeply interested the monarch and his subjects. Sir John was taken prisoner in the battle of Tewksbury, which decided the fate of queen Mar- garet and her son. Edward IV, in a short time restored him to liberty and received him into favour. Although he acknowledg- ed the title of Edward to the crown, he still entertained the same opinions with regard to the interpretation of the constitution, and wrote a treatise on the difference between an absolute and limited monarcy, which was not printed until A. D. 1 714. This treatise was written for the use of Edward IV, and is valuable in modern times on account of the many curious particulars it contains concerning the constitution of England, and the condi- tion of its inhabitants it is an extraordinary work, when we consider the period at which it was written, and "affords full ev- idence of the learning, wisdom, uprightness, public spirit and loyal gratitude of its- author, as any that is extant in ours, or in. any modern language. v 332 TJ1STORY OF LITERATURE. In the reigns of Henry VI and Edward IV, also flourished the Earl of Worcester, who early distinguished himself for his love of learning, and his desire, notwithstanding the troubles of the times, to promote the cause of literature and science. His love of learning induced him to quit his native land, for the purpose of visiting the seats of learning in Italy, then more renowned than those of any other country of Europe. Literature was then enjoying the protection of the illustrious house of Medici, which stands first upon the rolls of literary fame in modern times. The example and influence of the members of this munificent family, had 'extended the pride of learning beyond the walls of Florence, and at Padua, the earl remained sometime convers- ing with learned doctors, and storing his mind with useful knowl- edge. During his residence in Italy he visited Rome where he attracted the notice of Pius II, better known in the literary world under the name of ^Eneas Sylvius, who pronounced the flattering compliment, that "he was the only prince of the times, who, for virtue and eloquence could be justly compared to the most excellent emperors of Greece and Rome." As an author the earl of Worcester does not occupy a very elevated rank; his principal writings consisted of translations from the works of the ancients. His chief claim to notice in this sketch arises from the ardour with which he sought to acquire knowledge himself, and the zeal with which he engaged in the collection of books, a considerable amount of which he presented to the university of Oxford. He became involved in the troubles which convuls- ed his country and was beheaded A. D. 1470. Although we have seen learning diffusing its blessings over England by means of its universities and other seminaries, the youth of the neighboring kingdom of Scotland possessed none of the advantages to be derived from such sources, until after the beginning of the fifteenth century. We have already taken no- tice of several learned men, who were natives of Scotland, but they were indebted for their knowledge to more favored regions. The history of that country presents for many centuries nothing but a series of internal wars of bloody contests between rival chieftains, or between the throne and powerful and turbulent nobles. A state of society so distracted and divided, presented barriers almost insurmountable, to the cultivation of intellect and the inarch of mind. At length about the year 1410, a few HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 333 men of learning associated together for the purpose of lecturing gratuitously to those who chose to attend their lectures, and thus laid the foundation of the university of St. Andrews, which was subsequently confirmed and established by virtue of a char- ter from Henry Wardlaw, bishop of St. Andrews, "constitut" ing and declaring it to be a university, for the study of divinity, law, medicine, and the liberal arts." This university possessed all the powers, privileges and immunities, possessed by other sim- ilar institutions, and soon became conspicuous as a seat of learn- ing. It flourished exceedingly under the patronage of the learned and liberal James I, who rewarded the professors with many marks of favor. The following ordinance for the government of its members, shews, that however learned, they were not re- markable for the purity of their lives; "We ordain further, that all the members of the said college live decently, as becomes ec- clesiastics; that they do not keep concubines publicly; that they be not common night-walkers or robbers, or habitually guilty of other notorious crimes; and if any one of them is so (which God forbid,) let'him be corrected by his superior, and if he proves incorrigible, let him be deprived by the same superior, and a- nother substituted in his place." Lamentable indeed, is this picture of the Scottish clergy! of those who may be considered as the elite of the order, and to whom was assigned the care of improving the minds, as well as guarding the morals, of the youth of the land! The succes which attended the establishment of the university of St. Andrews, induced the foundation of a similar institution at Glasgow. By the influence of William Turnbull, bishop of Glasgow, James II, applied to pope Nicholas V, who issued a bull, dated 26th December A. D. 1450, establishing a university at Glasgow, with all the powers and privileges usually apper- taining to such institutions, James II in 1453, took it under his special patronage and protection, and exempted the professors and scholars from all taxes, and in 1459, it received a valuable donation from James, Lord Hamilton, and his wife the countess of Douglas, for which the members of the college were to per. form certain prescribed religious rites, for the benefit of the souls of the donors. These two universities after the revival* and the invention of the art of printing, long flour* 334 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. ished. and sent forth many men who have adorned their coun- try, and shed a lustre on these seats of learning.* CHAPTER xx. Of the revival of learning in the fifteenth century. We have now arrived at that period of our history when the rays of literature and science began to spread abroad with in- creased effulgence when learning protected and encouraged by liberal and enlightened men, aided by the invaluable discov- ery of the art of printing, began to diffuse its blessings over a be- nighted world. During the long period of darkness and ignorance in the west, literature still maintained some footing in the eastern empire, but when that portion of Europe fell before the victorious cres- cent of Mahomet, although a deplorable event in her history, it contributed to the advancement of literature in the west. In the year 1387, Emmanuel Chrysoloras, a learned Greek, being sent on an embassy to implore the aid of the Christian princes of Europe against the Turks, visited the different cities of Italy, and revived that taste for the Greek language and Grecian lit- erature, which had declined after the death of Boccacio. After the taking of Constantinople by Mahomet A. D. 1453, many learned Greeks sought refuge in Italy, and found protection in the house of Medici. This illustrious family had been long established at Florence, and from simple merchants, attained to the first honors of the republic. Their commercial transactions were extensive, and their wealth unbounded, so that it was amply in their power to give that protection to letters which so eminently distinguished Cosmo, Lorenzo and Leo the Tenth. The first distinguished patron of learning in this family was Cosmo de' Medici, the son * Henry's Hist. ofGr. Britain. Mosh. Eccl. hist. Sisraondi Lit. of the South of Eur* Sismondi Hist, des Rep. ItaU Carey's Daijte. Dobson Peti, Boc, Decam, HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 335 of Giovanni de' Medici, who had been honored by his fellow- citizens of Florence with the highest offices, as a reward for in- tegrity, affability and moderation, and his liberal munificence. Cosmo early took part in the affairs of the government, and soon acquired considerable influence, not only by reason of his im- mense wealth, but those endowments and qualifications which fitted him in an eminent degree for the duties of government. After having for some time filled the chief office of the republic, with advantage to his country, Rinaldo de' Albizi having ob- tained the chief power, procured his banishment from Florence for ten years. This event happened A. D. 1433. Cosmo em- ployed the period of his banishment, in visiting different parts of Italy, noting whatever was worth observation, and in collect- ing manuscripts. The power of his enemies continued about a year, at the end of which time Cosmo was recalled from banish- ment, and for the remainder of his life enjoyed almost uninter- rupted prosperity. He was thus enabled to gratify his own wishes in the encouragement of learning, and the promotion of its interests. He devoted those hours not engaged in public business, to the acquirement of knowledge in every branch of learning, and was always surrounded by learned men. Poggio, one of the distinguished scholars of the times, and who enjoyed the confidence of Cosmo, addressing him says, "devoted to the study of letters from your early years, you have by your example given additional splendor to science itself. Although involved in the weightier concerns of state, and unable to devote a great part of your time to books, yet you have found constant satisfaction in the society of those learned men who have always frequented your house." Previous to the arrival of the learned Greeks, to whom we have alluded, the philosophy of Aristotle was the fa- vorite system, and had many powerful advocates other systems were but partially known. In the time of Cosmo, a Greek nam- ed Pletho, a disciple of the Platonic school, delivered lectures unfolding and explaining the philosophy of his master. He propagated his opinions with so much zeal and success, that a wonderful reformation was soon wrought, and Plato towered above Aristotle. Cosmo himself attended the lectures of Pletho and was so charmed with the doctrines of the "divine Plato," that he formed the design of founding a Platonic academy at Florence. For this purpose he caused Ficinus. the son of his 336 'HISTORY OF LITERATURE. first physician, to be carefully instructed in the doctrines of his favorite system, and in the language of Greece, that he might be able to translate into Latin the most celebrated productions of the Platonists. The acquirements of Ficinus answered all his expectations, and he translated into Latin such of the works of Plato as he could procure, and those of Plotinus and others. By means of these translations the Platonic system became more extensively known, and a warm controversy arose between the disciples of Aristotle and Plato, with regard to the merits of their respective systems, which contributed in no small degree to enlarge the mind and promote the cause of science. The example of Cosmo and those enlightened men by whom he was surrounded, created an earnest desire in others to recov- er from the dust of ages, the works of ancient writers, and men of wealth exerted themselves in this pursuit, sparing neither pains or expense. By these means valuable manuscripts of Greek and Roman writers were rescued from obscure corners where they had lain for ages, and were on the point of falling a prey to the ravages of time and the ignorance of those in whose possession they were. The discovery of an ancient manuscript, says Roscoe in his life of Lorenzo de' Medici, was regarded as almost equivalent to the conquest of a kingdom. With such patrons as Cosmo and his associates, and such enthusiasm in its cause, learning could not be otherwise than in a flourishing con- dition. But, while the learned were thus engaged in the search of the remains of ancient literature and science, and neglected the composition of original works, it may be asked whether the cause of learning was benefited? Some, perhaps, may be dis- posed to say, that it would have redounded more to its literary reputation, had the learned men of the age transmitted to pos- terity more of the fruit of their studies that it would have marked more distinctly the progress and effect of the learning of the times. At first sight this appears plausible enough, and will strike with some force, but a little reflection upon the litera- ry condition of the world previous to this time, which we have in the foregoing pages endeavored to portray, will convince, that their labors were more beneficially employed for man- kind, in the search for, and preservation of, the works of the ancient Greek and Roman writers, than they could have been in' their closets, pouring over and committing to writing, 0.?*. HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 337 crude ideas and erroneous opinions in philosophy, science and religion, that prevailed antecedent to this period. By their labors they have restored to us the inestimable works of men, whose names will never be forgotten, while learning is cherish- ed, or wisdom held in estimation and upon whose inestimable productions modern genius has erected its proudest memorials of literary fame. Without their efforts, those works, in all hu- man probability, would have been lost, and the long catalogue of philosophers, historians and poets, which now dazzles by its lus- tre, would not have been in existence for it can be easily de- monstrated, that almost all our knowledge may be traced to this prolific fountain. Among the distinguished men of this period is Poggio Braccio- lini. He was born in the year 1381, of a noble family of Flor- ence, and having passed many years of his early life in travelling through the different countries of Europe for the improvement of his mind, he at length settled at Rome, where he served eight successive pontiffs, in the capacity of secretary. In 1452, he was invited to Florence, where he remained until his death. Poggio was a voluminous author, and is generally admired for the unaffected and simple style of his writings, but some of his tales are rather licentious, and are censurable for their inde- cency of language. He seems to have been an enemy of the clergy, and to have frequently indulged in bitter satire upon their vicious and profligate course of life. He appears to have devoted himself, under the patronage of Cosmo, with great dili- gence to the collection of manuscripts, and was remarkably suc- cessful in his exertions. "The number of manuscripts discover- ed by him in different parts. of Europe, during the space of near fifty years, will remain a lasting proof of his perseverance, and his sagacity in these pursuits. Whilst he attended the council of Constance in the year 1415, he took an opportunity of visiting the convent of Saint Gallo, distant from the city about twenty miles, where he had been informed that it was probable he might find some manuscripts of the ancient Roman writers. In this place he had the happiness to discover a complete copy of Quin- tillian, whose works had before appearea only in a mutilated and imperfect state. At the same time he found the three first books, and part of the fourth, of the Argonautics of Valerius 43 HISTORY OF LITERATURE. Flaccus.''* These works were buried in the obscurity of a dark and lojlely tower, covered with filth and rubbish, and their destruction seemed inevitable. From a similar condition were many other manuscripts rescued by his persevering zeal. Besides Poggio, there were several others whose exertions tyere used in the same way. Some of these zealous and enter- prising men, visited Constantinople, and other parts of the eas- tern empire, where their labors were rewarded by the discover) and acquisition of valuable works, in the various departments of ancient literature and science. One of these adventurers! was unfortunately lost on his return to Italy, with a valuable collec- tion of books which he had rescued from the cells of monasteries, to be swallowed up in the mighty deep; anotherj more fortunate arrived at Venice, A. D. 1423, with two hundred and thirty- eight manuscripts, amongst which were all the works of Plato, Proclus, Plotinus, Lucian, Xenophon, the histories of Arrain, Dio, and Diodorus Siculus, the geography of Strabo, the po- ems of Callimachus, Pindar, Oppian and Orpheus. Francesco Filelfo, also contributed greatly to the diffusion of knowledge by the great number of manuscripts he collected in Constanti- nople between the years 1420 and 1427, when he returned to Italy. He was greatly favored in his researches by the aid re- ceived from John Chrysoloras, a learned Greek, whose daughter he married. Filelfo was'employed at different times after his return to Italy, as a professor in most of the celebrated semina- ries of learning, but possessing an unhappy disposition, his efforts in communicating information to his scholars, were not very suc- cessful. His unhappy temper of mind kept him constantly en- gaged in quarrels, and he is even said to have conspired against the life of his patron and benefactor, Cosmo de' Medici. As a writer, Filelfo holds a very respectable station, having written on almost every branch of literature.|| After having, by the aid of the distinguished persons mention- ed, and his agents and factors in the Levant, become possessed of a large and valuable collection of books, Cosmo de' Medici founded at Florence a library, which became the constant ob- ject of his care. Under his grand-son, Lorenzo, this library; Roscoe's Lor. de' Medici, vol. 1, 36. I Guarino Veronese, the first native Italian who publicly taught Greek io Itah t Giovanni Aurispa. . || Roscoe's Life of Lorenzo de' Medici. HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 33^ increased, by the addition of many rare and valua- ble works. Soon after the foundation of .the Medicean libra- ry, Niccolo Niccoli, a wealthy citizen of Florence, founded a library for the use of the public, but on his death it was discovered that he was much in debt, and that his liberal design would be frustrated from the embarrassed state of his affairs; Cosmo agreed to pay the debts of Niccolo, on condition that his executors would place his library at his disposal, which being agreed to, he deposited the books in the monastery of St. Mark for public use, thereby fulfilling the intentions of the ori- ginal proprietor. About this time also pope Nicholas V founded the library of the Vatican, now one of the most valuable and extensive libraries in the world. About this time was invented that most useful art "the art preservative of all arts" the art of printing, from which incal- culable blessings have flowed. Previous to this important dis- covery all books were in manuscript, and as the process by which copies were multiplied was tedious and laborious, so was it ex- pensive. None but the wealthiest class could purchase a book to the humbler portion of the community the luxury of a book was denied, and hence it was that learning was confined to a few, and the people in general were ignorant. But when books came to be multiplied with so much ease, and at so trifling arr expense, learning was brought to the door of every man, and the son of a peasant became as distinguished in the walks of literature and science, as the son of the proudest peer. A vast number of valuable books, have by this means been preserved that, notwithstanding the pains and expense in collecting thern^ might have been totally and irrecoverably lost. The honor of giving birth to this invention has been disputed by several cities. Strasburgh claims it for John Guttemburg; Mentz for John Fust or Faust, and Haarlem for John Koster. This dispute is unimportant, and its decision a matter of no interest, except so far as the gratification of curiosity. It is sufficient that the art of printing by means of moveable types has been discovered by one of the individuals above-mentioned, and we are now enjoy- ing the benefits resulting from the discovery. This invention was for a time kept a profound secret, but it was of too much importance to remain so long, and "printing presses were soon established in different parts of Europe, from which issued large HISTORY OF LITERATURE. editions of the best Greek and Roman writers, and the works oi modern authors written in their native tongue. The first book printed with moveable types, was a copy of the bible, which made its appearance between the years 1450 and 1452. On the first day of August, A. D. 1464, the cause of literature met with a great loss in its munificent patron Cosmo de' Medici. His character exhibits a combination of virtues and endowments, rarely to be found united in the same person. He was remark- able for his magnificence in public, as well as for his prudence in private life. Although sustaining the high character of chief of the republic of Florence, his deportment was divested of all ostentation, and neither in his retinue, his friendships, or his con- versation, could he be distinguished from any other respectable citizen. He well knew the jealous temper of the Florentines, and was careful to avoid every thing that could excite their jealousy. Among the literary men by whom he was surrounded, his virtues and his liberality were the most frequent topic of conversation. In every event of his life they were ready to at- tend him, to participate with him in his prosperity, and to sym- pathise with him in his misfortunes so much was he beloved by those who had the best opportunities of knowing him.* Cosmo left one son, Piero, who succeeded him in his wealth and honors, but whose feeble health gave but little promise of a prosperous life. Although inferior to his father in intellectual accomplishments, as well as vigor of body, Piero gave sufficient evidence of his attachment to the cause of letters, by his patron- age of learned men, and the care with which he caused his son Lorenzo to be educated. Lorenzo was about sixteen years of age when his grandfather died, and had then given strong indi- cations of those extraordinary talents, which subsequently re- flected so much lustre upon his native land. Under the instruc- tion of Gentile d' Urbino, afterwards bishop of Arezzo, he re- ceived the first rudiments of his education, and was afterwards under the instructions of other eminent teachers, among whom was Landino, who had been appointed to the office of public professor of rhetoric and poetry. He became proficient in the Greek language, and was intimately conversant with the Aristo- telian and Platonic systems of philosophy; he possessed a fine . * Roscoe's Life of Lorenzo de' Medici, vol. 1, p. 68 83, HISTORY OF LITERATURE. 341 taste for poetry, and has left behind him some exquisite produc- tions, of which the following sonnet may be taken as a specimen: Oime, che belle lagrime fur quelle Che'l nembodi disio stillando mosse! % Quando il guisto dolor che'l cor percosse, Sali poi su nell' amorose stelle! Rigavon per la delicata pelle Le bianche guancie dolcemente rosse, Come chiar rio faria, che'n prato fosse Fior bianchi,e rossi, le lagrime belle; Lieto amor stava in I'amorosa pioggia, Com' uccel dopo il sol, bramate tanto, Lieto riceve rugiadose stille. Poi piangendo in quelli occhi ov'egli alloggia. Faoea del hello e doloroso pianto, Visibilimente uscir dolce faville, Ah! pearly drops, that pouring from those eyes Spoke the dissolving cloud of soft desire! What time cold sorrow chill'd the genial fire, "Struck the fair urn and bade the waters rise." Soft down those cheeks, where native crimson vies With ivory whiteness, see the chrystals throng; As some clear river winds its stream along, Bathing the flowers of pale and purple dies. Whilst Love, rejoicing in the amorous shower Stands like some bird, that after sultry heats Enjoys the drops, and shakes his glittering wings; Then grasps his bolt, and, conscious of his power Midst those bright orbs assumes his wonted seat And through the lucid shower his living lightning flings. Roscoe. Lorenzo possed a versatility of poetic talent, and such facility of composition, that it was a mere amusement to him; he at- tempted all kinds of poetic composition, and his sonnets which were numerous, are not, in general, unworthy of Petrarch him- self. His writings afforded many striking instances of the gen- uine inspiration of poetry, and a brilliant imagination. The fol- lowing description of jealousy will not suffer by a comparison with the poetry of his most celebrated contemporaries, or even with that of more modern poets. Solo una vecchia in un oscuro canto, Pallida, il sol fuggendo, si sedea, Tacita sospirando, ed un ammanto D'unincerto color cangiante havea: Cento occhi ha in testa, e tutti versan pianto ' E cent' orecchie la maligna dear Quel ch'e,quelche non e,tristaodeevede. Mai dorme, ed ost'mata a se sol crede 342 HISTORY OF LITERATURE, Sad in a nook obscure, and sighing deep, A pale and haggard beldam shrinks from view; " :, Her gloomy vigils there she loves to keep, Wrapt in a robe of ever-changing hue; A hundred eyes she has, that ceaseless weep, A hundred ears that pay attention due. Imagined evils aggravate her grief, Heedless of sleep, and stubborn to relief. Roscot. The foregoing extracts will suffice to give some idea of the po- etical genius and talents of Lorenzo. As a patron of learning the name of Lorenzo the magnificent stands high on the rolls of fame ; contemporary writers have sounded his praises, and their successors have echoed the notes. He followed the example of his illustrious grandsire no niggardly calculations of expence, ever staid his hand for a moment, when the interests of learning were to be advanced, and hence during his lifetime, it flourished in a very great degree, and not only Florence, but all Italy aboun- ded with learned men ; a notice of two or three of them will bring our sketches to a close. Politiano, who was born on the 24th July 1454, applied him- self to the study of those branches of learning which occupied the attention of the scholars of the times. He gave early indi- cations of a talent for poetry, in the composition of Latin and Greek epigrams, which attracted the notice of his teachers and procured their commendation. A tournament given in honor of the marriage of Braccio Martello, afforded Politiano an oppor- tunity of making a display of his talents, which introduced him to the particular notice of Lorenzo. In this tournament Julian de' Medici was the victor, and Politiano produced a poem enti- tled the Giostra of Giuliano de* Medici^ a wonderful production for a youth but little more than fourteen years of age. The po- et represents Julian in the flower of his age, devoted to the bril- liant career of manly exercises, aspiring after glory and con- temning the shafts of love. A single extract, in which he adverts to his repugnance to surrender his heart to the attacks of the fair, will afford a favorable specimen of the style and manner of i he youthful poet. Ah quante Kinfe per lui sospirorno! Ma fu si altero sempre il giovinetto, Che mai le Ninfe amanti lo piegorno Mai poti riscaldarsi '1 freddo petto . HISTORY OF LITERATURE 343 Facea sovente pe' boschi soggiorno ; Inculto sempre, e rigido m aspetto ; II volto diffendea dal solar raggio Con ghirlanda di pino, O verde faggio. For Julian many a maiden heav'd the sigh, And many a glance the tender flame confest, But not the radiance of the brightest eye Could melt the icy rigor of his breast. Wide thro' the trackless woods the youth would hie, Serene of aspect and disdaining rest: Whilst the dark pine, or spreading beach supplied A wreath, from summer suns his head to hide. Roscoe. Politiano undoubtedly possessed a fine genius with a highly gif- ted and cultivated mind, but it seems to us that he possessed all the waywardness of genius, and that he wanted that steadiness of purpose which conducts to eminence. The poem from which the foregoing beautiful extract is taken, was never finished. He seems to have abandoned his native tongue, and wasted his tal- ents in dry philosophical discussions, or on poems written in La- tin, which were understood only by the learned. Had he con- fined himself to the cultivation of poetry in his own sonorous lan- guage, he might have rivaled the fame of Petrarch or Dante. Luigi Pulci was also a native of Florence, the contemporary of Politiano, and his rival in literary renown. He was the youngest of three brothers, to all of whom the nymphs of Par- nassus had shewn special favor. The tournament already men- tioned, which gave occasion to the poem of Politiano produced one from Pulci, entitled the Giostra of Lorenzo de* Medici, written in his twentieth year. By those who are intimately acquainted with Italian poetry, it is considered as much inferior both in language and interest to that of his rival. It gives a minute ac- count <*f the exhibition, describing all the preparations for the combat, and the personal appearance of the combatants. The following account of the attack of Lorenzo on Benedetto Satutati, may be justly placed alongside any passage in the poem of Poli- tiano. Vedestu mai falcon calare a piouibu, E poi spianarsi, e batter forte 1'alc. C'ha tratto fuori della schiera il Colombo '! Cosi Lorenzo Benedetto assale; Tanto che 1'aria fa fischiar pel rombo, IVon vu si presto folgor, non che strale; 344 HISTORY OF LITERATURE:. Dettonsi colpi che parvon d'Achille Et balza un mongibel fuori di faville. Hast thou not seen the falcon in his flight, When high in air on balanc'd wing he hung, On some lone straggler of the covey light? On Benedetto thus Lorenzo sprung. Whistled the air, as ardent for the fight, Fleet as the arrow flies, he rush'd along; Achilles' rage their meeting strokes inspires, Their sparkling armour rivals Etna's fires. Roseoe. The Morgante Maggiore is considered the principal work of Pulci, and is said to have been written at the particular request of Lucretia, the mother of Lorenzo de* Medici. It consists of twenty-eight cantos, and is founded upon the romances so much admired in the thirteenth century. Its characters are those of the chivalric ages they fight with and destroy giants, and re- lease captive maidens from the hands of lawless knights. The style employed is sometimes serious and sometimes ludicrous, and the apparent profanity of some of the passages drew upon if the censures of the church, which even in that enlightened age was no trifling matter. Notwithstanding its defects it still oc- cupies a respectable place among the works of Italian poets. Besides the poets of whom we have just spoken, there were many others well deserving notice; we might also, present a list of accomplished writers in the various departments of literature, who adorned the age in which thej lived, and who have conse- crated the name of Lorenzo the magnificent to immortal honor; but a notice of them and their works, however interesting it might be, would lead us far beyond our original limits, and conduct us into a field of boundless extent. Here then we drop the subject, and submit our work, imperfect as it is, to the decision of a can- did public. 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED LOAN DEPT. 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