muGKl 
 
 Bit 
 
A COMPENDIUM OF FOOD-MICROSCOPY 
 
DR. ARTHUR HILL HASSALL 
 
 AUTHOR OF "food: ITS ADULTERATIONS AND THE METHODS FOR THEIR 
 
 detection"; and other works 
 
 From the Picture, by Signor Italo Sabatini, in the Board Room 
 
 at the Offices of the Royal National Hospital for 
 
 Consumption and Diseases of the Chest, 
 
 Photograph by Messrs. Clark and Mann, 6, York Buildings, Duke Street, Strand. 
 
A COMPENDIUM OF 
 
 FOOD- MICROSCOPY 
 
 WITH SECTIONS ON DRUGS, WATEr/ _ 
 AND TOBACCO ^ - " ^ 
 
 COMPILED, WITH ADDITIONS AND REVISION. FROM THE 
 LATE DR. A. H. HASSALL'S WORKS ON FOOD 
 
 BY 
 
 EDWY GODWIN CLAYTON 
 
 FELLOW OF THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY ; MEMBER OF THE SOCIETY OF PUBLIC ANALYSTS ; 
 
 FELLOW, AND PAST MEMBER OF COUNXIL, OF THE INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY ; 
 
 AUTHOR OF ARTICLES IN 'A DICTIONARY OF APPLIED CHEMISTRY,' 'THE ANALYST,' 'THE 
 
 CHEMICAL NEWS," ETC. 
 
 SOMETIME PUBLIC ANALYST FOR FULHAM 
 
 LONDON 
 BAILLlfeRE, TINDALL AND COX 
 
 8, HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN 
 1909 
 
 [-■4// rights reserved] 
 
r. 
 
 i>r 
 
 ^ 
 

 TO THE MEMORY OF 
 
 ARTHUR HILL HASSALL, M.D., M.R.C.P. 
 
 PIONEER IN PUBLIC HYGIENE, 
 
 IS DEDICATED . 
 
 THIS BOOK, 
 
 WHICH OWES ITS BEIXG TO HIS 
 UNTIRING LABOURS. 
 
 ! 797 43 
 
PREFACE 
 
 Thirty-two years have passed away since the appearance 
 of ' Food : Its Adulterations and the Methods for their 
 Detection.' At the suggestion of the Author of that work, 
 it was the present writer's intention, hitherto frustrated, long 
 ago to publish a new edition. The late Dr. A. H. Hassall 
 had discussed with the undersigned the plan of the fresh work, 
 when his death occurred in 1894. Many matters, coupled with 
 a knowledge of the existence of several then recently-dated 
 textbooks, dealing with food analysis generally, and of a 
 cluster of handbooks on separate branches of the subject, led 
 to a postponement of the project. The writer now at length 
 issues his long-contemplated revision of the microscopical 
 portions of Dr. Hassall's works ; and, a considerable period 
 having elapsed since the production by other English chemists 
 of any new general treatises on hygienic or public analysis, he 
 hopes at no distant date to supplement this volume by another, 
 devoted mainly to chemical, physical, and bacteriological 
 methods of investigation, which in his own or other labora- 
 tories have been found practicable and trustworthy. Thus 
 will be accomplished a design which for several years 
 the Author has had in his mind. 
 
 The present volume represents but a fractional part of the 
 work of one who ' was truly the father of public analysis ' ; 
 who taught public analysts ' most of their knowledge of the 
 microscopic structure of food substances ' ; who was ' The 
 Apostle of Anti-x\dulteration ' ; and ' left his mark bene- 
 ficially on a number of divisions of natural science, although 
 he had to work under conditions of poverty and ill-health 
 
X PREFACE 
 
 which would have proved an effectual bar to persons less 
 energetic and mentally less active.'^ 
 
 The writer's simultaneously published memoir^ epitomizes 
 the initiation of effectual legislative and other action in this 
 country against the supply of impure water and the adultera- 
 tion of food and drugs ; and plainly shows the profound 
 influence of the late Dr. Hassall's inquiries and efforts, in 
 bringing about the sanitary legislation so pressingly needed 
 at the period of his greatest activity. But for his strenuous 
 life, the systematic hygienic analysis of food, water, and 
 drugs would scarcely yet have been organized ; nor would 
 it have become in a few decades what now undoubtedly it 
 is — an autonomous science of State-Chemistry, with an ever- 
 widening scope, and a constantly growing importance to the 
 Empire. 
 
 Those parts of Dr. Hassall's text, included in the following 
 pages, have been revised and re-arranged so far as appeared 
 to be necessary. The amount of revision, of course, was 
 very great : nevertheless the original descriptions have been 
 altered as little as possible. They are plainly worded, and 
 free from the superabundance of botanical detail, and elaborate 
 subdivision, which characterize some of the later books on the 
 same subject. This lucidity of treatment is one of the best 
 features of Dr. Hassall's work. Great elaboration and minute- 
 ness of description, however admirable from the purely 
 scientific point of view, can be carried to such an extent as 
 to be a hindrance to a practical worker, whose main desire, 
 probably, is no more ambitious than to examine ground ginger 
 for added barley- meal, or cacao powder for maize-starch. 
 
 Additional matter is scattered through the book. The 
 original text in many places has been recast and consider- 
 ably amplified; as in the pages devoted to the parasitic 
 diseases of grains, to mildews and moulds, arrowroots, 
 cocoa, saccharine substances, mustard, annatto and hops. 
 
 ^ Obituaries in the Analyst and the Medical Press, 1894. 
 
 - 'Arthur Hill Hassall, Physician and Sanitary Reformer : A Short History 
 of his Work in Public Hygiene, and of the Movement against the Adulteration 
 of Food and Drugs.' Messrs. Bailhere, Tindall and Cox, 1908. 
 
PREFACE xi 
 
 The sub-sections on proprietary wheaten foods ; nut foods ; 
 fruit preserves and jellies, including an account of the dis- 
 tinguishing microscopical features of fruits ; pickles, sauces, 
 and preserved vegetables ; flesh ; animal parasites ; lish ; 
 milk ; butter ; cheese, and lard, are either quite new, or they 
 have been almost entirely re-written. Nearly the whole of 
 Section II. (Foods derived from Animal Sources), apart 
 from certain of the figures, is fresh matter. This applies 
 also to Section IV. (Water). 
 
 In Germany especially, during the past twenty years, 
 various important treatises have appeared, dealing with the 
 microscopical investigation of food. These, and numerous 
 other authorities, British and foreign, have been consulted 
 during the preparation of the present volume. Particular 
 mention may here be made of the works by Meyer, Konig, 
 Blyth, Bell, Mace, Hager-Mez, Allen, Hanausek, von Vogl, 
 Angell, Moeller, Winton, Tschirch and Oersterle, Villiers 
 and Collin, Planchon and Collin, Greenish, Gait, and W. 
 Griffiths. In the chronological bibliography on pp. 399-406 
 are cited these and many more authorities, some of which 
 are indispensable to the ardent student of applied microscopy. 
 
 The Author has essayed further simplification by adopting, 
 so far as he could, an atlas-arrangement ; with, wherever 
 possible, all the figures of each foodstuff or drug, together, 
 on a few successive pages, and, generally facing or beneath 
 them, the descriptions. This system was not followed in 
 the late Dr. Hassall's works, and to the best of the writer's 
 knowledge, has not been consistently adopted in any book 
 in English, covering the same ground. 
 
 The glossary on pp. 393-398 may be useful for reference, 
 in view of the numerous botanical terms unavoidably used 
 in the body of the work. 
 
 Included in the volume are nearly all the original figures 
 — still without many serious rivals in other books of the 
 kind published in the United Kingdom. This, at least, is 
 the view of the present writer, who believes himself to be 
 acquainted with all the more important general and specialized 
 similar treatises, British and continental, which in latter days 
 
xii PREFACE 
 
 have appeared. The indistinct, and, for practical ends, often 
 useless results of photo-micrography — though, peradventure, 
 artistically attractive — and the somewhat fanciful or diagram- 
 matic representations, to be met with in some of these works, 
 have strengthened his opinion, that no other pictures have 
 been issued, of the same class of objects, better than, if, 
 indeed, equally serviceable \vith, the illustrations now re- 
 produced. The Author has, moreover, been convinced by 
 twenty-seven years' travail as a microscopist and analyst, 
 and by knowledge gained w^hile for nearly eight years he 
 filled, however imperfectly, the difficult and thankless office 
 of public analyst for a London district of a hundred 
 thousand inhabitants, that few other representations of the 
 minute structures of food -materials are, for usefulness to 
 the labourer in this particular field, comparable with careful 
 drawings made by the aid of the camera lucida. 
 
 Many fresh illustrations will be found in the present 
 volume. The Author is greatly indebted to Miss Faith Clay- 
 ton for the careful drawings reproduced in Figs. ig8, 201, 
 and 202 [Cysticercus celkdoscef Tcenia echinococcus, and Trichina 
 spiralis). He is himself responsible for forty-four sketches — 
 prepared in many instances from the objects themselves, and, 
 for the rest, drawn after, or to some extent inspired by, figures 
 in the works of Leuckart, Landois, Schafer, and others. 
 
 It must be ascribed to the late Dr. Hassall's insistence on 
 the importance of the microscope in analysis, that the Local 
 Government Board made proficiency in the use of that 
 instrument a requisite qualification for persons desiring to 
 become public analysts ; and the Institute of Chemistry 
 during recent years has recognized this necessity by including 
 microscopical analysis in its examinations. 
 
 Dr. Hassall's exposures of adulteration, and advocacy of 
 sanitary reform, by no means constitute his only claims to 
 the respect and gratitude of his fellow-countrymen. Another 
 great public service which he rendered was the foundation, 
 and establishment on a secure basis, of the Royal National 
 Hospital for Consumption and Diseases of the Chest, at 
 Ventnor, Isle of Wight. To this work Dr. Hassall devoted 
 
PREFACE xiii 
 
 more than ten years of his Hfe ; and it alone, had he accom- 
 pHshed nothing else, would be a sufficient and enduring 
 monument. 
 
 In 1862 Dr. Hassall proposed a Petroleum Standard. In 
 his Report on Paraffin Oil (the Lancet, 1862), he conferred a 
 national benefit, by showing that much of the oil then sold 
 in the metropolis was in a condition dangerous to the public, 
 and by urging the adoption of a ' standard of safety ' with 
 regard to the ignition-temperature of the vapour emitted by 
 the oil put upon the market. He strongly advocated the 
 production of a guarantee by wholesale firms that the 
 temperature of inflammation of the oil vended by them was 
 not less than 130° F. This * standard of safety,' suggested 
 by Dr. Hassall, was for a considerable period widely recog- 
 nized,^ and was actually adopted by some official bodies, 
 as, for example, the Town Council of Edinburgh : but 
 eventually the Government Authorities saw fit to adopt a 
 lower official standard, 100° F. ; and, since 1879, ^ tempera- 
 ture alleged to be its equivalent, namely, 73° F., which is 
 still in use. At all events, it may be traced very largely to 
 Hassall's urgent representations, and repeated communica- 
 tions to the press, that a minimum flash-point is now 
 obligatory. 
 
 With considerable advantage to the public, a strongly 
 critical position was adopted by Dr. Hassall regarding the 
 exaggerated notions which prevailed at one time as to the 
 supposed high nutritive value of * Extract of Meat.' In some 
 particularly interesting correspondence on the subject of 
 Extract of Beef, carried on in the Lancet of 1865 by 
 Dr. Hassall and others, and in the Times of 1872, Baron 
 Justus von Liebig himself took a somewhat querulous part ; 
 finally retiring from the fray, not the victor. 
 
 ^ ' The Sanitary Commission of the Lancet took as the limit of safety an oil 
 that gave off inflammable vapour when heated to 130 degrees of Fahrenheit's 
 thermometer, and this has been generally accepted by dealers.' — Mr. James 
 Young, of Bathgate (letter to the Times, dated February 2, 1864). 
 
 ' . . . the standard of safety originated by Dr. Hassall . . . nevertheless, it 
 has been widely recognized. . . .' — Dr. Benjamin H. Paul (letter to the 
 Standard^ February 18, 1864). 
 
xiv PREFACE 
 
 Lastly, it is largely a consequence of Dr. Hassall's re- 
 searches that students of pharmacy now receive systematic 
 training in the use of the microscope for the determination 
 of the quality and nature of powdered drugs. In this work 
 he was a pioneer, more than fifty years ago. In fact, he was 
 in advance of his time in pointing out the advantage of 
 microscopically testing drugs, as to their identity and purity ; 
 a method of investigation which only latterly has begun to 
 be recognized, by the General Medical Council and the 
 Pharmaceutical Society, as in many cases of greater use than 
 chemical operations, such as ascertaining the amount of 
 mineral matter, and the like. 
 
 For permission to include a reproduction of the fine 
 picture of the late Dr. Hassall, now in the Board Room of 
 the Royal National Hospital for Consumption and Diseases 
 of the Chest, the Author expresses his grateful acknow- 
 ledgments to the Chairman and Board of Management of 
 that Institution. He is much indebted also to Colonel Sir 
 E. W. D. Ward, K.C.B., K.C.V.O., Secretary of the War 
 Office, and Permanent Under-Secretary of State for War, for 
 interesting particulars relating to the statistics of recruiting : 
 to Mr. Ernest Morgarj, Secretary of the Ventnor Hospital, 
 and to Mr. Cuthbert E. A. Clayton, Librarian to the 
 Manchester Medical Society and the Medical Faculty of 
 the University of Manchester, for information on a number 
 of points; to Madame J. Nicolas PhiHpp, for many valuable 
 and helpful suggestions; and to Mrs. E. G. Clayton, for 
 assistance kindly rendered at several stages of the work. 
 
 It is hoped that this book may be of use to medical men, 
 analysts, and others interested in that important branch of 
 Public Health work which is concerned with the purity of 
 food, drink, and medicines. 
 
 E. G. CLAYTON. 
 
 Laboratories, 
 
 23, HoLBORN Viaduct, 
 
 London, E.G., 
 December, 1908. 
 
' De cibis er' potu, qui naturalera humiditatem, quae quotidie abfumitur, 
 convenientius restaurent. 
 
 ' Cibi & potus, qui convenientius naturalem humiditatem indies refolutam 
 ' reftituunt, funt multi, eaque reftauratio varia eft, fecundum complexionum 
 ' varietatem & fecundum ipfa Euchymia, vt Plinius ait, maxime que poft 
 ' tepus cofiftedi.' — 'Of Meats and Drink, which do more agreeably restore 
 ' the Natural Moisture, that daily is consumed. Meats and Drink, which 
 ' more agreeably restore the Natural Moisture, which is daily wasted, are 
 ' many : And this Restauration is various, according to the variety of Consti- 
 ' tutions, and according to the goodness of Juices in Meats and Drinks, as 
 ' Pliny saith, and especially after the time of full Growth.' — Roger Bacon, 
 philosopher and Franciscan friar [i2i4(?) — 1294]: Libellus . . . De retardandis 
 SenecUttis accidentihus, &-• de Sensibus conservandis, cap. vii., translated by 
 Richard Browne, 1683. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 ix 
 
 Preface ---..... 
 
 Table of Contents ...... xvii 
 
 Summary of the Life-Work of Dr. H ass all - - xxv 
 
 Prolegomena : On the Use of the Microscope - - xxxi 
 
 SECTION 1 
 FOODS DERIVED FROM VEGETABLE SOURCES 
 
 Graminem (Cereal Grains) :— 
 
 The Flour and Starch of Wheat. Triticum sativum^ var. 7'ulgare 3 
 
 The Flour and Starch of Barley. Hordeum sativum - - 9 
 
 The Flour and Starch of Rye. Secale cereale - - - 13 
 
 The Flour and Starch of Oat. Avejia sativa - - - 17 
 
 The Flour and Starch of Maize. Zea Mais - - - 21 
 
 The Flour and Starch of Rice. Orysa sativa - - - 25 
 
 Adulterants of, and Substitutes for, Wheat and other 
 Cereal Grains :— 
 
 Bean, Potato, Rice, and Barley Flours - - - - 28 
 
 Maize, Rice, and Adulterated ' Cones ' Flour - - - 29 
 
 Durrha or Dari. Andropogon sorghum, var. durraj sorghum 
 
 vulgare - - - - - - - 29 
 
 Wheaten Bread - ------ 38 
 
 Yeasts {^Sacchai-omycetes) - - - - - - 40 
 
 Mildews and Moulds {Hyphomycetes) - - - - 42 
 
 Parasitic Diseases and Impurities of the Cereal Grains : — 
 {a) Vegetable Parasites : 
 
 Bunt. Tillctia tritici - - - - - 47 
 
 Smut. Ustilago hordei^ and U. ave?tcE - - - 47 
 
 Rust. Uredo rubigo, and U. linearis {=Puccinia graminis) 47 
 Black Rust. Puccinia graminis - - - - 47 
 
 Ergot. Claviceps purpurea - - - - 47 
 
 xvii }j 
 
xviii TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 I 'AGE 
 
 Parasitic Diseases and Impurities of the Cereal Grains 
 {coiiti7med) : — 
 {(i) Vegetable Parasites {continued) : 
 
 Yellow Mould. Eurotiuvi repens ( = Eurotium Asper^ilh/s 
 glauciis) - - - - - - - 48 
 
 Green or Blue Mould. Pefiicilliiim glaiiciim^ P. cito- 
 philum, and P. roseiun - - - - - 48 
 
 Yeast. Saccharomyces - - - - - 48 
 
 {b) A Poisonous Grass : 
 
 Bearded Darnel. Loliinn teniulenhnn - - - 54 
 
 (c) Animal Parasites : 
 
 Ear Cockles. Tylenchus iiHtici { = Anguilliila tiitici--=-- 
 
 Vibrio tritici) - - - - - ■ 5^ 
 
 Meal Mite. TyrogI}phus siro { = A carus farina') - - 56 
 
 Feathered Mite. Clyciphagiis pliiniigeri^ = Acarusplitiniger) 56 
 The Wheat Midge. Cecidomyia tritici - - - S^ 
 
 The Weevil. Calandra grafiaria - - - - 56 
 
 Arrowroots : — 
 
 Marantacecc : Maranta, or West India Arrowroot. Maranta 
 
 ariindinacea - - - - - - - 60 
 
 CannacecT : Tous les Mois, Canna, or Queensland Arrowroot. 
 
 Canna edulis^ and other species of Camia - - - 60 
 
 Zingiber acece : Curcuma, or East India Arrowroot. Curcuma 
 
 angustifolia^ C. rubesce?is^ etc. - - - - 61 
 
 Taccacece : Tacca, or Tahiti Arrowroot. Tacca pi7matifida - 61 
 Euphorbiacece : Manihot, Cassava, or Brazilian Arrowroot. 
 
 Manihot utilissima - - - - - - 64 
 
 SolanacecE : Potato, or British Arrowroot. Solaiiuni tuberosum 64 
 GraminecE : Maize Arrowroot, or Corn Flour. Zea Mais - 64 
 Gra7ninecE : Rice Arrowroot. Oryza sativa - - - 64 
 
 Aj'acece : Arum, or Portland Arrowroot. Arum escu/entum, 
 
 A. macuiatmn, and A. Italicum - - - - 65 
 
 Sago :— 
 
 Palmce : Metroxylon Ru77iphii^ etc. - - - - 70 
 
 Cycadacece : Cyr^j- r^7'^/?/r/<^, and other species - - - 70 
 
 Tapioca or Cassava : — 
 
 EuphorbiacccE : Mani/iot utilissi77ia - - - - 74 
 
 Proprietary Foods containing or consisting of Wheat, etc. : 
 ' Grape Nuts ' - - - - - - - 76 
 
 'Force' ------.. 76 
 
 'Shredded Wheat' -j-j 
 
 'Triscuits' - - - - - - -77 
 
 ' Farola ' ------- 77 
 
TABLE OF CONTEXTS xix 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Proprietary Foods con'J'aining or consisting opWheai-, ktc. 
 {coiitmued) : — 
 ' Granola ' ....... 77 
 
 'Granose' ----... 77 
 
 Invalids' and Infants' Foods 
 
 71 
 
 Proprietary Foods containing Lentil in admixture with 
 Cereal Grains :— 
 
 Papilionacece : Lentil. Le/is esculetita^ or Ervuni Lens ■ 80 
 
 Pea- starch. Pismn arz'ense^ P. sativum - 80 
 
 Proprietary Foods consisting partially or entirely of 
 
 Nuts : — 
 ' Nutmeal,' ' Nuttose,' ' Protose,' ' Bromose,' ' Nutmeat,' ' Alnut,' 
 ' Nutton,' et alia - - - - - - 82 
 
 Beverages :— 
 
 Coffee. Coffea Arabica {Riibiacccc) - - -84 
 
 Coffee Substitutes and Adulterants - - - - 87 
 
 Chicory. Cichorium intybus [Conipositce] - - - 92 
 
 Chicory Substitutes and Admi.xtures - ' - - 96 
 
 Cocoa. Theobroma cacao {SterculiacecB) - - - 100 
 
 Commercial Cocoa and Chocolate Mixtures - - - 107 
 
 Tea. Camellia thea {Ter7istra'niiacece) - - - no 
 Leaves which have been Used in Admixture with, or as 
 
 Substitutes for, Tea - - - - - 114 
 
 Factitious Teas, and Adulterants of Tea - - - 120 
 
 Saccharine Substances :— 
 
 Sugar. From Sacchariwi officinarum {Graininece), Be la vul- 
 garis^ var. altissirna {Chenopodiacece)^ etc. - - - 126 
 Impurities which have been found in Sugar : 
 
 1. The Sugar Mite. Glyciphagus, s^. {-= Acarus sacchari) 130 
 
 2. Fungus Spores and Wood-Fibres - - - 133 
 Honey - - - - - - - 134 
 
 Fruit Preserves and Jellies : — 
 
 Numbers of Seeds in Various Fruits - - - - I39 
 
 Parasitic Germs, and Ova of Endoparasites, in Fruit - - 139 
 Distinguishing Features of Fruit : 
 
 The Apple. Pirus inalus [Rosacea;) - - - I43 
 
 The Pear. Pirus comjnu?ns {Rosacece) - - 143 
 
 The Quince. Cydonia vulgaris {Rosacece) - - - 143 
 
 The Sweet and Bitter Orange. Citrus aurantiu/n, var. 
 
 Sinensis and amara {Rutacece) - - - - 143 
 
 The Lemon. Citrus li7iionum {Rulacea) - - - I45 
 
 h 2 
 
XX TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 I'AGE 
 
 Fruit Preserves and Jellies {continued) :— 
 
 Distinguishing Features of Fruit {continued) : 
 
 The Banana. Musa sapientum {Musacece) - - MS 
 
 The Plantain. Musa paradisaica {Musaceo') - - MS 
 
 The Red Currant. Ribes rubrufn {Saxifragacece) - - I45 
 
 The White Currant. Ribes nigruin {Saxifragacece) - [45 
 
 The Gooseberry. Ribes grossularia {Saxifragacecp^ - 147 
 
 The Strawberry. Fragaria vesca {Rosace<2) - - '47 
 
 The Grape. Vitis vinifera {Vitacece) - - - '49 
 
 The Cherry. Prunus cerasus {Rosacece) - - - M9 
 
 The Raspberry. Rubus IdcBus {Rosacece) - - - J 49 
 
 The Plum. Prunus do7nestica {RosacecB) - - 149 
 
 The Blackberry. Rubus fruticosus {Rosacea) - - 149 
 
 The Peach. Prunus Persica {Rosacece) - - - '49 
 
 The Apricot. Prunus Anneniaca {Rosacecr) - - I49 
 
 The Fig. Ficus Carica {Moracece) - - - 151 
 
 The Date. Phoenix dacty lifer a {Palmcp) - - - 151 
 
 Marmalade and other Fruit Preparations - - ^ 5 1 
 
 Falsifications of - - - - - 151 
 
 Orris Rhizome. Iris gerinanica^ etc. (used in factitious rasp- 
 berry jam) - - - - - - - 153 
 
 Various Fruit Substitutes : 
 
 Turnip, Beetroot, Vegetable Marrow, Carrot, and Rhubarb 154 
 
 Agar-agar. Gracilaria lichenoides^ etc. - - - ' 54 
 
 Pickles, Sauces, and Preserved Vegeiables : — 
 
 Onion, Shallot, Soy, Tarragon, etc. - - - - 1 57 
 
 Tomato - - - - - - - - '57 
 
 Fresh Vegetables : — 
 
 Asparagus, Spinach, Cauliflower, Cabbage, etc. - - I57 
 
 Condiments, Spices, and other Food Adjuncts : — 
 
 Musiard. Sinapis alba^ and Brassica nigra {Cruciferce) - 160 
 
 Adulterated Mustard - - - - - - 164 
 
 Seeds resembling Mustard, which have been used as Substi- 
 tutes : Sarepta Mustard {Brassica Besseriana)^ Charlock 
 {Sinapis arvensis\ Rape {Brassica ttapus^ var. oleifera), and 
 
 East Indian Rape {B. rugosd) - - - 166 
 
 Pepper. Piper nigrum {Piperacece) - - - - 172 
 
 Linseed. Linuin usitatissiinum {Linacece). An occasional 
 
 adulterant of Pepper - - - - - - 1 78 
 
 Cayenne Pepper. Capsicum frutesce?is^ and other species 
 
 {Solanacece) - - - - - - - 180 
 
 Ginger. Zingiber offici?iale {Zingiberacece" - - - 188 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS xxi 
 
 I'AGE 
 
 Condiments, Spices, and other Food Adjuncts {continued) :— 
 
 Adulterated Ginger - - - - - - 191 
 
 Cinnamon. Cinnamomum Zeylanictan {LauraceiB) - - I94 
 
 Cassia. Cinnamomum cassia {Lauracece) - - - i95 
 
 Nutmeg. IVlyristica fragrans {Myristicacece) - - - 200 
 
 Mace. „ „ „ ... 202 
 Cloves. Eugenia caryophyllata^ or Caryophyllus aromaticus 
 
 {MyrtacecE) - - - • - - - 204 
 Pimento or Allspice. Pimenta officinalis, or Eugenia pimcnta 
 
 {MyrtacecE) - - - - - - - 210 
 
 Mixed Spice - - - - - - - 216 
 
 Coriander. Coriandrum sativum {U mbellifercB) - - 218 
 
 Cardamom. Elettaria cardamomum {Zingiberacece) - - 221 
 
 Fenugreek. Trigonella Foenum-Grcecum {Papilionacecz) - 224 
 
 Cumin or Cummin. Cuminum cyinitiuni {Umbelliferce) - 228 
 
 SECTION II 
 
 FOODS DERIVED FROM ANIMAL SOURCES 
 Flesh :— 
 
 Voluntary Muscle - - - - - - 233 
 
 Involuntary Muscle -.--.. 233 
 
 Cardiac Muscle ------- 233 
 
 Ingredients of Sausages --.--- 234 
 
 Animal Parasites which infest Flesh : — 
 
 Serious effects of Endoparasites or Entozoa - - - 238 
 
 Risks of eating Raw Food - . . . . 240 
 
 The commoner Parasites of Flesh : 
 
 Cysticercus cellule see - - - - - - 240 
 
 Ta-nia solium __._>. 246 
 
 Cysticercus bovis - - - - - - 246 
 
 Tcenia saginata ...... 246 
 
 Tcenia echinococcus - - - - - - 246 
 
 Trichina spiralis . . . . . 246 
 
 Oxyuris irermicularis . . . . . 246 
 
 Distomian hepaticum . . . . . 246 
 
 Trichocephalus dispar . . . . . 247 
 
 Ascaris lumbricoides . . . . . 247 
 
 Ascaris mystax - - - - - - 247 
 
 Necessity for the careful Inspection of Food, use of Pure 
 
 Water, and careful Feeding of Animals - - - 248 
 
 Influence of Food on Recruiting Returns - - - 249 
 
xxii TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Fish :— 
 
 Parasites harboured by : Bo//iriocep/ia/us Zulus, a.nd othtrs - 251 
 
 Tainted Fish suggested cause of Leprosy -. - - 251 
 
 Ingredients of Fish Paste - - - - - 252 
 
 Mixtures of Fish Oils with Extract of Malt - - - 252 
 
 Substitution of one kind of Fish for another - - - 252 
 The Sardine {Clupea sardma)jihe Anchovy {Engraulis encrasi- 
 
 r/^^'/z/j-), and Whitebait - ..... 254 
 
 Milk and Cream: — 
 
 Composition and Characters of normal Milk - - - 255 
 
 Colostrum - - - - - - - 255 
 
 Various Impurities and Adulterants discussed - - - -55 
 
 Butter :— 
 
 Effect of Fusion and Slow Cooling on the Microscopical 
 
 Characters of Butter .-...- 261 
 
 Margarine contrasted with Butter .... 262 
 
 Cheese and Cheese Mites :— 
 
 Occurrence of the ' Cheese-mite ' [Tyroglyphiis sird) in decaying 
 
 Cheese ------.. 264 
 
 Addition of Starch to Cheese - - . . . 264 
 
 Lard -.-.-.-.. 268 
 
 Isinglass --....-. 270 
 
 Gelatine ---..-.. 270 
 
 SECTION III 
 
 TOBACCO, DRUGS, BITTERS, AND COLOURING 
 MATTERS 
 
 Tobacco. Nicotiana tabacum, and A^. rustica {Sola7iacecE) - 27^ 
 
 Leaves which have been Used as Substitutes for To- 
 bacco : — 
 
 I. Dock Leaf. Rumex, sp. {Polygonacece) - - - 283 
 
 II. Rhubarb Leaf. RheiDn hybridum {Polygonacea:) - - 288 
 
 III. Coltsfoot Leaf. Tiissilago farfara {Compositcr^ - - 290 
 
 The Hop. Hmnidus lupidus {Canuabiiiacece) - - 294 
 
 The Poppy. Papaver so))iniJe7'um {PapaveracecF) - - - 298 
 Opium ....... 306 
 
 Turmeric. Curcinna longa {Zi?igiberacecu) - - - 310 
 
 Annatto. Bixa orellana {Bixacea) - - - 312 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS xxiii 
 
 PACK 
 
 SCAMMONY. Convolvulus scaminonia {Convolvulaceai) - - 316 
 
 Jalap. Ipomosa purga {ConvolvulacecB) - - - - 319 
 
 Ipecacuanha. Psychotria ipecacuanha {RubiacecE) - - 325 
 
 COLOCYNTH. Citrullus colocynihis {Cucurbitacea') - - 330 
 Turkey Rhubarb. Rheum pahnatum, R. officinale {Polygo?iacece), 
 
 etc. -----..-. 334 
 
 Squill. Urgifiea scilla [Liliacece) ----- 336 
 Liquorice. Glycyrrhiza glabra^ G. glandulijera {Papilio7iacecc)^ 
 
 etc. 338 
 
 SECTION IV 
 
 W-A.TER 
 
 Non-occurrence of Pure Water outside the Laboratory - - 345 
 
 Nature of the Matters dissolved and suspended in Water - - 345 
 
 Significance of the suspended Organic Matter - - - 345 
 
 Practical Importance of a Study of the Microscopical Fauna and 
 
 Flora in Water, first shown by the late Dr. A. H. Hassall - 346 
 
 Condition in 1850-57 of the Drinking Water of the Metropolis - 346 
 Methods of Microscopically Examining Water : 
 
 Method of A. H. Hassall - - - - - 347 
 
 Method of J. D. MacDonald - - - - - 347 
 
 Method of A. L. Kean - - ... . - 348 
 
 Methods of W. J. Sedgwick, G. W. Rafter, G. C. Whipple, 
 
 and others --..-.- 348 
 
 Methodof A. W. Blyth - - - - - 348 
 
 Method of W. J. Dibdin - - - - - - 348 
 
 On ihe ' Plankton' of Water - - - - - - 349 
 
 Varieties of Objects Hkely to be met with by the Analyst of Water- 349 
 
 Classified Summary of Aquatic Fauna . . . . 350 
 
 Indications furnished by Animal Organisms- - - - 352 
 
 'Tastes' and ' Odours' imparted to Water by certain Protozoa - 354 
 
 Classified Summary of Aquatic Flora . . - . 355 
 
 Filamentous or Thread- Bacteria ... - - 357 
 
 Odours due to certain Plant-forms ----- 358 
 
 Fragmental Organic Matters, or Debris . - . . 359 
 
 Inorganic or Mineral Matter - - - - - - 359 
 
 Manufactured Products ..-.-. 360 
 
 Figures illustrating Plankton, with names of ( ienera and Species 362-391 
 
 Glossary - - - - - - - - 393 
 
 Bibliography ...-.-- 399 
 
 List of Illustrations - - - - - - 407 
 
 Index .------- 419 
 
A SUMMARY OF THE LIFE-WORK OF 
 DR. A. H. HASSALL. 
 
 On December 13, 1817, nine years short of a century ago, 
 Arthur Hill Hassall was born at Teddington, Middlesex. 
 His father, Thomas Hassall, and other members of the family 
 were medical men. At that distant period men spoke of 
 Waterloo as an affair of yesterday : the victor of Austerlitz 
 was once for all in exile : romances from a Scottish pen in 
 fast succession were delighting the reading world : Londoners 
 quite recently had learnt from Frederick Winsor that coal- 
 gas gave a better light than oil ; and George Stephenson's 
 locomotive steam-engine had still to reach its full develop- 
 ment. To travel by road from Edinburgh to London occupied 
 four days. To sail from the Liffey to the Thames took longer 
 than now does a passage to New York. The usual aftermath 
 of war was coming in. Poverty was rife ; hunger and dis- 
 content were stark in the land. Excited meetings and dis- 
 turbances were increasingly frequent, until at Manchester, 
 twenty months later, they ended in * Peterloo,' bitter memories 
 of which remain to this day. The latter part of the eighteenth 
 and the first quarter of the nineteenth century were marked 
 by international strife, political upheaval, and suffering among 
 the toilers. Cobbett, Burdett, and 'Orator' Hunt in 1817 
 were agitating for Parliamentary reform. Agricultural depres- 
 sion was extreme, and commercial probity was at its nadir. 
 For threescore years the food of the people had been poor 
 and dear. Contemptible and gross adulterations of all con- 
 ceivable kinds were everywhere the rule. The dough of 
 bread was mingled with alum, carbonate of lime, bone ash, 
 potatoes, and beans. By eking out his sugar with gypsum. 
 
xxvi SUMMARY OF DR. HASSALUS LIFE-WORK 
 
 chalk, and pipe-clay, the sweetmeat-maker derived unholy 
 gains ; and the pigments used contained lead, chromium, 
 mercury, copper, sometimes even arsenic. The unwhole- 
 some hues of preserved green fruits and vegetables were due 
 to boiling in copper vessels, or to the addition of cupreous 
 salts. ^ Cayenne pepper and curry powder were beautified 
 by the scarlet oxide of lead. Vinegar was fortified with 
 sulphuric acid. Canistered fish were tinted red by ferru- 
 ginous earths. Tea was weighted, dyed, and ' faced ' by 
 a variety of mineral substances. Coffee was shamelessly 
 adulterated, almost to the extent of its own effacement, with 
 roots, grains, pease, beans, and still more worthless surro- 
 gates. Products used to falsify, as chicory, were themselves 
 sophisticated. Drugs were mixed with inert matters, or 
 replaced by commodities of inferior quality. Tobacco was 
 blended with the leaves of herbs and weeds, some of which 
 are described hereafter. The water supplied to the Metropolis 
 carried solid and liquid filth from the sewers, reeked of 
 odorous abominations, and teemed with offensive forms of 
 plant and animal life. And so on ; and so on. 
 
 The only machinery to cope with the adulteration of drugs 
 and food was that of the Excise : but the Executive were 
 appointed to protect the revenue, not the public : their super- 
 vision was exercised over a comparatively limited range of 
 products ; and even of these they were incompetent to dis- 
 cover some of the grosser adulterations. This state of affairs 
 lasted, with little, if any, improvement, until the thirteenth 
 year of Queen Victoria's reign ; and so late as 1850 the 
 Chancellor of the Exchequer, Sir Charles Wood, could 
 announce from his place in Parliament that ' neither by 
 chemical nor by any other mode could it be ascertained with 
 any degree of certainty whether a mixture contained chicory 
 or not.' 
 
 But at last the man had arrived who was to change all 
 this, and give life to these dry bones. It was reserved for 
 
 ^ Of late years this abominable practice has in some quarters been resus- 
 citated. The quantities of copper added are fractional as compared with 
 those used in former days, and may be harmless : but the custom would be 
 • more honoured in the breach than the observance.' 
 
SUMMARY OF DR. HASSALL\S LIFE-WORK xxvii 
 
 Arthur Hill Hassall, a keen observer, a good naturalist, an 
 able microscopist, and professionally trained in physic, to 
 enter upon active life bent on a crusade against abuses of 
 the kind and extent which have faintly been indicated. 
 After calling public attention to the insanitary condition of 
 certain western districts of London, he (1850) vigorously 
 attacked the water-supply of the Metropolis as a whole. His 
 writings and oral evidence on this subject lent a powerful 
 impetus to the movement for remedial legislation (vide 
 Section IV., pp. 346, 347). A little later, occupied, at the 
 instance of the General Board of Health, in researches 
 connected with the cholera epidemic of 1854, ^r* Hassall 
 was the first observer to record the presence, in enormous 
 numbers, of ' vibriones ' (bacilli) in the rice-water discharges 
 of cholera patients: so that it has been justly claimed for 
 him that he nearly anticipated Dr. Koch in the discovery of 
 the cause of that disease. 
 
 In 1850, the Chancellor of the Exchequer's statement, 
 already quoted, had impelled Hassall to examine samples 
 of the coffee sold in London ; and a paper on the subject, 
 which he read before the Botanical Society of London, led 
 to communications between the editor of the Lancet and 
 himself, as a result of which, during the years 185 1, 1852, 
 1853, and 1854, he contributed to that journal a series of 
 reports (known as the ' Reports of the Lancet Analytical 
 Sanitary Commission ') on the composition of the food, 
 drugs, and beverages then sold in the London shops. These 
 papers, which embodied the results of thousands of analyses, 
 marked an epoch in the annals of public hygiene in Great 
 Britain, and attracted an immense amount of attention in 
 every part of the country. Even on the Continent interest 
 was aroused. The work demanded great skill and accuracy, 
 and as the names of the vendors were published, whether the 
 commodities were good or bad, the matter obviously was 
 delicate and responsible. In his investigations Dr. Hassall 
 used all the scientific methods that were at the time avail- 
 able, chemical and other, for detecting the falsifications 
 which had been practised : but a leading feature of the 
 
xxviii SUMMARY OF DR. H ASS ALL'S LIFE-WORK 
 
 scheme was the prominence given to the use of the micro- 
 scope, an instrument previously almost entirely neglected as 
 a means of systematically examining, for extraneous ingre- 
 dients, foodstuffs and medicaments. Hassall taught his con- 
 freres, medical and chemical, the principal microscopic 
 characteristics of foods, and how^ the knowledge could be 
 applied in the detection of admixtures. An agitation sprang 
 up ; and meetings were held, urging on the Legislature the 
 introduction of a Bill dealing with the evils disclosed in 
 these reports, the republication of which in book-form (1855) 
 excited public interest to fever-heat. Vigorous articles in 
 the Times, Quarterly Review, and other leading organs of 
 public opinion, had the effect of compelling the appointment 
 of a Parliamentary Select Committee, before which Dr. 
 Hassall and others gave startling evidence regarding the 
 prevalence of adulteration ; and finally, in i860, the first Act 
 of Parliament was passed against the adulteration of food. 
 This was the precursor and progenitor of all the Food Acts 
 since passed, including the Act of 1899, at present in force. 
 
 Dr. Hassall wrote much on other topics, among them the 
 danger attending the use of low flash-point petroleum (see 
 Preface, p. xiii) ; the composition and trifling food-value of 
 beef-extracts ; the use of arsenical and other toxic pigments 
 in wall-papers and curtain-fabrics ; the occurrence of metallic 
 poisons, such as lead, in postage stamps ; and the manufac- 
 ture of invalids' and infants' foods. A matter engaging much 
 of his attention was the designing and construction of 
 apparatus and chambers for the inhalation of antiseptic 
 medicaments. 
 
 Dr. Hassall was for some time Public Analyst for the Isle 
 of Wight, and in 1875 he was elected the first Vice-President 
 of the Society of Public Analysts. For many years he was 
 Physician (ultimately Senior Physician) to the Royal Free 
 Hospital. He was the founder of the Royal National 
 Hospital for Consumption and Diseases of the Chest, at 
 Ventnor, where more than thirty years since he was advo- 
 cating much of the open-air treatment now so generally 
 adopted in cases of phthisis. Also, he was Consulting 
 
SUMMARY OF DR. HASSALL'S LIFE-WORK xxix 
 
 Physician to the North British and Mercantile Insurance 
 Company. 
 
 Dr. Hassall was early elected a Fellow of the Linnaean 
 Society. Over thirty papers on botanical and zoological 
 topics came from his pen ; the total number of his books, 
 papers, letters, and other signed contributions to journals 
 reached nearly 200. One of his most interesting observa- 
 tions — that of the presence, in some pathological conditions, 
 of indigo in urine — was described in papers read before the 
 Royal Society in 1853 and 1854. Among his more im- 
 portant works were A History of the British Freshwater Algce 
 (1845) ; The Microscopic Anatomy of the Human Body (1849), 
 in which were described for the first time the bodies in the 
 thymus gland, now known to anatomists and physiologists 
 as the * concentric corpuscles of Hassall ' ; A Microscopic 
 Examination of the Water supplied to the Inhabitants of London 
 and the Suburban Districts (1850) ; Food and Its Adulterations 
 (1855); Adulterations Detected in Food and Medicine (1857 
 and 1 861) ; The Urine in Health and Disease (1859 and 
 1863); Food: Its Adulterations and the Methods for their 
 Detection (1876) ; San Remo Climatically and Medically Con- 
 sidered (1883) ; and The Inhalation Treatment in Diseases of 
 the Organs of Respiration, including Consumption (1885). Dr. 
 Hassall in 1893 published an autobiography, The Narrative 
 of a Busy Life^ and in the following year (1894), on April 9, 
 he died at San Remo, Italy, having lived a long and arduous 
 life, of real use and lasting benefit to his fellow-men. ' One 
 who never turned his back, but marched breast forward,' he 
 felt, with Browning — 
 
 ' Then life is — to wake not sleep, 
 
 Rise and not rest, but press 
 From earth's level where blindly creep 
 
 Things perfected, more or less, 
 To the heaven's height, far and steep.' 
 
PROLEGOMENA. 
 
 ON THE USE OF THE MICROSCOPE IN THE EX- 
 AMINATION OF FOOD, DRUGS, AND WATER. 
 
 General Principles. 
 
 Without a microscope, evidences of organized structure can 
 be observed in any animal or plant : but there is, in every 
 part of each, much organization wholly invisible to the 
 unaided sight. This minute structure differs in the several 
 parts of the same plant or animal, and is distinct in different 
 species, so that the histologist often can identify with the 
 microscope exceedingly small portions of animal or vegetable 
 tissues, and refer them to the parts or species to which they 
 belong. Thus, one kind of root, stem, or leaf, may generally 
 be distinguished from another, one sort of starch or flour 
 from another, one seed from another, and so on. There are 
 few vegetable articles of consumption (not liquids) which 
 may not be identified by means of the microscope ; and 
 additions or admixtures of extraneous vegetable substances 
 can similarly be discovered. Thus, the microscope can 
 show the presence in linseed-cake, or crushed linseed, of 
 various weed -seeds, many of them objectionable and 
 injurious: such as purging flax [Linum catharticum), wild 
 radish (Raphanus raphanistnun) , yellow dodder {Camelina 
 sativa), darnel -seed {Loliiun temidentinn) , and flax-dodder 
 {Ctiscuta epiliniim). The numerous materials introduced into 
 mixed feeding-cakes, sometimes added to linseed-cake for the 
 purpose of adulteration, and occasionally present through 
 accident, such as mill-refuse, oat-husks, bran, locust- or 
 carob-bean {Ceratonia siliqtia) , cdistor -oil cake (castor poonac), 
 hemp-cake, and earth-nut (Arachis hypogcBa), can readily be 
 
xxxii PROLEGOMENA 
 
 distinguished by a practised microscopist. Seeds even 
 belonging to different species of the same genus may often 
 be distinguished from each other by the microscope. For 
 instance, rape-cake, after consuming which cattle have died 
 with symptoms of gastric and intestinal inflammation, has 
 been ascertained microscopically to be admixed with 
 mustard seed, the undoubted cause, from the large quantity 
 consumed, of the fatal inflammation. Seeds belonging to 
 mere varieties of the same species of plants can sometimes 
 be discriminated with the help of the microscope. These 
 remarks apply also to vegetable drugs, whether roots, barks, 
 seeds, or leaves. Sometimes information is gained of the 
 processes or agencies to which substances have been sub- 
 jected : whether, for instance, starch is raw, baked, or boiled : 
 or if grain be malted or unmalted (vide ' Bread '). 
 
 Not only when substances are alone can they be identified, 
 but also when mixed together in different proportions. As 
 many as nine different ingredients have been detected 
 in certain mixtures.^ The pulverization, and even charring, 
 of many vegetable substances will not destroy the struc- 
 tures so as to render identification impossible by the 
 microscope. Chicory and coffee may thus be roasted and 
 pulverized, and each afterwards identified with the greatest 
 ease. Extremely minute quantities of bodies can be dis- 
 covered in admixtures: one part of turmeric, for instance, 
 has been detected in 448 parts of mustard. By the size, 
 form, and structure of the pollen grains in honey, which 
 differ according to the plants whence they are derived, the 
 microscopist can in many cases decide upon the nature of 
 the plants which have yielded the honey, and whether it was 
 collected from the flowers of the field, garden, heath, or 
 mountain {vide ' Honey '). 
 
 It is not too much to affirm that a full and accurate 
 analysis of a proprietary food or sweetmeat ; of a sauce or a 
 condiment; of a medicinal preparation, whether pill, con- 
 
 ^ In a few instances (proprietary medicines and preparations for cattle) 
 the writer has discovered with the aid of the microscope even a larger 
 number of components. — E. G. C. 
 
PROLEGOMENA xxxiii 
 
 fection or potion ; of a feeding-cake or a cattle-medicament, 
 is usually impossible in the absence of a microscope. In some 
 of these cases, indeed, the m.icroscopical analysis is the more 
 important part of the investigation. There are numerous 
 other instances in which the microscope serves as an 
 acceptable or even indispensable auxiliary to chemical 
 analysis : not merely as a means of corroboration, but in the 
 application of ' micro-chemical ' reactions for starch, oil, 
 cellulose, lignin, proteids, alkaloids and glucosides, alkaline 
 earthy carbonates, phosphates, etc. Such tests are rapid, 
 accurate, and convenient of employment. In toxicological 
 investigations the microscope is particularly useful. 
 
 The following are among the m.ore notable micro-chemical 
 reactions : — 
 
 Starch gives a deep blue coloration with a solution of 
 iodine in potassium iodide. 
 
 Cellulose is coloured faintly yellow .by solution of iodine 
 (blue, if subsequently treated with 50 per cent, sulphuric 
 acid — Mangin's reaction); and violet-blue by iodized zinc 
 chloride (Schultze's reagent). It is not coloured by acidified 
 aniline sulphate (Wiesner's test), and dissolves in ammonio- 
 cupric sulphate solution (Schw^eitzer's reagent). It is in- 
 tensely stained by hsematoxylin (logwood), but not by a 
 solution of picric acid. 
 
 Dextrose reduces a warmed alkaline solution of copper 
 tartrate, with the separation of red cuprous oxide. 
 
 Lignin (wood-fibre) is coloured pale yellow by solution of 
 iodine, yellow by iodized zinc chloride, orange-yellow by 
 alcoholic solution of thallium sulphate (Hegler's reagent), 
 and a golden -yellow by acid solution of aniline sulphate. 
 By treatment with iodopotassium iodide, followed by 50 per 
 cent, sulphuric acid, which latter causes it to swell, it 
 is not coloured blue (distinction from cellulose). It is not 
 stained by haematoxylin, and is insoluble in Schweitzer's 
 reagent. 
 
 Suber, or Cork, is coloured pale yellow by solution of iodine 
 and by iodized chloride of zinc, but is not stained by acid 
 aniline sulphate, hsematoxylin, nor by iodine solution after 
 
 c 
 
xxxiv PROLEGOMENA 
 
 treatment with 50 per cent, sulphuric acid; and it is not 
 swollen by the acid. 
 
 Mucilage swells greatly in water, and yet more in solution 
 of potash. It gives no blue with iodine solution, and after 
 treatment with 50 per cent, sulphuric acid, only a faint 
 bluish tint. It is dyed pink by corallin-soda solution, and 
 stained deeply by haematoxylin. 
 
 Globules of Fixed Oil are dissolved by ether ; not easily 
 soluble in alcohol ; saponified by alkalies ; coloured a deep 
 brown by osmic acid, and readily stained pink by alkanet 
 tincture. 
 
 Globules of Volatile Oil do not saponify, and are readily 
 soluble in alcohol. 
 
 Chlorophyll is dissolved by alcohol out of chlorophyll 
 grains or chloroplastids. 
 
 Proteinous Matters, as the components of aleurone grains, 
 are stained yellowish-brown by a solution of iodine in potas- 
 sium iodide, intensely yellow by picric acid, and a deep red 
 by a diluted solution of mercury in fuming nitric acid 
 (Millon's reagent); a pink to violet-blue is yielded on the 
 addition of a solution of sodium hydroxide, followed by very 
 dilute solution of sulphate of copper (Rose's biuret reaction). 
 Crystals of Calcium Oxalate are insoluble in acetic acid, and 
 soluble without effervescence in nitric or hydrochloric acid. 
 
 Crystals of Calcium Carbonate dissolve in acetic acid with 
 effervescence. 
 
 Tannin gives a greenish- or bluish-black with salts of iron, 
 and a brown precipitate with a solution of sodium aceto- 
 tungstate (Baeme's reagent). 
 
 Alkaloids and Glucosides frequently exhibit distinctive 
 crystalline forms, and in solution yield characteristic reac- 
 tions with various general and special reagents, such as 
 solution of potassio-mercuric iodide (Mayer's reagent), iodo- 
 potassium iodide (Wagner's reagent), picric acid, iodic acid, 
 bromine-water, followed by ammonia and potash, potassium, 
 dichromate and sulphuric acid, etc. 
 
 Bile Acids give a violet colour with sulphuric acid or phos- 
 phoric acid, and cane sugar (Pettenkofer's and Drechsel's 
 
PROLEGOMENA xxxv 
 
 tests), and the bile-pigments exhibit changing tints on the 
 addition of nitroso-nitric acid (GmeHn's reaction). 
 
 Fragments of the Rind of the Orange are coloured intensely 
 green when digested in hydrochloric acid — E. G. Clayton 
 (distinction from lemon rind). 
 
 Preparation of Objects. 
 
 Before proceeding to the microscopical investigation of a 
 substance, the observer acquaints himself with its general 
 appearance and structure. If the specimen be in the state 
 of powder {e.g., flour and arrowroot), a very minute portion 
 is deposited in a drop of water on the middle of a glass slide, 
 the powder being diffused evenly in a layer so thin that the 
 light easily passes through it ; and a square or circular thin 
 glass cover is placed over the whole, air-bubbles being 
 excluded. If the substance be solid, as a root, stem, or seed, 
 thin sections must be prepared with a sharp and narrow- 
 backed razor : some transverse, some longitudinal (radial 
 and tangential) and others embracing the external and internal 
 surfaces of the object, when both are present. A microtome 
 is generally unnecessary. Occasionally the inquiry is 
 facilitated by tearing in pieces some of the sections with 
 needles, also by the use of glycerine or oil instead of water : 
 especially in the examination of seeds. The structure is thus 
 rendered more distinct. 
 
 Methods of Investigation. 
 
 When the substance is supplied in the form of powder, and 
 there is a question as to its purity, it is necessary to procure 
 some of the genuine powder, examine it most minutely, 
 and thus become familiar with its morphological features. 
 Having progressed thus far, one can examine various 
 samples of the article, with a view to the detection of foreign 
 admixture, if this be suspected. With a good knowledge 
 of the structures met with in the pure substance, little 
 difficulty should be experienced in determining whether 
 specimens contain exotic vegetable components, or are free 
 
 c 2 
 
xxxvi PROL EGOMENA 
 
 from alien admixture. Should a foreign body be present, 
 its nature must be ascertained and an attempt made to 
 refer it to the plant or substance to which it belongs. 
 The facility with which this is done depends on the extent 
 of one's acquaintance with other vegetable substances : if 
 this be considerable, a glance is often sufficient. It is not 
 always necessary to know the structure and appearances of 
 any great number of vegetable productions, since a few 
 comparatively inexpensive commodities, such as wheat-flour, 
 potato-starch, sago-powder, rice, maize, etc., are added very 
 often to many and widely different products of greater value. 
 In such cases, all that is requisite is to be able to recognize 
 these additions when present. Alore often, the demands on 
 the scientific knowledge and judgment of the investigator 
 are greater. For the successful examination of unknown 
 mixtures of possibly complex constitution {e.g., the numerous 
 proprietary foods, condiments, medicines, and other articles 
 every day confronting him), he must be very well equipped 
 indeed. 
 
 Excluding fluids and active chemical principles, most 
 productions of vegetable origin are made up of certain 
 definite structures and histological elements, as cellular tissue, 
 wood-fibre, vessels, starch-granules, and the like. Thus, in 
 leaves there are stomata and hair-like appendages, and in 
 seeds, aleurone cells, oil-cavities, and two or more mem- 
 branes. In any endeavour to discriminate between different 
 vegetable substances, these several tissues and structures 
 must be most carefully compared. Thus, the cellular tissue 
 of one vegetable product is to be examined comparatively, 
 both for size and structure, with that of another ; and the 
 same course must be followed with the wood-fibre, starch- 
 granules, aleurone grains, stomata, hairs, etc. Some pre- 
 liminary knowledge of structural botany is here presupposed ; 
 because the observer should be acquainted with the character- 
 istics of the chief tissues and elements entering into the 
 organization of the several component parts of plants. He 
 should know the structure and microscopic appearance of 
 cellular tissue in its different forms, parenchyma, scler- 
 
PROLEGOMENA xxxvii 
 
 enchyma, and prosenchyma ; of vascular tissue, wood-fibre, 
 chlorophyll-grains, starch-grains, and aleurone-grains ; and 
 should be familiar with the general features of roots, stems, 
 leaves, flowers (including the pollen), and seeds. Aleurone 
 grains are useful in the discrimination and identification of 
 seeds, resembling starch-granules in this respect, that for the 
 same botanical species the characteristics vary but little. 
 Aleurone grains consist of proteinous ground-matter, mostly 
 soluble in water and dilute alkali or acid, and containing 
 embedded crystalloids (proteid matter, insoluble in water, 
 soluble in dilute acid and alkali), globoids (composed of 
 phosphatic and organic salts of calcium and magnesium), 
 with sometimes crystals or crystal-aggregates of oxalate of 
 calcium, insoluble in water and acetic acid, soluble in dilute 
 hydrochloric acid. The ground-substance being soluble in 
 water, a better medium in which to mount seeds for micro- 
 scopical examination is glycerine, almond, castor, or olive 
 oil. An introductory knowledge of vegetable morphology 
 and histology, which will facilitate very greatly subsequent 
 and more specialized inquiries, can be derived from ordinary 
 botanical works, such as those of Strasburger, Vines, Goodale, 
 Balfour, and Bentley. 'The Class-Book of Botany,' by 
 G. P. Mudge and A. J. Maslen, also may be mentioned. 
 
 Many of the foregoing remarks apply to the microscopical 
 examination of substances of animal origin : blood corpuscles ; 
 blood crystals ; mucus ; pus ; epithelial cells ; muscle-fibre ; 
 fat-globules, as in milk and butter, etc. With some previous 
 knowledge of microscopic anatomy, an acquaintance with the 
 structures and morphological characteristics of the objects 
 named, and a familiarity with the microscopical appearances 
 of ordinary parasites, their ova and embryos, as well as of 
 the commoner water-organisms, the observer will be in a 
 position to examine many articles of animal origin ; in some 
 instances to distinguish healthy food from diseased or parasitic 
 flesh ; to identify blood in liquids or on stains, colostrum in 
 milk, many kinds of dead organic debris in polluted w^ater, 
 and to search for and recognize the more highly developed 
 organisms in drinking water — Crustacea, rotatoria, infusoria, 
 
xxxviii PROLEGOMENA 
 
 and the like.^ Some previous study of zoology, anatomy, 
 and physiology are here assumed. Useful textbooks for 
 reference are Huxley and Martin's ' Elementary Biology ' 
 (revised edition by G. B. Howes and D. H. Scott), Mudge's 
 'Class-Book of Zoology,' Landois and Sterling's 'Human 
 Physiology,' and Quain's 'Elements of Anatomy/ edited by 
 E. A. Schafer and G. D. Thane. 
 
 Microscope Required. 
 
 There is much latitude in the choice of a microscope, 
 which need not be costly. Any trustworthy English or 
 foreign maker's instrument will be suitable, if supplied with 
 two eye-pieces, four object-glasses (i, i, ^, and Jr inch), a 
 polariscope and a micrometer, in addition to the usual 
 accessories, concave mirror, condenser, movable stage, etc. 
 The ^- and :^-inch object-glasses are by far the most often 
 used, but the i-inch and J-inch powers are of great assistance 
 (the former, for instance, in making rapid preliminary in- 
 vestigations of substances, and the latter in the examination 
 of the smaller starches, as those of rice and liquorice). 
 
 The magnifying power requisite varies with the nature of 
 the object, and may be gathered from the numbers affixed to 
 the engravings in the following pages. For more ready and 
 accurate comparison, it is best to become accustomed always 
 to make the principal examination of one kind or class of 
 object {e.g., starches; and the tissues of seeds) with the same 
 powers : in this way a better idea of relative dimensions will 
 be obtained; but for nearly all objects a i-inch or i-inch power 
 (with a No. i eye-piece) may be used for the preliminary 
 examination. A pocket lens is a useful adjunct. 
 
 The following table shows the number of diameters magni- 
 fied by the object-glasses and eye-pieces of two well-known 
 makers, one English, the other foreign ; but it must be under- 
 stood that with every maker these values differ, so that 
 they must always be ascertained when an instrument is 
 purchased. 
 
 ^ The bacteriological or bacterioscopic examination of water is a separate 
 subject, and does not fall within the scope of the present volume. 
 
PROLEGOMENA 
 
 XXXIX 
 
 ENGLISH MAKER. 
 
 Kye-pieces. 
 
 
 Ohjeci-glasses. 
 
 I inch. 
 
 1 inch. i inch. J inch. 
 
 A - 
 
 n - 
 
 c - 
 
 \'alue of each space in the ^ 
 micrometer eye - glass 
 with the various object- 
 glasses 
 
 6 
 
 80 
 100 
 
 •001031 
 
 100 220 420 
 
 130 350 670 
 180 500 900 
 
 1 iXTT) 'i:iOO '.10(7(7^^ 
 
 •0005263 ^00023 25 -ooo 1 I II 
 
 FOREIGN MAKER. 
 
 Eye-pieces. 
 
 
 Ohject-glasses. 
 
 
 1 inch. 
 
 ^ inch. 
 
 i inch. 
 
 ^ inch. 
 
 With draw -tube out full 
 
 (No. I) - 
 With draw -tube out lull 
 
 (No. 2) - 
 
 — 
 
 80 
 90 
 
 180 
 300 
 
 500 
 800 
 
 In addition to the microscope, glass slides, cover-glasses, 
 mounted needles, a sharp scalpel or razor, and a clean silk 
 cloth are wanted : also (but only if it be intended permanently 
 to mount and preserve objects), Quekett's or some other 
 preservative fluid, such as creosoted glycerine, or Canada 
 balsam and xylol, in which to place the preparation ; glass 
 cells ; marine glue, for fastening these to the slides ; and 
 shellac varnish, copal cement, or gold size, for securing the 
 cover-glasses to the cells, or to the slides, where cells are 
 unnecessary. Such permanent preservation of objects, 
 however, will but seldom be requisite in mvestigations such 
 as those described hereafter. Detailed practical instructions 
 in the various operations are to be found in any good work 
 on the microscope — Carpenter and Dallinger's, Van Heurck's, 
 or Cross and Cole's, for instance. [For references to other 
 books on the subject, see Bibliography, pp. 399-406.] 
 
SECTION I. 
 
 FOODS DERIVED FROM VEGETABLE SOURCES. 
 
Ord. GLUMIFLOR^, Fam. GRAMINE.E : 
 CEREAL GRAINS. 
 
 FLOUR. 
 
 (a) Wheat Flour (Tritictim sativum, var. vtdgare). 
 
 Histology of the Grain. — i. The membranes surrounding the 
 grain (including here the pericarp, or fruit wall, and the testa, 
 seed coat, or spermoderin) consist of several layers of cells, 
 two of which are disposed longitudinally to the axis of the 
 grain, and another transversely (cross cells). Longitudinal 
 cells, large, with margins distinctly beaded, especially the 
 outer layer : transverse cells, also beaded, but less distinctly. 
 
 2. Surface of the Grain. — Formed of large, angular cells 
 ('gluten,' 'protein,' ' aleurone,' or 'starch-free peripheral' 
 cells), filled with proteinous and oily matter in a granular state. 
 
 3. Substance of the Grain. — Composed of still larger cells 
 (starch cells), each enclosing numerous starch granules. 
 These parenchymatous cells are smaller near the outer parts 
 of the grain than towards the centre. 
 
 4. Starch. — Composed of definite granules or particles, 
 many very small, others of considerable dimensions, and but 
 few of intermediate sizes. The small grains are chiefly round, 
 rarely oval, or muller-shaped, and mostly provided with a 
 central spot, the organic centre, sometimes coinciding with 
 a cavity or fissure, and termed the hilum : the larger granules 
 form rounded or flattened discs with thin edges. Neither 
 hilum nor concentric stratification rings in general per- 
 ceptible on the larger discs, although in a few cases a 
 central tubercle may be seen, as well as indistinct annuli. 
 Occasionally some of the larger grains are more or less 
 twisted or turned up at the edges, and when seen sideways 
 
 I — 2 
 
4 CEREAL GRAINS 
 
 present the aspect of a longitudinal furrow : this appearance 
 is occasioned by the partial folding or curling of the granule, 
 whereby a central depression is produced, the corpuscle at 
 the same time being viewed obliquely. Frequently grains 
 which, when stationary, have a round, disc-like appearance, 
 in rolling over and presenting the edges to view, exhibit 
 the longitudinal furrow described, its nature being thus 
 clearly shown. A few granules attain a very considerable 
 size; these are less regularly circular, and being much 
 flattened exhibit but little shadow: sometimes their edges 
 are marked with radiating lines. Examined wath the polari- 
 scope they exhibit a well-marked cross. 
 
 Often the agency to which the starch granules have been 
 exposed — as, for instance, whether moist baking, dry baking, 
 or boiling — may be determined by attentive microscopical 
 examination. The differences between the raw, moist, baked, 
 and boiled starch grains of wheat, and the other cereals, 
 are very marked. The distinction is less clear in the case of 
 the dry-baked granules, which are, however, much larger on 
 the average than the raw granules : the form is less regular, 
 that of the smaller grains especially being a good deal altered, 
 the shadows are less marked, and in some of the granules 
 the concentric rings are rendered more conspicuous. These 
 modifications of the starch grains are well exemplified in 
 certain proprietary foods manufactured from wheat, etc., 
 described a few pages further on. 
 
 The greatest extent of alteration is to be seen in British 
 gum, or dextrin made from starch (by which the backs of 
 postage stamps are rendered adhesive) : in this case the 
 granules are mostly destroyed, but here and there grains 
 and portions of granules may be discovered, often exhibiting 
 concentric rings. These remnants are generally sufficient 
 for identification, and to determine whether the gum was 
 made from wheat or potato starch. 
 
 Extraneous Substances Detectable by the Microscope. — Barley, 
 rice, and other cheaper flours. 
 
 [For figures, see pp. 5, 6, and 7.] 
 
FLOUR 
 
 Fig. I. — Grain of Wheat (Transverse Section), x 200. 
 
 a, Longitudinal cells of epicarp, or outer membrane of pericarp ; b, middle 
 membrane (cross cells) ; c, inner membrane, or surface cells of the grain 
 proper (aleurone cells) ; d, substance of grain (starch cells). 
 
 Fig. 2. — Grain of Wheat (Longitudinal Section), x 2co. 
 
 a. Longitudinal cells oi epicarp ; b, middle membrane (cross cells) ; c, inner 
 membrane, or starch-free peripheral cells (aleurone cells). 
 
6, • 
 
 CEREAL GRAINS 
 
 ^^ Ptosis 
 
 Fig. 3. — Wheat Flour (Starch Granules and Starch 
 Parenchyma), x 420. 
 
FLOUR 
 
 Fig. 4.- 
 ii. Raw ; 
 
 -Wheat Starch (Raw, and Altered by Heat), x 400. 
 
 b, baked with moisture, as in bread ; c, boiled, as in pudding 
 d, dry-baked. 
 
FLOUR 
 
 (b) Barley Flour {Hordeiim sativum). 
 
 Histology of the Grain. — i. The pericarp, and testa or 
 spernioderin, together consist usually of at least four layers of 
 cells, smaller than those of wheat : the longitudinal cells, of 
 which there are three layers, are not beaded, but the cells 
 forming the outer layer have margins slightly waved ; those 
 of the inner layer and of the transverse cells, not waved. 
 
 2. Cells of Surface of the Grain (peripheral, or aleurone 
 cells). — Not nearly so large as those of wheat, and they form 
 two, three, or four layers, instead of one as in wheat. 
 
 3. Substance of the Grain. — Parenchymatous cells more 
 delicate than corresponding cells of wheat, and when emptied 
 of starch, present a fibrous appearance. 
 
 4. Starch granules resemble very closely those of wheat, 
 so that the description already given to some extent applies. 
 Barley starch consists of small and large grains, with but few 
 of intermediate size ; the small grains are three or four times 
 smaller than the corresponding wheat granules. Many of 
 the larger grains are distinctly ringed, while a much greater 
 proportion of them presents the longitudinal furrow previousl}^ 
 described. These characters are sufficiently well marked 10 
 allow of the microscopical discrimination of barley and 
 wheat. Under polarized light a cross is seen. 
 
 Extraneous Substances Detectable by the Microscope. — Rye and 
 other meal, mineral matter, etc. 
 
 [For figures, see pp. 10, 11.] 
 
10 
 
 CEREAL GKAIXS 
 
 Fig. 5. — Grain of Barley (Transverse Section of Pericarp, Testa, 
 AND Surface of Kernel), x 200. 
 
 ii, Outer layers of longitudinal cells ; b, cross cells ; c, inner (aleurone) cells, 
 
 surface of grain. 
 
 Fig. 6. — Barley (View of Surface of Grain), x 200. 
 
 a. Outer layers of longitudinal cells ; b, cross cells ; c, inner (aleurone and 
 starch) cells, surface and substance of grain. 
 
FLOUR 
 
 II 
 
 "iG. 7.— Barley Flour (Starch Granules and Starch 
 Parenchyma). X420. 
 
FLOUR 13 
 
 (c) Rye Flour (Sccale cercale). 
 
 Histology of the Grain. — i. Investing membranes resemble 
 those of wheat, but cells of the first and second layers smaller 
 and much more delicately beaded : cells of third coat (cross 
 cells) also smaller, and of a somewhat different form. 
 
 2. Kernel. — Cells of the aleurone layer are thicker- walled, 
 and of less size than in Triticnni, 
 
 3. Starch granules bear a general resemblance in form and 
 size to those of wheat ; but the lesser grains are decidedly 
 smaller than the corresponding wheat granules, and many 
 of the larger grains of rye starch have a three or four-rayed 
 fissure, located at the hilum. Under polarized light a cross 
 is exhibited, much more strongly marked than that seen in 
 barley starch. 
 
 Extraneous Substances Detectable by the Microscope. — Potato 
 and other cheap starches, mineral matter, etc. 
 
 [For figures, see pp. 14, 15.] 
 
M 
 
 CEREAL GRAINS 
 
 
 "^i^.. 3^SO 
 
 "^^^x^^^^ 
 
 tcl& 
 
 Fig. 8.— Grain of Rye (Vertical and Transverse Sectional 
 Views of External Portion), x 220. 
 
 a, a, Outer layers ; b, b, cross cells ; c, c, aleurone layer. 
 
FLOUR 
 
 Fig. 9.— RvE Flour (Starch Gran'ules and Starch Cells), x 420. 
 
FLOUR 17 
 
 (d) Oat Flour and Oatmeal (Avcna sativa). 
 
 Histology of the Grain. — i. Pericarp. — The longitudinal 
 cells constituting the epicarp and mesocarp, or two outer mem- 
 branes of the pericarp, form two layers ; large and well defined, 
 walls rather thin and slightly waved. From the upper and 
 outer wall of some of the external cells springs a single long 
 and pointed hair, the point being turned towards the summit 
 of the grain : these hairs arise from the cells over the whole 
 surface of the grain, but become more numerous towards the 
 apex, where they form a beard or tuft, as in wheat. The 
 transverse cells, forming the next investing membrane, are 
 disposed in a single layer ; walls less accurately defined, and 
 not very much longer than broad. 
 
 2. Surface of the Kernel. — The peripheral cells (aleurone 
 cells) consist of one layer, and are smaller than the cor- 
 responding cells of wheat. 
 
 3. Substance of the Kernel. — Parenchyma cell-walls very 
 delicate, and, when cells emptied of starch, appear like 
 threads. 
 
 4. The starch granules present well-marked structural 
 characteristics. Smaller than those of wheat, vary but little 
 in dimensions, are polygonal in figure, without either visible 
 concentric rings or hila, but with central depressions and 
 thickened edges. The great peculiarity of oat starch, however, 
 is the coherence together of many of the grains into aggregates 
 of a rounded or oval figure, presenting a reticulated surface 
 indicative of their compound structure. These bodies readily 
 escape from the cellulose, and, when oat flour is diffused 
 through water, may frequently be seen floating about freely 
 in the liquid. A second peculiarity is that, unlike the other 
 cereal starches, grains of oat starch do not exhibit the usual 
 crosses when viewed wdth polarized light. 
 
 Extraneous Substances Detectable by the Microscope. — Barley 
 and other starches ; husk of oat, barley, and wheat ; mineral 
 matter, etc. 
 
 [For figjires, see pp. 18, ig.] 
 
i8 
 
 CEREAL GRAINS 
 
 Fig. io.— Grain of Oat (Transverse and Longitudinal 
 Sections), x 200. 
 
 a, a, Outer membranes and hairs ; b, b, indistinctly defined cross celh 
 c, c, aleurone layer. 
 
FLOUR 
 
 ^9 
 
 Fig. II. — Oat Flour (Starch Granules and Starch 
 Parenchyma), x 420. 
 
 a, ij, Starch i^rains ; b, b, aggregations of starch grains; c, c, starch eel 
 mostly emptied. 
 
 The appearance of oatmeal, adulterated with barley meal, will be 
 seen in Fig. 23, p. 35. 
 
 2 — 2 
 
FLOUR 21 
 
 (e) Maize or Indian Corn {Zea Mais). 
 
 Histology of the Grain. — i. Pericarp, or outer investing 
 membrane, consists chiefly of some seven or eight layers of 
 cells all running in one direction, and about three times as 
 long as broad ; the margins of the outermost layer are beaded, 
 the headings being remarkable for a certain squareness of 
 outline. Beneath these elongated cells are parenchymatous 
 cells with intercellular spaces. 
 
 2. Surface of the Kernel. — The next prominent membrane 
 is the layer of protein or aleurone cells, forming the surface 
 of the kernel, and resembling the corresponding cells of other 
 cereals (rye in particular), but divided by septa, shown in the 
 figure. 
 
 3. Cells of the parenchyma very angular, like those of rice, 
 but subdivided into a cellulated network, each space enclosing 
 a separate starch granule. 
 
 4. The starch grains, as a rule, are somewhat polygonal in 
 form, and present well-marked central depressions, with 
 occasionally a divided and radiated fissure at the hilum : ^ 
 unlike oat starch, they do not form compound bodies, and 
 they exhibit under the polariscope well-defined crosses. 
 
 The central depression appears to be common to many 
 of the starch granules of the cereal grasses, and, combined 
 with the disc-like form of the grains, gives them a general 
 but distant resemblance to the blood discs of the mam- 
 malia. When the grains, as in wheat and barley, are curved 
 upon themselves, the depression exists, of course, only on 
 one side of the disc. 
 
 Extraneous Stibstances Detectable by the Microscope. — Foreign 
 starches, mineral matter, etc. 
 
 ^ The hilum is that part of a starch grain which was at first formed. 
 
 [For figures, see pp. 22, 23.] 
 
22 
 
 CEREAL GRAINS 
 
 
 Fig. 12. — Grain of Maize. 
 
 A, Transverse section of outer portion : a, elongated beaded cells ; b, sep- 
 tated aleurone cells ( x loo). B, longitudinal view of beaded or porous-walled 
 cells ( X 200). C, cells of surface of grain (aleurone cells) ( x 200). D, cells of 
 its substance (parenchyma) ( x 100). E, cellulated network emptied of starch 
 ( X 500). F, starch granules ( x 500). 
 
FLOUR 
 
 23 
 
 Fig. 13.— Indian Corn Flour (Starch Granules and Starch 
 Cells), x 420. 
 
FLOUR 
 
 (f) Rice {Oryza sativa). 
 
 Histology of the Husk and Grain (best made out after 
 immersion for some time in glycerol or in a 5 per cent, solu- 
 tion of potash or soda). — i. Husk. — Outer surface thrown up 
 into ridges, arranged transversely and longitudinally, and 
 describing between them square spaces : ridges formed in 
 part of granular silica ; here and there are openings of some- 
 what irregular form, which are hair-scars. Beneath this 
 outer epidermis are several layers of rather short, narrow, 
 sclerenchymatous fibres, some arranged longitudinally, 
 others transversely. They are brittle: their edges are rough; 
 and that they really are fibres is shown by their being 
 hollow, as is seen in transverse sections. The fibrous mem- 
 brane is succeeded by a thin tissue, formed of angular cells, 
 rather longer than broad, the long axis of which is placed 
 transversely. 
 
 2. Kernel. — The next membranes are made up of the 
 several varieties of cells of the pericarp (not shown in the 
 figure), beneath which is a layer of aleurone cells, followed 
 by the starch parenchyma. 
 
 3. The starch granules, which consist largely of amylo- 
 dextrin, are small, for the most part angular in shape, with 
 well-marked central depressions and raised edges. In their 
 polygonal form they closely resemble the starch granules of 
 oat, but are much smaller. Many are aggregated together 
 into compound grains (resemblance to oat flour). 
 
 Extraneous Substances Detectable by the Microscope. — Foreign 
 starches, husks, etc. 
 
 [For figures, see pp. 26, 27.] 
 
26 
 
 CEREAL GRAINS 
 
 fM'-uJL 
 
 Fig, 14. — Husk of Rice. 
 
 A, Transverse section ; a, sclerenchymatous fibres cut through ( x 220) ; 
 B, surface view, showing hair-scars and broken ends of sclerenchymatous 
 fibres ( X 220) ; c, edge of fibre more highly magnified. 
 
FLOUR 
 
 
 Fig. 15. — Rice Flour (Starch Granules and Compound Grains), x 420. 
 
28 CEREAL GRAINS 
 
 ADULTERANTS OF, AND SUBSTITUTES FOR, 
 WHEAT AND OTHER CEREAL GRAINS. 
 
 Fig. i6. — Bean Flour {Faba vidgaris = Vicia Faba L., 
 ord. LeguminoscE, fam. Papilionacecu): Characterized by the 
 thickness of the walls of the cells enclosing the starch 
 granules, by the oval or reniform shape of the granules, and 
 by the elongated and divided character of the fissure extending 
 through the hilum. 
 
 Fig. 17 shows the appearance of wheat flour admixed with 
 bean flour. 
 
 Fig. 18. — Potato Flour (Solanum tuberosum, ord. PersonatcF, 
 fam. Solanacece) : Easily distinguished from wheat flour by the 
 microscope. Starch granules of potato flour vary greatly in 
 size and shape : some very small and circular, others large, 
 ovate, or oyster-shaped. The larger granules exhibit numerous 
 very distinct concentric rings,^ and the small but well-defined 
 hilum is situated in the narrow extremity of each granule: 
 not infrequently granules may be observed of an oval form, 
 divided by a fine line into two portions or segments, each 
 provided with a hilum. (For further account, v. under 
 Arrowroots, p. 64.) 
 
 Fig. ig represents a mixture of wheat flour and rice. 
 
 Fig. 20.— Barley Flour: Previously^ described (p. 9), but 
 figured again here for convenience. The admixture of barley 
 flour with wheat is not easy to discover, if attention be 
 confined only to the starch granules of the tw^o kinds of grain, 
 the differences being inconsiderable; though barley starch 
 granules are smaller than those of wheat, especially the more 
 minute granules. But the discrimination may be eff"ected 
 satisfactorily by means of the fragments of husk present in 
 the flour. The structural peculiarities of the testa and of 
 
 1 The layers, represented by the rings or striations visible in many starch 
 grains, differ in density and in the proportions of water which they contain. 
 
ADULTERANTS AND SUBSTITUTES 29 
 
 the cells forming the surface of the grain of wheat and barley 
 have been described (pp. 3 and g). 
 
 Another occasional adulterant of wheat is Maize, of which 
 an account has been given (p. 21). 
 
 Fig. 21 shows an admixture o{ wheat flour with maize flour. 
 
 Fig. 22 illustrates the aspect of cones flour in admixture 
 with rice and bean flours. Genuine cones flour is the flour of 
 a particular species of wheat called revet, grown in Southern 
 Europe, and used by some bakers to dust the dough, as well 
 as the boards on which this is ma'de into loaves, to prevent 
 the dough from adhering to the boards, or the loaves to each 
 other in the course of baking. Cones flour was found by 
 Dr. Hassall to be subject to extensive adulteration with 
 rice, rye, barley, bean, maize, and other substances, some 
 of the samples examined containing no wheat flour whatever. 
 
 Oat flour and oatmeal are seldom adulterated with the 
 flour of other cereal grains : but wheat and barley husks are 
 added occasionally. Maize also has been mentioned among 
 the adulterants of oatmeal. 
 
 Fig. 23 represents a mixture of oatmeal and barley meal. 
 
 Fig. 24. — Durrha or Dari {Andropogon sorghum^ var. 
 durra ; Sorghum vulgare) : alleged to have been used as an 
 adulterant of wheat flour. 
 
 Histology of the Grain. — i. The exterior portion consists 
 of three principal membranes : the outermost, composed of 
 several layers of rather small, thick-walled cells, about three 
 times longer than broad, and having thcmargins finely beaded, 
 somewhat as in capsicum : a middle coat, consisting of several 
 layers of thin-walled cells, filled with small, polygonal starch 
 granules (the starch-bearing mesocarp) : and a third, which is 
 the external membrane of the kernel, and is a single layer of 
 angular, but unusually small, ' aleurone,' or * starch-free 
 peripheral ' cells. 
 
 2. The substance of the grain, mostly starch parenchyma, 
 
30 CEREAL GRAINS 
 
 resembles very closely that of maize, differing chiefly in the 
 larger size and greater angularity of the starch granules, as 
 well as in the stellate character of the cavity at the hilum. 
 
 In the figure on p. ^y, A = transverse section of external 
 portion of grain ; a, outer membrane ; b, middle coat 
 (starch-bearing mesocarp) ; c, aleurone layer; J5, longitudinal 
 section ; a, outer layers ; 6, starch-bearing mesocarp ; 
 c, aleurone cells ; C, substance of grain, showing the large 
 angular cells filled with starch, of which it is composed ; 
 D, parts of large cells, showing the pseudo-cell structure, 
 in which the starch granules are separately lodged; E, E\ 
 starch from substance of grain and mesocarp, respectively. 
 
 [For figures, see pp. 31-37.] 
 
ADULTERANTS AND SUBSTITUTES 31 
 
 Fig. 16. — Bean Flour. x 420. 
 
 Fig. 17. —Wheat Flour, adulterated with Bean Flour, x 420. 
 
32 
 
 CEREAL GRAINS 
 
 Fig. i8. — Potato Flour, x 220. 
 
 Fig. 19. — Wheat Flour, adulterated with Rice, x 420. 
 
ADULTERANTS AND SUBSTITUTES 33 
 
 Fig. 20. — Barley Flour, x 420. 
 
 Fig. 21. — Wheat Flour, admixed with Maize Flour, x 420. 
 
 3 
 
34 
 
 CEREAL GRAINS 
 
 Fig. 22.— Cones Flour, admixed with Rice and Bean Flours, x 225. 
 a, a, Wheaten flour; b, b, rice; c, c, bean meal. 
 
ADULTERANTS AND SUBSTITUTES 35 
 
 Fig. 23. — Oatmeal, adulterated with Barley Meal. X450. 
 a, a, Aggregates, or compound grains of oat starch ; b, b, barley starch. 
 
 ^—2 
 
36 CEREAL GRAINS 
 
 Fig. 24. — Durrha or Dari (figure opposite : for description 
 of the grain, see ante, pp. 29, 30). 
 
ADULTERANTS AND SUBSTITUTES 
 
 37 
 
 Fig. 24. — Grain of Durrha (Investing Membranes, Substance of Grain, 
 AND Starch Granules). 
 
 A, Transverse section of external portion of grain ( x 200) ; B, longitudinal 
 section ( x 200) : a, a, layers of elongated, beaded cells; b,b, starch-bearing 
 mesocarp ; c, c, alearone layer ; C, starch parenchyma ( x 100) ; D, pseudo-cell 
 structure of parenchyma ( x 500) ; E, E', starch granules from substance of 
 grain and mesocarp respectively ( x 500). 
 
38 CEREAL GRAINS 
 
 WHEATEN BREAD. 
 
 Microscopical Characters of Wheaten Bread. 
 
 The discovery by the microscope of rye, beans, rice, etc., 
 in wheaten bread, is very much less easy than in flour, 
 because the heat to which bread is subjected in baking alters 
 greatly the original form of the starch granules, so render- 
 ing their identification most difficult, and in some cases 
 impossible. The characters of the starches of the several 
 flours have already been described. When it is impossible 
 to recognize the starch granules under the microscope, by 
 reason of the changes which they have undergone, search 
 should be made for portions of the husk of the several grains, 
 these being much less affected by the heat and moisture than 
 the starch granules themselves. It is often difficult to detect 
 the presence of boiled potato in bread, especially when only 
 a small quantity has been used. The cells and granules are 
 entirely broken up and destroyed. If potato has been employed 
 in larger quantity, however, the addition may easily be dis- 
 covered by the microscope. 
 
 Foreign Additions Detectable by the Microscope. — R}'e, beans, 
 rice, maize, potato, bone-dust, etc. 
 
WH EATEN BREAD 
 
 39 
 
 Fig. 25. — Wheaten Bread, with an Admixture of Potato, x 420. 
 
40 CEREAL GRAINS 
 
 YEASTS {Sacchavomycetes). 
 
 Including Saccharomyces cerevisicB and numerous other 
 species. [Group Eumycetes (the higher mycetes, or fungi): 
 sub-group Mycomycetes (with septate mycehum) : class 
 Ascomycetes (with ascospoyes, or endogenous spores enclosed 
 in an ascus or sac) : sub-class GymnoascecB (with naked asci) : 
 family Sacchavomycetes : genus Saccharomyces.'] Yeasts are 
 alcohol -producing, gemmating or budding fungi, capable of 
 developing ascospores. This definition excludes some Tondce 
 (although they can cause alcoholic fermentation), and certain 
 true Saccharomycetes. 
 
 Structure and appearance vary much. Saccharomyces cerevisics 
 consists of spherical, slightly elliptical, or oval cells, occurring 
 singly or in groups, and in short chains. In some other 
 species the cells are considerably elongated and sausage- 
 shaped. The propagation is effected by throwing off smaller 
 cells, genimcB or buds. 
 
 Several commercial varieties of yeast are used in the baking 
 of bread : e.g., brewery and distillers' yeasts, the so-called 
 patent yeasts, and compressed yeasts. Brewers' yeast and 
 a patent yeast are shown in the two opposite figures. 
 
 Fig. 26. — Brewer's Yeast {Saccharomyces cerevisice). 
 
 Fig. 27.— Patent Yeast : A different species of Saccharo- 
 myces from that shown in the previous figure : cells smaller, 
 oval, and more often united in twos and threes. 
 
YEASTS 
 
 41 
 
 Fig. 26. — Brewers' Yeast (Saccharomyces), x 220. 
 
 L->^ ^ 9 
 
 
 ^■'6? 
 
 % 
 
 ^ ^( 
 
 
 
 
 Jv^ 
 
 
 Fig. 27. — Patent Yeast (Saccharomyces). x 220. 
 
42 CEREAL GRAINS 
 
 MILDEWS AND MOULDS (Hyphomycetes). 
 
 Among the mycelial fungi growing on fruit, stale bread, 
 and other articles of food, and on the surface of saccharine 
 liquids, are Penicillium glancum, the commonest mould of 
 bread; Mucor mticedo, which imparts mustiness ; Etirotiim 
 Aspergillus glauciis, Monilia Candida, O'idiiim lactis, and 
 Pnccinia graminis (mildew of grain). 
 
 Five figures on the following pages represent hyphomycetes 
 in various stages : 
 
 Fig. 2S.— Hyphen (thread-like tubes) of fungi resembling 
 species of Oidium and Monilia, with oidia, and chlamydospores 
 or gemrnce. 
 
 Fig. 29. — Mycelium (network of intertwined hyphse with 
 cells) of species of Dematium, showing chlamydospores. 
 
 Pig. 30. — Mycelium of Penicillium glaucum, exhibiting 
 branching hyphce, fructification by conidia, the conidiophorcs 
 and exospores. 
 
 Fig. 31. — Mucor mucedo fully developed, showing globular 
 sporangia and endospores. 
 
 Fig. 32. — Another species of Mucor (? M. Racemosiis) ; 
 copious growth, showing mycelium, with numerous sporan- 
 giophores and sporangia. 
 
 Puccinia graminis, Eurotium Aspergillus glaucus, and 
 Penicillium glaucum (again), are figured further on, under 
 'Parasitic Diseases of the Cereal Grains' (pp. 50, 52, 53. 
 
 Figs. 35» 36, 38, 39» 40)- 
 
 It was at one time believed by Dr. Hassall, in common 
 with many other investigators, who (not excepting Louis 
 Pasteur himself) had not the advantage of being able to 
 work with pure cultures, that the Saccharomycetes, or yeasts, 
 could be developed from Penicillium, Aspergillus, and similar 
 moulds, and, conversely, that transmutations of Saccharo- 
 mycetes into Hyphomycetes were possible. In the light of later 
 researches the consensus of opinion now is that no proofs have 
 been obtained in support of such an hypothesis.^ 
 
 ^ F. Lafar, Technische Mykologie, 1903, ii. 458. 
 [For figures, see pp. 43-45.] 
 
MILDEWS AND MOULDS 
 
 43 
 
 Fig. 28. — Moulds, Mycelial Fungi, or Hyphomycetes. Hyphae, oidia, 
 AND chlamydospores or gemmae of fungi resembling species of Oidium 
 AND MoNiLiA. X circa 120. 
 
 Fig. 29, — A Mould. Mycelium, with gemmae, of species of 
 Dematium. X 100. 
 
44 
 
 CEREAL GRAIXS 
 
 Fig. 30. — A Common Mould. Mycelium of Penicillium Glaucum, 
 showing branching hyphae, fructification by conidia, conidiophores, 
 and exospores. x 150. 
 
 Fig. 31. — A Common Mould. Mucor Mucedo, fully developed, showing 
 Globular Sporangia and Endospores. 
 
 A, a, a. Erect sporangiophores, branching from mycelium, b, b, each hypha 
 bearing a sporangium, c,c. [ x 95.] (E. G. C, del.). 
 
 B. Sporangium in vertical section, showing the columella, a', and the endo- 
 spores, b'. [ X circa 200.] {E. G. C, del., after Brefeld). 
 
MILDEWS AND MOULDS 
 
 45 
 
 Fig. 32. — Another Species of Mucor {M. Raccmosus ?), showing mycelium, hyphae, 
 
 and sporangia. 
 
 [From a paper by A. H. Hassall, ]\I.D., Med.-Chir. Trans., xxxvi,, 48. J 
 
PARASITIC DISEASES 47 
 
 PARASITIC DISEASES OF THE CEREAL GRAINS. 
 
 (a) Vegetable Parasites. 
 
 Bunt, Smut Bolls/ Smut Balls, Stinking Smut, or 
 Pepper Brand {Tilletia iritici = T. caries). — A fungus met with 
 only in wheat, and easily to be distinguished by its disgust- 
 ing smell. Spores highly characteristic, large and reticulated. 
 Fig- 33- 
 
 Smut, or Dust Brand {Ustilago hordei and avence). — A 
 fungus comparatively rare in wheat, not found in rye, but 
 very common in barley and oats. Is without disagreeable 
 odour. Spores several times smaller than the above. Fig. 34. 
 
 Rust, Red Rag, Red Robin, or Red Gum {Uredo rubigo 
 and U. linearis) ; Black Rust {Puccinta graniinis). — U. rubigo 
 and U. linearis are merely different stages of development of 
 Puccinia graminis, and form yellow and brown oval spots or 
 bloches on the stem, leaf, and chaff. The spores of which 
 the blotches consist are intermediate in size between those 
 of Tilletia caries and Ustilago hordei ; at first round, after- 
 wards ovoid ; and attached by a pellucid short and slender 
 stem to the surface on which they are developed {Uredo- 
 spores). After a time they become free. Figs. 35 and 36. 
 
 The ripe spores of Puccinia graminis are dark brown, 
 club-shaped bodies {Teleutospores) , having the broader end 
 divided into two compartments filled with sporules. Fig. 36. 
 
 Ergot {Claviceps purpurea) r — Especially prone to attack 
 rye, but observed in wheat and other cereals. Fig. ^y. 
 Transverse section of ergot : (a) Conidiophores, bearing 
 
 1 Boll = a spherical pod, or vesicle. [O.K., holla.] 
 
 - For recent work on the chemical composition and physiological action of 
 Ergot, see papers by G. Barger and F. H. Ca.rr,Journ. Chem. Soc, xci. (1907), 
 337; G. Barger and H. H. Dale, Bio-Chem. Joiirn., ii. {1907), 240; and 
 H. H. Dale, Jouni. of Physiol., xxxiv., No. 3 (1906). 
 
48 CEREAL GRAINS 
 
 conidia, seen on the extremities; (b) compacted, septate, 
 darker-coloured filaments, which constitute the black or 
 purple portion of the fungus (the sclerotiiim) ; (c) cells, with 
 contained spherules of fat, forming the body or colourless 
 part (the sphacelia) ; {d, e, f) the conidia, and part of the 
 sphacelia more highly magnified. 
 
 Yellow Mould (Eurotium repens = Eiirotiiim Aspergillus 
 glaucus of De Bary). — A bright yellow fungus found in stale 
 bread. Fig. 38. Another stage of development of the same 
 mould, possessing a dull green colour, is shown in Fig. 39. 
 
 Green or Blue Mould {PenicilliiLm glauciim) ; also P. cito- 
 philum and P. rosetmt. — Fungi developed in stale bread. 
 P. glaiicmn, green or bluish-green ; the others greenish, 
 brownish, or reddish-yellow. Fig. 40, P. glaiiciun, perfectly 
 developed. The erect conidiophores are shown, with chains 
 of conidia. [See also Fig. 30, for an earlier stage of 
 P. glauciun. 
 
 Yeast {Saccharomyces). — Developed sometimes in bread, 
 the baking of which has not destroyed the vitality of the 
 ferment. (For description and figures, vide pp. 40, 41.) 
 
 [For figures, see pp. 49, 50, 51, 52, mid 53.] 
 
PARASITIC DISEASES 
 
 -^9 
 
 Fro. 33._TiLLETiA tritici = T. caries (Bunt, Smut Bolls, Smut Balls 
 Sti.nklng Smut, or Pepper Brand), x 420, 
 
 Fig. 34.— Ustilago hordei (Smut, or Dust Brand), x 420. 
 
 4 
 
50 
 
 CEREAL GRAIXS 
 
 
 Pig. 35.— Wheat infested with Kl.^. .^^ie Uredo rubigo stage of 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF PUCCINIA GRAMINIS). X 42O. 
 
 a a Wheat starch ; b. b, free urcdosporcs of P. graminis, formerly believed 
 ' to be a separate genus. 
 
 Fig. 36.— Puccinia graminis (Black Rust), Different Stages, x 500. 
 Upper part, uredospores on filaments ; lower part, teletitospores. 
 
PARASITIC DISEASES 
 
 51 
 
 Fig. 37. — Ergot (Claviceps purpurea). 
 
 a, Conidiophores bearing conidia ; b, compacted septate mycelium, which 
 forms the sderotium ; c, sphacelia ( x 420) ; d, e, f, conidia, and part of the 
 sphacelia, more highly magnified ( X670J. 
 
 4—2 
 
52 
 
 CEREAL GRAINS 
 
 Fig. 38, — EuRCTiUM repens = Eurotium Aspergillus glaucds (De Bary) : 
 (a yellow or green mould). 
 The ascus fructification stage of Aspergillus glaucus : cleistocarps, or ' closed 
 fruits,' consisting of spherical pcrithecia, investing the asci, each ascus con- 
 taining eight ascospores. x 420. 
 
 Fig. 39.— Eurotium 
 aspergillus glau 
 
 CUS. 
 
 Showing conidio- 
 phores, bearing on 
 bulbous termina- 
 tions radial steri^- 
 viata (fl). from which 
 chains of conidia {b) 
 are abstricted. x ca. 
 
 350- 
 
 [E. G. C. ./<'/. i 
 
PARASITIC DISEASES 
 
 53 
 
 -j*-'--'-^ 
 
 tT^ 
 
 ■<^<y' 
 
 9p> 
 
 
 &^ 
 
 p 
 
 Fig. 40. — Penicillidm glaucum (Green or Blue Mould): 
 Showing erect conidiophores bearing chains of conidia. x 220. 
 
 [A. H. Hassall, Med. -Chi?: Trans., xxxvi., 1S53, p. 29.] 
 
54 CEREAL GRAINS 
 
 (b) a Poisonous Grass. 
 
 Bearded or Poisonous Darnel {Loliwn teimdentum, fam. 
 Graniinecs). — Bearded darnel has not infrequently become 
 intermixed with wheat or other cereal grains : but its detec- 
 tion in flour by the microscope is easy. 
 
 Histology of the Grain. — Differs greatly from that of rice, 
 oat, or any other of the cereals. The outer portion is 
 formed of three principal membranes : (i) An external 
 coat, the epidermis of the pericarp (not shown in the 
 figure), consisting of a single layer of vertically disposed 
 beaded cells ; (2) a single layer of cells with their long 
 axes arranged transversely, somewhat like corresponding 
 cells in rice. But the tissues of rice-husk, and cells of the 
 bran of Loliiun, are very distinct in other respects. The cells 
 of the former are long and narrow fibres : those of the latter 
 are only between twice and thrice as long as broad. The 
 cells of the succeeding membrane — (3), the spermoderm — are 
 ranged in two layers, and vertically, thus differing from the 
 rest of the cereals, excepting rice. The aleurone cells form 
 a single layer, and resemble those of other grains. The 
 starch granules are polygonal, like those of rice, but are much 
 smaller, and, as is the case with oat-starch, they are often 
 united into aggregations of various sizes, the larger groups 
 consisting of fifty or sixty grains. 
 
 Fig. 41. — Loliiun temulentitm : Sectional surface view, and 
 cross section ; also starch aggregates, and separate granules : 
 a, a, transversely disposed cells ; b, 6, two layers of vertical 
 cells of the spermoderm ; c, c, aleurone cells. 
 
A POISONOUS GRASS 
 
 55 
 
 Fk;. 41. — Seed of Lolium temulentum, or Bearded Darnel. Surface 
 View and Cross Section ( x 200) ; with Starch Aggregations and 
 Granules (x 500). 
 
 a, a, transverse cells of pericarp ; b, b, vertical cells (two layers) ot spermo- 
 derm ; c, c, aleurone cells. 
 
56 CEREAL GRAINS 
 
 (c) Animal Parasites. 
 
 Galls of Wheat, Eelworms, Ear Cockles, Purples, 
 Cockle Galls, False Ergot, or Peppercorn {TylencJms 
 tritici = Angtnllida tritici = Vibrio tritici). — Grains affected 
 turn green, and ultimately black : become rounded, resembling 
 a peppercorn. The husks are spread out and the awns 
 twisted, by which means the infected ears are readily 
 observable among the standing corn. The blighted grains 
 are filled with a moist cotton-like substance, and contain no 
 flour. This substance consists of myriads of eel-shaped 
 wormlets, which exhibit the most active movements when 
 moistened with water. Other Anguillulidce are sometimes 
 met with in moist and damage?d flour. Fig. 42. 
 
 The Meal Mite {Tyroglyphiis sir = /^ cams farince). — Never 
 present in flour unless damaged. Differs considerably in 
 structure from the sugar mite {q.v.). Fig. 43. T. siro, from 
 the ovum to the mature state, from wheat flour : a, a, ova ; 
 b, young ; c, male ; d, female. 
 
 The Feathered Mite {Glyciphagus phimiger = Acarus 
 plumiger). — Another species of mite from wheat. Fig. 44. 
 
 The Wheat Midge (Cecidomyia tritici). — A two-winged fly, 
 seen early in June, from 7 to 9 p.m., flying about wheat for 
 the purpose of depositing its eggs within the blossoms. The 
 eggs become hatched into yellow maggots or caterpillars, 
 which cause the non-development of the ovary, so that the 
 grain never advances beyond its condition when the flower 
 first expands. Usually only grains here and there in an ear 
 are affected. Fig. 45. 
 
 The Weevil {Calandra granaria). — A minute, dark reddish- 
 brown snout-beetle, of frequent occurrence in damaged flour 
 and grain. Presence revealed by a little hole on the surface 
 of the grain, which will be found to consist chiefly of a shell 
 with the starch eaten away. Fig. 46. 
 
 [For figures, see pp. 57, 58, and 59.] 
 
PARASITIC DISEASES 
 
 57 
 
 Fig. 42. — Tylenchus tritici = Anguillula tritici : Ear Cockles, 
 Purples, or Peppercorn, x 100. 
 
 Fig. 43. — Tvroglyphus siro = Acarus farin.^ : Meal Mite, x 75. 
 a, a, Ova ; b, young ; c, male ; d, female. 
 
58 
 
 CEREAL GRAINS 
 
 Fig. 44.— Glyciphagus plumiger = Acarus plumiger, the Feathered 
 Mite, x 220. 
 
PARASITIC DISEASES 
 
 59 
 
 Fig. 45 — The Wheat Midge (Cecidomyia tritici), greatly magnified. 
 
 [K. G. C, (fci., after J. Curtis.] 
 
 Fig. 46.— The Granary Weevil (Calandra granaria), much enlarged. 
 
 [K. G. C, tfi/., after J. Curtis.] 
 
Ord. SCITAMINE^, Fam. MARANTACE^ : 
 
 et alia. 
 
 ARROWROOTS. 
 
 (a) Maranta, or West India Arrowroot {Maranta 
 arundinacea, ord. Scitaminece, fam. Marantacecc). 
 
 Characters of the Starch Granules. — Usually more or less 
 oblong and ovate, sometimes mussel-shaped, or even almost 
 triangular : vary considerably in size, each larger granule 
 being marked by a number of delicate concentric lines or 
 striae: at the broad or large extremity of each the hilum is 
 distinctly visible, sometimes as a circular spot or dot, but 
 generally marked by a short, sharp line, running transversely 
 across the granule. This is a distinctive feature by which 
 Maranta arrowroot can readily be identified. By the action 
 of boiling water the starch granules are greatly altered, 
 swelling to twenty or thirty times their original volume, 
 and becoming more or less rounded : at the same time the 
 striae and hilum are obliterated, the membrane of each grain 
 is ruptured, and granular matter escapes from its interior. 
 Fig- 47- 
 
 (b) Canna, Queensland, or Tous les Mois Arrowroot 
 {Canna edtilis and other species of Canna, ord. Scitaminecs, 
 fam. CannacecB). 
 
 Characters of the Starch Granules. — Very large, flat, 
 broad, and ovate ; sometimes pointed at the narrow end. 
 Hilum situated in the narrow extremity of the granule : 
 concentric rings exceedingly close together and regular. 
 Grains larger, and rings much more numerous and even 
 
 60 
 
ARROWROOTS 6i 
 
 than in potato starch (the most closely similar product) : also 
 under polarized light Canna arrowroot exhibits more regular 
 crosses than potato. Fig. 48. 
 
 (c) Curcuma, or East India Arrowroot {Curcuma 
 angtistifolia, riibescens, etc. Ord. ScitaminecE, fam. Zingi- 
 ber accce). 
 
 Characters of the Starch Granules. — Elongated and 
 irregularly ovate : being flat, they present but little lateral 
 shading. In size vary considerably; many much exceed the 
 largest Maranta granules. The lines which mark the surface 
 are tolerably distinct, but describe segments of circles only. 
 Hiluni usually very indistinct, and sometimes invisible; is 
 at the narrow or pointed extremity of each granule. Fig. 49. 
 
 iD) Tacca, Tahiti, or Otaheite Arrowroot {Jacca 
 pinnatifida, fam. Taccacece). 
 
 Characters of the Starch Granules. — Somewhat resemble 
 those of sago, but very much smaller. When viewed side- 
 ways, muller-shaped, with truncate or dihedral bases : when 
 seen endways appear circular, and occasionally angular or 
 polyhedral. Rings few and indistinct : hilum circular, some- 
 times fissured in a stellate manner. Fig. 50. 
 
 [For figures, see pp. 62 aiid 63.] 
 
62 
 
 ARROWROOTS 
 
 Fig. 47. — Maranta, or West Indian Arrowroot, x 240. 
 
 Fig. 48. — Canna or Tous les mois Arrowroot, x 225, 
 
ARROWROOTS 
 
 63 
 
 Fig. 49.— Curcuma, or East Indian Arrowroot, x 240. 
 
 Fig. 50.— Tacca, Tahiti, or Otaheite Arrowroot. x22o. 
 
64 ARROWROOTS 
 
 ARROWROOTS— continued, 
 
 (e) Manihot, Manioc, Cassava, or Brazilian Arrowroot 
 (the flour of Manihot utilissima, ord. Tricoccce, fam. 
 Eiiphorbiacece). 
 
 Characters of the Starch Granules. — Resemble rather 
 closely those of Tacca arrowroot, but are considerably 
 smaller, with a larger proportion of granules exhibiting a 
 circular outline. Hilum usually fissured. Granules mostly 
 single, but sometimes (and in the plant itself always) united 
 into compound grains, each composed of two, three, or four 
 granules. Hence, like those of sago, usually muller-shaped, 
 though appearing circular when seen endways. Fig. 51. 
 
 (f) Potato, or British Arrowroot {Solanum tuberosum, 
 
 ord. PersonaUe, fam. SolanacecB). 
 
 Characters of the Starch Granules. — Vary greatly in 
 size and shape : some very small and circular, others large, 
 ovate, or oyster-shaped. The larger granules exhibit very 
 distinct concentric rings : hilum small, but well defined, and 
 situated in narrow extremity of each granule. Not infre- 
 quently, granules may be seen of an oval form, divided by a 
 fine line into two portions or segments, each provided with 
 a hilum. Fig. 52. 
 
 (g) Maize Arrowroot, Indian Corn Flour, or Corn 
 
 Flour {Zea Mais, fam. Gvaminece). 
 
 Characters of the Starch Granules. — Already described 
 (see ante, p. 21) : figured again here, for convenience, 
 fig- 53- 
 
 (h) Rice Arrowroot {0}'y::a sativa, fam. Graminece). 
 
 Characters of the Starch Granules. — Already described 
 (see ante, p. 25), but shown again for comparison. Fig. 54. 
 
ARROWROOTS 65 
 
 (i) Arum, or Portland Arrowroot (Arum maculatimi, 
 esculentuui, and Italicum, ord. SpadiciJlorcB, fam. Aracece). 
 
 Not at present an article of commerce. 
 
 Characters of the Starch Granules. — Very closely 
 resemble those of Tacca arrowroot, but are much smaller ; 
 and the difference in size is sufficiently constant and con- 
 siderable to ensure ready discrimination between the two 
 kinds of arrowroot. Fig. 55. 
 
 Sophistications Detectable in Arrowroots by the Microscope. — 
 Use of cheaper materials, such as sago meal, potato starch, 
 and tapioca starch, admixed with, or substituted for, the 
 more costly Maranta arrowroot ; and addition or sub- 
 stitution of foreign starches not usually recognized as arrow- 
 roots. 
 
 [For figures, see pp. 66, 67, and 68.] 
 
66 
 
 ARROWROOTS 
 
 
 Fig. 51. — Manihot, or Brazilian Arrowroot, x 225. 
 
 Fig. 52. — Potato, or British Arrowroot, x 220. 
 
ARROWROOTS 
 
 67 
 
 Fig. 5^. — Maize Arrowroot, or Corn Flour, x 420. 
 
 Fig. 54. — Rice Arrowroot, x 420. 
 
 5—2 
 
68 
 
 ARROWROOTS 
 
 
 "^"e 
 
 
 Fig. 55. — Arum, or Portland Arrowroot, x 240. 
 
Sago. 
 
Ord. SPADICIFLOR.'E, Fam. PALM.^ ; and 
 Ord. CYCADINyE, Fam. CYCADACE.^. 
 
 SAGO. 
 
 The starch obtained from Metroxylon Iceve (Sagtts Icevis), M. 
 Rumphii {Sagtis Rumphii), M. Sagu, etc., ord. SpadiciflorcE, 
 fam. PalmcB : also from Cycas circinalis and C. revoluta, ord. 
 Cycadince, fam. CycadacecE. 
 
 Characters of the Starch. — {a) In Raw Sago-Meal and 
 Flour. The granules are of considerable size, elongated, 
 usually rounded at one end, which is sometimes the larger, 
 and, owing to mutual pressure of the adjacent particles, 
 truncated at the other extremity. Hilum sometimes denoted 
 by a circular dot, but often fissured, when it appears as a slit, 
 cross, or star. Surrounding it, a few indistinct rings may 
 usually be perceived in some of the granules. Examined 
 with the polariscope, generally a black cross is seen, the 
 hilum being the centre. Fig. 56. 
 
 {b) In Gramdated and Pearl Sago. The foregoing characters 
 can be traced only imperfectly in the majority of the granules, 
 the effect of the heat applied being greatly to alter the 
 appearance of the starch. Fig. 57. 
 
 Extraneous Matters Detectable by the Microscope. — Potato 
 flour, from which factitious sago has frequently been 
 made. Fig. 58. 
 
 70 
 
SAGO 
 
 71 
 
 Fig. 56. — Sago Starch, as seen in Sago AIeal and Flour, x 225. 
 
 Fig. 57.— Sago Starch, altered by Heat, as seen in Granulated Sago. 
 
 X 225. 
 
72 
 
 5.4 GO 
 
 Fig. 58.— Factitious Sago, composed of Potato Flour, x 225. 
 
 Showing the granules of potato starch swollen, irregular in shape, sometimes 
 ruptured and with the striae effaced. 
 
[Tapioca or Cassav'a. 
 
Ord. TRICOCC.^, Fam. EUPHORBIACE/F:, 
 
 TAPIOCA OR CASSAVA. 
 
 The starch obtained from Manihot utilissima, M. aipi, 
 M. Janipha, etc., ord. TricocccB, fam. EiiphorbiacecB. 
 
 Characters of the Starch. — [a) In the Meal or Flour, washed 
 and dried without the employment of heat {Manihot or 
 Brazilian Arrowroot). Already described and figured (pp. 64, 
 66, fig. 51), but for convenience shown again here. Fig. 59. 
 
 (6) In Granulated Tapioca (dried on hot plates). The starch 
 granules are swollen by the heat, and many caused to burst : 
 at the same time they adhere together in small irregular 
 masses. Fig. 60. 
 
 Extraneous Matters Detectable by the Microscope. — Sago and 
 potato starch, occasionally added. 
 
 74 
 
TAPIOCA OR CASSAVA 
 
 75 
 
 
 
 e© 
 
 ^ 
 
 Fig. 59. -Tapioca Starch, unaltered, as seen in the Meal or Flour 
 (Manihot or Brazilian Arrowroot), x 225. 
 
 Fig. 60. — Tapioca Starch, altered by the Heat used in its Preparation, 
 AS SEEN IN Granulated Tapioca. X225. 
 
76 PROPRIETARY FOODS 
 
 PROPRIETARY FOODS CONTAINING OR 
 CONSISTING OF WHEAT, ETC. 
 
 Numerous preparations of wheat, in a cooked or partially 
 cooked condition, have in latter days been introduced to 
 consumers. In the United States, especially, considerable 
 enterprise is shown in the manufacture and export of such 
 foods ; and the titles of several fancifull}- named American 
 products are as familiar to ' the man in the street ' walking 
 in London, as to the citizen of New York or Buffalo. Four 
 or five preparations only, but these fairly representative of 
 a large class, can be mentioned here. 
 
 ' Grape Nuts.' — This product, the ingeniously chosen 
 name of which is distinctly notable among non-descriptive 
 appellatives, is manufactured from whole wheat by cooking 
 and malting operations. The producers state that it is ' pre- 
 digested,' and ' made by especial treatment of entire wheat 
 and barley.' 
 
 Under the microscope exceedingly clearly are seen all the 
 characteristic features of wheat, described on pp. 3, 4, and 
 shown in Figs. I, 2, 3. Though the starch grains have been 
 changed by the processes of manufacture, they are mostly 
 well defined and recognizable. It is remarkable that there is 
 scarcely so much alteration as in some varieties of bread. 
 The microscopical appearance of this preparation is repre- 
 sented in Fig. 61, p. 78. [And see Fig. 4, starch granules 
 changed by cooking ; also Fig. 25, p. 39, bread.] 
 
 'Force' (an article associated in the mind of the public 
 with the features of a jocund little gentleman called ' Sunny 
 Jim ' — whoever he may be) is sold in the form of light 
 flakes of malted entire wheat, steam-cooked ; and it is 
 described as a ' partly digested ' food, prepared from the 
 ' whole of the Wheat and Barley malt, by a process of careful 
 malting and heatmg.' Easy digestibility is claimed for it, 
 and probably wdth accuracy. 
 
PROPRIETARY FOODS 77 
 
 The microscope shows that in this preparation the starch 
 granules are almost completely broken down, and the field 
 is mainly covered by the debris : but the cross cells with 
 characteristically beaded walls are abundant and clearly 
 observable. Other features of wheat, such as epicarpal tissue 
 and hairs, are less frequently visible. Apparently the strip- 
 ping of the grain has been carried rather far. * Force ' is 
 shown in Fig. 62. 
 
 ' Shredded Wheat ' is another well-known preparation of 
 the entire grain, which has been subjected to an operation 
 of mechanical flaking or shredding, and, without any malting, 
 cooked to the state of a biscuit. It is claimed that nothing 
 is added in the course of manufacture. 
 
 A microscopical examination shows that the starch grains 
 are twisted and otherwise altered, somewhat more than in 
 bread (Fig. 25, loc. cit.) : but they are not broken down, as in 
 'Force.' The cellular structure of the wheat is well shown. 
 
 *Triscuits' are a similar preparation : but the cake or 
 biscuit is much thinner and slightly more compact. 
 
 The microscopical characters are similar to those of 
 ' shredded wheat,' but perhaps less cellular tissue is visible. 
 
 * Farola,' ' Granola,' and ' Granose ' are other products 
 manufactured from wheat : the former from the endosperm, 
 the two latter from the entire grain. 
 
 Invalids' and Infants' Foods.— On the market are very 
 many preparations belonging to this class, of which wheat 
 and other cereal grains, occasionally oat, but especially maize 
 and barley, or the starches obtained from them, are the main 
 ingredients. Such foods are frequently baked, malted, or 
 both ; and some contain desiccated mil'k, or eggs. 
 
 The microscopical characters of the principal constituents 
 likely to be present in foods of this kind have already been 
 described under the proper titles of the grains, and under 
 Ayrowroots. See also Fig. 63, p. 79. 
 
78 
 
 PROPRIETARY FOODS 
 
 Fig. 6i.— Grape Nuts, x ioo. 
 
 [E. G. C, dc-/. 
 
 
 Fig. 62. — ' Force.' x k 
 
 [E. G. C, (/e/. 
 
PROPRIETARY FOODS 
 
 79 
 
 Fig. 63. — A Proprietary Food composed of Wheat, Potato. Maize, and 
 Tapioca, x 200. 
 
 a, a, Wheat ; b, b, potato ; c, c, maize ; d, d, tapioca. 
 
Ord. LEGUMINOS.'^., Fam. PAPILIONACE^ ; 
 
 et alia. 
 
 PROPRIETARY FOODS CONTAINING LENTIL 
 IN ADMIXTURE WITH CEREAL GRAINS. 
 
 Various preparations have at different periods been intro- 
 duced, containing Lentil, as well as Barley, Maize, etc. 
 
 Appearance of Lentil Starch (Lews acidmia =- Ervum Lens, 
 fam. PapilionacccE). — Extremely similar to pea-starch {Pisum 
 arvense, P. sativtun, fam. Papilionacea^) : granules oval, of 
 moderate size, and characterized by a strongly marked 
 fissure at the hiium, seen most frequently as a thick, dark 
 line bisecting the granules, but very frequently cruciform and 
 stellate. 
 
PROPRIETARY FOODS 
 
 8i 
 
 Fig. 64. — Proprietary Food, composed of Lentil and Maize or 
 Cornflour, x 200. 
 
 a, a, Starch granules of the French lentil ; b, b, fragments of the husk ; 
 c, c, starch granules and masses of maize or Indian corn meal. 
 
 Fig. 65. — Similar Food, consisting of Lentil and Barley, x 200. 
 
 a, a, Starch granules of the Arabian lentil, some loose, others lying in the celh 
 of the parenchyma ; b, b, starch granules of barley flour. 
 
 6 
 
82 PROPRIETARY FOODS 
 
 PROPRIETARY FOODS, CONSISTING PARTIALLY 
 OR ENTIRELY OF NUTS. 
 
 Highly nutritious foodstuffs have latterly been manu- 
 factured from walnuts (Juglaiis regia), chestnuts {Castanea 
 sativa), filbert, hazel, and cob-nuts {Coryhis avellana), sweet 
 almonds {Primus communis), Brazil nuts (Bertholletia excclsa, 
 etc.), coco-nuts {Cocos mccifera), and other varieties of nuts. 
 Many writers, among them A. H. Church, A. Haig, and R. 
 Hutchison, have pointed out the dietetic value and whole- 
 someness of nuts,^ which undoubtedly will be more widely 
 appreciated, as time goes on. Most nuts contain little or no 
 starch, much proteid matter, and very large proportions of oil 
 or fat. The chestnut is exceptional : it is deficient in oil, but 
 contains much starch, and a moderate quantity of protein. 
 
 Though, unfortunately, they bear somewhat weird and 
 unattractive names, many very good nut-foods are now ob- 
 tainable. Among the products of this class are ' nutmeal,' 
 
 * nuttose,' 'protose,' ' bromose ' (malted nuts), 'nutmeat,' 
 
 * alnut,' ' nutton,' and ' nutvejo.' A production called ' nut- 
 rose ' is made from pea-nuts (Arachis hypogcea), which are 
 scarcely nuts in the ordinary sense, but belong to the 
 Legiiminosc^, and are among the most highly proteinous of 
 vegetable foodstuffs. From the oils expressed from nuts, 
 numerous ' vegetable butters ' are made, such as * cocos 
 butter,' ' nucoline,' and ' nuttolene.' 
 
 Under the microscope, nuts and nut-preparations exhibit 
 less individuality than cereal grains. The shells are mostly 
 constituted of compact aggregations of sclerenchyma or stone 
 cells : while the ' flesh ' of the kernels usually consists of 
 parenchyma, with aleurone grains and oil globules, or occa- 
 sionally starch (as in the chestnut and acorn) . Chestnut starch 
 (shown in Fig. 66) is remarkable for irregularity in the shape 
 of the granules ; and the large aleurone grains of the Brazil 
 nut are characteristic. Some of the microscopical appear- 
 ances presented by the last-named are shown in Fig. 67. 
 Acorn starch is depicted in Figs. 75, S3, pp. 89, 97. 
 
 ^ 'Breads we have of several grains, roots, and kernels; . . . some do 
 nourish so, as divers do live on them, without any other meat, who live very 
 long.' — Francis, Viscount St. Albans (1561-1626), Neu' Atlantis. 
 
PROPRIETARY FOODS 
 
 83 
 
 Fig G6 — Chestnut, x 420. 
 
 [E. G. C, './f/.\ 
 
 Fig. 67. — Brazil Nut. x 140. 
 
 (E. G. C, <ie/.] 
 6—2 
 
VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES USED IN THE 
 PREPARATION OF BEVERAGES. 
 
 Ord. RUBIIN.^, Fam. RUBIACE^.. 
 
 COFFEE.i 
 
 The seed or berry of Coffea Arahica, ord. Ruhiince, fam. 
 Rubiacea^. 
 
 Histology of the Raw Seed, as Sold Commercially. — 
 I. Substance of Berry (the endosperm). Thick-walled angular 
 cells, tough and hard, adhering so firmly that they break into 
 pieces rather than separate as entire cells. Globules of oil 
 enclosed within the cell-cavities. No starch. 2. The Testa, 
 Investing Membrane, or Spermoderm. A single layer of 
 elongated adherent cells (sclerenchyma cells), presenting 
 oblique markings on their surface, resting on a thin, in- 
 distinctly fibrous, transparent membrane, consisting of par- 
 tially obliterated parenchyma cells. Oil generally present 
 between the berry and its covering. 3. In the Raphe or 
 Groove of the Berry, usually a few small double spiral vessels. 
 
 The Roasted Seed. — Although the tissues are partially 
 charred, the characteristics are preserved, except the oil- 
 globules, which have been dissipated by the heat. The 
 testa, separated during the roasting, is called ' coffee-flights." 
 fragments of which are often seen in the ground product. 
 
 Extraneous Substances Detectable by the Microscope. — 
 Chicory {Chicorium Intybus, fam. Composites) ; dandelion - 
 root {Taraxacum officinale, fam. Composites) ; mangold wurzel 
 {Beta vulgaris var. campestris, fam. ChenopodiacecE) ; carrot 
 {Daucus carota, fam. Umbelliferce) ; parsnip {Pastinaca sativcu 
 fam. Umbelliferce)', wheat, rye, pease {Pisnm sativum, fam. 
 PapilionacecE) ; beans (Faba vulgaris, fam. Papilionacece), date- 
 stones [Phcenix dactylifera, fam. Palmer) ; lupine seeds (Lupinus 
 luteus, etc., fam. PapilionacecE); acorn {Quercus pedunculata. 
 etc., fam. Cupnliferce). 
 
 ^ In the cheaper, ready-made ' coffee ' infusions of commerce, it is some- 
 times necessary to seek by chemical tests very minutely for the coffee. Eleven 
 of these liquids, bought in coffee palaces and similar places, were analyzed 
 in 1897 in the writer's laboratory, and found to contain an average propor- 
 tion of only about 2 parts of coffee in loo. —The Analyst (1897), ^xii. 172. 
 
 [For figures, sec pp. 85, 86.] 
 84 
 
COFFEE 
 
 
 85 
 
 
 Fig. 68. — Unroasted Coffee-Berry, 
 Thick-walled, angular cells of the endosperm, containing oil-globules, x 140. 
 
 Fig. 69. — Unroasted Coffee-Berry. 
 
 Sclerenchyma cells and parenchymatous membrane, forming the testa or 
 spermoderm. x 140, 
 
86 
 
 COFFEE 
 
 
 Fig. 70. — Roasted Coffee-Berry. 
 Thick-walled, angular cells, no oil. x 140, 
 
 Fig. 71.— Roasted Coffee (ground) 
 General appearance, x 140. 
 
COFFEE MIXTURES AND SUBSTITUTES 87 
 
 MIXTURES OF COFFEE WITH VARIOUS 
 ADULTERANTS AND SUBSTITUTES. 
 
 -■ icr 
 
 b- / 
 
 2. — Coffee and Chicory : a, a, coffee ; 6, b, chicory. 
 
 Fig- 73- — Coffee, Chicory, and Roasted Wheat: a, a, 
 
 coffee ; b, b, chicory ; c, c, wheat. 
 
 Fig. 74. — Coffee, Chicory, and Roasted Beans : a, a, 
 
 coffee ; 6, b, chicory ; c, c, beans. 
 
 Fig. 75.— Coffee, Chicory, and Ground Acorn : a, a, coffee ; 
 6, b, chicory ; c, c, acorn (starch granules of acorn highly 
 characteristic). 
 
 Fig. 76. — Mangold Wurzel Root : cells composing it. 
 (In mangold wurzel, carrot, and parsnip, no latex tubes : in 
 the cells of parsnip, small, regularly-formed starch granules.) 
 
 Fig. 77. — Coffee, Chicory, and Mangold Wurzel : a, a, 
 coffee ; b, b, chicory ; c, c, mangold wurzel. 
 
 Fig. 78. — Roasted and Ground Lupine Seeds {Lnpinus 
 lutcus, etc.). (These have been sold under the name of 
 ' Coffina.') 
 
 [For figures, sec pp. 88, 89, 90, and 91. 
 
88 COFFEE MIXTURES AND SUBSTITUTES 
 
 Fig. 72— Coffee and Chicory, x 140. 
 a, a, Coffee; b.b, chicory. 
 
 Fig. 73.— Coffee adulterated with Chicory and Roasted Wheat 
 
 X 140. 
 
 a, a, Coffee ; b, b, chicory ; c, c, roasted wheat flour. 
 
COFFEE MIXTURES A.XD SUBSTITUTES 89 
 
 
 ''■%^'.^X'' 
 
 Fig. 74. — Coffee, together with Chicory and Roasted Beans, x 140. 
 a, a, Coffee ; b, b, chicory ; c, c, roasted bean flour. 
 (The substance of the seed of the bean is made up of cells, each containing 
 several oval or reniform starch granules, with an elongated central cavity, from 
 the margin of which short rays or processes may be seen radiating, and 
 with occasionally a few strongly-marked concentric rings.) 
 
 Fig. 
 
 75- 
 
 -Coffee, Chicory, and Ground Acorn, x 140. 
 a, a, Coffee ; b, b, chicory ; c, c, acorn. 
 The microscopical features of ground acorn are shown also in Fig. S^, p. 97 
 
go COFFEE MIXTURES AND SUBSTITUTES 
 
 Fig. 76. — Mangold Wurzel. Cells of Root, x 140. 
 
COFFEE MIXTURES AND SUBSTFrUTES 91 
 
 Fig. 77 —Coffee admixed with Chicory and Mangold Wcrzel. x 140. 
 a, a, Coffee ; b, b, chicory ; c, c, mangold wurzel. 
 
 Fig. 78. — Lupine Seeds, Roasted and Ground, x 140. 
 
Ord. AGGREGAT/E, Fam. COxMPOSITyE. 
 
 CHICORY. 
 
 Root of Chicoriinn Intybus, ord. Aggregatce, fam. Composita:. 
 Histology of the Root. — The chief characteristics are : 
 (i) Utricles, or cells (parenchyma cells), usually rounded, 
 but narrow and elongated in the neighbourhood of the 
 vessels (Fig. 79) ; (2) dotted or pitted vessels, traversing in 
 bundles the central and harder parts of the root, consisting 
 of cylindrical, unbranched tubes, tapering to a point at each 
 extremity, and exhibiting depressions or pores of moderate 
 length, describing around the vessels an interrupted spiral 
 course (Fig. 80) ; (3) wood fibre, small in quantity, and not 
 distinctive (Fig. 80) ; (4) the latex tubes, vasa lactescentia, 
 branched and frequently anastomosing tubes, of smaller 
 diameter than the dotted vessels, with smooth membranous 
 parietes, and having a milky juice or sap (Fig. 81). Starch 
 granules absent. 
 
 Extraneous Substances Detectable by the Microscope. — The 
 following have been used or described : roasted wheat, rye, 
 beans, pease, acorns, carrots, mangold wurzel, burnt sugar,^ 
 and beetroot. Also sawdust, baked livers, Venetian red, 
 ' coffee-flights " (the testa of coffee-berry), spent tan, and 
 oak-bark powder, have been mentioned. But it is very 
 improbable that these grosser forms of adulteration prevail 
 at the present time. 
 
 1 Some years since, the author found in certain samples of chicory quanti- 
 ties of added sugar, ranging from 10 to about 40 per cent. — The Analyst, 
 (1895), '^^ 12, paper on 'Roasted Chicory.' 
 
 92 
 
CHICORY 
 
 93 
 
 I Fig. 79- — Roasted Chicory : the Paren-chvma Cells of which it is 
 
 CHIEFLY constituted ; ROUNDED WHERE THE PRESSURE IS LEAST AND 
 
 THE Root soft, elongated near the Vessels, x 140. ^^--i 
 
 Fig. So. — Roasted Chicory: showing Parenchyma Cells; the dotted, 
 
 PITTED, OR interrupted SpIRAL VESSELS, WHICH PASS IN BUNDLES 
 
 through the Central Parts of the Root ; and Wood-Fibres, 
 X 140. 
 
94 
 
 CHICORY 
 
 Fig. Si. — Chicory : the Narrow and Branched Vessels of the Latex 
 (Laticiferous Tubes), which convey the Milky Juice. Their Rela- 
 tion TO the Parenchyma Cells also shown, x 140. 
 
[Adulterants of, ok Substitutes for, Chicory. 
 
96 CHICORY MIXTURES AXD SUBSTITUTES 
 
 ADULTERANTS OF, OR SUBSTITUTES FOR. 
 CHICORY. 
 
 Fig. 82. — Chicory and Roasted Wheat Flour : a, a, 
 chicory ; b, b, wheat starch. 
 
 Fig. 83. — Chicory and Ground Acorn : a, a, chicory ; 
 b, c, d, starch granules and brown parenchymatous mem- 
 brane from the pericarp of ground acorn. 
 
 Fig. 84. — Oak-bark Powder : showing wood fibres, stone 
 cells, wood parenchyma, and crystals. 
 
 Fig. 85. — 'Croats,' an article used in Norfolk for fuel: a 
 variety of tan-bark. The figure shows parenchymatous 
 tissue, reticulated vessels, and crystals. 
 
 Such crude forms of chicory adulteration as the two last- 
 mentioned probably no longer survive. Their inclusion 
 among the examples given will illustrate the queer devices 
 of a past era ; and the figures may help in the recognition of 
 allied or identical substances. 
 
 Dandelion {Taraxacum officinale, fam. Composites) occa- 
 sionally is used as a substitute for chicory in coffee mixtures. 
 Microscopically, it very closely resembles chicory : the latex 
 tubes, parenchyma cells, and pitted or reticulated vessels, 
 are all similar, though the transverse pores of the last-named 
 organs are somewhat more elongated. 
 
 Beetroot (Beta vulgaris), another chicory substitute, pre- 
 sents extremely similar microscopical characteristics.^ 
 
 ^ It would be injudicious to attempt with the microscope alone to dis- 
 tinguish one of these three roots from another if any very onerous matter 
 depended on the decision. — See a paper and remarks, by the present writer, 
 on ' Roasted Beetroot ' in the Analyst (1904), xxix. 279. 
 
DULTERANTS OF CHICORY 
 
 97 
 
 Fig. 82. — Chicory and Roasted Wheat Flour, x 140. 
 a, a, Chicory ; b, b, starch granules of wheat. 
 
 Fig. 8^. — Chicory and Ground Acorn, x 140 
 ci, a. Chicory cells ; b, b, starch grains of the acorn, in groups ; c. c, separate 
 starch grains ; d, d, brown parenchymatous membrane from the pericarp of 
 acorn. 
 
98 FORMER ADULTERANTS OF CHICORY 
 
 Fig. 84 — Oak-Bark Powder; Wood Fibres, Stoxe Cells, Wood 
 Parenchyma, and Crystals, x 140. 
 
 Fig. 85.—' Croats,' a species of Tan-Bark used for Fuel : showing 
 Reticulated Vessels, Crystals, and Parenchyma, x 140- 
 
[Cocoa. 
 
Ord. COLUMNIFER.^, Fam. STERCU- 
 LIACE^. 
 
 COCOA. 
 
 The ' bean ' or seed of Theobroma Cacao, ord. ColumnifercE, 
 fam. Sterculiacece. 
 
 Histology. — I. Shell. — On the surface are usually seen large 
 tubular fibres, containing granular matter and minute cor- 
 puscles, mostly running parallel to each other in the course 
 of the long axis of the seed (Fig. 86). These fibres do not 
 form part of the seed, but belong to the seed-vessel or 
 pericarp, and are derived from the spongy substance of the 
 fruit surrounding the seeds. More abundant on some seeds 
 than others. Beneath the tubular fibres are several tunics 
 or membranes, the outermost of which is the mner or 
 endocarp layer of the pericarp, and consists of elongated 
 cells adapted to each other ; disposed in a single layer, with 
 their long diameters placed transversely to the axis of the 
 seed. This is the ' cross-cell ' layer (Fig. ^y, a, a). The next 
 membrane, composed of polygonal cells, is the outer epi- 
 dermis of the seed coat, testa, or sperinoderm (Fig. 87, b, b), and 
 is followed by larger angular cells, superimposed in several 
 closely connected layers. Towards the centre of the mem- 
 brane formed by them, the cells increase greatly in size, 
 their parietes become thin and diaphanous, and their cavities 
 filled with a mucilaginous substance, which, in the bean 
 soaked in water for some hours, is seen to be considerable 
 in quantity. As these mucilage cells (Fig. 87, c, c) approach 
 the surface of the seed, they lose their mucilaginous character, 
 become smaller, and return to their original size. Spiral 
 vessels, together with woody tissue, in fibro-vascular bundles 
 embedded among parenchyma cells (Fig. 88), constitute 
 several raised lines, which will be observed on the surface of 
 the seed, beginning at the end attached to the seed-vessel, 
 spreading themselves out over the surface, and terminating 
 at the distal extremity of the seed. 
 
 2. The Seed, deprived of its husk, is seen to consist of two 
 cotyledons or lobes, remarkable and irregular in form : under 
 pressure these readily separate from each other, and the seed 
 
COCOA . ,.ipi 
 
 breaks further into pieces which are known as ' nibs.' The 
 pale, thin, and dehcate tissue, portions of which adhere to the 
 inner surface of the husk or shell, is the perispenn, and consists 
 superficially of small angular cells containing minute globules 
 of fat (Fig. 8g, a, a). Beneath is a membrane, clear, trans- 
 parent, of indistinct cellular and (apparently) fibrous struc- 
 ture (Fig. 8g, c). On its surface are many small crystals, 
 as well as numerous elongated bodies, rounded at both 
 extremities, divided into several compartments or cells, and 
 frequently known as ' Mitscherlichian bodies ' (Fig. 89, d, d). 
 These exceedingly distinctive features of the cacao bean 
 were first observed, described, and figured in 1851 by 
 Arthur Hill Hassall, M.D., and with greater justice should 
 be termed ' Hassalliaji bodies ' [Lancet, 1851, i., pp. 553, 554]. 
 Their discovery has been incorrectly attributed to a German 
 writer, Alfred Mitscherlich, who described them, much later, 
 in a little book, ' Der Cacao und die Chocolade,' published 
 in 1859 ^^ Berlin. The}' are multicellular hairs, appendages 
 to the epidermis of the cotyledons, from which they 
 become detached and adherent to the perispermal inner 
 membrane. The greater portion of the perisperm usually 
 clings to the seed lobes : it not only covers the surface of 
 the cotyledons, but dips down between them, furnishing each 
 of the opposite sides with a covering. Nevertheless, it is most 
 evident on the external surface. On its removal, cells com- 
 posing the substance of the lobes are often torn away with it. 
 
 Beneath an epidermis of polygonal cells, with the associated 
 hairs already described, the cotyledons are composed of very 
 many minute cells, of a rounded form, filled with starch 
 granules and fat globules (Fig. 90). On the surface of the 
 seed these cells are rendered angular by compression, and 
 are usually of a deep red colour, or sometimes spotted with 
 purple, and even deep blue. The starch grains of cocoa are 
 small in size, of a rounded form, and often present an 
 obscure, radiate, or stellate hilum. At one extremity of the 
 seed is the embryo, consisting of cellular tissue, enclosing 
 numerous starch granules and oil globules.^ 
 
 Extraneous Substances Detectable by the Microscope. — Sugar, 
 foreign starches, etc. 
 
 ^ On the chemical composition of some commercial cocoa-preparations, see 
 a paper by the writer, Chem. News (1902), Ixxxvi., p. 51. 
 
 [For figures y see pp. 102-109.] 
 
102 
 
 COCOA 
 
 Fig. 86. — Cocoa. Tubular Fibres of the Pericarp, observed on the 
 Surface of the Husk or 'Shell.' x ioo. 
 
COCOA 
 
 103 
 
 Fig. 87. — Cocoa, Outer Membranes of Shell, x 220. 
 
 Cross cells (a, a) of the inner or endocarp layer of the pericarp ; beneath them, 
 polygonal cells {h, b), succeeded by very large mucilage cells {c, c). 
 
104 
 
 COCOA 
 
 Fig. 88.— Cocoa, Rounded Cells, Fibres, and Spiral Vessels, con 
 STITUTING Deeper Part of Husk, x 220. 
 
 • a, a, Parenchyma cells ; b, b, spiral vessels ; c, c, wood fibres. 
 
COCOA 
 
 105 
 
 hit - A ::. \r I: ^,-^'\> ^ 
 
 
 Fig. 89.— Cocoa. Membranes of the Perisperm, x 220. 
 a, a, Small polygonal cells, containing fat globules; b,b, rounded cells 
 derived from husk (indc Fig. 88. a, a), lying upon the polygonal cells, and 
 situated at the lines of junction of the lobe ; c, c, transparent fibrous tunic ; 
 7, d, multicellular hairs (the Hassallian, or so-called' Mitscherlichian bodies') ^ 
 ,, e, rounded masses of crystallized fat; /,/, crystals. 
 
 Fig. 90. — Cocoa. Cells forming the Substanxe of the Cotyledons, 
 WITH the contained Starch Granules. A x 220, B x 500. 
 
 ^ See p. loi. 
 
io6 
 
 COCOA 
 
 Fig. gi. — Pure Trinidad Cocoa (Decorticated and Pulverized), x 220. 
 
 The tissues forming the husk of cocoa are absent, and many of the cells ot 
 the seed are ruptured, so as to permit the escape of the starch grains and fat. 
 
 a, a, Starch cells of the seed ; b, b, epidermal polygonal membrane of the 
 seed-lobes ; c, c, tissues of embryo ; d, d, free masses of starch ; e, e, loose 
 starch granules. 
 
 Fig. 92. — Pure Flaked Cocoa (Ground), x 220. 
 Usually contains both seed and shell, a, a. Tubular fibres on surface : 
 b,b, inner membrane of husk; c,c, spiral vessels; d,d, cells of kernel; 
 e, membrane covering lobes ; /, tissue of embryo ; g, g, free masses of starch 
 granules : h, h, loose starch granules. 
 
COCOA MIXTURES 
 
 107 
 
 Fig. qs.— a so-called 'Soluble' Cocoa, mixed with Potato Starch. 
 
 X 220. 
 a, a, a, Cocoa ; b,h,b, potato starch. 
 
 i 
 
 Fig. 94. — ' HoMCEOPATHic ' Cocoa, containing Sago Starch, x 220. 
 a, a, a. Cocoa ; b, b, b, sago starch. 
 
io8 
 
 A COCOA MIXTURE 
 
 Fig. 95.— Another 'Soluble' Cocoa, mixed with Potato and Sago 
 Starches, x 220. 
 
 a. a, a, Cocoa ; b, b, b, potato starch ; c, c, c, sago starch. 
 
COCOA AND CHOCOLATE MIXTURES 109 
 
 Fig. 96. ' HoMOiOPATHic ' Cocoa, containing Tous les mois, 
 Arrowroot, and Tapioca, x 220. 
 
 a, a, a, Cocoa ; b, b, b, canna starch or tous les mois ; c, c, tapioca. 
 
 
 Fig. 97. — So-called 'Genuine Unadulterated Chocolate,' containing 
 Tapioca, Maranta and Curcuma Arrowroots, with Maize and 
 Potato Starches, x 220. 
 
 ii, a, a, Cocoa ; b, b, b, tapioca ; c, c, c, maranta arrowroot ; d, maize ; 
 e, e, potato ; /, /, curcuma arrowroot. 
 
Ord. CISTIFLOR/E, Fam. TERN- 
 STRCEMIACE^. 
 
 TEA. 
 
 Leaves of Camellia Thea, ord. ChtifloYCB, fam. Ternstrce- 
 miacecF. 
 
 Morphology of the Leaves. — Youngest leaves narrow, 
 downy, and but slightly serrated. Leaves next in age and 
 size delicately serrated, but venation little perceptible. 
 Leaves of medium and large sizes strongly, deeply and 
 widely serrated, with well-marked venation, a series of 
 characteristic loops being formed along each margin of the 
 leaves. 
 
 Histology. — I. Upper epidermal cells small and only slightly 
 angular, in leaf of medium size ; but larger, more angular, 
 and with walls more distinctly visible, in the old and 
 hard leaf. Hairs and stomata absent. Parenchyma cells 
 similar to those of most other leaves, and not very dis- 
 tinctive. 2. Cells of the lower epidermis larger than those 
 of the upper surface, and associated with stomata and hairs. 
 Stomata, oval or sometimes nearly round, formed of two 
 reniform cells (guard cells) encircling a very apparent 
 aperture ; rather numerous, and confined to the under surface 
 of the leaves. The epidermal cells are themselves curved in 
 the neighbourhood of the stomata. Hairs short, pointed, 
 and undivided; confined to the under surface of the leaf: 
 very numerous on young leaves, less abundant on old leaves. 
 Wood fibre not characteristic. 
 
 Extraneous Substances Detectable by the Microscope. — Foreign 
 leaves, 'lie-tea,' various mineral substances. 
 
 [For figures (tea), see pp. in, 112, and 113; also (substitutes 
 or adulterants), pp. 1 15-124.] 
 
TEA 
 
 III 
 
 Fig. gS. — Leaves of China Tea. 
 
 A , Young leaf ; B, leaf of black tea of medium size ; C, a larger leaf of the 
 same ; D leaf of the green variety of the tea-plant. 
 
112 
 
 TEA 
 
 Fig. 99.— Leaf of Assam Tea: Venation as in the preceding, but Serra- 
 tions SLIGHTLY different, BEING ALTERNATELY LARGE AND SMALL- A 
 DIFFERENCE PROBABLY NOT CONSTANT. 
 
 Fig. loo. — Tea-leaf (Upper Surface), showing Cells of the Upper 
 Epidermis, x 350. 
 
TEA 
 
 113 
 
 Fig. lor. — Tea-leaf (Under Surface), showing Cells of the Lower 
 Epidermis, Stomata, and a Portion of a Hair. X350. 
 
 Fig. 102.— Tea-leaf. 
 
 A, Upper epidermis of a fully-developed leaf, showing the cells more highly 
 n?agnihed than in Fig. 100; B, under surface, showing cells and stomata^- 
 o, cells ot the chlorophyll parenchyma, x 420. 
 
114 ADDITIONS TO, AND SUBSTITUTES FOR, TEA 
 
 LEAVES WHICH HAVE BEEN USED IN ADMIX- 
 TURE WITH, OR AS SUBSTITUTES FOR, TEA. 
 
 Fig. 103. — Leaves which have been used in Admixture 
 with, or as Substitutes for, Tea: A, leaf of Chloranthns 
 
 inconspicuus ; B, leaf of Camellia Sasanqua (Sasanqua Tea). 
 Used to impart fragrance. 
 
 Fig. 104. — Leaves of Camellia Sasanqua, found in sample 
 of Twankay : A, A, upper epidermis, showing cells; B, B, 
 under surface, showing cells of lower epidermis, and 
 stomata ; C, C, chlorophyll cells. 
 
 Fig. 105. — Leaf of Plum {Pvumis domestica), found in 
 sample of Twankay : A , upper surface ; B, under surface ; 
 C, spinous hair. 
 
 Fig. 106. — A, Leaf of Willow {Salix, sp.; fam. Salicacece) ; 
 B, Leaf of Poplar {Populus, sp. ; fam. Salicacece). 
 
 Fig. 107. — C, Leaf of Plane {Plataims, sp. ; fam. Plata- 
 nacecB) ; D, Leaf of Oak {Qiicrcus, sp. ; fam. CupidifercB). 
 
 Fig. 108. — A, Leaf of Hawthorn {CratcBgus, sp. ; fam. 
 Rosacea) ; B, Leaf of Sloe or Wild Plum {Prunus spinosa, 
 fam. Rosacece) ; C, Leaf of Beech {Fagus sylvatica, fam. 
 CiipulifercB) ; D, Leaf of Elder {Sambucus nigra, fam. Capri- 
 foliacecB); E, Leaf of Elm {Ulmus campestris, fam. Ulmacece). 
 
 [All the entire leaves, except that of the Camellia, are 
 figured on their under surfaces. The elm, plane, and oak 
 leaves were of small size.] 
 
 [For figures, see pp. 115, 116, 117, 118, and 119.] 
 
LEAVES USED IN ADMIXTURE WITH TEA 115 
 
 Fig. 103. — Leaves which have been used in Admixture with, or as 
 Substitutes for. Tea. 
 
 A, Leaf of Chloranthus inconspicmis ; B, leaf of Camellia Sasanqua (Sasanqua 
 Tea). Used to impart fragrance. 
 
 8-2 
 
ri6 LEAVES USED IN ADMIXTURE WITH TEA 
 
 Fig. 104. — Portions of Leaves of Camellia Sasanqua, found in Sample 
 OF T wan KAY. X 420. 
 
 A, A, Upper epidermis ; B B, under surface, showing cells of nether 
 epidermis, and stomata^ ; C C, chlorophyll cells. 
 
 ^ The guard-cells are very clearly indicated in B, B. 
 
LEAVES USED IN ADMIXTURE WITH TEA 117 
 
 Fig. 105. — Leaf of Plum (Pruxus domestica), found in Sample of 
 TwANKAY. X 420. 
 
 A, Upper surface ; B, under surface ; C, spinous hair. 
 
ii8 TEA ADULTERANTS AND SUBSTITUTES 
 
 Fig. io6. 
 A, Leaf of Willow ; B, leaf of Poplar. 
 
 Fig. 107 
 C, Leaf of Plane ; D, leaf of Oak. 
 
LEAVES USED IN ADMIXTURE WITH TEA 119 
 
 Fig. 108. 
 
 A, Leaf of Hawthorn ; B, leaf of Sloe-tree; C, leaf of Beech 
 D, leaf of Elder ; E, leaf of Elm. 
 
120 TEA ADULTERANTS AND SUBSTITUTES 
 
 FACTITIOUS TEAS, AND ADULTERANTS OF TEA. 
 
 Fig. log. — Foreign Leaf and other Extraneous Bodies 
 in a Sample of China Tea of low quality, mainly composed 
 of ' Lie-Tea' (see infra) : a, a, upper surface (upper epidermis) 
 of a foreign leaf; b, under surface (nether epidermis), show- 
 ing the cells composing it, with their slightly-beaded margins, 
 also the stomata ; c, chlorophyll parenchyma cells of the 
 mesophyll, or inner substance of the leaf, near the lower surface, 
 branching, and so disposed as to form large areolae ; 
 
 d, elongated cells found on upper surface of the leaf in the 
 course of the veins ; e, spiral vessel ; /, cell of turmeric ; 
 g, g, fragments of Prussian blue ; A, particles of a white 
 powder, probably China clay. 
 
 Fig. no. — 'Lie-Tea' (a factitious tea prepared by the 
 Chinese, and benevolently provided by them with this 
 appropiate name. Some samples may contain a little tea- 
 dust. It is doubtful whether lie-tea now finds its way into 
 the English market) : a, upper surface of a leaf other than 
 tea ; b, lower surface with stomata ; c, chlorophyll cells of 
 the mesophyll ; d, elongated cells ; e, part of one of the 
 branched spinous hairs on the under surface of the leaf; 
 /, cell of turmeric ; g, g, fragments of Prussian blue ; h, particles 
 of white powder. 
 
 Fig. III. — (A similar production.) Imitation Caper or 
 Gunpowder Tea : a, a, fragments of the tea-leaf or tea-dust ; 
 b, b, particles of sand ; c, c, starch granules ; d, d, plumbago ; 
 
 e, e, mica (?) ; /,/, turmeric ; g, g, fragments of indigo. 
 
 Fig. 112. — A Preparation formerly supplied for the pur- 
 pose of mixing with Tea;^ consisting chiefly of sumach 
 leaves (Rims, sp. ; fam. AnacardiacecB) , and catechu, the 
 astringent extract made from Acacia catechu, fam. Mimosacece ! 
 
 1 It is extremely unlikely that such articles as these in this country are any- 
 where obtainable at the present time. They are described here as curiosities 
 of the past.— E. G. C. 
 
FACTITIOUS TEAS 121 
 
 The directions were : ' Piit a quarter of a teaspoonful into the 
 teapot, with two teaspoonfuls of tea, and it will doubly increase 
 the strength, and improve the flavour.' In the figure, a,a = frag- 
 ments of sumach leaves ; b, b, particles of catechu ; c, c, crystals 
 present in catechu. 
 
 Fig. 113. — A Rival Preparation, sold at the same period,^ 
 consisting of catechu and wheat flour. In the figure, 
 a, rt = starch granules of wheat; b, b, fragments of catechu; 
 c,c, crystals. 
 
 ^ See note on preceding page. 
 
 [For figures, see pp. 122, 123, and 124.] 
 
122 
 
 FACTITIOUS TEAS 
 
 Fig. log. — Foreign Leaf and other Extraneous Bodies in a China 
 Tea of low quality, mainly comfosed of 'Lie-Tea.' x 350. -- 
 
 Fig. iio. — 'Lie-Tea. 
 
 X420. 
 
FACTITIOUS TEAS 
 
 123 
 
 Fig. III.— Imitation Caper or Gunpowder Tea. x 35o- 
 
 Fig. 112. — A Tea 'Economizer': Sumach and Catechu, x 350. 
 
124 
 
 A TEA 'ECONOMIZER 
 
 Fig. 113. — A Rival 'Economizer': Catechu and Flour. X350. 
 
FSaccharine" Substances. 
 
SACCHARINE SUBSTANCES. 
 
 ORD.GLUMIFLOR/E,FAM.GRAMINEyE (Sugar- 
 cane) ; AND Ord. CENTROSPERM^, Fam. 
 CHENOPODIACE^ (Sugar-Beet). 
 
 CANE SUGAR, SUCROSE, OR SACCHAROSE. 
 
 A HIGHLY soluble sweet carbohydrate, belonging to the class 
 of Saccharobioses, obtained by evaporating the cell-sap of the 
 sugar-cane {Saccharuin officinartim), of the sugar-beet {Beta 
 vulgaris, var. altissima), and other plants. 
 
 Histology of the Sugar-Cane. — Parenchyma composed 
 of utricles or cells, rectangular in shape, usually rather longer 
 than broad, and several times larger in the central part of 
 the bamboo than in its outer and harder portions. Walls of 
 the cells all finely dotted or punctated — a very characteristic 
 feature. The juice is enclosed in the cavities of these cells. 
 Fibro-vascular bundles traverse the cane longitudinally, 
 giving to transverse sections a dotted appearance : these 
 bundles are constituted of greatly elongated cells (wood- 
 fibres), and enclose vessels generally more or less reticulated 
 or dotted. The vessels, one or more of which are generally 
 included in the centre of each bundle, are of two kinds — the 
 interrupted spiral or pitted vessel, and the simple or con- 
 tinuous spiral vessel. The pitted vessels are sometimes 
 cylindrical, but frequently polygonal, from the compression 
 exerted upon them by the surrounding wood-fibres, the 
 markings of the cells forming which are often seen upon 
 their surfaces. The spiral vessels are found chiefly in the 
 outer, harder part of the stem. The epidermis, or cuticle, is 
 known by the elongated cells composing it, and the presence 
 of stomata. At the distal extremity of each internode of the 
 
 126 
 
SUGAR 127 
 
 cane, the ordinary epidermic cells are replaced or overlaid by 
 a layer of cells totally different in character (stone cells) : 
 they are usually anisodiametric, more or less rounded or 
 oval in shape, and possessed of very thick walls traversed 
 by pores, disposed in a radiate manner. These cells are 
 similar to the cells found in the stones of fruit, and form by 
 their union a smooth, hard zone round the cane, about 
 one-third of an inch deep. 
 
 Appearance (of sugar crystallized from its solutions). — 
 Crystals, large transparent monoclinic prisms, variously 
 modified, usually with hemihedral faces. 
 
 Extraneous Matters Detectable by the Microscope. — In brown 
 sugar : glyciphagi or sugar-mites, fungus-sporules, fragments 
 of various woods, etc. 
 
 [For figures, see pp. 128 and 129.] 
 
128 
 
 SACCHARIXE SUBSTANCES 
 
 Fig. 1L4. — Sugar-Cane, Longitudinal Section: Fragment from near 
 THE Centre of the Stem, showing Parenchymatous Cells and a 
 Fibro-Vascular Bundle, x 100. 
 
 Fig. 115. — Sugar-Cane, Longitudinal Section, showing Structure of 
 
 THE two kinds OF VESSELS, AND THE CeLLS CONSTITUTING THE WOOD- 
 
 Fibre. X 200. 
 a, Dotted v-essels embedded in wood-fibre ; b, cells of fibre ; c, spiral vessel. 
 
SUGAR 
 
 129 
 
 Fig. 116. — Sugar Cane : Epidermal Layers, in Surface View ; showing, 
 
 ABOVE, THE SXONE CeLLS, AND, BENEATH. THE ELONGATED CeLLS X 200. 
 
 Fig. 117. — Crystals of Cane Sugar, x 100. 
 
130 SACCHARINE SUBSTANCES 
 
 IMPURITIES WHICH HAVE BEEN FOUND IN 
 
 SUGAR. 
 
 Foreign Matters Detectable by the Microscope. — Minute, 
 semi-transparent, apterous insects, belonging to the family 
 Acarida^, or ' mites,' at one period were commonly present 
 in immense numbers in the coarser brown sugars of com- 
 merce. This fact was first discovered by Dr. A. H. Hassall, 
 recorded by him in the Lancet of 1851, and subsequently 
 mentioned in his works on food. The disclosure led to a 
 considerable improvement in the quality of the cheaper 
 sugars put upon the market, and to a more general use of 
 refined sugar by the public. Several specimens of A cams 
 sacchari ( = Glyciphagus cursor, etc.) are depicted in the figures. 
 
 In raw sugars, fungus-spores, fragments of wood, sand, 
 and other extraneous matters may frequently be discovered. 
 Glyciphagi still sometimes occur in preserving sugars and 
 the like. Quite recently several of these little insects were 
 observed by the present writer in a sample of whole-fruit 
 strawberry jam under microscopical investigation. White 
 sugar is usually extremely pure. 
 
 [For figures, see pp, 131, 132, and 133.] 
 
 1 
 
IMPURITIES FOUND IN SUGAR 
 
 131 
 
 Fig. 118.— Glyciphagus, or Acarus Sacchari : the Sugar-mite. Ova 
 AND Young, x 200. 
 
 Fig.. 119.— Glyciphagus of Medium Size. Alive and Crawling 
 ON A Fragment of Cane, x 200. 
 
 9 — 2 
 
132 SACCHARINE SUBSTAXCES 
 
 Fig, I20. — Glvciphagus which has nearly attained Full Develop 
 
 MENT ; AS IT FREQUENTLY APPEARS WHEN DeAD. x 200. 
 
IMPURITIES FOUND IN SUGAR 
 
 33 
 
 
 
 Q 
 
 <^ 
 
 I,<|^^^ 
 
 
 
 ^^y 
 
 Fig. 121— Spores of a Fungus, probably a Specie^ of Torula, found 
 IN Brown Sugar, x 420. 
 
 Fig. 122. — Fragment of Deal, or Fir-wood, probably derived from 
 Casks or other Vessels, x 200. 
 
134 SACCHARIXE SUBSTANCES 
 
 HONEY. 
 
 This substance, which is composed of the sugars called 
 dextrose and laevulose, mixed in about equal proportions, 
 together with water and very small quantities of wax, 
 mannite, ash, organic acids, and alcohol, is collected and 
 garnered by the honey-bee (Apis mellifica). 
 
 Appearance of Solid Portion. — Thin, transparent, brittle, 
 six-sided prisms, often broken and imperfect, intermingled 
 with pollen granules of different forms, sizes, and structures. 
 From these characters the plants from which the honey has 
 been procured may often be determined. 
 
 Extraneous Matters Detectable by the Microscope. — Potato 
 and wheat starch, and in some cases — ^doubtfully — added 
 cane sugar. It is averred that chalk, gypsum, pipe-clay, and 
 other inorganic substances have sometimes been introduced; 
 such additions must be extremely rare. 
 
 [For figures, see pp. 135, 136, and 137.] 
 
HONEY 
 
 135 
 
 Fig. 123.— Honey: showing Crystals and Pollen Granules, x 225. 
 
136 
 
 SACCHARINE SUBSTANCES 
 
 Fig. 124. — Honey : shown by the Pollen Granules present to have 
 BEEN Collected chiefly from a Heath, x 225. 
 
 a, Pollen granules of furze (Ulex, sp.) ; b, pollen of heath [Erica, sp.) ; 
 c, pollen of one of the Composites. 
 
HONEY 
 
 ^37 
 
 Fig. 125.— Honey, adulterated with Cane Sugar : the thick 
 irregular crystals are the added sugar. x 200. 
 
FRUIT PRESERVES AND JELLIES. 
 
 Of the many varieties of fruit preparations supplied to 
 consumers, jellies, from which solid matter is usually ex- 
 cluded, can as a rule be least easily dealt with by the 
 microscopist. The diagnosis of the components must 
 generally depend on chemical tests. But it is unwise to 
 omit a microscopical examination, because, by careful 
 investigation, even in jellies can sometimes be discovered 
 hairs, fragments of cellular tissue, or seeds, which disclose 
 the nature of the materials used by the manufacturers. In 
 other preparations of fruit, whether candied, dried, sliced, 
 pared, canned or bottled in syrup, boiled down with sugar 
 (as in jams and marmalades), or otherwise treated, some or 
 all (according to circumstances) of the characteristic micro- 
 scopical features are invariably present, and the identity 
 of the components of the preserve may readily be estab- 
 lished. 
 
 The admixture, in conserves, of one fruit with another, or 
 the addition of turnip, beet-pulp, apple, vegetable marrow, 
 etc., can usually be detected, if the structure of the seeds, 
 pips, cuticle, hairs and parenchyma, of the several fruits and 
 vegetable substances be very carefully studied previously. 
 Also, separate specimens of the foreign ingredients suspected 
 to be present should be comparatively examined, side by side 
 with the jam or preserve under investigation. It is scarcely 
 necessary to add that a discriminative megascopic scrutiny 
 of fruit preserves should precede the microscopical examina- 
 tion ; often, indeed, the former alone is sufficient. 
 
 An approximate estimate of the proportions of the different 
 fruits in a preserve may sometimes be arrived at by counting 
 
 138 
 
FRUIT PRESERVES AND JELLIES 139 
 
 the several kinds of seeds present : the numbers of seeds in 
 various fruits being known to be as follows : 
 
 Gooseberry 
 
 
 25 to 35, 
 
 average 30 
 
 Strawberry 
 
 
 70 to 100, 
 
 .. S5 
 
 Raspberry 
 
 
 55 to 65, 
 
 „ 60 
 
 Black Currant ... 
 
 
 35 to 40, 
 
 40 
 
 White and Red Curran 
 
 ts... 
 
 3 to 5, 
 
 4 
 
 Seeds of some of the commoner fruits are represented in 
 Fig. 126, p. 140. 
 
 Fruit for preserving should be fresh, sound, and clean : 
 the places where it is made into jam should at least be 
 sanitary ; and the workers should be paid enough to enable 
 them to maintain an average degree of bodily health, cleanli- 
 ness, and comfort. It is more than doubtful whether these 
 conditions are fulfilled in all British jam-factories. For an 
 idea of the revolting and abominable state of affairs prevail- 
 ing in certain fruit-preserve and other food-factories, the 
 reader is referred to Chapter V. of ' The Soul Market,' by 
 Olive C. Malvery.^ In sober truth, we in the United Kingdom 
 have our own 'Jungle.' 
 
 It is too much to hope that fruit will always be free from 
 parasitic germs. H'ya Mechnikov has pointed out that 
 strawberries especially are liable to convey the ova of 
 intestinal worms. But well-made jam should have been 
 subm.itted to so high a temperature that the danger from 
 this source is removed. 
 
 It is not here attempted systematically to enumerate and 
 describe in order, nor to illustrate, all of the very numerous 
 histological elements present in the fruits ordinarily eaten. 
 Certain of these elements, such as the cells of the parenchyma 
 or pulp, the fibro-vascular bundles and spiral vessels, and the 
 epidermal tissues, with slight modifications of form and 
 variations in size, are common to nearly all the succulent 
 fruits, and even to some of the roots and tubers used as 
 adulterants. But fortunately it is the case that almost every 
 fruit exhibits one or more distinctive microscopic features 
 by which its presence can be recognized in a mixture. The 
 
 ^ W. Heinemann, 1906. 
 
140 FRUIT PRESERVES AND JELLIES 
 
 Fig. 126. — Seeds of various Fruits : 
 
 ii, Raspberry ; b, gooseberry ; c, white currant ; d, black currant 
 e, e, strawberry ; /,/, fig-' seeds.' 
 
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES OF FRUITS 141 
 
 Fig. 127. — Apple : Epidermis, consisting of somewhat Thick-walled, 
 OFTEN Quadrangular Cells. ^ 
 
 ^ Sometimes called ' window cells.' 
 
 * Fig 12S.— Apple: the extremely Large, Loose, Thin-walled. Tr 
 
 , , -.;ans- 
 
 parent Cells of the Parenchyma, constituting the Flesh of 
 the Fruit. 
 
142 
 
 FRUIT PRESERVES AXD JELLIES 
 
 Fig. 129. — The Pear, x 150. 
 
 Group of Stone Cells, with radiating Parenchyma Cells. 
 
 [E. G. Clayton, i/el. 
 
 Fig. 130. — The Quince, x 150. 
 Group of Stone Cells, with Parenchyma. 
 
 [E. G. Clayton, ^rW.] 
 
DISTIXGUISHING FEATURES OF FRUITS 143 
 
 .most important of these histological indices are summarized 
 I below, and shown in the figures accompanying the text. 
 Among the distinguishing characters of ordinary fruits are : 
 
 1. In the Apple {Pirus mains, ord. Rosiflovcs, fam. RosacccF) : 
 [the roughly quadrilateral, subdivided 'window-cells' of 
 
 the epicarp (Fig. 127, p. 141) ; the large, circular, ovate, 
 i^oiygonal, or parenchyma cells (Fig. 128, p. 141) ; the 
 sclerenchymatous fibre-cells of the 'core,' crossing at various 
 angles ; and, sometimes apparent at the sutures of the five 
 carpels, the jointed multicellular hairs described by Malfatti. 
 
 2. In the Pear {Pirns communis, ord. Rosiflorce, fam. 
 Rosacc(u) : similar epicarpal cells, smaller than those of the 
 apple ; groups of thick-walled, porous, stone cells, dis- 
 tributed throughout the parenchyma, the cells of which 
 
 ; radiate from, and are elongated in the vicinity of, the stone 
 cells (Fig. 129) ; also jointed hairs akin to those of the apple. 
 
 3. In the Quince {Cydonia vulgaris, ord. Rosiflorce, fam. 
 RosacecE) : histological elements mostly as in the pear, but the 
 groups of sclerenchymatous cells, distributed through the 
 parenchyma, are more numerous, and the epicarp is hairy 
 (Fig. 130). 
 
 4. In the Sweet and Bitter Orange {Citrus aurantiit,m, 
 varieties Sinensis and aniara, ord. Tcrebinthince, fam. Rutacece) : 
 the polygonal cells of the epicarp, or outer layer of the rinds 
 (see Fig. 138, 'Orange Marmalade,' p. 150), with numerous 
 almost circular stomata and orange-tinted chromatophores ; 
 in the tissue beneath (the hypoderm), besides giant cavities 
 containing the essential oil, small collenchymatous cells, 
 many enclosing acicular crystals of the glucoside hesperidin, 
 and others oblique crystals of calcium oxalate ; the star- 
 shaped, narrows-armed cells of the spongy mesocarp, with 
 large intercellular lacuna (Fig. 138, p. 150) ; and, in the 
 seeds, the epidermal sclerenchyma cells of the spermoderm, 
 with beak-like processes extending into the mucilaginous 
 envelope. 
 
 It was shown by the present writer, in 1894,^ that the rind 
 
 ^ ' Note oa Lemon and Orange Peel ' (E. G. Clayton).— The Analyst (1894), 
 xix.. p. 134. 
 
r 
 
 144 
 
 FRUIT PRESERVES AND JELLIES 
 
 'mm- 
 
 Fig. 131. — The Banana. 
 
 Pulp. — A, parenchyma cells of mesocarp, the inner layers catenated; also 
 spiral vessels, x 150. B, starch granules, x 230. 
 
 Rind. — C, polygonal cells of epicarp, with raphides. x 150. D, hypoderm. 
 or outer part of mesocarp : thin-walled cells, with very large loose spirals, and 
 giant cavities containing oil-globules ; also oval cells with bundles of x-aphides, 
 resembling similar groups observed in the pineapple, x 150. 
 
 [E. G. Clayton, dt'/] 
 
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES OF FRUITS 145 
 
 of the orange assumes a deep, rich green colour, when 
 moistened with hydrochloric acid. This colour reaction 
 readily distinguishes orange from lemon rind, which, when 
 free from fungoid patches and stains, scarcely alters in colour 
 if immersed in hydrochloric acid. Experience has shown 
 that the test is serviceable in the examination of marmalades 
 and the like. 
 
 5. In the Lemon {Citrus liinonum, ord. Terehinthincu, fam. 
 Rutacece) similar histological elements are present. For 
 differentiation from the orange, see under that fruit. 
 
 6. In the Banana {Musa sapienhmi, ord. ScitaminecE, fam. 
 Musacece) the spiral vessels, and the series of elongated, thin- 
 walled, often catenated, parenchyma cells of the inner 
 portions of the pulp, or mesocarp, are characteristic (Fig. 
 131, A); as are also the numerous long, narrow, excentrically 
 striated, irregular starch grains (Fig. 131, B). In the tissues 
 composing the rind, the thick-walled, polygonal cells of the 
 epicarp, with numerous acicular crystals beneath (Fig. 131, C), 
 the large loose spiral vessels, the giant cells containing 
 globules of oil in clusters like bunches of grapes, and 
 the oval cells with bundles of raphides, resembling those in 
 the pine-apple, are conspicuous features (Fig. 131, D).^ 
 
 Several classes of banana preparations are sold : among 
 them 'banana meal,' consisting of the decorticated and 
 pulverized fruit, and ' Guiana arrowroot,' composed of the 
 starch only. 
 
 7. In the Plantain {Musa paradisaica, ord. ScitaminctCy 
 fam. Musacece), a larger fruit closely allied to the banana, 
 corresponding structures are present. 
 
 8. In Red and White Currants {Ribes rnbrum), and 
 Black Currants {Ribes nigruiu, ord. Saxifvagince, fam. Saxi- 
 fmgacete) : characteristic histological elements are the non- 
 hirsute epicarp ; the epicarpal cells with porous beaded 
 walls, many stomata (and, in the case of the black currant 
 only, multicellular disc-shaped glands, resembling those of 
 the hop, and attached to the epicarp by a stalk) ; also, in 
 
 ' So far as the writer is aware, the presence of the raphides in the rind ot 
 the banana has not previously been mentioned : nor has he observed any 
 direct reference to the clusters of oil-drops. 
 
 10 
 
146 FRUIT PRESERVES AND JELLIES 
 
 Fig. 132. — Red Currant. 
 Groups of sclerenchyma cells composing the endocarp. x 150. 
 
 [E. G. Clayton, c^el.] 
 
 Fig. 133. — The Gooseberry. 
 
 A, portion of epicarp, with blunt and globular-headed prickles, x 40. 
 
 B, portion of epidermis of calyx, showing rosette-shaped arrangement of 
 cells, around two of the hairs, x 150. [E G. Clayton.] 
 
 Fig. 134. — The Strawberry. 
 A, Cells of epidermis, x 150. 
 B, Epidermis of the spermoderm, x 150. 
 [E. G. Clayton.] 
 
 Fig. 135. — The Cherry. 
 
 Pulp cells, with raphides. 
 
 X 150. 
 
 [E. G. Clayton.] 
 
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES OF FRUITS 147 
 
 the spermoderm, the polygonal, yellow-tinted cells of the 
 * crystal layer,' and the elongated, thin-walled, brown cells 
 of the inner epidermis. In black and red currants the cells 
 of the epicarp are charged with colouring matter, and the 
 pigment is of great intensity in the case of Ribes nigrum. 
 But by far the most distinctive^ feature which currants 
 exhibit is the remarkable tissue of sclerenchyma cells 
 composing the endocarp (Fig. 132). These very narrow, 
 parallel-sided stone cells, which are best seen in red 
 and white currants, are in bundles of from six to twelve, 
 lying side by side, the bundles being disposed at all angles 
 relatively to each other. Examined under polarized artificial 
 light, with a selenite plate, this tissue constitutes one of the 
 most beautiful microscopic objects known to the present 
 writer. In his experience it is unique, no other fruit, nor 
 any extraneous substance, having been found to exhibit 
 a histological feature at all closely resembling it. In a pre- 
 paration submitted to him a few years since, alleged to 
 be an ' Indian ' secret remedy, and containing a considerable 
 number of diverse ingredients, the presence of red currant 
 was diagnosed entirely by the help of the discovery of frag- 
 ments of this singular tissue, together with portions of the 
 inner epidermis of the spermoderm. In connection with the 
 same matter, a careful study was made of the histological 
 elements composing more than three hundred substances, rare 
 and otherwise, of the most various kinds : fruits, vegetables, 
 drugs, barks, roots, rhizomes, seeds, berries, leaves, flowers, 
 etc. : but in not one instance was a tissue discovered bearing 
 any near resemblance to the endocarpal layer of the 
 currant. 
 
 9. In the Gooseberry {Ribes Grossidaria, ord. Saxifragince, 
 fam. Saxifragacece) the epicarp is generally somewhat hairy 
 or prickly : most of the structures resemble those of currants, 
 but the endocarp widely differs; and the (frequently) club- 
 Hke hairs are characteristic. Fig. 133, A, B. 
 
 10. In the Strawberry {Fragaria vesca, F, Virginiana, etc., 
 ord. RosiflorcF, fam. Rosacece) : the cells of the epidermis 
 (Fig. 134, A), with crystals, a few stomata, and long, tapering 
 
 10 — 2 
 
148 FRUIT PRESERVES AND JELLIES 
 
 Fig. 136.— The Fig. 
 
 Epidermis of the receptacle, showing hairs and a circular hair scar : 
 
 beneath, cells of the hypoderm, with aggregates of calcium oxalate 
 
 crystals. x c. 150. 
 
 [E. G. Clayton.] 
 
 Fig. 137. — The Date. 
 
 A . cells of the epidermis of the spermoderm. with beaded walls, x 200. 
 B, endospermal cells, x c. 150. 
 
 [E. G. Clayton.] 
 
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES OF FRUITS 149 
 
 hairs^ ; in the pericarp of the fruitlets, achenes, or * seeds,' the 
 crystal layer, each polygonal cell containing a single crystal ; 
 and the reticulated epidermis of the spermoderm (Fig. 134, B), 
 with convolutions somewhat recalling the appearance of the 
 tinger-prints, by the aid of which criminals now are often 
 identified. 
 
 11. In the Grape (Vitis vinifera, ord. Frangulince, fam. 
 Vitacece) : only the seeds show distinctive features; — in the 
 spermoderm, the very thick-walled stone cells, above them 
 parenchyma cells with raphides, and beneath, cells of the 
 inner epidermis with beaded walls. Dried grapes (raisins) 
 exhibit similar characters ; and sugar crystals sometimes 
 occur in the cells. 
 
 12. In the Cherry {Prunus cerasiis, ord. RosiflorcB, fam. 
 Rosacece) the surface is smooth, the epicarpal cells are large, 
 clearly defined, and charged with pigment. Both spiral and 
 reticulated vessels are present in themesocarp; and raphides 
 of calcium oxalate occur in the pulp-cells (Fig. 135). 
 
 13. In the Raspberry (Ruhiis Idceus, ord. Rosiflorce, fam. 
 Rosacecs) : the polygonal cells, with numerous hairs, of the 
 epicarp of the drupelets, the rosettes of cells about the bases 
 of the hairs, the crystal cells distributed through the meso- 
 carp, and the elongated, sclerenchymatous fibre-cells of the 
 outer endocarp. 
 
 14. In the Plum {Prnniis domestical ord. Rosiflorcu) the 
 epicarp is devoid of hairs (distinction from the peach and 
 apricot): the cells are beaded; and much colouring matter is 
 present, except in the green varieties. 
 
 15. In the Blackberry {Riihiis fruticosiis, ord. Rosiflorcs, 
 fam. Rosacece) : structures mostly akin to those seen in the 
 raspberry ; drupelets less hairy : seeds larger, also the 
 wrinkles on them. 
 
 i6. In the Peach {Primus Pcrsica, ord. Rosiflorce, fam. 
 Rosacece) : the polygonal cells of the epi-^arp, the numerous 
 hairs of various lengths, and stomata ; the isodiametric stone 
 cells of the endocarp, also the presence of reticulated and 
 absence of spiral vessels. 
 
 ^ Not shown in the figure. 
 
150 FRUIT PRESERVES AND JELLIES 
 
 Fig. 138.— Orange Marmalade, containing Apple or Turnip, x 100. 
 
 a, a, a, Tissues of orange : above, angular cells of epicarp, or superficial layer, 
 showing parenchyma of mesocarp underneath : centre, loose parenchyma, with 
 intercellular spaces, constituting the woolly part of the rmd, or mesocarp, and 
 showing crystals and spherical masses of the glucoside hesperidin : below, 
 fibro-vascular bundles with similar crystals, b, b, b, Parenchymatous cells of 
 added ingredient. 
 
FRUITS: CHEAP SUBSTITUTES 151 
 
 17. In the Apricot (Primus Armejtiaca, ord. Rosiflora^, fam. 
 Rosacece) : structures almost exactly like those of the peach, 
 but the epidermal stone cells of the spermoderm are smaller. 
 
 18. In the Fig {Ficus Carica, ord. Urticince, fam. MoracecE) : 
 epicarpal cells, here and there in rosettes around hairs or 
 hair scars (Fig. 136) ; in the pulpy part of the fruit, very 
 many large latex cells, and spiral or reticulated vessels of 
 moderate size. The ' seeds,' which are really fruitlets, have 
 in the pericarp an outer layer of small stone cells, and an 
 inner stratum of much larger, very thick-walled stone cells. 
 
 ig. In the Date {Phcenix dactylifera, ord. Spadiciflom, fam. 
 Palmce) : the most notable features are the delicate tissues 
 constituting the silky layers of the endocarp, next to the 
 stone ; and, in the stone, the sclerenchyma cells of the 
 epidermis, with beaded parietes (Fig. 137, A), as well as 
 the greatly thickened porous walls of the endospermal cells 
 (Fig. 137, B). 
 
 Falsifications Detectable by the Microscope in Fruit Prepara- 
 tions. — Some have already been mentioned. Apple and other 
 cheap fruit-pulps are added to costlier preserves, such as 
 strawberry and raspberry jams: vegetable marrow, turnip, 
 rhubarb, beetroot, and carrot also are occasional adulterants ; 
 and agar agar has been employed as a stiffening agent in 
 fruit jellies. Starch is stated to have served the same useful 
 but perverted end. 
 
 Marmalade, in particular, is alleged often to be adulterated 
 with the pulp of apple, turnip, or vegetable marrow. These 
 the microscope easily discovers. Apple-jelly, of course, is 
 more difficult to find. Marmalade admixed with apple-pulp 
 or turnip is shown in Fig. 138. 
 
 \_For descriptions and figures of turnip, beetroot, vegetable 
 marrow, carrot, and rhubarb, see pp. 154-156.] 
 
 [Raspberry Jelly. 
 
r52 FRUIT PRESERVES AND JELLIES 
 
 Raspberry Jelly has been stated sometimes to consist of 
 cheaper fruit jelly, flavoured with orris rhizome, or ' root '; 
 and foreign seeds have intentionally been introduced into 
 imitation raspberry and other jams. The microscopic char- 
 acters of orris are depicted in Fig. 139. 
 
 As for the remaining fruit-substitutes of probable occurrence, 
 not previously figured in the present work, the structure of 
 
ORRIS RHIZOME 
 
 153 
 
 Fig. 139. — Orris ' Root.' 
 (The rhizome of Iris Germanica, I. pallida, and I, florentina.) 
 
 a, Epidermis; b, transverse section of rhizome, showing cells filled with 
 starch, long prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate, and a fibro-vascular bundle 
 cut across ; c, section of rootlet ; d, oxalate crystal ; e, starch granules, 
 [a, b, d, X 100 : d, x 200 : e, X500.] 
 
154 FRUIT PRESERVES AND JELLIES 
 
 \Readonfro7np. 152.] 
 
 turnip {Brassica Rapa, fam. Cniciferce) is shown in Figs. 140 
 and 141, p. 155 : that of beetroot'^ {Beta vtdgans, fam. Cheno- 
 podiacece) in Fig. 142, p. 156 : the more characteristic histo- 
 logical elements of the vegetable marrow {Cucurbita ovifera 
 succada, fam. Cucurbitacece) and carrot {Daucus carota, fam. 
 U mbelliferce) are represented in Figs. 143 and 144, p. 156 : 
 rhubarb {Rheum rhaponticuni, fam. Polygonacece) is seen in 
 Fig. 145. The detection of agar agar {Gracilaria lichenoides^ 
 et cetera) is based on the discovery of the diatoms which it 
 contains : the fruit jell}^ is boiled with 5 per cent, sulphuric 
 acid, subsequently treated with potassium permanganate, 
 and then examined. The microscopical characters of some 
 common diatoms are illustrated in many of the figures 
 in the last section (Section IV.) of this book, ' Water ' 
 {e.g., Figs. 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274 and 275). 
 
 1 Microscopically, beetroot is not easily distinguished from certain other 
 roots, such as chicory and dandelion. — See ante, p. 96, footnote. 
 
THE TURNIP 
 
 155 
 
 Fig. 140. Turnip: Epidermis (Cells somewhat more Regular in Form 
 
 THAN THE ' WINDOW-CELLS ' OF ApPLE-CDTICLE). X 180. 
 
 Fig. 141.— Turnip: Cells of the Parenchyma (much smaller than 
 
 THE corresponding CeLLS OF ApPLE-PULP). 
 
 Pitted vessels (not shown in the figure) are also present in the turnip, x c.ioo. 
 
156 FRUIT PRESERVES AND JELLIES 
 
 Fig. 142. — Beetroot. 
 
 Reticulated vessels with wide pores, and 
 parenchyma cells, x 150. 
 
 [E. G. Claytoi 
 
 Fig. 143.- Vegetable Marrow. 
 Large, loose parenchyma cells, 
 partly unwound spiral vessels, and 
 numerous small starch granules, 
 some truncated, x c. 150. 
 
 [E. G. Clayton.l 
 
 Fig. 144. — Carrot. 
 
 Fig. 145— Rhubarb 
 
 Reticulated vessels, with side junctions, Cylindrical cells of the leaf-stem orpetiole 
 wood fibre and parenchyma. x 150. showing spiral vessels, with raphides and 
 ^ -^ -^ sphffiraphides of oxalate of calcn 
 
 [E. G. Clayton.] 
 
 num. xc.ioo. 
 [E. G. Clayton.l 
 
PICKLES, SAUCES, AND PRESERVED 
 VEGETABLES. 
 
 Pickles, sweet and sour, and Preserved Vegetables 
 
 bottled or canned, frequently require a megascopical exam- 
 ination only : but when they are subdivided, or an opaque 
 liquor is present, the microscope is necessary. With 
 Sauces the case is somewhat different. The constituent 
 substances are nearly always in a state of fine division, 
 and of a multifarious nature. Microscopical research, with 
 usually a preliminary macroscopic scrutiny, can never be 
 omitted. Almost any of the fruits and vegetables already 
 mentioned, and many other ingredients, such as garlic 
 {Allium sativtim), onion {Alliiim cepa), shallot (Allitim ascalo- 
 nicum), soy {Dolichos soya), tarragon {Artemisia Dracimculus), 
 fennel {Foenictilum vidgare), and parsley (Petroselinum sativum), 
 may enter into the composition of a sauce. Tomato {Lycoper- 
 siciun esculentum, fam. Solanacecu), the structure of which is 
 shown in Fig. 146, p. 158, is a favourite component. In 
 sauces occur also many of the condiments and spices described 
 and figured in the next portion of the present work. Ingre- 
 dients in solution must for the most part be identified by 
 chemical methods : but even here the microscope can often 
 be applied with advantage to the examination of filtered and 
 evaporated extracts, for crystals and the like. 
 
 Fresh Vegetables. — Unless especial search must be made 
 for parasitic organisms, or their ova (See post, Section II., 
 pp. 238-250), the necessity seldom arises for a microscopical 
 investigation of esculent pot-herbs which usually are sold in 
 the fresh condition and in comparatively large bulk. Descrip- 
 tions of asparagus {Asparagus officinalis), spinach {Spinacia 
 oleracca), cauliflower {Brassica oleracea), cabbage {Brassica 
 olcvacca), seakale {Crambe maritima), and parsnip {Pastinaca 
 sativa), therefore are omitted ; also, for the same reason, 
 details are not given of the microscopic structures of certain 
 ingredients of salads, among them lettuce {Lactuca sativa), 
 celery {Apimn graveolens), endive {Cichoviiim endivia), radish 
 {Raphanus sativus), and water cress {Nasturtium officinale). In- 
 cidentally, however, the more striking histological features of a 
 few vegetables, such as beans and pease, potato, turnip, carrot, 
 rhubarb, etc., have been dealt with in the foregoing pages 
 
 157 
 
158 
 
 PICKLES, SAUCES, ETC. 
 
 Fig. 146. — Tomato. 
 
 A, Epicarp (of tomato-skin), x c. 180. B, section of seed, showing 
 
 tapering hairs on spermoderm ; epidermal cells ; and aleurone cells 
 
 of the endosperm, x 150, 
 
 [E. G. Clayton, del.. 
 
[Condiments and Spices. 
 
CONDIMENTS, SPICES, AND OTHER VEGE- 
 TABLE ADJUNCTS OF FOOD. 
 
 Ord. RHCEADIN^, Fam. CRUCIFER^. 
 
 MUSTARD. 
 
 The seed of Sinapis alba and Brassica nigra, ord. RhceadincB, 
 fam. Cruciferce, 
 
 Mustard seed consists of two parts : the husk and seed 
 proper. M 
 
 Histology of the Seed. — i. The Husk, Spermoderm, or 
 Seed Coat (of white mustard seed) is constituted of several 
 membranes, the outer of which (the mucilaginous epidermis) 
 is transparent, and consists of a single layer of large hexa- 
 gonal cells filled with stratified mucilage, the centre of each 
 cell being perforated by funnel-shaped tubes, which seem to 
 terminate on the surface of the seed (Fig. 147). Immersed 
 in water, these cells swell up to several times their original 
 volume, are ruptured, and become much wrinkled or cor- 
 rugated, the extremities of the tubes sometimes being seen 
 protruding from the proximate termination of the cells. 
 When white mustard seeds are digested in water, a thick 
 mucilaginous liquid is obtained, the mucilage in which is 
 derived from the cells forming the tissue above described. 
 Beneath the epidermal membrane are two layers of large 
 cells {collenchyma cells, the walls of which are characterized 
 by being thickened at the angles) : these, which are not 
 shown in the figures, are succeeded by the middle tunic, 
 consisting of a single layer of much smaller angular cells, 
 called ' palisade ' cells, from their appearance in side view 
 (Fig. 148, A : upper portion shows these cells in surface view). 
 In the walls of the palisade cells most of the yellow colour 
 of the husk is seated. The inner layers of the testa are 
 
 160 
 
MUSTARD i6i 
 
 composed of a colourless parenchyma resting upon the outer 
 membrane of the seed substance or aleurone layer, which is 
 shown in the lower half of Fig. 148, B ; also in Fig. 150, c. 
 
 [In the husk of black imistavd the large hexagonal trans- 
 parent mucilage cells are not perforated in the centre, like 
 those of white mustard, and have beneath them still larger 
 transparent cells : the other structures resemble those of 
 white mustard, except that the palisade cells are of unequal 
 lengths, the longest coinciding with the external ridges of 
 the seed, and are superposed on one or two layers of pig- 
 ment cells.] 
 
 2. The Seed proper has externally a single layer of large 
 polygonal cells, with fat globules and granular proteid matter 
 (the alcnrcnc layer, Figs. 148, B ,150, c), internally is bright 
 yellow, of a soft, waxy consistence, and is constituted of in- 
 numerable minute cells (the cotyledon cells, Figs. 149, a, a, 
 150, d), which contain the oil and other active principles, 
 aleurone, myrosin, etc. Fig. 149 also shows some of the 
 aleurone cells (h, h). There are no starch granules in ripe 
 mustard seed. 
 
 Extraneous Substances Detectable by the Microscope. — Wheat 
 liour, turmeric, Cayenne pepper, ginger, Sinapis arvensis, or 
 charlock, potato flour, ground rice, pea flour, radish and 
 rape seed, linseed meal, etc. 
 
 [For figures, see pp. 162, 163.] 
 
 IT 
 
l62 
 
 CONDIMENTS AND SPICES 
 
 Fig. 147. — White Mustard Seed. Outer Membrane of Hexagonal 
 Mucilage Cells, One shown in Section, x 220. 
 
 Fig, J48. — White Mustard Seed in Surface View. Middle, or Pali- 
 sade Layer of Husk, and Outer or Aleurone Layer of Seed 
 Substance, the former lying over a part of the latter, x 220. 
 A, Middle tunic of husk ; B, aleurone layer of seed. 
 
MUSTARD 
 
 163 
 
 Fig. 149. — White Mustard. Substance of the Seed, ground ; showing 
 Cotyledon Cells, a, a, Oil Globules, and Aleurone Cells with 
 Granular Matter, b, b. x 220. 
 
 Fig. ij;o. — Black Mustard. Surface View of the Principal 
 
 Structures, x 220. 
 
 a, Large mucilage cells ; b, palisade cells with ridges ; c, aleurone cells 
 
 d, cotyledon cells. 
 
 II 2 
 
164 
 
 ADULTERATED MUSTARD 
 
 ADULTERATED MUSTARD. 
 
 Fig. 151. — Mustard, ground, and mixed with wheaten 
 flour and turmeric [Curcuma longa, fam. Zingiberacece) : 
 a, a, wheaten flour ; b, b, turmeric ; c, husk of black mustard ; 
 d, cells of outer layer, w^hite mustard seed ; e, e, fragments of 
 the seed substance. ^ 
 
 Fig. 152. — Mustard, ground, and mixed with wheaten 
 flour, turmeric, and Cayenne pepper (Capsicum fnitescens, 
 fam. Solanacca;) : a, a, mustard : b, b, wheaten flour ; c, c, tur- 
 meric ; d, d, Cayenne pepper. 
 
 I 
 
r 
 
 ADULTERATED MUSTARD 
 
 165 
 
 Fig. 151. — Ground Mustard, admixed with 'Wheaten Flour and 
 
 Turmeric, x 225. 
 
 a, a, Wheaten flour ; b, b, turmeric ; c, husk of black mustard ; d, cells of outer 
 
 layer, white mustard husk ; e, e, fragments of the seed substance. 
 
 Fig. 152. — Ground Mustard, admixed with Wheaten Flour, Turmeric 
 
 AND Cayenne Pepper, x 225. 
 
 ci, a, Mustard ; b, b, wheaten flour ; c, c, turmeric ; d, d, Cayenne pepper. 
 
i66 SEEDS RESEMBLING MUSTARD 
 
 SEEDS RESEMBLING MUSTARD, OR WHICH 
 HAVE BEEN USED AS SUBSTITUTES. 
 
 Fig. 153. — Husk of a seed found in some imported rape 
 cake, from the consumption of which certain cattle died: 
 transverse and vertical sections. This is probably Sarepta 
 mustard (Brassica Besseriana), a species largely grown in 
 Russia. 
 
 Characters. — Nearest to those of Brassica nigra, but the 
 cells of the outer coat perforated by funnel-like tubes, and 
 of this and the palisade layer much larger. In the consider- 
 able size of the palisade cells, this seed somewhat resembles 
 rape, in the husk of which, however, there is no outer coat 
 of large colourless cells. 
 
 The figure shows particularly well, in sectional and surface 
 views : — a, a, the mucilage cells ; b, b, the palisade, paling, or 
 fence cells, with the surface reticulations ; and c, c, the 
 aleurone layer. 
 
 Fig. 154. — Charlock Seed, Sinapis arvensis ( = Brassica 
 sinapistrum) : Husk. 
 
 Characters. — In colour agrees with husk of black mustard ; 
 in structure nearer to white mustard husk, but cells of outer 
 or mucilaginous coat smaller and more delicate, though 
 similarly perforated : in addition, however, each is charac- 
 terized by numerous very delicate and minute reticulations. 
 Both the perforations and reticulations of the mucilage cells 
 are clearly indicated in the figure : also the fence cells, in 
 surface view, and the aleurone layer. 
 
 Fig. 155. — Common Rape Seed {Brassica napus, var. 
 oleifera) : Husk. 
 
 Characters. — Composed of two chief membranes, the outer, 
 somewhat like the middle or palisade layer of mustard husk, 
 but the cells are much larger, hence their cavities appear 
 more or less light, the walls being thick and well defined : 
 near the umbilicus of the seed the cells usually disposed in 
 
SEEDS RESEMBLING MUSTARD 167 
 
 a linear manner. There is no epidermal mucilage layer, and 
 reticulations or ridges are absent from the surface of the 
 husk. The sub-epidermal cells are indistinct. The inner 
 or aleurone layer, which properly belongs to the endosperm, 
 presents no peculiarity, and the substance of the seed is 
 similar to that of mustard. 
 
 Fig. 156. — Seed described as East Indian Rape, resem- 
 bling a species of mustard : probably Pasai, or Palangi 
 {Brassica rngosa). The seeds of this variety of rape are 
 reticulated, and of a dark brown colour.^ 
 
 1 See account of B. rugosa, in ' A Note on the Mustards cultivated in Bengal, ' 
 by D. Prain ; ' The Agricultural Ledger,' i8g8, No. i, pp. 11-13. 
 
 [For figures, sec pp. 168, i6g, and 170.] 
 
1 68 
 
 SEEDS RESEMBLING MUSTARD 
 
 Fig. 153. 
 
 -Husk of Seed, probably Brassica Besseriana, found 
 IN Imported Rape Cake, x 220. 
 
 Fig. 154. — Charlock Seed, x 220. 
 Showing in the upper part the mucilage cells with tubular cavities and 
 minute reticulations ; in the centre the palisade cells ; and beneath, the 
 aleurone layer. 
 
SEEDS RESEMBLING MUSTARD 
 
 i6g 
 
 Fig. 155. — Common Rape Seed, x 220 and 325. 
 
 Above, palisade and aleurone cells in surface view ; below, the former more 
 highly magnified. 
 
170 
 
 SEEDS RESEMBLING MUSTARD 
 
 Fig. 156. — Husk of Seed described as East Indian Rape, probably 
 Pasai, or Palangi (Brassica Rugosa). X 220. 
 
[Pepper. 
 
Ord. POLYGONIN/E, Fam. piperace^. 
 PEPPER. 
 
 The fruit oi Piper Nignini, ord. PolygonincE, fam. Pipcracece. 
 
 Histology of Berry. — The pepper berry or black peppercorn 
 consists of two parts : the cortex or outer layer (the pericarp), 
 and the central or inner portion (chiefly the perisperm). The 
 first is black or reddish-black ; the second more or less 
 white, also hard and brittle, except in the centre of the seed, 
 where it is often soft and pulverulent. 
 
 I. The cortex is composed of at least six separate series of 
 cells. Beneath an epicarp of polygonal cells disposed in a 
 single layer, and containing a brown or black substance, is 
 the hypoderm. This is composed of yellow-walled stone cells, 
 elongated, vertical, and provided with a central cavity, from 
 which minute canals or channels radiate towards the circum- 
 ference (Figs. T57, 158, a) : viewed sideways, they appear 
 rather more than twice as long as broad : seen endways, 
 they are mostly oval in shape, and nearly as broad as long. 
 Somewhat similar cells occur in the epidermis of the sugar- 
 cane {vide p. 129, Fig. 116). The cells next in order 
 (Fig. 158, b) are of moderate size, angular and somewhat 
 dark coloured ; they do not separate readily from, and are 
 probably mere modifications of, the larger cells immediately 
 beneath (Fig. 157, b), which form about half the thickness 
 of the cortex (the outer mesocarp). Excluding the epicarp, 
 these two strata of cells together constitute the second layer 
 of the cortical portion of the berry. They are all more or 
 less coloured, and the tint deepens as the cells approach the 
 next or third layer. The third stratum is very thin (the 
 fibro-vascular layer, Fig. 157, c), and is composed of wood 
 
 172 
 
PEPPER 173 
 
 fibre, with bundles of spiral vessels of small size, formed of 
 single threads. The junction of the second with the third 
 layer is marked by a dark line situated about the middle of 
 the cortex (Fig. 157, c). 
 
 The fourth layer consists of numerous large parenchymatous 
 cells containing a very great abundance of oil globules, and it 
 constitutes the greater part of the rest of the cortex (the 
 oil cells, Fig. 157, d, and Fig. 159). As the cells approach 
 the base of the cortex they become much modified, two or 
 three times smaller, and very thick-walled, but not equally 
 so on every side (Fig. 157, e, and top of Fig. 160). These 
 horseshoe-shaped cells, in fact, form a separate layer, and 
 constitute the innermost or endocarpal element of the 
 pericarp. 
 
 The next tissue belongs to the spermoderm, and is divisible 
 into two or three layers, the most conspicuous of which is 
 of a deep brownish-red colour (the pigment layer), denoted 
 in Fig. 157 by the sharp line of demarcation just below e. 
 This rests upon a colourless, reticulated, and transparent 
 lamina (the hyaline layer), which frequently separates as a 
 distinct tissue (Fig. 157, /), and may more accurately be 
 regarded as part of the perispervi. 
 
 2. The central or inner part of the berry (chiefly the peri- 
 sperm, but embracing also the endosperm and embryo) consists 
 of large, angular cells, about twice as long as broad, disposed 
 in a radiate manner : towards the exterior the cells are 
 adherent, starchless, hard, and stonelike {aletirone cells), but 
 in the centre they are readily separable, mostly contain 
 extremely minute starch granules, and often form a powder 
 resembling flour (Fig. 157, g, and Fig. 160). Certain of 
 these cells, rather larger and of more rounded outlines than 
 the rest, assume a yellowish or canary tint when immersed 
 in water for a short period : they are at tolerably regular 
 distances from each other, and reflect a deep yellow colour. 
 In recent sections which have not been immersed in water, 
 these cells may be distinguished by a darker shading, or 
 sometimes by a faint tint of colour. They contain the resin, 
 frequently also crystals of piperine, and exhibit characteristic 
 
174 CONDIMENTS AND SPICES 
 
 changes of tint under the influence of reagents, such as 
 alcohol, nitric acid, and sulphuric acid. These coloured 
 cells are clearly indicated in Figs. 157 and 160. 
 
 In ground black pepper all the described structures may be 
 met with in a broken and fragmentary condition (Fig. 161) : 
 but in white or ' decorticated ' pepper, only the central part 
 cf the berry, with portions of the oil-bearing stratum of the 
 pericarp and pigment layer of the spermoderm, are present. 
 White pepper, indeed, is not entirely denuded of the cortex, 
 nor is its powder white, for some reddish-brown fragments 
 of these two layers are usually visible when some of the 
 crushed pepper is diffused through water on a glass slip. 
 
 Preliminary bleaching with chlorine water is, as a rule, 
 necessary before the sttucture of the dark fragments in black 
 pepper can be made out with the microscope. The large 
 white cells of the central part of the pepper-berry (the 
 perispenn) have a strong external resemblance to grains of 
 sand, but when touched with iodine solution they become 
 blue. 
 
 Extraneous Substances Detectable by the Microscope. — Sand, 
 linseed meal (see pp. 178, 179, Fig. 162), mustard husk, 
 wood fibre, pepper-dust (sweepings), wheat, pea (see p. 178), 
 and other flours, 'poivrette' (crushed olive-stones), an undue 
 proportion of pepper-husk (in black pepper), etc. 
 
 [For figures, see i)p, 175, 176, 177 and (linseed), 179.] 
 
PEPPER 
 
 ^7b 
 
 
 ^4 
 
 Fig. 157. — Pepper-Berry (Section), x 80. 
 a, Layer ofFstone cells, with epicarp above ; b, cells of the outer mesocarp ; 
 c, fibro-vascufar zone ; d, c, oil cells, with horseshoe cells and pigment layer 
 at base ; /, hyaline tissue ; g, aleurone, starch, and resin cells. 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 15S. — Pepper-Berry. Part of Cortex viewed on Surface x 120. 
 Above, stone cells {a) ; below, cells of outer mesocarp {b). 
 
1/6 
 
 CONDIMENTS AND SPICES 
 
 Fig. 159. — Cortex OF Pepper-Berry. Portion of Oil-bearing Layer of 
 Cells, showing the Oil contained in the Cavities, x 120. 
 
 Fig. i6o. — Pepper-Berry. Central or Inner Portion, showing the 
 Two Kinds of Cells, Colourless Starch Cells and Coloured 
 Resin Cells ; also the Junction with the Cortex, with the Horse- 
 shoe Cells, and Pigment Layer beneath them, x 120. 
 
PEPPER 
 
 177 
 
 Fig. 161. — Black Pepper, ground; showing Stone Cells, Starch and 
 Resin Cells. Oil-bearing Layers. Starch, etc. 
 
 12 
 
lyS ADULTERANTS OF PEPPER 
 
 Ord. GRUINALES, Fam. LINAGES. 
 
 LINSEED. 
 
 Fig. 162. — Linseed, the seed of the flax plant [Liimm 
 usitatissimum, ord. Grumales, fam. Linacece), has occasionally 
 been used as an adulterant of pepper. 
 
 Linseed consists of husk and an inner part or kernel. 
 
 Histology of Seed. — i. The husk, testa, spermodertn, or 
 shell, is composed of four layers or coats : the outer coat, 
 or epidermisj gives lustre to the seed, and is made up of a 
 single stratum of large, colourless, hexagonal cells (the muci- 
 lage cells), which yield the mucilage characteristic of linseed. 
 The second coat consists of a single layer of thick-walled, 
 round cells, enclosing granular matter. The third membrane 
 (fibre ceils and cross cells) is composed of narrow, elongated 
 cells, or rather fibres — some longitudinal, others transverse : 
 these impart a striated and very distinctive appearance to 
 the membrane, which, being firm and strong, forms the 
 protecting tunic of the seed. The fourth membrane (the 
 pigment layer), often separating with the kernel, is con- 
 stituted of angular cells, many of which are more or less square, 
 enclosing masses of colouring matter, probably resinous, 
 which readily fall out of the cells, as shown in the figure. 
 
 2. The inner part, kernel, or substance of the seed (in- 
 cluding a thin endosperm, two cotyledons, and the embryo), 
 consists of thin-walled parenchymatous cells, containing oil 
 globules and aleurone grains, but little or no starch. The 
 oil is contained principally in the outer or more superficial 
 cells. All these structures can be detected in linseed meal 
 or powder, the parts most clearly seen being fragments of 
 the fibrous layer, and little masses of the seed substance, 
 from the edges of which portions of the walls of the trans- 
 parent cells radiate characteristically (Fig. 162). 
 
 The microscopical appearance of pea flour, mentioned 
 among the adulterants of pepper, is very similar to that of 
 bean flour, already described and figured (p. 88, Fig. 74). 
 
LINSEED 
 
 179 
 
 Fig. 162. — Linseed. Section of Husk, and Sectional Plan, 
 
 a, a. Mucilage cells; b,b, round cells; c,c, longitudinal and transverse 
 fibre cells ; d, pigment layer ; and d', detached fragments of pigment ; 
 e, cotyledon cells of the seed substance, with oil globules and granular matter. 
 
 T2 2 
 
Ord. PERSONAT/E, Fam. SOLANACE^. 
 
 CAYENNE PEPPER. 
 
 The fruit of Capsicum frutescens. Other species are C. annuum 
 and C. ininiiiiuin, or fastigiatum. 
 
 Histology of Fruit. — The capsicum berry or pod is made 
 up of two principal parts : the pericarp, including an outer 
 epidermis, with parenchyma tissue within ; and the seeds. 
 
 1. The epicarp, or outermost portion of the pericarp 
 (Figs. 163, a, and 164), consists of flattened cells, angular and 
 tortuous in form. Viewed on the outer or upper surface, the 
 cells are often four-sided, with well-defined borders ; and the 
 walls are thick, beaded here and there, the beading of one 
 cell corresponding to that of contiguous cells, while the lines 
 of junction are sometimes faintly indicated. Parenchymatous 
 mesocarpal cells, with fibro-vascular bundles, and numerous 
 oil globules (Figs. 163, 6, and 166, a), follow. The cells of 
 the inner layer, or endocarp (Figs. 163, c, and 165), appear less 
 angular, but more tortuous: the walls of many are thicker and 
 much more beaded. Many orange-red coloured oil globules 
 are seen when the epidermis is immersed in water: some 
 remain embedded in the cell cavities, most float freely 
 in the surrounding water. The parenchyma tissue, which 
 unites the seeds with each other, and the whole with the 
 epidermis and peduncle, is constituted of rounded or oval 
 cells with thin parietes, containing a very large quantity of 
 oil in the form of innumerable globules, many of considerable 
 size (Fig. 166, h, and 167). 
 
 2. The seeds have two portions to be described ; {a) the 
 covering, or speruioderni, and (b) the inner substance, or 
 
 180 
 
CAYENNE PEPPER i8i 
 
 endosperm : — (a) The covering is thick, and of a bright yellow 
 colour. Under the microscope, its outer surface exhibits a 
 cellular texture, the margins of the cells being thick and 
 extremely tortuous, and the cavities dark and depressed, 
 appearing as if they were rather apertures than the hollow 
 interiors of cells. Vertical sections of this covering display 
 toothlike processes, with intervals between, the tapering and 
 divided summits of the ' teeth ' ending in two or more spines 
 attached to the thin membrane forming the external coating 
 of the seed. The processes consist of the thickened walls of 
 contiguous sclerenchymatous cells : that this is so, is evident 
 from an examination of the upper of the two sketches on the 
 left of the figure (Fig. i68, a). These cells, beneath which 
 are several layers of parenchyma, are best developed at the 
 extremity of the seed. (6) The substance of the seed consists 
 of minute angular cells, with thick and colourless parietes : 
 their cavities are filled with oil-globules of various sizes and 
 aleurone grains, but do not contain starch (Fig. i68, c). 
 
 Extraneous Substances Detectable by the Microscope. — Mustard 
 husk, rice, turmeric, etc. 
 
 [For figures, see pp. 182, 183, 184, 185, and 186.] 
 
l82 
 
 COXDIMEXTS AXD SPICES 
 
 Fig. 163. — Pericarp of Capsicum Fruit, x 200. 
 
 Outer surface, with oil drops (epicarp) ; b, mesocarpal cells, with oil globules; 
 c, cells of inner surface (endocarp). 
 
 
 Fig. 164.— Epicarp of Capsicum Fruit, under a lower power, and in 
 LESS detail. X 100. 
 
CA YENNE PEPPER 
 
 183 
 
 Fig. 165. — Pericarp of Capsicum Fruit, x 100. 
 Another portion of the endocarp. 
 
 mi' 
 
 Fig. 166. — Capsicum Fruit, x 200. 
 a, Parenchyma of mesocarp [cells in this situation traversed by spiral 
 vessels and wood fibre (fibro-vascular bundles)]; b parenchyma surrounding 
 the seeds (thin-walled cells, containing much oil). 
 
i84 CONDIMEXTS AXD SPICES 
 
 Fig. 167. — Capsicum Fruit. Transverse Section ov the Cortical 
 Portion of the Pod. x 100. 
 
 Above, cells of epicarp ; centre, parenchyma, with oil globules and granular 
 contents ; below, peduncle^ or stalk. 
 
CAYENNE PEPPER 
 
 185 
 
 Fig. 168,— Seed of Capsicum Fruit, Vertical Section, x 100. 
 
 Showing the sclerenchymatous cells of the testa, with tooth-like processes, 
 a; also these cells in surface view, a', with parenchyma cells beneath (left of 
 the figure), b; and the small angular cells of the seed substance, c. 
 
i86 
 
 ADULTERATED CAYENNE PEPPER 
 
 Fig. 169. — Cayenne Pepper, x 225. 
 
 Admixed with : — a, a, red lead ; b, b, ground nee ; and c, c, turmeric : d, d, epi- 
 dermis and seed of capsicum infested with the hyphae and spores of a fungus, 
 to the attacks of which damaged cayenne is subject. 
 
I 
 
 [Ginger. 
 
Ord. SCITAMINE^, Fam. zingiberace.^. 
 
 GINGER. 
 
 The branched rhizome, or underground stem, of Zingiber 
 officinale, ord. Scitaminecs, fam. Zingiber acea:. 
 
 Histology, — I. When the rhizome is unscraped/ there is 
 an epidermis consisting of several layers of large, angular, 
 transparent, brownish cells, firmly adherent to one another, 
 forming a distinct membrane, and when macerated in water 
 becoming soft and somewhat gelatinous. Immediately 
 beneath this membrane are some layers of smaller cells, 
 associated with yellow oil globules of various sizes, as well 
 as a few large oleo-resin cells, of a deep yellow colour, closely 
 resembling in structure and tint those of turmeric. Crystals 
 are sometimes observed lying underneath the epidermis. 
 Fig. 170. 
 
 2. The substance of the rhizome is a parenchyma composed 
 of cells having delicate transparent walls minutely punctated, 
 and adhering together so as to form a connected tissue. 
 The cells contain numerous starch granules, many of which, 
 as the cell walls are easily broken, are seen in most sections 
 to have become effused. Lying here and there in the midst 
 of the above-described cells are other cells of nearly similar 
 size and form, but of a bright yellow colour, and indis- 
 tinguishable from the coloured cells of turmeric. To these 
 cells ginger owes its tint, which varies with their number. 
 Bundles of bast fibres, accompanying, sometimes one, but 
 
 ^ Much of the ginger of commerce is decorticated : but scraping or cutting 
 off the surface of the rhizome exerts comparatively Httle influence on the 
 chemical composition of the product. — Vide paper ' On some Analyses of 
 Ginger' (E. G. Clayton), Analyst (1899), xxiv., pp. 122-126. 
 
GINGER 189 
 
 occasionally two or even more reticulated vessels, traverse 
 the rhizome in a longitudinal direction. Fig. 171. 
 
 3. The elongated and flattened starch grannies somewhat 
 resemble those of East India arrowroot (Curcuma angustifolia), 
 but are smaller and less elongated ; also the excentric hilum 
 and ring markings are more obscure. Figs. 171 and 172. 
 
 Extraneous Substances Detectable by the Microscope. — Sago, 
 tapioca, potato, wheat, rice, cayenne, turmeric, mustard, 
 husk, etc. 
 
 [The addition of i^'heat flour is difficult to detect ; hence 
 the structural peculiarities of both the starches should be 
 carefully studied and compared. Turmeric can only be 
 concluded to have been added when the number of large 
 yellow cells is much greater than in genuine ground ginger.] 
 
 [For figures, see pp. igo, igi, and 192.] 
 
igo 
 
 COXDIMENTS AND SPICES 
 
 
 Fig. 170. — Epidermis of Ginger Rhizome, x 100. 
 
 a, a, Cells and oil globules ; b, b, turmeric-like cells ; f, c, crystals 
 
 frequently observed beneath the epidermis. 
 
 Fig. 171. — Substance of Ginger Rhizome, x 200. 
 
 a, a. Parenchyma cells containing the starch ; b, b, starch granules 
 
 c, r, turmeric-like cells ; d, d, bast fibres ; e, reticulated vessel. 
 
GINGER, PURE AXD ADULTERATED 191 
 
 Fig. 172.— Pure Ginger, Ground, x 200. 
 d,ii, Cells containing the starch; b,b, loose starch granules; c, c, turmeric- 
 like cells ; d, d, wood fibre. 
 
 Fig. 173. — Ground Ginger admlxed with Sago Starch, x 200. 
 
 ii. a. Ginger cells ; b, b, ginger starch ; c, c, turmeric-like cells ; d, d, wood 
 
 fibres ; e, e, sago starch. 
 
192 
 
 CONDIMENTS AND SPICES 
 
 Fig. 174. — Ground Ginger mixed with Potato and Sago Starches. 
 
 X 200. 
 
 d, a, Ginger cells ; b, b, ginger starch ; c, turmeric-like cell ; d, wood fibre 
 
 c, e, potato starch ; /, /, sago starch altered by heat. 
 
 Fig. 175.— Ground Ginger mixed with Cayenne and Tapioca. 
 a, a, Ginger ; b, b, cayenne ; c, c, tapioca. 
 
[Cinna:mon and Cassia. 
 
 ^3 
 
Ord. POLYCARPIC^., Fam. LAURACE/F:. 
 
 CINNAMON AND CASSIA. 
 
 Barks of Cinnamomnm Zeylanicum and C. cassia, respective!}'. 
 Histology. — The scraped, or partly scraped, bark is 
 brownish-red, scarcely thicker than drawing-paper, and 
 breaks with an uneven and fibrous margin. Each stick 
 consists of eight or more pieces or quills of bark, inserted 
 one within the other (Fig. 178, ^4, a). A longitudinal section, 
 carried through the thickness of the bark, shows on its 
 external surface numerous ' stellate ' cells (stone cells, with 
 very thick walls and radiating pores), readily separable from 
 each other, disposed in several layers, and forming a con- 
 siderable part of the thickness of the bark. The}' are 
 situated in the intervals between the bast fibres, and are of 
 an oval form, having the long axes placed usually transversely 
 to the bark, their breadth being greater than their depth. 
 However they are viewed, both the central cavities and the 
 rays proceeding from them are visible. Exceptionally, a 
 few starch granules may be seen imprisoned in the cavities. 
 Proceeding inwards, the stone cells are succeeded by 
 parenchyma cells, distinguished by the absence of rays, by 
 the thinness of the walls, and by the firmness with which 
 they adhere to each other; they generally contain a few 
 starch granules. These cells, which form several series, 
 complete the thickness of the bark. Interspersed between 
 both kinds of cells are numerous bast fibres, pointed at each 
 extremity, and furnished with a central canal or Innicn : 
 these impart the fibrous character to cinnamon, particularly 
 observable in fractures of the bark. The starch granules of 
 cinnamon are small, more or less globular, and furnished 
 
 194 
 
CINNAMON AND CASSIA 195 
 
 with a very distinct hilum, having the appearance of a 
 central depression: they usually occur singly, but are some- 
 times united in pairs or fours. Lastly, lying in the cavities 
 of the most external of the second order of cells are often 
 to be seen granular masses of oleoresin of a deep reddish- 
 brown colour (Fig. 176). Other features of cinnamon are 
 mucilage cells and calcium oxalate crystals. 
 
 In ground cinnamon most of the above structures occur, 
 disunited and broken (Fig. 177). 
 
 Structure of Cassia. — Cassia bark is stouter than cinna- 
 mon bark, being often as thick as a shilling (Fig. 178, B, b) : 
 it is also paler and browner, and has a less delicate and 
 pleasant taste. Under the microscope, sections bear a close 
 general resemblance to those of cinnamon, but differ in their 
 greater width and the relative proportions of the several 
 structures, especially in the size and number of the starch 
 granules (Fig. 179). On the outer surface, as in cinnamon, 
 are stoiie cells, the cavities of which, how^ever, are filled with 
 well-developed starch granules much more commonly than 
 are the corresponding cells of cinnamon. Next to these 
 are the starch-bearing parenchyma cells, quite filled with 
 starch granules, which, while of the same general form as 
 those of cinnamon, are, as a rule, two or three times larger, 
 as well as many times more numerous. The bast fibres occur, 
 as in cinnamon, interspersed between both kinds of cells 
 (Fig. 179). 
 
 Of the entire thickness of the bark, about one-lburth is 
 formed by the stone cells, the remaining three-fourths con- 
 sisting of the starch-bearing cells. In ground cassia, there- 
 fore, the stone cells and wood fibre are less abundant, 
 while usually the starch granules are larger and more 
 numerous than in powdered cinnamon (Fig. 180). 
 
 Extraneous Substances Detectable by the Microscope in Ground 
 Cinnamon and Cassia. — Various baked starches, wheat, potato, 
 sago, etc. 
 
 [For figures, sec pp. 196, 197, 198, and 199.] 
 
 13—2 
 
ig6 
 
 CONDIMENTS AND SPICES 
 c 
 
 Fig. 176. — Cinnamon: Longitudinal Radial Section, x 140. 
 
 a, a Stone cells; b,b, wood or bast fibres; c,c. starch-bearing parenchyma 
 
 d, d, starch granules ; e, e, reddish-brown granular oleoresinous masses. 
 
 Fig, 177. — Ground Cinnamon, x 220. 
 a, a, Stone cells ; b, b, bast fibres; c, c, starch granules. 
 
CINNAMON AND CASSIA 
 
 197 
 
 Fig. 178. — Cinnamon and Cassia Sticks (natural size). 
 
 A , Stick of cinnamon, showing the thinness of the bark and the manner in 
 which the layers are enclosed one within the other ; a, cross-section of the 
 same, exhibiting more completely the number of layers and their disposition. 
 B, Stick of cassia; and b, cross-section of the same, showing corresponding 
 features. 
 
igS 
 
 CONDIMENTS AND SPICES 
 
 
 ^/ 
 
 5t« 
 
 :5 
 
 '>C 
 
 Fig. 179. — Cassia: Longitudinal Radial Section, x 140. 
 
 a, a, and d, d. Starch -bearing parenchyma ; 6, b, stone cells ; c, c, wood fibres 
 e, e, starch granules ; /,/, coloured granular oleoresinous masses. 
 
GROUND CASSIA 
 
 199 
 
 W^^ 
 
 c\© 
 
 
 Fig. iSo. — Ground Cassia, x 220. 
 
 <f, rt, Stone cells ; b,b, bast fibres ; c, c, starch-bearing cells ; d, d, starch 
 
 granules ; e, e, coloured granular masses. 
 
Ord. POLYCARPIC/E, Fam. myristicace^. 
 
 NUTMEG. 
 
 The seed of Myristica fmgrans, ord. PolycarpiccB, fam. 
 MyvisticacecE, deprived of the seed mantle or arillus (mace), 
 and of the hard shell or sperinoderni, beneath the mantle. 
 
 Histology of the Decorticated Seed. — The white or 
 uncoloiired portion is the endosperm, and consists of minute 
 angular cells, which, previously to the action of water upon 
 them, present an opalescent appearance from the quantity 
 of oil enclosed : the cavities contain aleurone grains and 
 crystals, also numerous small but distinct starch granules, 
 mostly rounded, though sometimes angular, often in triplets, 
 and all having well-marked central depressions. The coloured 
 veinlike portion of the nut is part of the perisperm, and is 
 composed of cells destitute of starch, containing little oil, 
 but charged with much brown pigmentary matter (Fig. i8i). 
 
 Additions and Suhstitittes Detectable by the Microscope. — 
 Artificial or factitious nutmegs, linseed, grain, etc. 
 
NUTMEG 
 
 201 
 
 Fig. i8i. — Nutmeg (Section), x 220. 
 
 a, a, Starch-bearing cells of the endosperm; b, b, the starch granules; 
 c, starchless coloured cells constituting one of the veins formed by the folds 
 of the perisperm ; d, some loose starch granules ( x 420). 
 
202 CONDIMENTS AND SPICES 
 
 MACE. 
 
 The seed mantle, or arillus, of the seed of Myristica fragnins. 
 
 Histology of Mace. — Covering the surface of the blades 
 is a membrane, or epidermis, consisting of a single layer of 
 greatly elongated, very thick-walled, tubular cells, which 
 taper at either end to a point, and resemble in size and 
 form, although not in delicacy of texture, ordinary wood 
 fibre. The long diameters of the cells are disposed vertically 
 on the surface of the mace. But the chief substance is 
 made up of a parenchyma of cells differing in size and form 
 from those already noticed, and containing fixed oil, with 
 much amylodextrin starch — a substance turned reddish-brown 
 by solution of iodine. Imbedded in the midst of these cells 
 are larger spaces or receptacles (the large oil cells), which in 
 thin sections, whether transverse or longitudinal, appear as 
 apertures. These contain the essential oil of mace. Here 
 and there may be perceived, both in longitudinal and trans- 
 verse sections, small bundles of brownish wood fibre, 
 enclosing one or two spiral vessels. In transverse sections 
 the ordinary cells are seen arranged around the bundles in 
 a radiate manner. Fig. 182. 
 
 Sophistication. — Admixture with, or substitution of, Bombay 
 or other inferior mace. 
 
MACE 
 
 203 
 
 Fig. 182. — Mace (Transverse Section), x 220. 
 
 a, a, Large oil cells; many appearing in the section as apertures, and repre- 
 sented as such in the figure ; b, b, the same, exhibiting the appearance of 
 closed cells, from the circumstance of their not being cut into : the colouring 
 matter of mace is located chiefly in these cells or receptacles ; c, c, large 
 air bubbles usually observed in sections immersed in water ; d, d, cells filled 
 with amylodextrin starch granules ; e, some of these granules loose ( x 420) ; 
 /, /, cells of the epidermis. 
 
Ord. MYRTIFLOR/E, Fam. MYRTACE^. 
 
 CLOVES. 
 
 The unexpanded flower-buds of Eugenia caryophyllata = 
 Caryophylhis aroinaticus, ord. MyrtiflorcB, fam. Myrtacece. 
 
 Histology. — The structure of the clove is extremely 
 characteristic. The rounded head or hud consists of four 
 unexpanded petals, and in transverse section is seen to be 
 composed of parenchymatous cellular tissue, in the midst 
 of which are numerous oil cavities, or receptacles for the 
 essential oil : these extend through the whole thickness of 
 the petals, being usually three or four deep, and somewhat 
 smaller near to the inner surface of the leaf. When the 
 petal is viewed on the surface, the oil receptacles are seen 
 indistinctly, being obscured by the epidermal cellular tissue, 
 which, both on the outer and inner surfaces, consists of small, 
 clearly defined polygonal cells (Fig. 183). 
 
 In a thin transverse section of the calyx-tube or flower- 
 stalk, many large holes are observed in the outer third of the 
 section : these are the oil receptacles, which have been cut 
 through by the razor or knife, in the preparation of the 
 specimen : next to these, passing inwards, are fibro-vascular 
 bundles, with spiral vessels and bast fibres, embedded in 
 parenchymatous tissue, and forming a narrow circle in the 
 interior of the stalk : then come numerous tubular cells with 
 large spaces between them, and extending nearly to the 
 centre of the stalk. The receptacles, tubular cells, and 
 intercellular spaces contain essential oil, visible in sections 
 immersed in water, in the form of innumerable droplets 
 (Fig. 184). Longitudinal sections exhibit a nearly similar 
 
 204 
 
CLOVES 205 
 
 structural arrangement (Fig. 185). Cloves contain scarcely 
 any starch. 
 
 Clove footstalks present a structure somewhat similar to 
 that of cloves themselves — that is, they consist of paren- 
 chymatous cellular tissue, hollowed out here and there into 
 receptacles for essential oil, and traversed by fibro-vascular 
 bundles, including scalariform vessels ; but in addition there 
 are small granules of starch, and in the cortical region 
 many ' stellate ' or stone cells, distinguished by thick walls 
 penetrated by radial pores. 
 
 Sophistication Detectable in Powdered Cloves by the Micro- 
 scope. — Admixture with ground clove footstalks, foreign 
 vegetable matters, etc. [The presence of the first-named 
 can be discovered by means of the porous stone cells.] 
 
 [For figures, see pp. 206, 207, and 20S.] 
 
206 
 
 CONDIMENTS AND SPICES 
 
 Fig. 1S3. — Petal of Clove Bud. x 60. 
 
 A, Transverse section, showing oil receptacles; B, surface, showing the 
 receptacles indistinctly. 
 
CLOVES 
 
 207 
 
 r:^^ 
 
 Fig. iS^. — Calyx Tube or Flower-Stalk of Clove (Transverse Section). 
 
 X 60. 
 
 a, a, Oil receptacles, appearing as apertures, the section being thin ; 
 b, b, cellular tissues surrounding the fibro-vascular bundles ; c, c, bundles of 
 wood fibre ; d, tubular cells and intercellular spaces forming the internal 
 portion of the stalk ; e, centre of stalk, appearing dark under the microscope ; 
 /, /, oil droplets. 
 
208 
 
 COXDIMENTS AND SPICES 
 
 ' r^*^ 
 
 Fig. 185. — Calyx Tcbe or Flower Stalk of Clove (Longitudinal 
 Section), x 60. 
 
 a, a, Oil receptacles, appearing as apertures, the section being thin ; b, cellu- 
 lar tissue ; c, wood fibre ; d, tubular cells and interspaces forming the 
 internal part of the stalk ; e, dark central portion ; /,/, oil globules. 
 
[Pimento or Allspice. 
 14 
 
210 CONDIMENTS AND SPICES 
 
 PIMENTO OR ALLSPICE. 
 
 The fruit or berry of Pimenta officinalis or Etigenia pimenta, 
 ord. MyrtiflorcB, fam. Myrtacece. 
 
 Histology of the Fruit. — The pimento berry is divisible 
 into the pericarp, or outer husk, and the contained seeds or 
 seed. The pericarp is thick, and when dried soft and brittle : 
 it sends off from its inner surface a prolongation which 
 forms a septum, and divides the interior into two parts or 
 cavities. Vertical sections of the outer husk or pericarp, 
 viewed under the microscope, present the following structures : 
 Beneath the epicarp of small thick- walled cells are seen, 
 in the outer mesocarp, several large receptacles for the 
 essential oil (the oil cavities), sometimes two or three deep : 
 next to these are numerous stone cells attached to and 
 imbedded in the parenchymatous cellular tissue of the inner 
 mesocarp : then come bundles of wood fibre and delicate 
 spiral vessels ; and the deepest or innermost part of the 
 section consists of numerous lavers of flattened cells 
 (Fig. i86). 
 
 Occupying each of the cavities formed by the pericarp is 
 one of the small chocolate-coloured seeds. After maceration 
 two principal membranes (together constituting the spermo- 
 derm or testa) are separable, though with some difficulty, 
 from the surface of the seed. The outer membrane or 
 epidermis is thin and delicate, consisting of a single layer 
 of elongated and angular cells. The inner membrane is 
 composed of several layers of large, corrugated, and coloured 
 cells : to these is due the dark colour of the surface of the 
 seed, and they exhibit a characteristic port-wine tint when 
 viewed with the microscope (Fig. 187). A third, or lining 
 membrane, not very distinctive, is sometimes described. 
 
 The structure of the seed, as seen in vertical sections, is as 
 follows : Running round the outer part of the section, beneath 
 a stratum of coloured epidermal cells, is a single layer of 
 large oil receptacles resembling those of the pericarp; and the 
 
PIMENTO OR ALLSPICE 211 
 
 remaining thickness is made up of angular, transparent cells, 
 filled with numerous well-defined starch granules (Fig. 188), 
 somewhat like the starch of nutmeg. 
 
 Ground pimento berries show all the foregoing structures, 
 broken up and variously intermixed. The port-wine coloured 
 cells are particularly conspicuous, and afford a character by 
 which the nature of the powder may be at once determined 
 (Fig. 189). 
 
 Extraneous Substances Detectable by the Microscope. — Mustard 
 husk, etc. 
 
 For figures, see pp. 212, 213, 214, and 215.] 
 
 14—2 
 
212 
 
 CONDIMENTS AND SPICES 
 
 Fig. i86. — Husk, or Pericarp, of Pimento Fruit (Vertical Section). 
 
 X 220. 
 
 a, Cells or receptacles for the essential oil ; b, b, stone cells ; c, c, paren- 
 chymatous cellular tissue surrounding the stone cells ; d, d, wood fibres and 
 spiral vessels ; e, e, layers of flattened cells forming the innermost part of 
 the section. 
 
PIMENTO OR ALLSPICE 
 
 2r3 
 
 
 ■ mi- 
 
 Fig. 187. — Seed of Pimento Fruit: Membranes of the Spekmoderm, 
 OR Testa, in Surface View, x 220. 
 
 a, a. External membrane, or epidermis, consisting of a single layer of 
 elongated and angular cells ; b, b, internal membrane, made up of large, 
 port-wine coloured cells. 
 
214 
 
 CONDIMENTS AND SPICES 
 
 Fig. i88. — Seed of Pimento Fruit (Vertical Section), x 220. 
 
 In the upper part of the figure, two of the oil receptacles : in the lower 
 part, a. a, the cells containing the starch granules ; b, b, loose starch granules 
 ( X 420). 
 
PIMENTO OR ALLSPICE 
 
 215 
 
 Fig. i8y. — Ground Pimento or Allspice, x 220. 
 
 (/, a. Outer husk or pericarp ; b, b, stone cells ; c, c, external membrane, or 
 epidermis, of the seed-coat or testa ; d, d, port- wine coloured cells, forming 
 second membrane of seed ; e, e, cells of the seed, containing starch ^^ranules ; 
 /, /, loose starch granules. 
 
2i6 CONDIMENTS AND SPICES 
 
 MIXED SPICE. 
 
 Structure. — Mixed spice, being usually an admixture, in 
 different proportions, of ground ginger, pimento or allspice, 
 and cassia or cinnamon, sometimes with powdered cloves, 
 mace, or nutmeg, exhibits under the microscope the charac- 
 teristic features of these spices, as shown in Fig. igo. 
 
 Extraneous Substances Detectable by the Microscope. — Wheat 
 flour, potato farina, etc. 
 
MIXED SPICE 
 
 217 
 
 Fig. 190. — Mixed Spice, x 220. 
 
 a, a, Wood fibre of ginger ; a', cells of ginger which contain the starch ; 
 a", a", starch granules of ginger ; b, outer husk of pimento ; b', b', stone cells of 
 pimento ; b" , husk of the seed proper of pimento ; b'", b'", port-wine coloured 
 cells of pimento ; b"", starch-bearing cells ; b'"", b'"", starch granules of 
 pimento ; c, c, starch granules and fragments oi cinnamon , 
 
Ord. UMBELLIFLOR.il, Fam. UMBELLL 
 FERyE. 
 
 CORIANDER. 
 
 The fruit of Coriandrum sativum, ord. Umhdliflorcs, fam. 
 UmhellifevcB. 
 
 Histology. — Fruit or seed-vessel, light brown, globular, and 
 about twice the size of white mustard seed. The fruit 
 consists of two hemispherical portions termed carpels or 
 mericarps, each of which encloses a seed, and exhibits on its 
 outer surface five primary ridges, depressed and wavy, to- 
 gether with four secondary ridges, more prominent and 
 straight. The dorsal sides are without vittcf^, or receptacles 
 for the essential oil : but near the commissures in each 
 mericarp there is a small vitta, so that each fruit is provided 
 with four oil-ducts. 
 
 Pericarp or husk, thick and brittle : under the microscope, 
 its most characteristic membrane is seen to consist of narrow, 
 sclerenchymatous fibres, crossing each other, and disposed 
 in a waved manner (Fig. igi). Loose cellular, mesocarpal 
 tissue follows, the cavities of the cells being empty. On the 
 removal of the husk, these cells are torn through, some 
 remaining attached to it, and the rest to the surface of ttie 
 seed. Beneath the loose cells is a delicate fibrous membrane, 
 the endocarp, succeeded by a layer of deeply-coloured cells 
 (the cells of the spermoderm), which merge into the cells 
 forming the endosperm, or substance of the seed : these are 
 angular, with well-fined parietes, their cavities enclosing 
 aleurone grains and oil globules. The mature seed does not 
 contain starch. 
 
CORIANDER 
 
 2ig 
 
 Fig. lyi. — Coriander (Transverse Section of Carpel), x 220. 
 
 d, Sclerenchymatous fibres of the husk ; b, b, loose cells beneath ; c, c, layer 
 of deeply-coloured cells (the spermoderm) ; d, d. cells of the endosperm. 
 
Ord. SCITAMINE/E, Fam. ZINGIBERACEyE. 
 
 CARDAMOM. 
 
 The fruit of Elettana cavdamomum, ord. ScitaminecB, fam. 
 Zingiheracece. 
 
 Histology. — Seed-vessels or pods, triangular, and consist 
 of three valves, tapering at each extrernity to a blunt point. 
 The membrane, or pericarp, forming them is thick, tough, and 
 fibrous : it is made up of cellular tissue and bundles of 
 wood fibre, which spread out from the flower-stalk and on 
 the surface of the pod are visible to the naked eye, imparting 
 the striated appearance characteristic of the seed-vessel of 
 cardamom. From its interior the seed-vessel sends off three 
 septa or prolongations, dividing it into many compartments, 
 each containing several hard, reddish-brown seeds, exhibiting 
 peculiar markings on the surface. The seeds are enveloped 
 and united together by a gelatinous parenchymatous mem- 
 brane, or arillus, consisting of numerous delicate tubules, 
 filled with granular and oily matter. 
 
 The covering of the seed, or spermoderm, viewed under the 
 microscope on its surface, is observed to have externally a 
 single layer of coloured cells, much elongated and of uniform 
 diameter, terminating in rounded extremities, and accurately 
 adapted to each other (Fig. 192, A). Beneath these are 
 other cells (cross cells), generally resembling those just 
 described, but differing in being more irregular, much more 
 delicate, and in the absence of colour : they are disposed in 
 an opposite direction to those of the outer layer. In trans- 
 verse sections, the elongated coloured cells appear as small 
 channels, of a rounded form, the cross cells as a thin band 
 just beneath. Below the cross cells is a single row of large 
 
222 CONDIMENTS AND SPICES 
 
 oil receptacles. Next is a layer of palisade cells, very thick 
 walled and deeply coloured. These are succeeded by the 
 cells constituting the perisperm, or principal part of the 
 substance of the seed, which in the outer stratum contain 
 aleurone grains, but for the rest are very angular, and resemble 
 closely the cells of pepper. They differ, however, in their 
 more delicate and transparent appearance, and in being 
 minutely dotted (Fig. 192, B). These cells are completely 
 filled with minute, distinctly-formed starch granules, very 
 much like those of rice. 
 
CARDAMOM 
 
 223 
 
 Fig. 192. — Cardamom : Elongated Coloured Cells of Spermoderm or 
 Seed-covering, and Transverse Section of Seed, x 220. 
 
 A, Portion of outer membrane, showing coloured cells on its su'-face, 
 B, transverse section of seed; a, a, cells forming outer membrane; b, b, oil 
 receptacles ; c, layer of deeply coloured fence, or palisade cells : d, d, trans- 
 parent and minutely-dotted cells, making up the substance of the seed, and 
 filled with starch granules. 
 
Ord. LEGUMINOS^, Fam. papilionace^. 
 
 FENUGREEK SEED. 
 
 The seed of Trigonella Fcenum-Grcscmn, ord. Legiimmosce, 
 fam. PapilionacecB. 
 
 Histology. — H^isk of seed, spevmodevm, or testa consists of 
 three membranes, the outer formed of a single layer of 
 curious paling, fence, or palisade cells, resembling from 
 certain points of view short-necked bottles. The long 
 diameter of these cells is disposed vertically, the narrow, 
 neck -like part extending into an external mucilaginous 
 stratum, situated at the surface of the seed -coat. The 
 second membrane consists of a single layer of cells, two or 
 three times larger than the former, very much flattened, and 
 with regularly and beautifully crenate margins. The third 
 and innermost membrane is made up of flattened parenchyma 
 cells. The endosperm, which constitutes more than a third of 
 the bulk of the seed, is mainly composed of large transparent 
 mucilage cells, which expand enormously when immersed 
 in water (Fig. 193). An aleurone layer is outside the 
 mucilage membrane. 
 
 The cotyledons are covered by two epidermal layers of 
 small angular cells, beneath which are several tiers of rounded 
 and polygonal cells with usually three layers of elongated 
 or paling cells, the long axes being placed transversely in 
 each lobe, and numerous aleurone grains being present. 
 Fenugreek seed contains no starch. 
 
 224 
 
FENUGREEK SEED 
 
 225 
 
 Fig. 193. — Fenugreek Seed: Testa, Spermoderm, or Outer Coat. 
 
 X 220. 
 
 A, Portion of the outer and second membrane stripped off; a, a, paling, or 
 bottle-like cells ; b,b, crenated cells ; B. transverse section through husk, and 
 endosperm beneath ; c, c, palinsr or bottle-like cells ; d, position of crenated 
 cells ; e, e. layer of coloured cells (the aleurone layer) merging into /,/, the 
 large transparent mucilage cells. 
 
 15 
 
226 
 
 CONDIMENTS AND SPICES 
 
 Fig. 194. — Fenugreek Seed: Transverse Section of Cotyledon or Lobe. 
 
 X 220. 
 
 a, a, Small angular cells on surface ; b, b, rounded and polygonal cells ; 
 c, c, elongated or palisade cells ; d, d, single row of cells forming inner 
 epidermis of lobe. 
 
[Cumin or Cummin. 
 
Ord. UMBELLIFLOR/E, Fam. UMBELLI- 
 FER/E. 
 
 CUMIN OR CUMMIN. 
 
 The fruit of Ctuniiinin cymiiuun, ord. Umhclliflorce, fam. 
 Unihdliferce. 
 
 Histology. — The fruit resembles that of the caraway, but 
 is larger, straighter, of a lighter colour, and possessed of a 
 characteristic odour and taste. Fruit double, like that of 
 coriander and other umbelliferae, consisting of two carpels or 
 mericarps. Each mericarp has h\e primary filiform ridges 
 and four prominent secondary ridges : both furnished with 
 very fine hairs or prickles, and under each secondary ridge 
 is a receptacle, vitta, or oil-duct. Transverse sections of 
 cumin show the following characters : the hairs or prickles 
 are composed of cells, the long diameters of which are 
 arranged in the long axes of the hairs. The pericarp, or 
 outer covering of the fruit, consists of numerous rounded 
 or angular cells, in the midst of which the large triangular 
 vittae are situated ; and within the pericarp there is usually 
 a small space, which is formed by the contraction of the 
 seed after it has arrived at maturity. Superficially, the 
 kernel is of a pale-brown colour : mternally, it is whitish 
 and translucent. The exterior (the spermoderm or seed- coat) 
 is constituted of elongated and flattened brownish cells, while 
 the interior and chief substance of the seed (the endosperm) 
 is made up of numerous distinct angular cells with thick and 
 perfectly transparent walls : the contents consist principally 
 of aleurone grains, calcium oxalate crystals, and oil. The 
 seeds do not contain starch (Fig. 195). 
 
 228 
 
CUMIN OR CUMMIN 
 
 22g 
 
 Fig. 195, — Cumin : Transverse Section of Mericarp. x 220. 
 
 a, a, Cells' forming the outer husk or pericarp; b, b, beginnings nf two 
 hairs or prickles: r, oil-duct or vitta ; d. d. elongated cells composing inner- 
 most layer of husk ; e, c, cells and fibres forming the spermoderm or external 
 surface of seed ; /,/, cells of the endosperm or interior substance of the seed, 
 containing aleurone grains, oil, etc. 
 
SECTION II. 
 
 FOODS DERIVED FROM ANIMAL SOURCES. 
 
FLESH. 
 
 The flesh of meat consists in great part of the voluntary 
 muscles, which have been controlled by the will and con- 
 cerned in the movements of the oxen, sheep, and other 
 animals killed and eaten by man. The distinctive micro- 
 scopical feature of this variety of muscle is the cross-striated 
 or striped appearance of the cylindrical fibres, which are 
 about 5-^oth inch in diameter and sometimes upwards of an 
 inch long. Each fibre is encased in a sheath of elastic 
 substance, the sarcolenuna, and is composed of a number of 
 parallel contractile fibrils, across all of which run alternate 
 dark and light bands or striations. Oval nuclei also are 
 visible, under or adherent to the sarcolemma (Fig. 196). 
 
 The involuntary muscles, present in the walls of hollow 
 organs, such as the intestines, stomach, bladder, and trachea, 
 are composed of flat, elongated, fusiform cells, each made up 
 of unstriped fibrils and possessed of an elliptiical nucleus, 
 exhibiting intra-nuclear network, with usually nucleoli. This 
 kind of m.uscular fibre is described as plain, non-striated, or 
 smooth (Fig. 197, A and B). 
 
 The hollow viscera are mostly excluded from the better 
 classes of animal food : the involuntary muscles are therefore 
 of less moment than striped muscle, or at all events should 
 be far seldomer met with b}^ the food-microscopist. Never- 
 theless, when examining sausages (especially such as are of 
 exotic origin), cheap brawns, flesh pastes, and other minced 
 or comminuted preparations of meat, packed in cans, jars, or 
 otherwise, he will do well to let his ' sense of mystery ' be 
 ever present. He should have read his Upton Sinclair, and 
 be doubly careful. 
 
 Cardiac muscle-fibres are striated, but less distinctly and 
 
 233 
 
234 FOODS DERIVED FROM ANIMAL SOURCES 
 
 regularly than the fibres of voluntary muscle. They differ 
 in outward form from both species of muscle-fibre previously 
 described, being quadrangular cells, usually with a side 
 branch near one end, by which, as well as by the ends, they 
 are attached to adjacent cells. Large central nuclei are 
 present (Fig. 197, C). 
 
 Microscopically, to distinguish one sort of flesh from 
 another, as horse from beef, cat from sucking pig, or rat 
 from rabbit, unfortunately at present is scarcely possible. 
 
 A megascopic investigation of flesh is quite as important 
 as the microscopical examination, but an account of it is 
 be3^ond the province of the present volume. 
 
 Extraneous Matters Detectable by the Microscope. — Flesh- 
 parasites (described in the next sub-section) : tubercle : 
 crystals of salt, nitre, and other mineral adjuncts used for 
 preservative purposes : also bread and other vegetable 
 additions, such as starch, bran, spices, and je ne sais quoi, in 
 sausage-meat, or the like. The ingenious fabricator of the 
 inexpensive sausage is sometimes a past-master in the craft 
 of making the worse appear the better product. A skilful 
 tiser of antiseptics and dyestuffs, superadded to the judicious 
 compounding of a maximum of old bread with a minimum of 
 indefinable animal-flesh, enables him to produce marketable 
 and, to appearance, inoifensive delicatessen. He is, in fact, a 
 synthetic chemist. But all sausage-makers are not so clever ; 
 and this is as well. 
 
 [For figures, sec pp. 235, 236.] 
 
FLESH 
 
 235 
 
 Fig. 196. — Voluntary Muscle 
 
 [E. G. Clayton.] 
 
236 FOODS DERIVED FROM ANIMAL SOURCES 
 
 Fig. 197. — Involuntary Muscle, 
 
 -J" A, Longitudinal section of non-striated muscular tissue from intestine. 
 showing (a, a) ' cell-bridges ' crossing the interstices and connecting the fibres ; 
 and {b,b) the nuclei, x c. 300. 
 
 [E. G. C, (fe/., after Schafer, and Szj-monowicz. ] 
 
 B, Three isolated unstriped muscle-fibre cells, more highly magnified, 
 showing longitudinal fibrillation : no cross-stripes such as are seen in volun- 
 tary muscle. [E. G. C] 
 
 C, Cardiac muscle-fibre cells, showing quadrangular forms, branches, and 
 nuclei, xc. 400. [E. G. C.] 
 
[Animal Parasites which Infest Flesh. 
 
238 FOODS DERIVED FROM ANIMAL SOURCES 
 
 ANIMAL PARASITES WHICH INFEST FLESH. 
 
 Animals (not excepting man) are the prey of innumerable 
 external and internal parasites (cpizoa and cniozoa), A 
 large measure of scientific truth was wittily conveyed by the 
 late Professor Augustus de Morgan, when, imitating and 
 improving upon Jonathan Swift, he wrote : 
 
 ' Great fleas have little fleas upon their backs to bite 'em, 
 And little fleas have lesser fleas, and so ad infinitum. 
 And the great fleas themselves, in turn, have greater fleas to go on ; 
 While these again have greater still, and greater still, and so on. '^ 
 
 The original form of this aphorism, composed 130 years 
 
 before by the Dean of St. Patrick's, is worth quoting. Clearly 
 
 the Very Reverend satirist was scientifically inspired at the 
 
 time : 
 
 ' So, naturalists observe, a flea 
 Has smaller fleas that on him prey ; 
 And these have smaller still to bite 'em, 
 And so proceed ad infinitum.''^ 
 
 As the inner portions of beasts in general are alone used 
 for the food of man, so it is the internal parasites only with 
 which we are now concerned. And the present work deals not 
 with bacteria, pathogenic or other : therefore, any detailed 
 consideration of the microscopic flora to which tuberculosis, 
 anthrax, pleuro-pneumonia, glanders, and other microbic 
 diseases are due, although these distempers present some of 
 the most serious problems confronting the student of dietetics, 
 must be omitted from this book. But the effects of entozoa, 
 which are mostly intestinal worms, belonging to the sub- 
 kingdom Vermes, may be sufficiently serious. For a long 
 
 ^ ' A Budget of Paradoxes ' (' Are Atoms Worlds ?' 1863), 1871. 
 - 'On Poetry: A Rhapsody,' 1733. 
 
ANIMAL PARASITES 239 
 
 period these organisims were believed to be of small import- 
 ance, if not innocuous. It is now realized that this was an 
 erroneous view. Rudolf Leuckart in 1886 pointed out that 
 ' worms by their movements frequently cause disturbance, 
 and often very serious disturbance, in the intestinal and 
 other viscera. They excite irritation, which in delicate 
 lining-membranes naturally leads to catarrhal and inflam- 
 matory states proportionate in intensity to the number and 
 activity of the parasites.'^ 
 
 It is at the present time recognized that so-called malarial 
 diseases arise from the punctures caused by mosquitoes, flies, 
 rat-borne fleas, and other external pests. Similarly, wounds 
 of the intestine, caused by worms, can give rise to grave 
 bodily conditions. H'y^- Mechnikov considers that many 
 cases of appendicitis are traceable to inoculation of microbes 
 through injuries to the walls of the bowels caused by 
 intestinal worms. He has called attention to the numerous 
 cases of this serious disease, in which Nematoda, or round 
 worms, in particular Oxyures, Trichocephali, and Ascarides, 
 are discovered in the inflamed appendix. He remarks : 
 
 ' The bites of intestinal worms may cause just as m.uch 
 evil as the pricks of Arthropoda carrying pathogenic 
 microbes. . . . These parasites injure the walls of the 
 bowels and there inoculate microbes, causing an inflammatory 
 reaction. The number of appendicitis cases in which entozoa, 
 especially Nematodes, are found would appear to be consider- 
 able, so far as one can judge from the literature upon this 
 subject.'^ One of the instances quoted was that of a boy 
 brought to the Pasteur Institute. The illness ended fatally. 
 In the ulcerated mucous membrane of the vermiform 
 appendix was discovered an Oxyuris, ' surrounded by a zone 
 of inflammation, in which was recognized a quantity of white 
 blood-cells and a certain number of large Gram-positive 
 bacilli.' The worm had ''penetrated into the appendix, 
 attacked the mucous membrane, and there inoculated a 
 microbe which produced a fatal affection. The role of the 
 
 1 Rudolf Leuckart, ' The Parasites of Man,' translated by W. E. Hoyle, i8S6. 
 - Harben lecture, 'The Hygiene of the Alimentary Canal,' 1906. 
 
240 FOODS DERIVED FROM ANIMAL SOURCES 
 
 parasite was, therefore, quite similar to that of a flea which 
 inoculates the plague bacillus to man, and thus causes his 
 death. '1 
 
 Mechnikov, after mentioning Dr. Guiard's belief that 
 intestinal worms may not only inoculate the microbes of 
 appendicitis, but be capable also of transferring typhoid 
 bacilli to the mucous membrane, and so cause enteric fever, 
 proceeds : 
 
 ' The whole of these data . . . indicate that it is high 
 time to undertake a campaign against the entozoa, which 
 would have to be conducted on similar lines to the war now 
 waged against the mosquitoes and other microbe-carrying 
 Arthropoda. The difference would be that measures directed 
 against the intestinal worms are far more easily carried out 
 in practice.'-^ He is very emphatic as to the advisability of 
 taking no raw food : especially such as may introduce 
 ova or parasites into the alimentary and intestinal canals. 
 Water and milk must be boiled. Flesh, eggs, and fish are to 
 be thoroughly cooked. Vegetables, salads, and even fruits, 
 should be boiled, or at least scalded : this applies in a special 
 degree to radishes and strawberries. The last named, and 
 cherries, which are often pecked at by birds, are among the 
 most likely fruits to convey ova, infectious germs, and 
 parasites. ' It is as a rule wiser to eat fruits, so far as pos- 
 sible, in the form of jams or compotes."^ But it has already 
 been shown that jams, in these competitive days, are some- 
 times made from very questionable materials and amid 
 repulsive surroundings. Fortunately the temperature is high 
 at which the chief operations are conducted : there rests the 
 hope of safety. 
 
 The following are some of the more important parasites of 
 flesh: 
 
 Cysticercus cellulosae most often infests the flesh of swine, 
 rendering the muscles flabby, soft, and pale, and producing 
 the appearance described as ' measly.' The small round or 
 
 1 Harben lecture, 'The Hygiene of the Alimentary Canal,' 1906. 
 
 2 Ibid. 
 
 '^ Loc. cit. 
 
ANIMAL PARASITES 
 
 241 
 
 Fig. 198. — Cysticercus cellulos.^. 
 
 A, Encapsulated Cysticercus, or 'bladder- worm,' in muscle-fibre (x6); B, 
 bladder- worm, with head withdrawn (xi2).; C, the same, with head 
 extended (x 12). 
 
 [Faith Clayton, del.] 
 
 Fig. 199. — T^NiA solium. 
 
 The common tape-worm. Cephalic and cervical portion, showing circlet of 
 hooks ( X 30). (After Rudolf Leuckart.) 
 
 [E. G. C, del. I 
 
 16 
 
242 
 
 ANIMAL PARASITES 
 
 Fig, 200. — T.^NiA saginata, Goze [ = T. mediocanellata, Kuchenmeister). 
 
 A cystic tape-worm without a circlet of hooks (R. Leuckart). Cephahc 
 portion showing suckers, x c. 50. 
 
 IE. G. C, t/c/., after L. Landois.l 
 
 Fig. 201. — T.q^NiA echinococcus. x c. 12. 
 
 The hydatid-forming tape-worm. 
 
 [Faith Clayton, efe/., after R. ].euckart.) 
 
ANIMAL PARASITES 
 
 ^43 
 
 Fig. 202. — Trichina spiralis, x c. 100, 
 Worm encysted in muscle. 
 
 [Faith Clayton, (/c-/.\ 
 
 ^^ Be 
 
 Fig. 203— a and B, Oxvuris vermicularis. The maw-worm or thread-worm. 
 
 A, Male ; B, female (natural size, and greatly magnified). 
 
 C, DisTOMUM HEPATicuM. The liver-fluke. Natural size. 
 
 [E. G. C, after R, Leucknri.] 
 16 2 
 
244 
 
 ANIMAL PARASITES 
 
 Fig. 204. — Trichocephalus dispar. 
 
 The whip-worm. The anterior portion of the parasite is shown embedded in 
 the intestinal membrane of the host. Greatly magnified. 
 
 [E. G Clayton, after R. Leuckart.J 
 
 Fig. 205. — AscARis lumbricoides. 
 The parasitic round-worm. Natural size. 
 
 [E. G. Clayton.] 
 
ANIMAL PARASITES 
 
 245 
 
 Fig. 206. — Ova of some Internal Parasites, x c. 500. 
 
 a , b, Oxyiiris vermiadaris, freshly laid ; c, Oxyuris vermicniaris, with developed 
 embryo ; d, Ascaris liimbricoidcs, fresh from dejecta ; e, Ascaris lumbricoidcs, after 
 exposure to the atmosphere; /, Trichoccphahis dispar, fresh from dejecta; 
 g, Trichoccphahis dispar, after long exposure. 
 
 [E. G. Clayton, del., after Leuckart.] 
 
246 ANIMAL PARASITES 
 
 oval cysts, which may attain the size of a pea, are easily 
 visible, embedded in the muscular tissue (Fig. 198). 
 
 Taenia solium. — The consumption of such meat gives rise 
 in man to the common tape-worm, Tcenia solium, the cephalic 
 portion of which is shown in Fig. igg. 
 
 Cysticercus bovis is an allied organism, occurring in beef, 
 more commonly abroad than in Britain. It develops into 
 another species of tape-worm, — 
 
 Taenia saginata ( = T. dcntata, = T. mediocanellata) . — The 
 head of this parasite is represented in Fig. 200. 
 
 Taenia echinococcus.— The hydatid-forming tape- worm. 
 This organism affects cattle and sheep. The fully developed 
 worm is eaten b}^ the dog, whose distribution of the ova, and 
 close association with man and cattle, have been known to 
 give rise in the latter to hydatids (Fig. 201). 
 
 Trichina spiralis also infests the flesh of the pig, producing 
 the serious and sometimes fatal disease known as trichinosis, 
 which fortunately is comparatively rare in this country. 
 Fig. 202 shows an encysted worm embedded in muscle. 
 
 Oxyuris vermicularis. — The maw-worm or thread-worm : 
 one of the commonest nematode parasites. It is only 
 necessary that the ova, which exhibit already a partially 
 developed embryo, be swallowed. When in the stomach the 
 shells dissolve, and the larvae, tadpole-shaped in the egg at 
 an early stage, under favourable conditions of temperature 
 and humidity soon become characteristically vermiform. 
 The male and female of Oxyuris vermicularis are shown in 
 Fig. 203, A, B ; and in Fig. 206 are several representations 
 of ova of this parasite. 
 
 Distomum hepaticum. — The liver-fluke (a Trematode 
 parasite).^ This is a flat organism, from a quarter to three- 
 quarters of an inch in length,"^ finding its habitat mostly in 
 the liver of the sheep. The ova are much larger than those of 
 the creatures last described, or of the two following parasites. 
 Fig. 203 includes a representation of Distomum hepaticum. 
 
 ^ For a fuller account of this and other internal parasites, see 'Die Parasiten 
 des Menschen und die von Ihnen Herrijhrenden Krankheiten,' R. Leuckart, 
 continued by G. Brandes, 1886-1901. 
 
 " Occasionally of a still more considerable size. 
 
ANIMAL PARASITES 247 
 
 Trichocephalus dispar = Ascaris trichiura, Linn. — The 
 whip-worm. The anterior part of this organism is slender, 
 resembles a whip-lash, and becomes imbedded in the 
 mucous membrane of the intestine of the host (Fig. 204). 
 T. S. Cobbold quotes an earlier observer, Bellingham, as 
 having found the parasite in eighty-one out of ninety 
 autopsies. The ova of Trichocephalus have at the ex- 
 tremities perforations provided with albuminous plugs : the 
 characters are indicated in Fig. 206, /, g, 
 
 Ascaris lumbricoides. — The parasitic round-worm (Ger., 
 Spulvi'iLvin) (Fig. 205). An organism which, because of its 
 similar appearance, is sometimes confused with the earth- 
 worm, to which it is not related. The ova of Ascans are 
 thick-walled, and enclosed in an albuminous envelope, coloured 
 with bile-pigment (Fig. 206, d, c). The worm varies in length 
 from half an inch or less, when immature, to four inches 
 or more, when full grown. Swine are particularly liable to 
 become infested with this parasite, by swallowing polluted 
 water containing the eggs. It follows that for dietetic and 
 most other household purposes water from wells near pig- 
 sties should be most carefully avoided. 
 
 Man and his domestic pets are hostsof Jsc^m lumbricoides 
 and its congeners. Some years ago, the present writer 
 found a specimen, an inch long, of an allied organism, 
 Ascaris mystnx, in the viscera of a cat, submitted to him for 
 analysis. The animal was suspected to have been poisoned, 
 but a laborious and minute analysis revealed no definite toxic 
 substance. It is probable that the worm had originated a 
 lesion in the intestinal wall, so facilitating the entrance into 
 the body-cavity of putrefactive microbes, and indirectly 
 causing Malkin's death. Mention already has been made 
 of Mechnikov's views concerning the maleficent functions 
 exercised in man by intestinal worms ; and this case, which 
 came under the author's personal observation, would seem to 
 be an illustration of the same influence in a domesticated 
 animal. 
 
 This brief review of an unpleasant, but highly important 
 subject may fittingly end with some warnings regarding the 
 
248 FOODS DERIVED FROM ANIMAL SOURCES 
 
 use of raw foods. Whether from animal or vegetable sources, 
 these should be minutely inspected before they are eaten. 
 The imperative necessity of taking this precaution should be 
 impressed upon every person engaged in the preparation of 
 food for the table ; and instruction should be conveyed in 
 simple means of recognizing the presence of parasites, or 
 their ova. Mechnikov, we have seen, is even of the opinion 
 that food in an uncooked condition should be avoided alto- 
 gether. It has been stated on a previous page that certain 
 fruits and vegetables are especially unsafe. Water-cress, 
 celery, salads, etc., should be cleansed with the utmost care. 
 Drinking water should be clean and pure. Dirty or organi- 
 cally contaminated water is not infrequently the medium of 
 infection.^ Flesh-foods, in which on the whole there is the 
 greater risk of parasitic contamination, should be kept 
 apart from other kinds of food, such as vegetables, cereals, 
 bread, and the like. Domestic animals, especially dogs — for 
 they are the most likely of the class to be infested with 
 internal parasites — ought to be banished from rooms in which 
 food is stored, prepared, and consumed. Their own food 
 should be cooked, and must not consist of raw, or semi-raw 
 viscera and offal of diseased or slaughtered beasts. At least 
 as much care should be bestowed upon the feeding and hous- 
 ing of the animals which we design to kill and eat. Lastly, 
 our pets must be fondled and caressed as little as possible. 
 
 For some decades much has been written on public 
 hygiene ; but in certain matters we seem not to be much 
 more enlightened than were our forefathers in the thirteenth 
 century. Writing before the year 1292, Roger Bacon, 
 philosopher and Franciscan friar, laid the greatest stress on 
 the need that creatures to be used for human food should be 
 properly kept and cleanly fed. The passages are too long to 
 quote in their entirety : but the following excerpts from a 
 tract by Bacon might yesterday have been committed to 
 paper by a twentieth-century sanitary expert : 
 
 '....: multii eft fi bona fuerit illoru viventiu paftmatio, 
 sicut in pifcibus, & reliquis animalibus. . . ., & ideo 
 meliorem generant cibum, que melius nutriuntur. Et non 
 1 7/^^ Section IV., 'Water.' 
 
ANIMAL PARASITES 249 
 
 folum paftus eft considerandus, fed locus in quo nutriuntur : 
 fie vidimus pifces in aqua f^culenta & turpi degentes, qui fua 
 natura bonum cibum generare folebant, tamen malum 
 pepererunt : & e contra.' — ' It is of great moment that the 
 Feeding 1 of these living Creatures be good, as in Fish and 
 the rest of Animals. . . ., and therefore these breed better 
 food, which are themselves better fed. And not only their Food 
 is to be considered, but the Place wherein they are brought 
 up. So we have seen Fish living in a muddy and foul Water, 
 which of their own Nature use to breed good Food, have 
 notwithstanding produced very bad ; and on the contrary.'"' 
 
 It cannot too emphatically be urged, in these careless, 
 competitive, hasty, and avaricious days, that on the quality 
 of the national food largely depends the future of the race. 
 No pains should be spared to ensure the purity and 
 wholesomeness of one of the prime factors of existence. 
 
 . ' I go not your way, ye despisers of the body ! Ye are 
 no bridges for me to the superman ! . . . More uprightly 
 and purely speaketh the healthy body, perfect and square- 
 built ; and it speaketh of the meaning of the earth. '^ 
 
 A Recruiting Return,^ supplied early in the present year 
 (igoS), in reply to a question in the House of Commons, 
 showed that one-half of the young men offering them- 
 selves were unfit for military service. In view of the dis- 
 graceful facts which of late years have come to light, 
 concerning the nature, origin, and preparation of the foods — 
 especially the flesh-foods — mostly, but by no means ex- 
 clusively consumed by the working-classes, the inference is 
 irresistible that bad food, much of it doubtless derived from 
 diseased animals, was at least in part responsible for so grave 
 
 1 The word in the Latin edition consulted (1590) is /'fls//;m2'/o = digging or 
 trenching the ground of a vineyard. The sixteenth century copyist probably 
 incorrectly expanded an abbreviation in the original MS. The writer 
 ventures to suggest that the word used by Bacon was /rts/Zo^ grazing, pastur- 
 ing, feeding. And it is noteworthy that Browne thus rendered it into English. 
 
 - ' Libellus De retardandis Senectutis accidentibus & de Sensibus con- 
 servandis, ' by Roger Bacon [i2i4(?)-i294]. Published at Oxford in 1590; 
 translation by Richard Browne, 1683. Chap. vii. 
 
 ^ F. Nietzche. 
 
 •* This Return, for the details of which the author is indebted to Colonel 
 Sir E. W. D. Ward, K.C.B., K.C.V.O., Secretary of the War Office, and 
 
250 FOODS DERIVED FROM ANIMAL SOURCES 
 
 a state of affairs. I have tried herein to show that while 
 caution is pre-eminently needed with regard to flesh-floods, 
 in which the risks to be run are perhaps more numerous and 
 varied, not much less care is wanted on the part of him whose 
 staple fare is vegetable — if he dare, that is, to eat it raw. 
 
 Permanent Under-Secretary of State for War, gave the numbers of men who 
 offered themselves for enlistment into the Regular Army, in the ten large 
 towns named below, during the twelve months ended September 30, 1907, and 
 the numbers of such men who were rejected for physical reasons. Here are 
 the figures : 
 
 Town. 
 
 Offered for Enlist- 
 
 Rejected fcr Physical 
 
 Percentage of 
 
 ment, 
 
 Reasons. 
 
 Rejections. 
 
 London 
 
 20.975 
 
 8,806 
 
 42 
 
 Birmingham 
 
 1,858 
 
 1,084 
 
 58 
 
 Manchester 
 
 2,523 
 
 1,821 
 
 72 
 
 Sheffield 
 
 1,031 
 
 363 
 
 35 
 
 Leeds 
 
 791 
 
 452 . 
 
 57 
 
 Newcastle 
 
 1,493 
 
 1,046 
 
 70 
 
 Sunderland 
 
 776 
 
 282 
 
 36 
 
 Glasgow 
 
 2.905 
 
 1,135 
 
 39 
 
 Dundee 
 
 956 
 
 680 
 
 71 
 
 Edinburgh 
 
 1,500 
 
 62S 
 
 41 
 
 [Average for the ten towns, 52 'i per cent. — E. G- C] 
 
 The numbers for the United Kingdom, rejected for physical reasons during 
 the twelve months above named, and the previous twelve months, were : 
 
 
 Offered for Enlist- Rejected for Physical 
 nient. Reasons. 
 
 Percentage of 
 Rejections. 
 
 1906 
 
 1907 
 
 107,668 56,509 
 89,893 i 40,258 
 
 52-48 
 4478 
 
 It should be added that the author is informed by Colonel Ward that for 
 this last year (ended September 30, 1908), the recruiting department has 
 eliminated from its returns the numbers of men who were rejected by 
 recruiters, and thus never actually submitted to a medical examination. 
 ' This change has been made, as it was not considered that the figures given 
 by recruiters were thoroughly reliable, and as it was impossible to check them.' 
 
 The numbers of men rejected out of those submitted to a medical examina- 
 tion are no doubt considerably smaller (30'09 per cent., for the United 
 Kingdom, for the year ended September 30, 1907): but after making every 
 allowance, the above figures are very startling. 
 
 If even recruiting officers — a class of men who are not, as a rule, deficient 
 in zeal — are obliged to reject applicants without venturing to send them on 
 to the medical officer, the physical condition of the poor fellows who apply 
 must be bad indeed. 
 
 [For figures, see pp. 241, 242, 243, 244, and 245.] 
 
FISH 251 
 
 FISH. 
 
 Many of the concluding remarks in the preceding sub-section 
 apply to fish. Equally with flesh and fowl, fish are victims 
 to attack by parasites. All adult fish are apt to harbour 
 entozoa and other organisms. In some regions near the 
 Baltic Sea, and in French Switzerland, the prevalence of 
 Bothriocephalus latics is due to the consumption of fresh-water 
 fish (pike), which there contain the larvae of this noisome 
 cestode worm. Mackerel are infested by fourteen species of 
 parasites, twelve internal, and two w^hich attach themselves 
 to the gills. ^ A high temperature destroys the parasites and 
 ova : hence, thorough cooking of fish is highly desirable. 
 
 The value of the microscope, in searching for, and identi- 
 fying encapsulated and other parasitic organisms, has been 
 already indicated. 
 
 In fresh fish, fish preserved in oil, and to a smaller extent 
 in imperfectly salt-cured fish, various species of bacteria and 
 allied micro-organisms, some extremely deleterious, are 
 prone to develop. In 1893, Du Bois de Saint Sevrin 
 observed on the fish exposed in a factory where sardines 
 were prepared for the market, a copious growth of chromo- 
 genic micrococci, and in some of the tins numerous very 
 minute cocci, which were shown by his experiments to be 
 associated with the occurrence of an outbreak of whitlows 
 among the w^orkers.- It has been suggested by Sir Jonathan 
 Hutchinson ■■ that leprosy is caused by eating fish in a state 
 of incipient decomposition : fish, that is to say, specifically 
 
 1 T. S. Cobbold, lecture, ' Parasites of Meat and Prepared Flesh Food,' 
 18S4. 
 
 - A. Villiers et E. Collin, ' Traite des Alterations et Falsifications des 
 Substances Alimentaires,' 1900, pp. 53S-539. 
 
 '^ 'On Leprosy and Fish-Eating," J. Hutchinson, F.R.S., F.R.C.b., 1906. 
 
252 FOODS DERIVED FROM ANIMAL SOURCES 
 
 tainted, and badly cured, or not cured at all. He has 
 accumulated a number of striking arguments in support of 
 his hypothesis. 
 
 Though alluded to in this place, the bacterial contamina- 
 tion of fish, the possible infection of oysters and other 
 molluscs by typhoid germs, and the occasional development 
 of toxic substances in mussels, and similar articles of food, 
 are subjects which cannot adequately be discussed in the 
 present work. 
 
 Many ingredients w^hich have never been near a river or 
 the sea are used in the compounding of fish-pastes, potted 
 fish, and the like. This is said to be the case, also, with the 
 eel-pies obtainable at many of the humbler restaurants in 
 Paris. Some fish-pastes are composed chiefly of a basis of 
 fat bacon, associated with flour or bread, and a flavouring of 
 bloater, shrimp, etc. In fact, ' it's the seasonin' as does it.'^ 
 In the detection of the components of such mixtures, which 
 have generally been finely minced or reduced to a pulp, the 
 microscope is, of course, exceedingly useful. 
 
 A curious phenomenon is observed in very intimate 
 admixtures of fish-oils, such as cod-liver oil, with liquid 
 extract of malt, of which the index of refraction is near to 
 that of the oils. Under the microscope, these mixtures 
 appear quite homogeneous, not exhibiting a trace of the 
 presence of oil-globules, until a droplet of water is passed 
 under the cover-glass. Myriads of oil-drops then at once 
 appear. The globules are quite invisible until the water is 
 added.2 
 
 On a gross scale, there is much substitution of one variety 
 of fish for another. Remarkable changes are rung among 
 different members of the great Herring family, or ClupeidcB. 
 The young of the twaite or thwaite-shad, Alosa finta ; of the 
 
 1 Mr. Brooks, the pieman, quoted by Mr. Samuel Weller ('The Pickwick 
 Papers,' chap, xix.) : '"They're all made o' them noble animals," says he, 
 a pointin' to a wery nice little tabby kitten, " and I seasons 'em for beef-steak, 
 weal, or kidney, 'cordin' to the demand. And more than that," says he, " I 
 can make a weal a beef-steak, or a beef-steak a kidney, or any one on em a 
 mutton, at a minute's notice, just as the market changes, and appetites wary !' " 
 
 - See a paper by the present writer, published in the Analyst, 1885 (x.), 140. 
 
FISH 
 
 253 
 
254 FOODS DERIVED FROM ANIMAL SOURCES 
 
 menhaden, Brevoortia fyrannus or Alosa menhaden; also of 
 the herring, Clupea harengns ; the sprat, Pomolobus sprattus ; 
 and the pilchard, or Cornish sardine {Sardinella pilchardus = 
 Clupea pilcardus, Flem. = Alatcsa pilchardus, Valenciennes), 
 are all packed in oil and sold instead of the true sardine, 
 Clupea sardina, a fish, smaller than the pilchard, coming 
 from the Atlantic, Mediterranean, and Levant. The Cali- 
 fcrnian sardine is Savdinella ccerulea. The Cuban ' Sardina 
 de Espana ' is S. psendohispantca. The sprat and the 
 sardine have been known to masquerade as the anchovy 
 (Engranlis encrasicholus, Flem. ^-Cli^pea encrasicJiolus, Linn.). 
 The discovery of this kind of falsification requires macro- 
 scopic rather than microscopical investigation ; and to 
 detect the substitution of inferior varieties of the anchovies 
 from Holland and France, for the Levantine fish or that from 
 the Island of Gorgona, necessitates the experience of an 
 expert in the trade. Fig. 207 is a representative of the 
 anchovy, which is distinguished from its kindred by the 
 sharply pointed head and projecting upper jaw- 
 Whitebait, at one time regarded as a distinct genus, are the 
 nondescripts of the fish-kind. They have no race. London 
 whitebait are believed now to be youthful herrings and sprats 
 of various species. A ' small and feeble [smelt], Osnierus 
 thaleichthys, mixed with other small or delicate fishes, is the 
 whitebait of the San Francisco restaurants.'^ 
 
 ^ D. S. Jordan, ' A Guide to the Study of Fishes,' 1905, vol. ii., p. 123. 
 
 [For figure, seep. 253.] 
 
MILK 255 
 
 MILK. 
 
 The lacteal secretion of female mammals. An opaque or 
 translucent fluid, of complex constitution, and containing in 
 suspension myriads of fat-globules. There has been much 
 discussion whether the fat-globules in milk are, or are not, 
 individually surrounded by a gelatinous or other proteid 
 membrane. The question is not yet settled ; but the balance 
 of opinion at present appears to be against the existence of 
 a definitely membranous layer. Milk is probably a true 
 emulsion of fat in an aqueous medium containing sugar of 
 milk, casein, lactalbumin, and other substances. 
 
 The microscopic appearances of good and poor milk, 
 respectively, are shown in Figs. 208 and 2og, in which the 
 fat-globules are clearly seen. Cream contains a large propor- 
 tion of fat-globules, some of which are of very considerable 
 size (Fig. 210). The casein or curd of milk is represented in 
 Fig. 211 ; and colostrum, or the first milk yielded by the cow 
 after calving, is depicted in Fig. 212, which well shows the 
 numerous characteristic corpuscles of large size and granular 
 appearance. 
 
 Extraneous Substances Detectable by the Microscope (most 
 conveniently sought, after the milk has been allowed to stand 
 for some hours, or better, centrifuged). — Particles of sand, 
 hairs, cotton- and wool-fibres, showing dust : starch grains 
 and vegetable cellular tissue, indicating cattle-food ; similar 
 vegetable tissues stained yellow, = excretal matters, farm- 
 refuse, and the like. Starch, chalk, brains, etc., have been 
 mentioned among additions to milk in the past. Chalk, for 
 obvious reasons, nowadays would scarcely be used by any 
 sane adulterator. The alleged addition of cerebral matter,^ 
 
 } Fig. 213 depicts milk containing cerebral matter. 
 
256 FOODS DERIVED FROM ANIMAL SOURCES 
 
 many years ago, chiefly rests, it is believed, on the question- 
 able authority of an anonymous contributor to La Gazette des 
 Hopitaux of 1841. The subject was investigated separately 
 by MM. Quevenne and G. de Claubry, whose results left 
 grave doubts whether such a form of adulteration had ever 
 been practised : it was discussed at some length in Jean 
 J. J. Garnier and Charles Harel's ' Des Falsifications des 
 Substances Alimentaires,' published in 1844 '■> ^-^^ mentioned 
 by various other writers, among them A. Normandy (1850), 
 whose somewhat sceptical reference was quoted in Hassall's 
 * Food and Its Adulterations' (1855). Professor J. T. 
 Quekett is said to have shown drawings prepared by himself 
 from specimens of adulterated milk containing both starch 
 and brain elements. There I must leave the matter, which 
 is not set forth in this book as * historic fact.' Indeed, it 
 has been characterized as fable. Perhaps it may suitably be 
 put into the category of ' facts for faith ' : remembering that 
 there is a variety of blind, unquestioning * faith ' somewhere 
 defined as ' that which makes you believe what you know to 
 be untrue.'^ Possibly once upon a time an ingenious person 
 did experimentally prepare such a melange : but as for the 
 statements of the earlier French writers on food, that 
 adulteration of milk with sheep's brains frequently prevailed 
 — Credat Jiidceus Apella I 
 
 1 An attitude of mind, by the way, which recalls, and indeed differs little 
 from, that reflected in TertuUian's sometimes applauded dictum, ' Certum est, 
 quia impossibile' (' De Carne Christi,' chap, v.), often, but with doubtful 
 accuracy, quoted, ' Credo quia absurdum est.' Such ' faith ' is hopelessly out 
 of correspondence with the scientific and inquiring spirit of the twentieth 
 century. 
 
 [For figures, see pp. 257-259.] 
 
MILK 
 
 257 
 
 0^0 
 
 O© 
 
 0% 
 
 0% Q '^^sX 0®''0"S^ " 
 
 
 '^ o«& "CP 
 
 ■o 
 
 Fig. 208. — Milk : of Average Quality, x 630. 
 
 © 
 
 8=, = 9=. O *■ -® 
 
 ^-^^»<.*' 5- " o'« ''^' ,r 
 
 Fig. 2og. — Milk : Diluted, or of Poor Quality, x 630. 
 
 17 
 
258 FOODS DERIVED FROM ANIMAL SOURCES 
 
 Fig. 210. — Cream, x 630. 
 
 Fig. 211. — Casein of Milk, x 630. 
 
MILK 
 
 259 
 
 Fig. 212. — Colostrum, x 630. 
 Showing the ' corps granuleux ' of Donne. 
 
 Fig. 213.— Milk, to which Cerebral Matter had been Added, x 630. 
 
 17-2 
 
BUTTER 261 
 
 BUTTER. 
 
 Under the microscope, in ordinary light, normal butter 
 exhibits a background indistinctly defined, with numerous 
 irregularly-shaped globules of water or whey, often tinted 
 yellow by annatto or other ' butter-colouring ' used; and there 
 are visible also fragments of granular caseinous matter : but 
 no crystalline particles are to be seen, other than of salt, or 
 of other added solid preservatives, if these be present. In 
 polarized light, the field appears almost uniformly dark when 
 the nicols are crossed. At the most, faintly illuminated dots 
 or specks may be seen here and there. Fig. 214, A, gives 
 some idea of the microscopical appearance of butter in 
 ordinary light. 
 
 After fusion followed by slow cooling, butter and other 
 fats partially crystallize, showing under the microscope 
 circular, stellate, fan-shaped or fern-like aggregations of 
 acicular crystals, which, when the polarizer and analyzer are 
 at right angles, present a brilliant appearance upon a dim 
 background, a dark cross often subdividing the bright 
 patches. If a selenite plate be used, on a green background 
 the crystalline patches will appear red. E. Collin, C. Girard, 
 and others have shown that after some time the phenomena 
 cease to be visible. As showing that the fat had been melted 
 and cooled, the presence of such crystalline aggregates at one 
 period was considered a ' sure and certain ' indication that 
 a sample of butter had suffered uncanny treatment, in which 
 fusion with a foreign fat, or mixing with such fat, previously 
 melted and cooled, had been an important stage of the 
 proceedings. And it has even been afiirmed, comparatively 
 recently, that the appearance and reactions of the crystal- 
 groups may be clues to the origin of the fat. In the examina- 
 tion of butter, according to the author's experience, it would 
 be most unwise to base conclusions on any such data. The 
 presence of crystalline patches must be regarded as suspicious, 
 but as nothing more than an indication that the fat, or some 
 of it, has been heated and afterwards slowly cooled. As for 
 the appearances assumed by the crystals, these in general 
 
262 FOODS DERIVED FROM ANIMAL SOURCES 
 
 are not nearly distinctive enough to furnish diagnostic 
 assistance. Fig. 214, B, shows the microscopic characters of 
 butter which has been fused and slowly cooled. In Fig. 217 
 (under ' Lard ') the appearance of beef-stearin is shown ; and 
 it will be observed that the forms of the crystal-aggregates are 
 very similar. 
 
 It is awkward, on the one hand, that undoubtedly 
 genuine butter — that, for instance, which has been treated 
 with hot water and re-churned, or butter which has 
 quickly become rancid — may exert a depolarizing effect : on 
 the other, that mixtures of butter with margarine (such 
 mixtures are now, legally, ' margarine ') can be so manu- 
 factured as to exhibit no optico-crystalline characters. 
 A fat rapidly cooled from a state of fusion may show 
 no crystals. Also, very old butter undergoes chemical 
 changes, accompanied by physical alterations, among the 
 latter being frequently the assumption of a crystalline texture. 
 Some years since, the author had an opportunity of examin- 
 ing a specimen of butter, known to be genuine, which had 
 been preserved for eighteen years in a loosely stoppered bottle.^ 
 This butter, which had become granular, and had undergone 
 considerable chemical metamorphosis, showed under the 
 microscope very many crystalline patches. 
 
 In short, the microscopical examination of butter is a useful 
 preliminary test, which should never be omitted, and may 
 rapidly lead the chemist to suspect that a sample has been 
 falsified. It will readily disclose grosser adulterations, such 
 as starch, flour, mashed potatoes, and the like, which, though 
 now extremely rare, have been discovered occasionally. But 
 one must by no means infer from a negative result with the 
 microscope that a specimen is immaculate : nine-tenths of 
 it may be coco-nut oil. Chemical tests are essential and 
 paramount in the examination of all fats. 
 
 Margarine alone under the microscope is more granular in 
 appearance than butter, and in polarized light frequently 
 exhibits bright areas and spots scattered over the field. 
 
 1 ' A Butter Eighteen Years Old ' ; paper by the present writer in the 
 Analyst, 1898, xxiii., 36. 
 
BUTTER 
 
 263 
 
 Fig. 214. — Butter. 
 
 A, Normal appearance ; B, aspect after fusion, followed by slow cooling. 
 
 X 300. 
 
 [E. G. Clayton, de/.] 
 
264 FOODS DERIVED FROM ANIMAL SOURCES 
 
 CHEESE. 
 
 The product of the action of the enzyme of rennet on new 
 milk-casein. 
 
 New cheese is not very distinctive microscopically : 
 but decayed cheese is well known to become the prey of 
 innumerable minute, greyish-white, apterous insects or 
 ' mites.' These are different species of the genus Tyro- 
 glypJms. The commonest is T. siro or doviesticus, which is 
 identical with the wheat mite, Tyroglyphiis or Acariis farincE. 
 
 Extraneous Substances Detectable by the Microscope. — Starch 
 and flour are sometimes added to cheese. A particular 
 brand of cream cheese, served to the present writer 
 some years ago in one of the best-known restaurants in 
 London, was so ' gritty ' on the palate that his suspicions 
 were aroused. He abstracted a fragment from his plate for 
 microscopical and chemical tests in the laboratory. A huge 
 quantity of starch w^as present : the precise amount was not 
 determined, but it constituted probably more than a quarter 
 of the cheese. 
 
 [^For figures i see pp. 265, 266.] 
 
CHEESE 
 
 265 
 
 Fig. 215. — The Dust of Old Cheese, consisting almost entirely of the Cheese 
 Mite {Tyroglyphus domesticus or T. siro = Acariis domestinis, or A. siro, 
 Linnaeus), in all conditions of development from the ova upwards, x 40. 
 
266 
 
 THE CHEESE MITE 
 
 J B 
 
 Fig. 2i6.— The Cheese Mjte {Tyroglyphics domesticus). 
 Anterior {A) and posterior (B) views, x loo. 
 
[Lard 
 
268 FOODS DERIVED FROM ANIMAL SOURCES 
 
 LARD. 
 
 The fat of the pig rendered and clarified. 
 
 Under the microscope, pure lard shows, on a granular 
 background, small, circular, isolated patches of radiating 
 acicular crystals (sphsero-crystals). In polarized light, with 
 a selenite plate, if the field be green, these little patches 
 appear orange-red, and bear some resemblance to those seen 
 in butter, very slowly cooled after previous fusion (see ante, 
 Fig. 214, B). 
 
 At the present time the main adulterants of lard are beef- 
 stearin and several vegetable oils, only discoverable by 
 chemico-physical tests. Though useful as a preliminary test, 
 the microscope alone cannot be considered a certain guide in 
 the detection of beef-fat. An ethereal solution of pure lard, 
 allowed to evaporate, generally yields elongated, tabular 
 crystals, obliquely terminated, and sometimes disposed in 
 radiated, though not usually stellate, aggregates : but if the 
 lard contain a high percentage of stearic acid, the crystals 
 deposited closely resemble those which are always yielded 
 by beef-stearin — namely, stellate or radiating groups of fine, 
 short, occasionally curved, acicular crystals, such as are 
 faithfully indicated in the figure on the opposite page. Here 
 again, as in the case of butter, ample corroboration must be 
 yielded by a series of chemical tests, before one can venture 
 to pronounce that there has been adulteration. Formerly, 
 lard was not infrequently admixed with potato-flour and the 
 like. These cruder forms of adulteration are readily seen 
 with the microscope. 
 
LARD 
 
 269 
 
 Fig. 217. — Lard containing Potato-Starch, and probably Beef-Stearin 
 showing fat-crystals and starch-granules. 
 
270 FOODS DERIVED FROM ANIMAL SOURCES 
 
 ISINGLASS AND GELATIN. 
 
 The air-bag, swimming-bladder, or sound, of various fish, 
 chiefly of the sturgeon tribe. Gelatin is much used as a 
 substitute : ' patent isinglass ' is, in fact, gelatin. The 
 microscope shows some differences between the natural 
 product and the substitute : but other tests are better. 
 
 Fig. 218 shows the appearance of sections of shreds of gelatin 
 and isinglass, softened in cold water and examined under 
 the microscope. (Shreds of gelatin, placed in cold water, 
 acquire increased transparency, and show no structure. 
 Shreds of isinglass, similarly treated, become white and 
 opaque, and possess a fibrous structure ; a few vessels, 
 granular cells, and nuclei being scattered here and there.) 
 
ISINGLASS AND GELATIN 
 
 271 
 
 '"-' -^' ''A^ "' ^ "vlr'^/ J / . 
 
 Fig. 218. — Gelatin (above) and Isinglass (below), x 75. 
 
SECTION III. 
 
 TOBACCO, DRUGS, BITTERS, AND COLOURING 
 MATTERS. 
 
Ord. PERSONAT.^, Fam. SOLANACE^. 
 
 TOBACCO. 
 
 The dried and cured leaves of Nicotiana tahacum and .Y. 
 nistica, ord. Personates, fam. SolanacecF. 
 
 Histology. — The leaves may be divided into two parts : 
 the broad expanded part, or lamina, and the midrib, or stalk, 
 and 'veins,' which traverse this, imparting strength and 
 solidity. The lamina is composed chiefly of cellular tissue, 
 and the veins mostly consist of wood-fibre and vessels. A 
 fragment of tobacco leaf, viewed on its upper surface with a 
 half- or quarter-inch object-glass, is seen' to possess an epi- 
 dermal covering of cells having smooth and waved borders, 
 wdth here and there stomata and numerous hairs. The hairs 
 are pluricellular, mostly glandular — terminating in a roundish 
 swelling or enlargement, very clearly seen even in the dried 
 leaf — and vary greatly in size. Occasionally they are divided 
 or compound (Fig. 219). The uiesophyll, or middle stratum 
 of the leaf, consists of parenchyma cells containing chloro- 
 phyll grains. 
 
 The structure of the under surface of the leaf is nearly 
 similar to that of the upper surface, but the stomata are 
 much more numerous, and the hairs fewer (Fig. 220). 
 
 The veins and midribs, viewed in transverse sections, are 
 frequently of a crescentic or horseshoe shape. This is some- 
 what characteristic of tobacco : but sections of Stramonium 
 and Hyoscyamus stalks present a closely similar outline. 
 Transverse sections of the smaller veins of tobacco, under a 
 low power, present the appearances shown in Fig. 221 : on 
 the outside, running all round the section, is a layer of cells 
 similar to the epidermal cellular tissue, with which the 
 
 275 18—2 
 
276 TOBACCO 
 
 lamina of the leaf is itself mainly covered, bearing on its 
 outer surface the glandular hairs : beneath are elongated 
 cells, and collenchymatous tissue ; and in the centre of the 
 section the cut extremities of fibre-cells and pitted vessels, 
 bundles of which chiefly make up the stalks, are seen, having 
 a somewhat radiated disposition. These structures are more 
 clearly pictured in Fig. 222. A longitudinal section of one 
 of the smaller midribs, in which the hairs, cells, fibres, 
 and spiral vessels are still better seen, is represented in 
 Fig. 223. The quantity of wood-fibre in the central part of 
 the midrib is by no means considerable, the bundle being 
 made up to a great extent of the spiral ducts. The fibres 
 usually are more like elongated cells than ordinary wood- 
 fibres ; nevertheless, bundles of undoubted wood-fibre do 
 occur. The fibres are short, the borders striated, and the 
 extremities truncate. 
 
 In the leaf of tobacco reduced to powder, all the above 
 structures may be readily detected — of course much broken 
 up : — the hairs, cells of the lamina, the stomata, elongated 
 cells, wood-fibre, together with portions and fragments of 
 the spiral ducts (Fig. 224). 
 
 Substitutes and Additions Detectable by the Microscope. — The 
 leaves of the foxglove {Digitalis purpurea)^ dock, rhubarb, 
 chicory, burdock {Arctium lappa), coltsfoot, cabbage, and 
 many other plants, are stated to have been used as substi- 
 tutes for tobacco, to act as " fillers " of cheap cigars, and so 
 forth. Some of these are described and figured in the 
 following pages, but their employment at the present time 
 probably is rare. They have mostly been dismissed to the 
 limbo of discarded adulterants. Water, and mucilaginous 
 or saccharine solutions, are more commonly added to 
 tobacco : but for the detection of these, the microscope, of 
 course, gives place to the chemist's beaker and the polari- 
 meter. 
 
 [For figures, see pp. 277, 278, 279, 280, and 281.] 
 
TOBACCO 
 
 277 
 
 Fig. 219. — Tobacco Leaf : upper surface, showing epidermal cells, stomata, 
 and glandular hairs, x 220. 
 
278 
 
 TOBACCO 
 
 Fig. 220. — Tobacco Leaf : under surface, showing epidermis, with more 
 stomata and fewer hairs, x 220. 
 
 Fig. 221. — Tobacco Leaf : transverse section of crescentic midrib, showing 
 glandular hairs, cellular tissue, and fibro-vascular bundle, x 40. 
 
TOBACCO 
 
 279 
 
 Fig 222. — Tobacco Leaf : portion of transverse section of midrib, more 
 highly magnified, x 90, 
 
28o 
 
 TOBACCO 
 
 Fig. 223.— Tobacco Leaf : longitudinal section of midrib, showing hairs, 
 cells, fibres, and spiral vessels, x go. 
 
TOBACCO 
 
 281 
 
 ummifr/^-.l-s 
 
 
 Fig. 224. — Tobacco reduced to Powder : showing most of the structures 
 previously described, x 40. 
 
SUBSTITUTES FOR TOBACCO 283 
 
 LEAVES WHICH HAVE BEEN USED AS SUB- 
 STITUTES FOR TOBACCO: DOCK, RHUBARB, 
 COLTSFOOT, ETC. 
 
 I. Dock Leaf {Rinncx, sp., ord. PolygonmcSj 
 fam. Polygonacecr). 
 
 Histology. — The cells of the lamina and stomata do not 
 differ materially from those of tobacco leaf. As in tobacco, 
 the stomata occur on both surfaces of the leaves, and are 
 more numerous on the under surface. Unlike tobacco, 
 however, the cellular part of the lamina is wholly destitute 
 of hairs (Fig. 225). The midrib and veins differ very greatly 
 from those of tobacco — in shape, in the form and nature of 
 the spines or hairs which arise from them, and in the 
 arrangement of the vessels and wood-fibre. Transverse 
 sections of the midrib are roughly triangular, the base of the 
 triangle being smaller than the sides : one of these sections 
 viewed with an inch object-glass presents six prominences, 
 indicating the number of ridges by which the midrib is 
 traversed longitudinally. One ridge is situated on the upper 
 surface of the midrib (the base of the triangle), between the 
 origins of the lamina of the leaf; the other five ridges are 
 below, one in the centre, large and prominent, forming the 
 lower surface of the midrib (apex of the triangle), and two 
 on each side. 
 
 The hairs, or rather spines, spring from the surface of the 
 midribs and veins, and principally from the ridges; they are 
 thick, short, hollow^ striated, of considerable diameter, and 
 terminate in obtuse rounded extremities : these spines impart 
 a feeling of roughness to the finger passed along the midrib. 
 
 The wood-fibre and vessels traverse the midrib in bundles. 
 
284 SUBSTITUTES FOR TOBACCO 
 
 the number of bundles being greatest in sections of the 
 larger midribs : in those of small and medium size there are 
 usually six or eight fascictdi (Fig. 226). 
 
 The cells forming the ridges are very characteristic, being 
 small and angular : those composing the internal part of the 
 midrib, which are traversed by the vascular and woody 
 tissue, are larger, parenchymatous, and more wavy- walled, 
 as seen in transverse section (Figs. 227 and 228). 
 
 [For figures J see pp. 285, 286, and 287. 
 
SUBSTITUTES FOR TOBACCO 
 
 285 
 
 Fig. 225. — Dock Leaf : portion of under surface, showing cells, stomata, and 
 junction of the lamina with one of the smaller veins, x 220. 
 
286 
 
 SUBSTITUTES FOR TOBACCO 
 
 Fig. 226.— Dock Leaf : transverse section of midrib, showing ridges, hairs, 
 and bundles, or fasciculi, x 40. 
 
 Fig. 227. — Dock Leaf : transverse section of portion of midrib, showing 
 the different forms of cells, and several fibro-vascular bundles, x go. 
 
SUBSTITUTES FOR TOBACCO 
 
 287 
 
 Fig. 228.— Dock Leaf: longitudinal section of portion of midrib, x 90. 
 
288 SUBSTITUTES FOR TOBACCO 
 
 II. Rhubarb Leaf {Rheitm hyhvidum, ord. PolygonincE, 
 fam. Polygonacece). 
 
 Histology. — Slight differences only are observable in the 
 stomata, and in the form and size of the cells of the rhubarb 
 leaf: but the walls of the cells are finely striated (Fig. 229) ; 
 and this is a character by which rhubarb leaf may at once 
 be known from tobacco. Other differences are found in 
 the characters of the short spines or hairs, in the form of the 
 midrib and veins, and in the presence of annular, quadri- 
 partite glands, scattered throughout the lamina of the leaf. 
 The hairs or spines are short, thick, hollow, striated, and 
 terminate in obtuse, rounded extremities. They resemble 
 closely in form those of the dock, but differ in being several 
 times larger, in the character and fineness of the striae with 
 which they are marked, and in their distribution : for, while 
 in the dock leaf the hairs spring only from the midrib and 
 veins, in the rhubarb leaf they arise from all parts of the 
 leaf, the lamina as well as midrib and veins. The midrib 
 and branches, as in the dock, consist on the outside of small 
 angular cells, succeeded by a network of large, paren- 
 chymatous cells, traversed by bundles of wood-fibre and 
 spiral vessels : the differences between the midribs of the 
 leaves of the two plants being in form, and in the absence 
 of distinct ridges on the midrib of the rhubarb leaf (Fig. 230). 
 
SUBSTITUTES FOR TOBACCO 
 
 289 
 
 Fig. 229. — Rhubarb Leaf : portion of under surface, showing the striation of 
 the cells, a spine or hair, and one of the quadripartite glands, x 220. 
 
 Fig. 230. — Rhubarb Leaf : transverse section of midrib, showing angular 
 epidermal cells, parenchyma cells, and fibro-vascular bundles, x 40. 
 
 19 
 
290 SUBSTITUTES FOR TOBACCO 
 
 III. Coltsfoot Leaf [Tttssilago farfara, ord. Aggrcgatce, 
 fam. Composites). 
 
 Histology. — The epidermal cells forming the upper surface 
 of the leaf of coltsfoot or tussilage are small, angular, and 
 faintly striated : there are few stomata, and no hairs, except 
 on the midrib and principal veins (Fig. 231). The structure 
 of the tmder surface of the leaf is entirely different ; the cells 
 are also small, but their margins are waved, and the walls 
 are not striated. The stomata are exceedingly numerous, 
 and the whole surface is clothed with delicate filamentous 
 hairs, which impart the downy character to the leaf. Inter- 
 mixed with these are other much larger hairs, which, being 
 jointed, somewhat resemble those of tobacco, but want the 
 distinct glandular terminations (Fig. 232). 
 
 Transverse sections of the large leaf-stalk have externally 
 a well-defined border of distinctly angular, thick-walled 
 cells, from the outside of which spring the two kinds of 
 hairs described above. The central portion of the section 
 is composed of loose cellular tissue, similar to that of the 
 midribs of many other leaves ; and it is traversed by from 
 six to eight bundles of fibro-vascular tissue, the number 
 usually varying with the size. [The large leaf-stalks of 
 coltsfoot, however, would scarcely be used in any case for 
 admixture with cut tobacco.] 
 
 Sections of the branches or veins are nearly similar : the 
 principal difference is in the number of the bundles traversing 
 them, there being almost invariably but three such bundles. 
 By this character the veins of the leaf of coltsfoot are dis- 
 tinguished at once from those of the other leaves described 
 (Fig. 233). 
 
 [For figures, see pp. 291 and 292.^ 
 
SUBSTITUTES FOR TOBACCO 
 
 2gi 
 
 Fig. 231. — Coltsfoot Leaf : upper epidermis, showing striated cells, 
 stomata, no hairs, x 220. 
 
 Fig. 232. — Coltsfoot Le.'>lF : under epidermis, showing wavy-walled 
 unstriated cells, with many hairs and stomata. x 220. 
 
 ig — 2 
 
292 
 
 SUBSTITUTES FOR TOBACCO 
 
 Fig. 233. — Coltsfoot Leaf : transverse section of one of the veins, showing 
 hairs, angular surface- cells, loose parenchymatous tissue, and three fibro- 
 vascular bundles, x 40. 
 
[Hops. 
 
Ord. URTICIN^, Fam. CANNABINACEyE. 
 
 HOPS. 
 
 The imbricated scaly inflorescences, or strobili, of Humulus 
 lupuhis, ord. UrticincF, fam. Cannabinacece, used to impart an 
 aromatic and bitter taste to beer. 
 
 Histology. — The epidermal cells of the bracts and bractioles, 
 or scale-like hop-leaves, possess extremely sinuous outlines ; 
 and attached to the surface are numerous spherical glandular 
 hairs, in appearance not unlike pollen-grains. These secrete 
 the hipiiUn, to which the properties of the hop most valuable 
 to the brewer are mainly due. The microscopical characters 
 of the lupulin-glands are indicated in the figure on the 
 opposite page. 
 
 The seed is enclosed within an outer covering, consisting 
 of several layers, of which the corrugated and tortuous 
 aspect of the cells composing the second layer is perhaps 
 the most distinctive feature. Fig. 235 shows the covering 
 in surface view, and in section, together with the inner 
 portion of the seed. 
 
 Substitutes for, and Additions to, the Hop, Detectable by the 
 Microscope. — Preparations, more beloved by the brewer than 
 the farmer, and compounded of quassia, gentian, chiretta, 
 calumba, or the like — particles of which, by careful examina- 
 tion, can often be detected in the dregs of a beer-vessel — 
 are at the present time to be found on the market. Though 
 permissible by law, ar-d probably as a rule innoxious, these 
 ' hop-substitutes ' yield products far less satisfactory to 
 connoisseurs than beer brewed from Humulus luptdus ; and 
 their extending use, from several points of view, is highly 
 regrettable. 
 
 Fragments of hop can even now be discerned within the 
 precincts of some of our breweries ; usually those of a better 
 class. 
 
 [For figures, see pp. 295 and 296.] 
 294 
 
HOPS 
 
 295 
 
 Fig. 234. — Hop Leaf : portion of, with lupulin-glands x 100 
 
2g6 
 
 BITTERS 
 
 Fig. 235. — Hop Seed, x 200. 
 
 A, Outer covering, showing the four coats of which it is formed, the second, 
 marked b, being the most characteristic ; B, vertical section of seed, exhibiting 
 the four membranes, and the substance of the seed, e. 
 
[The Poppy. 
 
Ord. RHOEADIN^, Fam. papaverace^. 
 the poppy. 
 
 The poppy head, or poppy capsule, is the dried fruit of 
 Papaver somnifencm, ord. RhoeadincE, fam. Papaveracece. It is 
 used for the preparation of opium, as a source of the 
 alkaloid morphine, and for other purposes. 
 
 Histology of the Poppy Capsule.— The fruit is globose 
 or ovate-globose, varies in size from a hen's egg to an 
 orange, and is of a light, spongy, and papyraceous texture. 
 It is one-celled, consisting of numerous carpels enclosed in 
 a membranous production of the thalamus^ or receptacle of 
 the flower, and is furnished with placentce, forming dissepi- 
 ments in the interior of the capsule, the number and 
 position of which correspond with the carpels. 
 
 Thin sections of the external surface of the capsule, or 
 epicarp, examined under the microscope, are seen to be 
 composed of small, angular cells, having exceedingly well- 
 marked, broad walls or parietes, with here and there a few 
 rounded stomata. It is necessary to be thoroughly well 
 acquainted with this structure, because it is chiefly the 
 external part of the capsule which enters into the adultera- 
 tion of opium. There is some slight resemblance between 
 the membrane in question and that forming the surface of 
 the grain of wheat (Fig. 236). 
 
 The endocarp, or membrane which lines the interior of the 
 capsule, and is situated between the dissepiments, is very 
 different : it consists of very large elongated and irregular 
 cells, mostly becoming narrow towards each extremity. 
 The walls are very thick and beaded : there are also a few 
 angular stomata (Fig. 237). 
 
 298 
 
THE POPPY 299 
 
 In longitudinal sections, passing through the entire thick- 
 ness of the capsule, a side view is obtained of the cells 
 forming the outer and inner portions, the space between the 
 two consisting of a loose and open cellular tissue, the meso- 
 carp, which imparts sponginess to the poppy head, and is 
 traversed here and there by bundles of reticulated ducts, 
 spiral vessels, and wood-fibre (fibro-vascular bundles). 
 
 The structure of the dissepiments, or placentcs, is entirely 
 different from that of the internal wall of the capsule. The 
 surface of each dissepiment on both sides presents numerous 
 dark points or specks : these consist of short, raised pro- 
 jections, or spermophores, each of which originally gave 
 support to a distinct seed, which in the ripe capsule is found 
 usually to be detached. The portions of the surface of the 
 dissepiment lying between the spermophores are composed 
 of cells which, though rather large, are much smaller than 
 those forming the internal surface of the capsule : they are 
 somewhat elongated, become narrow at each end, have 
 dotted margins, and there are no stomata. The spermo- 
 phores, or projections supporting the seeds, consist of similar 
 cells (Fig. 238). In transverse sections of the dissepiment, 
 viewed with a very low power, the spermophores are well 
 seen, as also the manner in which the seeds are supported 
 and distributed (Fig. 239). With a half-inch object-glass 
 the intimate structure of the dissepiment may be followed 
 out. The central, or spongy part, which swells greatly when 
 immersed in water, consists of tubular cells running in every 
 direction, with considerable interstices, or areolcF, between 
 them, together with bundles of wood-fibre and vessels, one 
 of which bundles passes up through the centre of each 
 spermophore (Fig. 240). 
 
 The poppy seed is very characteristic in appearance. The 
 surface of the testa is finely reticulated, the ridges coinciding 
 with the walls of the exceedingly large cells of the epidermis 
 (Fig. 241, a, a). Beneath this membrane are several others, 
 together making up the thickness of the spermoderm. The 
 two more prominent are shown in the figure : the cross 
 cells (6, h), and the fibre cells (c, c). The seed substance is 
 
300 DRUGS 
 
 made up of small, angular cells {d, d), containing aleurone 
 grains and globules of oil. The several characteristic 
 features of the seed are shown in Figs. 240 and 241. 
 
 Opium is the inspissated juice obtained from the unripe 
 capsules. 
 
 Extraneous Substances Detectable in Opium by the Microscope. — 
 Pounded poppy capsule and petals, flour, wood-fibre, tur- 
 meric, etc. 
 
 [For figures, see pp. 301, 302, 303, 304, and 305.] 
 
THE POPPY 
 
 301 
 
 Fig. 236. — Poppy Capsule : portion of external surface, or epicarp. x 220. 
 
 Fig. 237. — Poppy Capsule : part of internal surface, or endocarp. x 220. 
 
302 
 
 DRUGS 
 
 Fig. 238. — Poppy Capsule : (above) surface of one of the placentcs, or dissepi- 
 ments, showing a spermophore ( x 60) ; also (A) a fragment of cellular 
 tissue enlarged, x 220. 
 
THE POPPY 
 
 303 
 
 Fig. 239. — Poppy Capsule : transverse section through the thickness of a 
 dissepiment, showing spermophores with seeds attached, x 10. 
 
304 
 
 DRUGS 
 
 Fig. 240. — Poppy Capsule and Seed : transverse section of a dissepiment, 
 showing two spermophores, and one seed attached, x 100. 
 
THE POPPY 
 
 305 
 
 Fig. 241. — Poppy Seed : showing the membranes composing the husk, and 
 the cells forming the substance of the seed. 
 
 a, a, Ver)' large epidermal cells, the walls coinciding with the superficial 
 ridges; b,b, cross cells; c,c, fibre cells; d, d, substance of seed — cells with 
 aleurone grains and oil globules, x 100. 
 
 20 
 
3o6 DRUGS 
 
 OPIUM. 
 
 Fig. 242. — Opium, containing an admixture of poppy 
 capsule. [100.] 
 
 Fig. 243. — Opium, admixed with poppy capsule and wheat 
 flour. [220.] 
 
 Fig. 244. — Egyptian Opium, containing gum, woody fibre, 
 and a little wheat flour. [100.] 
 
 [For figures, see pp. 307 and 308.] 
 
OPIUM 
 
 307 
 
 Fig. 242. — Opium, containing an admixture oi poppy capsule, x 100. 
 
 Fig. 243 — Opium, admixed with poppy capsule and ich eat flour, x 220. 
 
 20 — 2 
 
3o8 
 
 DRUGS 
 
 Fig. 244. — Egyptian Opium, containing ^i^;«, wood-fibre, and a little 
 wheat flour, x 100. 
 
[Turmeric, 
 
Ord. SCITAMINE^, Fam. zingiberace.^. 
 
 TURMERIC. 
 
 The rhizome, or rootstock, of Curcuma longa, ord. ScitammecSf 
 fam. Zingiber acecE. 
 
 Histology. — The ground rhizome consists of large, yellow- 
 tinted, parenchymatous cells, containing, besides starch- 
 granules, masses of starch-paste coloured yellow by cur- 
 cumin. Many of these masses are to be seen liberated 
 from the cells, the shapes of which they have retained : 
 they may be recognized under the microscope by their size 
 and bright yellow colour (Fig. 245) ; and when crushed, 
 they are found to contain many starch-granules, resembling 
 closely those of curcuma arrowroot, already described and 
 illustrated (Fig. 246 : see also Fig. 49, p. 63). 
 
 Turmeric exhibits appearances somewhat akin to those of 
 ginger, but the characteristics of the starch-granules and 
 elongated cells are notably different. 
 
 Extraneous Substances Detectable by the Microscope. — Barley 
 and other flours, cheap starches, wood-fibre, etc. 
 
 ro 
 
TURMERIC 
 
 311 
 
 Fig. 245. — Turmeric: Section of Rhizome. 
 
 a. Epidermis; b, b, transparent empty cells ; c, c, and e, e, yellow "masses : 
 d, d, oil globules; /, reticulated duct ; g, elongated cells lying by ths side of 
 the duct. X 220. 
 
 Fig. 246. — Ground Turmeric, showing starch-granules, parenchyma, and 
 large yellow masses, x 220. 
 
Ord. BIXINE.^, Fam. BIXACE^. 
 
 ANNATTO. 
 
 The orange-hued pulp, obtained from the fruit of Bixa 
 orellana, ord. Bixinece, fam. Bixacece : used for colouring 
 butter, cheese, and other articles of food. 
 
 Histology. — The cells of the outer or red portion of the 
 fruit are closely compacted, but there is no especially 
 definite characteristic. The surface of the seed-coat mainly 
 consists of elongated palisade or fence cells, vertically 
 arranged, beneath these being a layer of thick-walled cells 
 containing granular matter. The endosperm, or inner white 
 part of the seed, is made up of large cells filled with 
 numerous starch-corpuscles, well defined, of medium size, 
 and resembling in form, also in the long and sometimes 
 stellate hilum, the starch-granules of the bean (Fig. 247 : see 
 also Fig. 16, p. 31). 
 
 Extraneous Substances Detectable by the Microscope. — Wheat, 
 rye, and barley flours, turmeric, and mineral matter (Figs. 248 
 and 249, p. 314). Annatto has for many years been one of 
 the most considerably adulterated commodities. Dr. A. H. 
 Hassall half a century ago^ first called attention to the 
 impurity of commercial annatto, which still maintains an 
 undesirable distinction in this respect. The unacknowledged 
 substitution of coal-tar colours for annatto is now common, 
 especially in the liquid preparations, or so-called ' annatto 
 colourings.' In such cases chemical tests must supplement 
 the microscopical examination. 
 
 ^ ' On the Adulteration of Annatto ' (paper read before the Pharmaceutical 
 Society, 1855). 
 
 \_F or figures i see pp. 313 and 314.] 
 312 
 
ANNATTO 
 
 3^3 
 
 Fig. 247. — Annatto Seed, Section of. 
 
 a, Coloured pulp ; b, fence cells of seed-coat ; c, layers of thick-walled cells 
 containing granular matter ; d, cells of the endosperm, containing starch- 
 granules. X 220. 
 
314 
 
 COLOURING MATTERS 
 
 Fig. 248 — Annatto, mixed with Turmeric. 
 
 a, Outer part of seed ; b, starch-granules ; c, c, cells of turmeric ; d, d, free 
 starch-granules of turmeric, much altered by the action of alkali, x 225. 
 
 Fig. 249. — Annatto, mixed with Rve Flour, x 225. 
 
[S' 
 
 CAMMONY. 
 
Ord. TUBIFLOR.^, Fam. convolvulace^. 
 
 SCAMMONY. 
 
 A GUM-RESIN obtained from the root of Convolvuhis scam- 
 mo7tia, ord. Tuhiflorce, fam. Convolvulacecs. The best qualities 
 of the commercial product are known as virgin scammony. 
 
 Microscopic Appearance of Virgin Scammony. — Angular and 
 resinous fragments or splinters, of a greyish-brown colour 
 and variable size, are seen (Fig. 250) : intermixed with these 
 other fragments sometimes occur, which are blackish or 
 quite black, and are best seen when the powdered scammony 
 is viewed as an opaque object. They are broken masses of 
 vegetable tissue, and are occasionally found in small numbers 
 even in the best scammony, but are most abundant in 
 specimens of inferior quality. If the scammony be dis- 
 solved out with ether, considerable quantities of vegetable 
 cellular tissue, woody fibre, fragments of spiral vessels, and 
 stellate cells may frequently be discovered in the residue. 
 
 Extraneous Substances Detectable by the Microscope. — Starches, 
 flour, vegetable fibre, etc. (Fig. 251). Chemical tests should 
 supplement the use of the microscope. 
 
 316 
 
SCAMMONY 
 
 317 
 
 Fig 250.— Virgin Scammony (Powdered), x 100. 
 
 Fig. 251.— Scammony, mixed with Wheat and Lentil Flours. 
 
 a, a, Scammony ; b, b, wheat starch ; c, c, black fragments of cellular 
 
 tissue. X 220. 
 
Fam. CONVOLVULACE/E. 
 
 JALAP. 
 
 The dried root tubercles of Ipomcva purga, ord. Tuhiflorce, 
 fam. Convolvulacece. 
 
 Histology. — The epidermis, siihev, or cork layer, consists of 
 dark-coloured, flat polygonal cells. Beneath is the cortex, 
 consisting of rounded cells, many of which contain starch- 
 grains : also there are elongated, sclerenchymatous, stellate 
 cells, which, however, are not easily discoverable ; lastly, 
 there are very many resin cells. These appear as well- 
 defined, dark, and somewhat angular cells, lying here and 
 there in the midst of the other cells (Fig. 252). They appear 
 to contain resin ; but they are slowly acted upon by water, 
 and from being dark and opaque become clear and trans- 
 parent, evidently, therefore, containing some soluble sub- 
 stance. Of the remaining cells, many are apparently empty : 
 these constitute chiefly the outer lamellae of the jalap tuber 
 (Fig. 252). The inner layers of the tuber are chiefly com- 
 posed of starch-bearing cells (Figs. 252 and 253) : but the 
 resin cells are scattered throughout the whole of the root, 
 occurring indifferently in the midst of either the apparently 
 empty cells or those filled with starch. Other features of 
 the inner portion of the root are calcium oxalate crystals, 
 and wood-bundles with pitted vessels. 
 
 The stavch-granules are of considerable size, and possess 
 well-marked characters. Some are circular, but somewhat 
 flattened, while others are muller-shaped. These last are 
 occasionally united in twos, threes, and fours. Whenever 
 muller-shaped starch-granules are met with in any vegetable 
 tissue, it is clear that they were all originally united in this 
 
 319 
 
320 JALAP 
 
 manner, and it is to such union that their form is chiefly 
 due. They all possess a distinct hilum, around which one 
 or two concentric rings may sometimes be seen (Figs. 253 
 and 254). Many of the granules in every root have become 
 expanded and misshapen from the heat employed in the 
 process of drying. 
 
 In genuine powdered jalap all the structures above described 
 may be detected : cork, sclerous cells, resin cells, empty 
 cells, starch-bearing cells, numerous free starch-granules, 
 and occasional fragments of pitted vessels and wood-fibres. 
 The occurrence of single cells completely filled with starch- 
 granules is very characteristic of powdered jalap : and it 
 should be noted that this tuber is made up almost entirely 
 of cellular tissue. There are but few reticulated vessels, 
 and extremely little wood-fibre, the fibres being large, coarse, 
 and dotted, closely resembling, except in size, the vessels 
 themselves. 
 
 Extraneous Substances Detectable by the Microscope. — Wood- 
 fibre ; foreign starches ; mineral matter (Fig. 255). 
 
 \^F or figures, see pp. 321, 322, and 323.] 
 
JALAP 
 
 321 
 
 Fig. 252. — Jalap Root, x 30, 
 
 Transverse section, showing epidermis, cortex with resin cells, empty cells 
 and starch-bearing cells. 
 
 21 
 
322 
 
 JALAP 
 
 Fig. 253. — Jalap Root. 
 Transverse section of inner portion of root ( x 100) ; and starch-grains ( x 220). 
 
323 
 
 Fig. 254.— Powdered Jalap. x 220. 
 a, Sclerotic or stone cell ; h, b, resin cells ; c, parencbym; 
 d, starch cells ; e, starch ; /, fibres. 
 
 Fig. 255.— Powdered Jalap, mixed with Wood-Dust {Lignum vitcr, or 
 giiaiaciim). x 220. 
 
 a, a, a, Jalap ; b, b, b, wood-dust, 
 
 21 — 2 
 
Ord. RUBIIN^, Fam. RUBIACE^E. 
 
 IPECACUANHA. 
 
 The dried root of Psychotria ipecacuanha^ ord. Riibimce, fam. 
 RubiacecE. 
 
 Histology. — The substance of the root of ipecacuanha is 
 divisible into two main parts : a thick, outer, cortical portion 
 (with some external cork layers), and an inner, fibrous, and 
 woody part, constituting the dense centre of the root. These, 
 when dry, separate very easily from one another, and their 
 intimate structure may be determined with facility from 
 transverse sections. 
 
 Under the microscope the suberised layers are seen to 
 consist externally of deep brown polygonal cells, the parietes 
 of which are indistinctly visible ; these form the epidermis : 
 the rest of the cortex is made up of large colourless cells, 
 the cavities of most of which are filled with minute but 
 exceedingly distinct starch-granules, many being united in 
 twos, threes, and even fours, and consequently rather muller- 
 shaped. All possess a well-marked hilum (Fig. 256). 
 Single acicular crystals of calcium oxalate also are present. 
 
 In transverse sections the central part, or wood (Fig. 257), 
 presents the appearance of a number of slightly angular cells, 
 of different sizes, having a radiated arrangement : those form- 
 ing the outer border and the centre are very much smaller 
 than the intermediate cells. The last are distinguished not 
 only by larger size, but their cavities are, for the most part, 
 filled with starch-granules resembling closely those of the 
 cortex. In longitudinal sections it becomes evident that 
 these cells are wood-fibres and tracheides cut across 
 
 325 
 
326 DRUGS 
 
 (Figs. 257, B, and 258). The walls of all have pores arranged 
 in a spiral manner ; and the fibres are remarkable for con- 
 taining in their cavities an abundance of starch-granules. 
 It is a somewhat unusual circumstance for undoubted wood- 
 fibres to contain starch. There are no reticulated vessels in 
 pecacuanha. 
 
 Extraneous Substances Detectable by the Microscope. — Wheat 
 flour ; foreign wood-fibre. 
 
 [For figures, see pp. 327, 328, and 329.] 
 
IPECACUANHA 
 
 327 
 
 Fig. 256. — Ipecacuanha Root. 
 
 Transverse section of cortex, showing (above) epidermal cork layers 
 and starch cells ( x 220) ; below (A), starch-granules and acicular crystals 
 
 ( X 420). 
 
328 
 
 DRUGS 
 
 
 
 Fig. 257. — Ipecacuanha Root: Central or Woody Portion, x 220. 
 
 A, Transverse section, showing ends of fibres, with contained starch ; 
 B, longitudinal section, showing pores in walls of traclieides and wood-fibres. 
 
IPECACUANHA 
 
 329 
 
 
 
 
 ^^-^ - «>- 
 
 Fig. 258. — Ground Ipecacuanha, x 420. 
 
 a, a. Fragments of brown epidermis ; i, b, cells of cortex, containing starch ; 
 c, c, loose starch-granules and crystals ; d. d, wood-fibres of central part of 
 root. 
 
Ord. CAMPANULIN^, Fam. CUCURBI- 
 TACEyE. 
 
 COLOCYNTH. 
 
 The fruit of the bitter apple, Citrullus colocynihis, ord. Cam- 
 panulince, fam. Cucurhitacece. 
 
 Histology. — The epicarp, or outer portion of the pericarp, 
 consists of a layer of thick-walled polygonal cells, with 
 stomata visible here and there. Several strata of flattened 
 parenchymatous cells follow, and beneath these are five or 
 six tiers of sclerous, or stone cells with thick, radially 
 perforated walls. These three membranes make up the rind, 
 or external part of the gourd (Figs. 259, 260). Within is 
 the pulp, the part of the fruit used in medicine. This is 
 composed of thin-walled, parenchymatous cells, of great size 
 near the central portions of the gourd, but smaller and more 
 elongated towards the exterior. Fibro-vascular bundles, 
 with delicate spiral vessels, are numerous ; and there are 
 large intercellular spaces. 
 
 Powdered colocynth should never contain any of the 
 seeds : the structure of these is shown in Fig. 261. Beneath 
 a transparent hyaline membrane, forming the surface 
 of the seed-coat, is a stratum of fence cells : these are 
 succeeded by many layers of extremely thick-walled scleren- 
 chymatous cells (stellate or stone cells), and these again 
 by a single layer of small cells with rounded outlines. 
 Lastly follows the substance of the seed, which is made up 
 of moderately large starchless cells, charged with aleurone 
 grains. 
 
 Extraneous Substances Detectable in Powdered Colocynth by 
 the Microscope. — Wheat flour ; colocynth seeds, 
 
 [For figtires, see pp. 331 and 332.] 
 
COLOCYNTH 
 
 33^ 
 
 Fig. 259. — CoLocYNTH Fruit, x 100. 
 Transverse section through rind and part of pulp, showing thick-walled 
 cells of epicarp, flattened cells, sclerous layers, and large cells of pulp with 
 tibro-vascular bundles. t^ t^' 
 
332 
 
 DRUGS 
 
 Fig. 260.— Colocvnth Fruit, x 120. 
 Surface view, showing thick walled cells of epicarp, with stomata. 
 
 Fig. 261. — CoLOCYNTH Seed, x 150. 
 
 Showing hyaline membrane, fence cells, sclerous layers, rounded cells, and 
 
 the seed-substance. 
 
[Rhubarb, 
 
Ord. polygon I N/E, Fam. POLYGON ACE^. 
 
 RHUBARB. 
 
 The dried and partly decorticated rhizome of Rhetun pal- 
 matum, R. officinale, and other species, ord. Polygonmcs, fam. 
 Polygonacecs. 
 
 Histology. — The leading features are nodular aggregations 
 of crystals, or crystal clusters, consisting of calcium oxalate : 
 small starch-granules somewhat like those of the pea or 
 bean: large reticulated vessels; and the thin, parenchymatous, 
 cellular tissue of the bast ring, carrying a few starch-granules. 
 
 Extraneous Substances Detectable by the Microscope. — Tur- 
 meric, wheat flour, etc. 
 
 ;34 
 
RHUBARB 
 
 335 
 
 Fig. 262.— Rhubarb, mixed with Wheat Flour. 
 
 r.Z 
 
 The figure shows the oxalate crystals ; part of a reticulated vessel ; bast 
 tissue ; and the small starch -granules of rhubarb, each with a strongly 
 marked hilum : as well as the much larger starch-grains of wheat. 
 
Ord. LILIIFLOR/E, Fam. LILIACE.^. 
 
 SQUILL. 
 
 The dried bulb of Urginea scilla, ord. LiliiflorcE, fam. 
 Liliaccce, with the outer scales removed. 
 
 Histology. — The bulb is chiefly made up of large poly- 
 gonal, parenchymatous cells, with much mucilage ; and 
 spiral vessels also are present. The most characteristic 
 feature, however, is the abundance of crystals of calcium 
 oxalate, of which there are two modes of occurrence : in 
 isolated rectangular prisms of very considerable dimensions, 
 and in bundles or raphides, composed of minute acicular 
 crystals, sometimes crossing one another. These characte,rs 
 are shown in the figure on the opposite page. 
 
 Extraneous Substances Detectable by the Microscope. — Flour ; 
 starches; wood-dust. 
 
 336 
 
SQUILL 
 
 2>3>7 
 
 Fig. 263.— Powdered SyuiLL, mixed with Wheat Flour. 
 
 22 
 
Ord. LEGUMINOS/E, Fam. PAPILIONACE^:. 
 
 LIQUORICE. 
 
 The dried root and underground stem oi Glycyrrhiza glabra, 
 G. glandulifera, and other species, ord. Legiiminoscs, fam. 
 Papilionace(F. 
 
 Histology. — In transverse sections of the root, a linear 
 zone is observed, usually distant from the circumference 
 about a third of the thickness of the root. The part beneath 
 the cork cells and without the zone is traversed by bundles 
 of thick-walled bast-fibres, surrounded by cellular tissue, 
 calcium oxalate crystals being present in many of the cells ; 
 that within by numerous pitted ducts or vessels, some very 
 large, as well as by bundles of wood-fibre (Figs. 264, 265, 
 and 266). The cells of the cellular tissue, the basis of the 
 root, are mostly filled with starch-gramUcs, which are very 
 characteristic : they are small, oval, and generally show an 
 elongated central cavity (Fig. 266). The structure of the 
 wood-fibre is not remarkable : the central cavity is well 
 marked. Medullary rays, separating the bundles of wood- 
 fibre, may be seen in sections of the older roots, and are 
 composed for the most part of cells with rectangular out- 
 lines. The yellow colouring-matter of the root is situated 
 chiefly in the wood-fibre, in the walls of the vessels, and in 
 the bast-fibres. 
 
 Extraneous Substances Detectable by the Microscope. — Wheat ; 
 potato, rice, rye, and other starches ; turmeric ; excess of 
 mineral matter. Liquorice was adulterated formerly to a 
 much greater extent than now.^ 
 
 ^ See paper ' On the Adulteration of Liquorice,' read by Dr. A. H. Hassall 
 before the Medical Society of London, 1856. 
 
 [For figures, see pp. 339, 340, 341, and 342.] 
 
LIQUORICE 
 
 339 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 Fid. 264.— Liquorice Root : transverse section, showing {a) cork lb) cortex 
 {c,c) bundles of bast-fibres, {d) connecting cellular tissue, {e.e) bundles of 
 wood-fibre, with (/, /) vessels cut through , and {g, g) medullary rays x 40 
 
 22 
 
340 
 
 LIQUORICE 
 
 Fig. 265. — Liquorice Root : longitudinal (radial) section, showing most of 
 the foregoing structures : {a) cork, {b) cortex, {c, c) bast-fibres, {d) connect- 
 ing cellular tissue, {e) wood-fibres, (/) vessel, and {g) medullary ray. x 40. 
 
LIQUORICE 
 
 341 
 
 Fig. 266. — Liquorice Root ; transverse section, exhibiting a vessel cut 
 through ; two wood-bundles ; parenchyma, and part of a medullary ray 
 ( X 220) ; also the starch-granules, separately ( x 400). 
 
342 
 
 ADULTERATED LIQUORICE 
 
 Fig. 267. — Liquorice Powder, with an Admixture of Turmeric and 
 East Indian Arrowroot, x 220. 
 
SECTION IV. 
 WATER. 
 
WATER. 
 
 Though producible by tedious operations in the laboratory, 
 chemically pure water does not naturally occur. It is a 
 sanitarian's ideal. Even when from unquestionable sources 
 of supply, fresh water, with which alone this section is 
 concerned, invariably contains in solution mineral salts and 
 other substances derived from the inorganic world. Usually, 
 in addition, various matters are held in suspension, and 
 eventually deposited as sediment. In these last the micro- 
 scopist is chiefly interested : but he can derive useful in- 
 formation, also, from an examination of the soluble salts, left 
 as a residue when water is evaporated to dryness. 
 
 Extraneous Matters Detectable in Water by the Microscope. — 
 Investigations of the objects carried in suspension, or 
 deposited on standing, show that the unfiltered water of a 
 pond or river is a microcosm, with a varied, living, and 
 fecund population. It exhibits a characteristic vegetation 
 and fauna, and there are present many other bodies, inani- 
 mate, but equally worthy of careful study ; some of them 
 mineral, others of organic origin. The living, as well as the 
 dead matters, which the microscope reveals, are frequently of 
 great significance as indicating^ the origin, nature, condition, 
 and dietetic suitability or unsuitability of a particular sample 
 of water. The purer sources of supply, such as deep wells 
 and hill-side springs, 3'ield a product as a rule exhibiting 
 a sparse fauna and flora, comprising few genera and species : 
 but water contaminated with decaying organic matter, as, for 
 instance, with vegetable or animal remains, mill-refuse, or 
 sewage, often teems with microscopic plant and animal life ; 
 because the requisite materials for sustenance and growth 
 are there. Of certain organisms in particular, it can be 
 
 345 
 
346 WATER 
 
 affirmed that their occurrence is a sinister indication. Though 
 not in themselves harmful, they show by their presence that 
 the water is impure. And the greater the number, the higher 
 is the probable degree of pollution. Some organisms there are, 
 whose own life functions, though not hurtful, are productive of 
 inconvenience to water consumers. A third class of organisms, 
 the specific microbes of disease, or pathogenic bacteria, must 
 be regarded as the most fearsome and dangerous of all. 
 Water containing these must for all purposes even remotely 
 associated with dietetics be rejected. Other plants, belong- 
 ing to the same, or microbic family — certain common 
 water-bacteria — may be dismissed as inoffensive, saprophytic 
 forms : they are probably helpful scavengers, and in no way 
 objectionable. In a like harmless fascicle, it is generally 
 agreed, can be placed most of the group of diatoms. 
 
 The late Dr. Arthur Hill Hassall was the first to use the micro- 
 scope systematically to ascertain the nature of the organic 
 matter suspended in drinking water, and to show the practical 
 and sanitary importance of a study of the microscopical fauna 
 and flora observed.^ His book, A Microscopical Examina- 
 tion of the Water Supplied to the Inhabitants of London'^ and 
 the Suburban Districts, published in 1850, following a pre- 
 liminary article by himself on the same subject in the Lancet, 
 produced a sensation. It was shown that the water then 
 supplied by the metropolitan water companies was impure 
 to a degree which at the present time is with difficulty 
 credible. The water of the River Thames, from which at 
 Brentford, Barnes, Battersea, Vauxhall, and Lambeth six of 
 the companies took their supplies, for delivery — unfiltered, or 
 
 ^ ' It was not until 1850 that the study of the organisms in drinking water 
 was recognized as having a practical sanitary value. Dr. Hassal[l], of 
 London, was the first to call attention to it.'— G. C. Whipple, ' The Micro- 
 scopy of Drinking Water,' 1899, p. i. 
 
 ' The fact of the existence in large quantities of living productions belonging 
 to several distinct divisions of the organic world, and for the most part 
 entirely invisible to the common eye, in the waters in general use, was not, I 
 believe, generally known until announced by myself in the pages of the 
 Lancet, some weeks since. ' — Evidence by Dr. Hassall before the General Board 
 of Health. Report of the Board on the Supply of Water to the Metropolis, 
 1850, Appendix HI., p. 57. 
 
 - Samuel Highley, 32, Fleet Street. 
 
WA TER 347 
 
 most defectively filtered — to the public, was scarcely in a 
 worse condition. Indeed, the water supplied by two of the 
 companies actually exceeded, in animalcular contents, the 
 unfiltered water of the Thames. In 1854 ^^' Hassall again 
 examined the w^ater supplied to the metropolis, and the 
 results — which still were extremely unsatisfactory — were 
 embodied in an elaborate monograph, with many fine plates, 
 appended to the Report of the Committee for Scientific 
 Inquiries in relation to the Cholera Epidemic of that year.^ 
 These disclosures powerfully operated in hastening on the 
 adoption of remedial measures. In 1857, after the new 
 Metropolis Water Act had come into operation, Dr. Hassall 
 once more subjected to microscopical examination samples 
 of water supplied from the service pipes of the water 
 companies ; and he reported thereon to the President of the 
 General Board of Health.- A great improvement was mani- 
 fest. The agitation, and subsequent legislation, had already 
 done good. Immense progress has since been made. Haif- 
 a-century has passed ; and it may be accepted as a statement 
 of general accuracy that the quality of the water supplied to 
 London has steadily improved. The difficulty now is con- 
 nected with quantity rather than quality ; not, of course, that 
 the latter is incapable of considerable further improvement. 
 
 Of the Methods of Examining Water Microscopically. 
 — (i) A process adopted by Dr. Hassall, still very generally 
 used, and, with careful working, roughly quantitative, is to 
 leave from i to 2 litres of the water under examination to 
 stand overnight, and to decant all but about 200 c.c. The 
 whole of this, with any sediment, is poured into a conical 
 test-glass with a rounded bottom ; and the vessel, lightly 
 covered, is left for six hours. The supernatant liquid is now 
 decanted, and the residual drops are transferred by a pipette 
 to the slide for microscopical examination. — (2) Dr. J. D. 
 MacDonald proposed to let down a circular disc of glass, or 
 
 ' General Board of Health, Reports of Commissioners, 1854-55, xxi, 
 - Report to the Right Hon. W. Cowper, M.P., 'On the Microscopical 
 Examination of the Metropolitan Water Supply, under the Provisions of the 
 Metropolis Water Act.' — Accounts and Papers, 1S57, ^iii I49' 
 
348 WATER 
 
 small watch-glass, into a litre of the water. After twenty- 
 four hours the water is removed with a siphon, the disc or 
 watch-glass is lifted out of the vessel, placed on filter-paper 
 (to dry the under-surface), covered with a cover-glass, and 
 forthwith microscopically examined. This method answers 
 most satisfactorily when the amount of deposit is small. — 
 (3) A. L. Kean recommended the approximately quantitative 
 * sand method ' : the filtration of 100 c.c. through clean 
 sand, placed in a glass funnel plugged in the stem 
 with wire gauze. After filtration, the sand, carrying 
 any deposit, is washed with i c.c. of water into a watch- 
 glass ; and, after stirring, a part of the liquid decanted 
 from the sand is transferred to a cell holding i cubic 
 millimetre.— (4) 17. T. Sedgwick, G. W. Rafter, G. C. Whipple, 
 and others advise methods in principle based on Kean's. Haif- 
 a-litre of the water under investigation is filtered through 
 a stratum, f inch thick, of white sand or ground quartz, 
 resting on a perforated caoutchouc stopper, provided with 
 a cap of silk bolting cloth, at the bottom of a graduated 
 cylindrical funnel holding 500 c.c. The stopper is removed; 
 and the sand, charged with the sediment from the water, 
 is washed into a wide test-tube with 5 or 10 c.c. of distilled 
 water. The mixture is shaken, and the water, charged with 
 the organisms, is rapidly decanted into another vessel. 
 A definite fractional part, one-tenth, for instance, of this 
 ' concentrate,' after agitation, is microscopically examined 
 in a rectangular, brass-rimmed cell of known area ; and 
 the enumeration of the organisms can be effected by the 
 aid of an eye-piece micrometer. — (5) A . W. Blyth uses a 
 cylindrical tube, holding a little more than a litre and 
 tapering below to a narrow opening which can accurately be 
 closed by a plunger. Ground on to the conical end is a 
 removable shallow glass cap for the reception of the deposit. 
 When this has collected in the cap, the plunger is inserted, 
 and the cap containing the sediment can be removed for 
 microscopical examination of any organisms present. — (6) W. 
 J. Dihdin filters i litre of water through a filter-paper, the 
 contents of which are washed into a ' micro-filter,' made by 
 
WATER 349 
 
 plugging with a mixture of baked clay and kieselguhr the 
 drawn-out capillary end of a piece of combustion-tubing. 
 By drawing through the micro-filter the residual water, 
 by means of a suction-pump, the deposit is collected 
 into a compact, cylindrical layer, which can be measured in 
 millimeters per litre, removed, and microscopically examined.^ 
 It will be observed that the efforts of successive investi- 
 gators have chiefly been directed to the twofold object of 
 expressing numerically — (a) the comparative amounts of 
 deposit, and {b) the quantities of organisms present in different 
 waters. 
 
 Of the Nature and Significance of the Microscopic 
 Flora and Fauna in Water. 
 
 A convenient general term for the microscopic organisms 
 in water is ' plankton,'- a word applied by Dr. V. Hensen, Pro- 
 fessor of Physiology at Kiel, to the minute drifting and floating 
 organisms in lake- and ocean-water. Used in its broadest 
 sense, this term includes the bacterial flora, as well as the 
 less infinitesimal animal and vegetable forms occurring in 
 water. The present volume treats mostly of the last-named, 
 which, indeed, are sufficiently numerous and varied in 
 character. The plankton of water includes : 
 
 1. Living and defunct animals (chiefly ' animalcula,'^ 
 Crustacea, annelida, and entozoa), or their products. 
 
 2. Bacteria or Microbes : (a) Common water bacteria ; 
 (b) pathogenic bacteria; (c) filamentous or thread-bacteria. 
 (Only these last bacteria dealt with in the present work.) 
 
 3. Other forms of plant- life. 
 
 But there are many other objects likely to be met with 
 by the analyst of water; these come under the following 
 categories : 
 
 4. Fragmental organic matters, or debris : (a) Animal ; 
 (6) vegetable. 
 
 ^ 'The Purification of Sewage and Water.' — W. J. Dibdin, 1898, pp. 88-95. 
 
 '- 7rXa7/cTos, roaming, wandering. 
 
 •' Though not always so used in popular speech, the term aninialcnlum, 
 Eng., ' animalcule/ is best restricted to a member of one of the three following 
 classes : Ciliata, Flagcllata, and Rotatoria. 
 
350 
 
 WATER 
 
 5. Inorganic or mineral matter : Clay, sand, chalk, and 
 the like. 
 
 6. Miscellaneous manufactured products, such as threads of 
 linen, cotton, wool, and silk. 
 
 Taking these classes of objects in order, omitting the two 
 first divisions of the bacteria, which are outside the province 
 of this work, and beginning with (i) Living and defunct 
 animals — the following is a summary of the sub-kingdoms, 
 classes, orders or groups, and genera of the more important 
 aquatic animals with which it is desirable that the animal- 
 culist, or student of plankton, should have some acquaintance. 
 The names of certain frequently occurring species are 
 included. A corresponding summary of plant-forms will be 
 found a few pages further on. 
 
 MICROSCOPIC FAUNA. 
 
 Sub-Kingdom. 
 
 PROTOZOA 
 
 [Unicellular organ- 
 isms, or plurl- ^ 
 cellular by ag- 
 gregation. The 
 lowest forms in 
 the Animal King- 
 dom.'] 
 
 Class. 
 
 Rhizopoda 
 
 [Minute, struc- 
 lurele^s, gela- 
 tinous animals, 
 with pseudo- 
 podia. Mouth 
 ansent.l 
 
 Flagellata 
 
 (Mastigo- 
 
 phora) 
 
 Sub-Class, 
 
 Order, or 
 
 Group. 
 
 Genus. 
 
 [Furnished with 
 Ji a g e I I (e. 
 Sometimes in- 
 cluded among^ 
 the Infusoria, 
 and called 
 'Flagellate In- 
 fusoria.' By 
 some authors 
 
 , regarded as 
 
 \ plants.] 
 
 Radiolaria \ 
 \ Pseudopodia . Actinophrys 
 long and ray- I 
 like.] } 
 
 LoBOSA /'Amoeba 
 [Pseudopodia J Arcella 
 variable and "j Difflugia 
 short.] [Euglypha 
 Radiolaria Heterophrys 
 
 Species. 
 
 ^Eichornii 
 Sol 
 viridis 
 
 coli 
 
 Cercomonas 
 
 ho minis 
 
 Coelomonas 
 
 grandis 
 
 Cryptoraonas 
 
 ovata 
 
 Euglena 
 
 viridis 
 
 Lamblia 
 
 intestinal is 
 
 Monas 
 
 at ten 11 a ta 
 
 Peridinium 
 
 cinctum 
 
 Phacus 
 
 longicaudus 
 
 Synura 
 
 uvella 
 
 Trichomonas 
 
 intcstinalis 
 
 Uroglena 
 
 
 1 It is difficult to differentiate the Protozoa from the Protophyta, — unicellular 
 plants which contain chlorophyll, possess a vegetable mode of nutrition, but 
 move, and otherwise resemble animal forms, such as the above Flagellata. 
 Peridinium, for instance, contains starch and chlorophyll. But, as indicated 
 in the text, some authorities would regard Peridinium as a plant. Professor 
 Haeckel, of Jena, proposed that these doubtful organisms should be placed 
 in a special group — the Protista, since called Phytozoa. 
 

 
 VVAihK 
 
 
 35 » 
 
 
 Sub-Class, 
 
 
 
 Sub-Kingdom. Class. 
 
 Order, or 
 Group. 
 
 Genus. 
 
 Species. 
 
 
 f 
 
 
 Ampliileptus 
 Balantidium 
 
 Bursaria 
 
 Coleps 
 Dileptus 
 Enchelys 
 Euplotes 
 
 fascial a 
 
 coli 
 ftrnncatella 
 ivernalis 
 
 hirtns 
 
 folium 
 
 nodulosa 
 
 charon 
 
 
 Ciliata 
 (Infusoria) 
 
 
 Glaucoma 
 
 Nassula 
 
 Oxytricha 
 
 scintillans 
 
 elegans 
 
 gibba 
 
 
 [Furnished with ^ 
 
 
 Panophrys 
 
 chrysalis 
 
 PROTOZOA 
 
 — continued 
 
 cilia, not 
 fl age 1 laj — 
 ' Ciliate In- 
 fusoria.'] 
 
 \ 
 
 Paramecium ^ 
 
 Pleuronema 
 
 Stentor 
 
 Stylonychia 
 Trachelocerca 
 
 Vorticella 
 
 Zuplotes 
 
 i aurelia 
 < caudatum 
 ( chrysalis 
 
 crassa 
 i Millleri 
 \ polymorphus 
 
 his trio 
 
 fcotivallaria 
 \nebulifera 
 
 
 Spongida 
 
 
 Spongilla 
 
 ffluviatilis 
 i(spicula of) 
 
 f i 
 
 
 Albertia 
 
 
 
 
 
 Anurasa 
 
 (aculeata 
 \cochlearis 
 
 
 Rotifera 
 (Rotatoria) 
 
 
 Brachionus 
 
 fpala 
 ypolyacanthus 
 
 
 [Organisms fur- 
 nished with. 
 
 
 Chsetonotus 
 Colurus 
 
 larv.s 
 defiexus 
 
 
 vibratory cilia, 
 
 
 Diglena 
 
 
 
 which, when 
 
 
 IMelicerta 
 
 ringens 
 
 
 moving, re- 
 semble revolv- 
 
 
 IVIicrocodon 
 
 
 
 ing wheels.] 
 
 
 Notholca 
 Polyarthra 
 Rotifer 
 Synchaeta 
 
 platyptcra 
 vulgaris 
 
 ANNULOIDAi 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 Anguillula 
 
 fluviatilis 
 
 
 
 
 Ascaris 
 
 lumbricoidis \ 
 
 
 
 Nematoidea 
 
 
 idracunculus 
 
 
 
 [Round - worms ^ 
 
 Filaria 
 
 < sanguinis ho-\ ^ 
 
 
 
 and thread - 
 
 
 y minis \ ° 
 vermiciilaris 1 t 
 
 
 
 worms. ] 
 
 Oxyuris 
 
 
 S3olecida ^ 
 
 
 Trichina 
 iTrichocephalus 
 
 spiralis )^ 
 dispar 1 1 
 
 
 
 Trematoda 
 
 Bilharzia 
 
 hamatobia i a 
 
 
 
 [Flukes.] 
 
 [Distomum 
 
 hepaticum \ o 
 
 
 
 Cestoidea 
 
 Bothriocephalus lotus | 
 
 
 \ 
 
 [Tape-worms.] 
 
 Taenia 
 
 ( ecmnococcus 
 \ solium J 
 
 to 
 
 ^ irapafii^K-Tjs oblong, oval : from Trapa against and fiiJKos length, in allusion 
 the oval form : cf. Lat. ob-longns (Murray). The vi^ord is sometimes 
 
 incorrectly spelled ' Paramoecium. ' 
 
352 
 
 
 WA TER 
 
 
 
 Sub-Kingdom. 
 ANNULOSA 
 
 Class. 
 Crustacea 
 
 [.Shell - covered, 
 animals, with 
 jointed a p- 
 pendages.] 
 
 Sub-Class, 
 
 Order, or 
 
 Group. 
 
 EXTOMOS- 
 
 traca 
 
 Genus. 
 
 \ 
 'Bosmina 
 Canthocamptus 
 Chydorus 
 Cyclops 
 Cypris 
 Daphnia 
 
 Species. 
 
 longirostns 
 
 minutus 
 
 sphivricus 
 
 qtiadricornis 
 
 virens 
 
 pulex 
 
 [Segmented or 
 ringed.] 
 
 . ... TAcARiNA fHydrachna 
 Arachmda |Tardigrada \Macrobiotus 
 
 cnienta 
 Hnfelandii 
 
 
 Annelida 
 
 Nais 
 
 serpentina 
 
 MOLLUSCA 
 
 Bryozoa / 
 L (Polyzoa) \ 
 
 Pectinatella 
 Plumatella 
 
 magnifica 
 repens 
 
 Some of the foregoing microscopic animals may be met with 
 in water which can safely be consumed. Certain highly 
 organized forms — such as Daphnia, Cyclops, and other Entomo- 
 stracan Crustacea (Figs. 269, 270, 274, 279), for instance, 
 appear to act as scavengers. By feeding on dead organic 
 matter and lower forms of life, they assist in removing 
 impurities. These animals are much larger than the 
 majority of microscopic organisms occurring in water, and 
 are yisible, without a lens, as minute, white, darting specks. 
 Few persons, except, perhaps, lovers of locomotive cheese, 
 populous game, or long-hung venison, would by preference 
 drink water peopled by many of these active little creatures. 
 And such water, though possibly harmless, cannot be pure. 
 If a small number only be present, the indications are more 
 satisfactory : but it is usually considered that a litre of water 
 of great purity should yield no animalcula, nor other animals, 
 living or dead, nor flora (apart from harmless bacteria), and 
 that the sediment, if any, should be wholl}^ mineral matter. 
 
 Other forms included in the above list are seldom discovered 
 in uncontaminated water, and their appearance is a sign of 
 danger. Not in themselves necessarily harmful, they abound 
 in ponds and similar stagnant water, and point to contamina- 
 tion with decaying or putrescent organic matter, often to the 
 
WA TER 353 
 
 presence of sewage. Such forms are the rhizopods, Adi- 
 nophrys (Figs. 273, 279), dindAmceha\ the flagellate organisms, 
 Euglena (Fig. 274), Syntira, Ccrconwnas, Ccelonwnas, also, prob- 
 ably, Pcridinmm (Fig. 274) ; and the ciliate infusoria, especially 
 Paramecium^ aurelia, P. caudatjim, P. chrysalis, Glaucoma 
 scintillans, Oxytricha gibba, Stentor, Vorticclla, and Trachelocerca 
 (see Figs. 268, 271, 275, 280, etc.). The Rotatoria (Figs. 269, 
 275, 277, etc.), A carina, and Tardigrada also are denizens of 
 stagnant water. 
 
 ' These animalcules [the Ciliata, or ciliate infusoria] are 
 generally very voracious, notwithstanding the simplicity of 
 their organization ; and it is noteworthy in a hygienic sense 
 that if the water in which they are found is deficient in organic 
 matter available for food, either from its actual purity, or 
 from the thorough decay of what may have been originally 
 present, the transparency and leanness of their bodies, and 
 the restlessness of their search for aliment, will show that 
 they are in a half-starved condition. . . , The notable 
 presence of the Ciliata . . . would indicate not only stagnant 
 water, but such as may contain organic matter in solution 
 to some relative extent not yet precisely determinable. "' 
 
 More dangerous and disgusting than the infusoria and 
 associated organisms are certain objects which find their 
 way into water contaminated by animal dejecta. Such are 
 the ova and larvae of entozoa, or endoparasites, belonging to 
 the class Scolecida. Occasionally the worms themselves are 
 found. Some of these parasites have been described and 
 figured in a previous section ; and mention has been made of 
 the serious consequences which may arise from their intro- 
 duction into the body (see pp. 238-240, and 246-251). 
 Ascaris hunbricoides (Fig. 205, p. 244), Oxyuris vcrmicularis 
 (Fig. 203 A, B, p. 243), Bothriocephalus, Bilharzia, Distomiim 
 
 ^ Paramecium occurs in considerable numbers only in water highly charged 
 with decaying organic matter. In 1850 Dr. A. H. Hassall discovered innumer- 
 able Paramecia in the water of the Thames, below Brentford ; but higher up at 
 Kew, where the water was purer, they had nearly disappeared. This 
 organism is sometimes named the ' slipper animalcule.' in allusion to its shape. 
 
 - J. D. Macdonald, ' A Guide to the Microscopical Examination of Drinking 
 Water,' 18S3, p. 50. 
 
 23 
 
354 WATER 
 
 (Fig. 203 c, p. 243), Filaria sanguinis hominis, Filaria dracuii- 
 ctilus (the Guinea-worm), and Trichocephalus dispar (Fig. 204, 
 p. 244), have been discovered in water; also the eggs and 
 proglottides of Tmiia solium, T. saginata, and T. echinococcits 
 (Figs. 199, 200, and 201). 
 
 Water to be used for drinking purposes should be sub- 
 jected to a very careful search for the ova of worms belonging 
 to the order of parasites. ' All spherical and ovoid bodies 
 with albuminous-looking and segmented contents should be 
 looked upon with suspicion, until their real nature is deter- 
 mined.'^ By no other means are endoparasitic organisms 
 more likely to be transmitted from one host to another, than 
 by the medium of drinking water. 
 
 A comparatively innocent, minute worm, Anguillula 
 (Figs. 270, 271), not infrequently occurs in water; and a 
 worm-like annelid, Nais (Figs. 273, 276, 279), is also found : 
 but, apart from the fact that their appearance is indirect 
 evidence of impurity, no especially baleful significance 
 attaches to the presence of these organisms. Sewage, 
 however, has sometimes been observed to contain many 
 annelids. 
 
 Certain of the protozoa impart characteristic ' tastes ' and 
 * odours ' to water, or render it turbid and unfit for laundry 
 use. Uroglena (a genus of Flagellata) imparts to water an 
 offensive odour resembling that of cod-liver oil. The odour 
 appears to be associated with the disintegration of the 
 colonies. Synura in 1892 was the cause of a ' cucumber 
 odour ' observed in the water supplied to Boston, Massa- 
 chusetts. Peridinium (Fig. 274) has been known to impart 
 to water ' a very ancient and fish-like ' smell ; and the 
 Bryozoon, Pectinatella, has been accused of a similar offence. 
 
 The spicula of fresh-water sponges are very frequently 
 observed during the microscopical examination of ordinary 
 waters : but they possess no great significance. 
 
 Passing now to (2) Bacteria, and to (3) Other Forms of Plant 
 Life, a summary here follows of the classes or groups, genera, 
 
 1 J. D. Macdonald, 'A Guide to the Microscopical Examination of Drinking 
 Water,' 1883, p. 12. 
 
WATER 
 
 355 
 
 and — in many instances — prominent species, of the fresh- 
 water plants most important to the microscopist of water. 
 
 MICROSCOPIC FLORA. 
 
 Division or 
 Group. 
 
 Class. 
 
 DIATOMS 
 
 Diatomese 
 
 or 
 
 Diatomacese 
 
 [Usually amber- 
 coloured or 
 brown, and 
 sometimes 
 called ' Brown 
 Algaj.' Uni- 
 cellular plants, 
 possessing si- 
 liceous cell- 
 walls, sur- 
 rounded by 
 s a r c o d e. 
 Forms very 
 various : often 
 beau ti fully 
 marked. Some 
 motile.] 
 
 Order, 
 
 Tribe, or 
 
 Family. 
 
 Tr. Raphi- 
 
 DIE^. 
 
 [Possessing a 
 distinct raphe 
 or cleft.) 
 
 Tr. Pseudo- 
 raphidie^ 
 
 [With a false 
 raphe : a mere 
 line or space.] 
 
 Tr. Crypto- 
 
 RAPHIDIEi^. 
 [Without a 
 \ raphe.] 
 
 Genus. 
 
 Amphora 
 
 Cocconeis 
 
 Cocconema 
 
 Cymatopleura^ 
 
 Cymbella 
 
 Gomphonema 
 
 Gyrosygma 
 
 Navicula 
 
 Pinnularia 
 
 Pleiirosigma 
 
 Asterionella- 
 
 Diatoma 
 
 Epithemia 
 
 Eunotia 
 
 Fragilaria 
 
 IVIeridion 
 
 Nitzschia"^ 
 
 Surirella 
 
 Synedra 
 
 VTabellaria 
 
 Cyclotella 
 Melosira 
 
 Species. 
 
 lanceolatum 
 solea 
 
 Ehrenbergii 
 capita turn 
 
 amphisbcetia 
 sphceropJioya 
 yiridis 
 grandis 
 attenuatum 
 formosa 
 vulgar e 
 
 capucina 
 
 circulare 
 telongata 
 \ sygmoidea 
 [Sigma 
 
 fulna 
 
 \miniitissima 
 fenestrata 
 
 operculata 
 varians 
 
 
 / 
 
 {a) Common 
 
 Water 
 Bacteria. ■ 
 
 {b) Patho- 
 genic 
 Bacteria. 
 
 SCHIZO- 
 
 
 
 PHYCE.^ 
 
 [Plants propagated 
 by cell-division : 
 
 Schizomy- 
 cetes 
 
 (f) Filamen- 
 tous OR 
 Thread- 
 
 Beggiatoa alba 
 
 nochlorophyll;or 
 
 [Lower Fungi : 
 
 multiply by 
 cell-division.] 
 
 Bacteria, of 
 
 (colourless filaments) 
 
 chlorophyll plus 
 cyanophyll ; or 
 some other pig- 
 
 especial sig- 
 nificance to 
 
 Cladothrix dichotovia 
 (colourless filaments) 
 
 ment.] 
 
 
 the water- -l 
 
 Crenothrix Ki'ihniana 
 
 
 
 examiner. 
 
 (yellowish-brown filaments, 
 
 
 
 [Fil a m e n t o u s 
 
 coloured by iron) 
 
 
 
 plants, with- 
 o u t chloro- 
 phyll or re- 
 
 Leptothrix ochracea 
 
 
 
 (filaments generally colourless) 
 
 
 \ 
 
 lated p i g - 
 
 
 
 
 ment.] ^ 
 
 =: Sphindocystis (Hassall). 
 
 - Genus founded by Dr. A. H. Hassall. 
 23—2 
 
356 
 
 
 WATER 
 
 
 
 Division or 
 Group. 
 
 Order, 
 Class Tribe, or 
 Family. 
 
 Genus. 
 
 Species. 
 
 
 r Cyano- 
 phycese 
 
 (Blue-green 
 
 f 
 
 Anabaena 
 
 (' circinalis 
 \ flos-aqucB 
 
 
 algae) 
 
 
 Chroococcus 
 
 
 
 [Unicellular or 
 
 
 Hassallia 
 
 hyssoidea 
 
 
 mult icellular 
 
 
 
 
 
 plants, often 
 associated by 
 
 
 (Bekkel: afterwards Trevisan : 
 
 
 
 later Bornet 
 
 and Flahault') 
 
 SCHIZO- 
 PHYCEiE 
 
 successive cell - 
 division into 
 filaments, or 
 
 
 Lyngbya 
 
 
 — continued 
 
 irregular o r 
 spherical mas- 
 ses, containing 
 c h 1 r o p hyll 
 and some 
 other pigment. 
 Colour, blue- 
 green, orange, 
 red, brown, or 
 violet : never 
 ^ bright green. J 
 
 
 IVIicrocystis 
 
 Nostoc 
 
 Oscillatoria 
 
 Rivularia 
 
 Scytonema 
 
 Sirosiphon 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 ^ Fam. Des- 
 
 MIDIACE^ 
 
 Closterium 
 
 f lunula 
 \ accrostim 
 
 
 
 [Unicellular or 
 
 Cosmarium 
 
 
 
 
 m u Iticellular, 
 
 
 
 
 
 bright green ^ 
 
 Desmidium 
 
 
 
 
 colour ; cells 
 
 
 
 
 
 divided into 
 
 Penium 
 
 Brebissonii 
 
 
 
 two equal 
 halves.] 
 
 ^Spheerozosma 
 
 vertehratum 
 
 TRUE ALG^ 
 
 
 Fam. Zyg- 
 
 NEMACE.^ 
 
 Mesocarpus- 
 
 
 [Plants very vari- 
 
 
 [Multicellular 
 
 
 
 ous : some uni- 
 
 
 c y 1 i n d r i cai j 
 
 Spirogyra 
 
 
 cellular ; others 
 similar to pro- 
 
 Chloro- 
 
 cells, joined 
 and forming 
 
 Staurocarpus^ 
 
 
 tozoa ; others 
 branching com- 
 
 phycese 
 
 articulated 
 simple 
 
 Zygnema 
 
 
 plex forms, re- ^ 
 
 (The true, or 
 
 threads.] 
 
 
 
 sembling higher 
 planrs. Contain 
 starch and chloro- 
 
 green, algae) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rPalmella 
 
 
 phyll. Colour, in 
 
 
 
 Pediastrum 
 
 Boryanum 
 
 th= fresh -water 
 
 
 Ord. Proto- 
 
 Protococcus 
 
 viridis 
 
 forms, usually 
 green.] 
 
 
 COCCOIDE^ 
 
 
 ( quadricauda 
 - acutus 
 yobtusus 
 
 
 [Unicellular :< 
 
 Scenedesmus 
 
 
 
 frequent] y 
 
 
 
 
 grouped into 
 clusters.] 
 
 Tetraspora 
 
 
 
 
 Urococcus (Oura- 
 
 
 
 
 coccus)'^ 
 
 
 
 
 Ord. VOLVO- 
 
 [Eudorina 
 Pandorina 
 Volvox 
 
 elegans 
 
 
 
 CINE^ 
 
 morum 
 
 
 UUnicellular : in 
 \ ^ clusters.] 
 
 globator 
 
 ^ Genus allied to the Oscillatoriaceae, named after Dr. A. H. Hassall. 
 - Genus defined and established by Dr. Hassall. 
 3 Hassall. 
 

 
 ir.4r£:A' 
 
 357 
 
 
 
 Order, 
 
 
 Division or 
 Group. 
 
 Class. 
 
 Tribe or 
 
 F.^MILY. 
 
 Genus. Species. 
 
 
 r 
 
 / Ord. Con- 
 
 
 
 
 fervoide.^ 
 
 Conferva oerea 
 
 
 
 [M u Iticellular :■ 
 
 Ulothrix 
 
 
 
 simple or 
 
 Cladophora 
 
 
 Chloro- 
 
 branched fila- 
 ments.] 
 
 Chaetophora 
 
 
 phyceae— ^ 
 
 
 
 TRUE ALG^ 
 
 continued 
 
 Ord. SiPHo- 
 
 
 — continued ^ 
 
 
 NE.« 
 
 
 
 [Unicellular^ 
 
 Vaucheria 
 
 
 
 cells tubular, 
 
 
 
 often branched.] 
 
 
 
 ( Ord. Char- 
 
 r 
 
 
 Charoidese 
 
 ace^ 
 
 1 (Stone worts) 
 
 Chara 
 Nitella 
 
 
 '^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 / Earn. Sac- 
 
 Saccharomyces cerevisia 
 
 
 
 charomy- 
 cetes 
 
 
 
 (Yeasts) 
 
 
 
 Zygomy- 
 cetes 
 
 Mucor miicedo 
 
 EUMYCETES 
 
 
 AsCOMY- 
 
 
 (The Higher 
 
 
 cetes 
 
 Aspergillus glaucus 
 
 Fungi) < 
 
 \ 
 
 [With endogen-- 
 
 (Yellowish-green mould) 
 
 [Destitute of starch 
 and chlorophyll.] 
 
 
 ous spores en- 
 closed in an 
 ascus or sac] 
 
 Penicillium glancum, etc. 
 (Blue mould ■ 
 
 Leptomitus 
 [Found in sewers and on the banks 
 of foul streams.! 
 
 
 
 Oomycetes - 
 
 Saprolegnia ferox 
 
 [Parasitic on animals or plants in 
 water : the cause of ' salmon 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 ^ disease.'] 
 
 
 
 { 
 
 /Lemna 
 
 VARIOUS 
 
 
 (Duck-weed) 
 
 PLANTS 
 
 ' 
 
 
 Potamogeton 
 
 (More highly 
 
 
 _ 
 
 (Pond-weed) 
 
 organized) 
 
 
 
 Sphagnum 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 V 
 
 (Bog-moss) 
 
 It has been stated that bacteria are mostly omitted from this 
 book : but certain bacterial plants known as the filamentous 
 or thread bacteria, presenting superficial resemblances to the 
 Oscillatoriacese, are so especially indicative of a high degree 
 of organic contamination that they are included in the 
 
358 WATER 
 
 summary, as of almost prime importance to the scientific 
 examiner of water. 
 
 Many of the plant-forms named in the above summary are 
 of exceedingly common occurrence in water, and only a 
 Hmited number can be regarded as suspicious or objection- 
 able. These latter include the Eumycetes or Higher Fungi 
 (Figs. 268, 271, 273, 280), the hyphae and spores of which 
 (particularly of such forms as Leptomitns) occur more often 
 in sewage than in water : some of the thread bacteria, 
 especially Beggiatoa alba, the presence of which generally 
 indicates sewage contamination,^ Cladothrix, and possibly 
 Leptothrix (Figs. 278, 279, 281, 282) : also certain of the 
 CyanophycecE, or bluish-green water-plants, such as Nostoc, 
 Anabc^na, and the Oscillatoriacece, which can flourish only in 
 stagnant, organically-polluted water. Anabcena is especially 
 objectionable, because it impaits what has been described 
 as a ' pig-pen ' odour ; and a suffocating smell has been 
 attributed to Lyngbya. Beggiatoa is sometimes the cause of 
 an odour of sulphuretted hydrogen. 
 
 The green water-plants, Chlorophycece, or true Algce 
 (Figs. 268, 271, 273, etc.), are not, as a rule, considered 
 suspicious or hurtful : but some, such as Volvox, and Pan- 
 dorina (Fig. 271), impart a fish-oil odour; and the Desinids 
 (Figs. 273, 277), included in this group, are very often found in 
 surface water, more or less impure. The Diatoinacece, a group 
 of very beautiful microscopic objects, and among the most 
 commonly occurring of aquatic plants, have no hygienic 
 importance; though certain genera, such as Asterionella 
 (Figs. 270, 271, 282), Meridion, and Tabellaria, have been 
 observed to impart an aromatic odour. Many diatoms are 
 represented in the illustrations which follow, notably in 
 Figs. 269, 270, 271, 273, 274, 275, 280, and 282. 
 
 Fossil diatoms are sometimes met with in the sediments 
 of river waters. Fig. 272 shows some examples discovered 
 
 * Beggiatoa, one of the sulphur-storing fungi, is so commonly occurrent in 
 sewage effluents, where it sometimes chokes the pipes, that it is colloquially 
 termed ' the Sewage Fungus.' See Royal Commission on Sewage Disposal, 
 Interim Report, 1902, for many references to this plant. 
 
11^.^ TER 359 
 
 by the author in the deposit from a specimen, submitted to 
 him for analysis, of water from the River Para, Brazil. 
 
 4. Fragmental Organic Matters, or Debris. — Among the 
 most offensive objects, of human or animal origin, which 
 have been discovered in water intended for drinking use are : 
 fragments of voluntary or striated muscle- fibre (Figs. 268 and 
 275 : see also, ante, Fig. ig6, p. 235), probably derived from 
 human or animal dejecta present in sewage ; human hair ; 
 the hairs of animals (Figs. 268, 270, 276, 279); small, non- 
 nucleated epithelial scales from the human cuticle ; and the 
 larger, nucleated scales of epithelium from the buccal and 
 other mucous surfaces. In addition may be mentioned the 
 scales of lepidoptera, and various other "parts of insects ; 
 also the barbs or spikes of feathers. All these objects, 
 entirely foreign to water of average purity, and some of the 
 miOSt self-evident significance, have from time to time been 
 observed. 
 
 Among the very numerous fragmental vegetable matters, 
 not infrequently to be detected in impure water, are pieces 
 of wood-fibre, and threads of cotton (Fig. 274) and flax, 
 derived from paper : also particles of those cellular and 
 vascular elements of plants, described in other sections of 
 this book — e.g., cuticular, epidermal, and parenchymatous 
 tissues ; scalariform, reticulated, spiral, and other forms of 
 vessels ; the pitted tracheides, or ' discoidal tissue,' of deal 
 and other coniferous woods (see Fig. 122, p. 133) ; phloem, 
 bast, or liber fibres ; multicellular and simple vegetable hairs 
 (Figs. 275 and 276) ; pollen grains (Figs. 123 and 124, under 
 Honey) ; starch-granules (Fig. 275 also Figs. 3, 7, 9, 11, 
 I3» J^5) etc.. Section I.) ; and the cells of saccharomycetes and 
 torulae (Figs. 26 and 27, p. 41). Fragments of the husk of 
 wheat, barley, and oat are by no means uncommon (Figs. 2, 
 6, and 10, Section I., and Figs. 275, 276, 278, 2S1, this 
 section). 
 
 5. Inorganic or Mineral Matter. — Water of great organic 
 purity may contain in suspension a considerable amount of 
 finely divided mineral matter. Clay, marl, chalk, and sand 
 are often present, and impart a characteristic turbidity, dis- 
 
36o WATER 
 
 appearing only very slowly, in the cases of clay and marl 
 especially, as the liquid gradually becomes clear by the sub- 
 sidence of the floating particles. The cloudiness caused by 
 clay and fine sand is yellowish-white. The microscopical 
 examination of siliceous matter, so deposited, usually reveals 
 many thin, angular, colourless particles (Figs. 272, 278) : 
 sometimes intermingled and liable to be confused with 
 splinters or scales of glass, derived from the vessel or cover- 
 glasses used. Occasionally, fragments of sand exhibit water- 
 worn or rounded outlines : this is more often the case with 
 calcareous and argillaceous particles, of which the first-named 
 are identified by their ready solubility in acids. 
 
 6. Manufactured Products. — These comprise numerous kinds 
 of factory or domestic refuse, and may be of animal or vege- 
 table origin. Wool, cotton, hemp-fibres from string, silk 
 threads, fragments of wood, straw (Fig. 278), bran, and the 
 like, are to be found. Some of these have already been 
 mentioned under fragmental organic matters. 
 
 In conclusion, reference must again be made to the value, 
 in certain cases, of a microscopical examination of the solid 
 residue of the evaporation of water : whether it be crystalline 
 or amorphous ; if the former, the shape of the crystals, how 
 acted upon by reagents, etc. 
 
 The fifteen figures which follow include representations 
 of the more common forms constituting the plankton, or 
 microscopic fauna and flora, likely to be discovered in water 
 more or less charged with organic matter in a decaying con- 
 dition. Most of the miscellaneous objects, to which allusion 
 has been made, are also figured. The numerous organisms 
 shown (except those in Fig. 272) were present in the 
 unfiltered, or very imperfectly filtered, Thames and other 
 water supplied to London in 1850-55. The nature of the 
 vegetable and animal forms discovered, and of the miscel- 
 laneous matters associated therewith, will be seen to furnish 
 the clearest proofs of the sewage-polluted and repulsive con- 
 dition of the water at that period— now, fortunately, in the 
 ' historic past ; ' and water-sediments, exhibiting similar 
 characteristics, even in far smaller degree, should be con- 
 
WATER 361 
 
 sidered weighty evidence against the quahty and wholesome- 
 ness of the waters which have yielded them. The classified 
 summaries on pp. 350-352 and 355-357, together with the 
 following illustrations, should be serviceable in the identi- 
 fication of the most common algae, infusoria, Crustacea, and 
 other forms of plankton likely to be met with in specimens 
 of river and shallow-well water. 
 
 \^F or figures, and names of the objects, see pp. 362-391.] 
 
362 
 
 WATER 
 
 
 Fig. 268. — Microscopic Fauna and Flora, or Plankton, of Water 
 and miscellaneous debris. 
 
 [Magjiification of objects in this and the following figures, 
 X 220, unless otherwise stated.] 
 
WA TER 363 
 
 FAUNA. 
 
 CiLiATA (Infusoria). 
 a, a, Paramecium aurelia.^ 
 
 FLORA. 
 
 DlATOMACE^. 
 
 c, Cyclotella opevculata ; 
 
 g, g, Nitzschia (H assail) linearis, 
 
 Chlorophyce.e (Alg.e). 
 6, Pediastrum Boryanum. 
 
 EuMYCETES (The Higher Fungi). 
 /, Hyphce. 
 
 MISCELLANEA. 
 
 d, Animal hair (wool) ; 
 
 e, Grit and organic debris ; 
 h, Muscle-fibre. 
 
 X 220. 
 
 1 The unicellular organism, Paramecium, is reproduced sexually and 
 asexually. The opposite figure shows a stage of the first-named process 
 ('conjugation') — two pairs of individuals conjugating for the purpose of the 
 fusion of the male and female pronuclei. Fig. 277, p. 380, illustrates in the 
 same genus asexual reproduction, or agamogenesis, the simple transverse 
 fission, or dividing, of one individual organism into two other cells. 
 
364 
 
 WATER 
 
 Fig. 269. — Plankton. 
 
WATER 365 
 
 FAUNA. 
 
 CiLiATA (Infusoria). 
 i, i, Coleps hirhis ; 
 j, Stylonychia histrto ? 
 k, Enchelys nodulosa. 
 
 ROTIFERA. 
 
 g, A nurcEa cochlearts ; 
 h, Anurcea aciileata. 
 
 Entomostraca. 
 h, Daphnia piilex, mas. : 1 
 
 d, Daphnia puhx, fern, j *'^* 
 
 FLORA. 
 
 D1AT0MACE.E. 
 
 a J a, Synedra ulna ; 
 
 c, Cyclotella operculata ; 
 
 e, Nitzschia (H assail) sigmoidea ; 
 
 f, Pleurosigma attenuatum, 
 
 X 220. 
 
366 
 
 WATER 
 
 Fig. 270. — Plankton. 
 
WATER 367 
 
 FAUNA. 
 
 CiLiATA (Infusoria). 
 /, /, Parameciinn chrysalis ; 
 d, Vorticella nehiilifera. 
 
 Entomostraca. 
 c, Bosmina longirostris. X 100. 
 
 Nematoidea. 
 b, A ngtcillula fluviatilis. 
 
 FLORA. 
 
 Diatomace.e. 
 a, a, Asterionella (Hassall)/or;;zosa 
 e, Plenrosigma atteniiatum ; 
 gf Himantidium undid atiun (?) 
 h, Cymhella Ehrenbergii ; 
 i, Nitzschia Sigma (?) 
 
 MISCELLANEA. 
 
 7, ;, Spicula of fresh-water sponge ; 
 k, Hair of mammal (wool). 
 
 X 220. 
 
3(^^ 
 
 WATER 
 
 Fig. 271. — Plankton. 
 
WATER .369 
 
 FAUNA. 
 
 CiLiATA (Infusoria). 
 a, Paramecium aurelia ; 
 
 a, a, Panophrys chrysalis ; 
 c, Coleps hirtus ; 
 
 b, Vorticella convallaria. 
 
 Nematoidea. 
 0, Anguillula fluviatilis. 
 
 FLORA. 
 
 Diatomace^. 
 
 /, Navicula amphisbcena ; 
 
 g, Navictda sphcerophora ; 
 
 h, h, Asterionella (Hassall)/orwosa; 
 
 i, Fragilaria capucina. 
 
 Chlorophyce.e (Alg^). 
 
 d, Pandorina mormn ; 
 
 e, Scenedesmus quadricauda. 
 
 Eumycetes. 
 m, Hyphge. 
 
 MISCELLANEA. 
 
 k, Brown active sporules ; 
 /, Stationary green sporules ; 
 n, Organic and earthy matter. 
 
 X 220. 
 
 24 
 
370 
 
 WATER 
 
 Fig. 272. — Deposit from Water of the River ParA, Brazil, containing 
 Fossil Diatoms. 
 
 [E. G. Clayton, dgl.\ 
 
WATER 371 
 
 FLORA. 
 
 DlATOMACE^. 
 
 b, Cocconema ; 
 
 c, c, Isthmia(?) ; 
 a, a\ Mastogonia ; 
 dy df Nitzschia ; 
 
 a, a, Stephanodiscus. 
 
 MISCELLANEA. 
 
 e, Sand, and earthy matter. 
 /, Spiculum of sponge. 
 
 X220. 
 
 24 — 2 
 
372 
 
 WATER 
 
 Fig. 273. — Plankton. 
 
WATER 373 
 
 FAUNA. 
 
 Rhizopoda. 
 /,/, Actinophrys Sol. ; 
 g, Actinophrys viridis. 
 
 CiLiATA (Infusoria). 
 
 c, Euplotes charon ; 
 
 d, d, Glaucoma scintillans ; 
 
 e, A mphileptus fasciola. 
 
 Rotifp:ra. 
 b, Brachionus polyacanthus, 
 
 Annelida. 
 a, Nais. X 12. 
 
 FLORA. 
 
 DiATOMACEtE. 
 
 Uf Cyclotella operculata ; 
 
 0, Nitzschia (H assail) Sigma ; 
 
 p,pf Synedra minutissirna ; 
 
 r, Melosira varians ; 
 
 Vf Pleurosigma attenuatum. 
 
 Cyanophyce^. 
 
 tj Tetrapedia (?). 
 
 Chlorophyce^ (Alg^). 
 h, Pediastrwn Boryanum. X 100. 
 i, Closterium lunula ; 
 k, Scenedesmus quadricauda ; 
 I, Scenedesmus acutus ; 
 m, Scenedesmus obtusus. 
 
 EUMYCETES. 
 
 s, HyphcB. 
 
 MISCELLANEA. 
 
 u. Organic debris and earthy matter. 
 
 X (except a, and h) 200. 
 
374 
 
 WATER 
 
 Fig. 274. — Plankton. 
 
WATER 375 
 
 FAUNA. 
 
 Mastigophora (Flagellata). 
 
 m, m, Euglena viridis ; 
 0, Peridinmm cinctum ; 
 
 CiLiATA (Infusoria). 
 d^ Paramecium chrysalis. 
 
 Entomostraca. 
 e, Cyclops quadricornis. X lOO. 
 
 FLORA. 
 
 Diatomace^. 
 
 a, Cyclotella operculata; 
 
 b, Synedra ulna ; 
 
 c, Fragilaria capucina; 
 
 hf Himantidium undulatum (?) ; 
 /", Nitzschia linearis ; 
 /, Cocconema lanceolatum ; 
 n, Pleurosigma attenuahim. 
 
 CHLOROPHYCEiE (AlG^). 
 
 g, Pediastrum Boryanum ; 
 k, Scenedesmus quadricauda. 
 
 MISCELLANEA. 
 
 i, Fibres of cotton. 
 
 X 220. 
 
3>7^ 
 
 WATER 
 
 Fig. 275. — Plankton etc. 
 
WATER 3^7 
 
 FAUNA. 
 
 CiLiATA (Infusoria). 
 
 b, Stentor Miilleri ; 
 
 c, Bursaria vernalis ; 
 
 d, Paramecium aurelia ; 
 e^ Glaucoma scintillans ; 
 /, Oxytricha gibba ; 
 
 g, Vorticella convallaria ; 
 h, Coleps hirttis. 
 
 ROTIFERA. 
 
 a, Brachiomis amphiceros ; 
 y, Polyarthra platyptera (?). 
 
 FLORA. 
 
 DiATOMACE.E. 
 
 /, Melosira variants ; 
 m, Cyclotella operculata ; 
 11 J Naviciila arnphisbceiia ; 
 0, Cymatopletira (W. Smith \) Solea ; 
 p, Nitzschia sigmoidea. 
 
 CHLOROPHYCE.E (AlG^). 
 
 i, Pediastrum Boryanum ; 
 k, Scenedesmus acutus. 
 
 MISCELLANEA. 
 
 r, Fragments of muscular fibre ; 
 
 s, Starch granules of wheat ; 
 
 t. Starch; 
 
 iiy Husk of wheat ; 
 
 Wy Hairs of wheat ; 
 
 Xy Earthy and organic matter. 
 
 X 220. 
 
 ^ Genus founded by A. H. Hassall, as Sphinctocystis — a better name than 
 W. Smith's.— E. G. C. 
 
378 
 
 WATER 
 
 Fig. 276. — Plankton, etc. 
 
WATER 379 
 
 FAUNA. 
 
 CiLiATA (Infusoria). 
 
 b, b, Paramecium aurelia ; 
 j, Panophrys chrysalis ; 
 
 k, Amphileptus fasciola. 
 
 Annelida. 
 a, Nais. x 12. 
 
 FLORA. 
 
 Diatomace^. 
 
 c, c, Cyclotella operculata ; 
 /, Nitsschia sigmoidea. 
 
 Chlorophyce^ (Alg^). 
 
 d, Ulothrix mucosa ; 
 
 iy Pediastrum Boryanum. 
 
 MISCELLANEA. 
 
 Cf Hair of mammal (wool) ; 
 g, Husk of wheat; 
 h, Hair of wheat. 
 
 X 220. 
 
38o 
 
 WATER 
 
 Fig. 277.— Plankton. 
 
WA TER 381 
 
 FAUNA. 
 
 CiLiATA (Infusoria). 
 
 a, Paramecium chrysalis ; ^ 
 
 b, h, Bursaria truncatella ; 
 d, d, Glaucoma scintillans ; 
 h, Holophrya ovum. 
 
 ROTIFERA. 
 
 Cf Brachionus pala, 
 FLORA. 
 
 DlATOMACE^. 
 
 c, c, Cyclotella operculata ; 
 /, Navicula viridis. 
 
 Chlorophyce^ (Alg^). 
 g^ g, Closterium acerosum. 
 
 X 220. 
 
 1 The figure shows agamooeuesis, or the asexual reproduction of this 
 organism, by simple transverse fission of the cell. See ante, p. 363. 
 
382 
 
 WATER 
 
 Fig. 278. — Plankton. 
 
WATER 383 
 
 FAUNA. 
 
 CiLiATA (Infusoria). 
 
 a, a, Paramecium aurelia ; 
 h, h, Glaucoma scintillans ; 
 
 b, Oxytricha gibha. 
 
 FLORA. 
 
 DlATOMACE^. 
 
 i, Stauroneis acuta (?). 
 
 SCHIZOMYCETES. 
 
 e, e, Leptothrix, filaments of. 
 
 CHLOROPHYCEiE (AlCE). 
 
 /, SphcerozGsma vertebratum, filament of 
 gf Pcnium Brebissomi. 
 
 MISCELLANEA. 
 
 c, Grit, sand, debris, etc. ; 
 
 d, Fragment of straw. 
 
 X 220. 
 
334 
 
 WATER 
 
 Fig. 279. 
 
WA TER 385 
 
 FAUNA. 
 
 Rhizopoda. 
 
 e, e, A ctinophrys Eichornii, 
 
 Mastigophora (Flagellata). 
 k, Anthophysa vegetans. 
 
 CiLiATA (Infusoria). 
 
 b, b, Parameciwn chrysalis ; 
 d, d, Oxytricha gibba, ^ 
 /, /, Amphileptus fasciola. 
 
 Entomostraca. 
 c, Daphnia pidex. 
 
 X 12. 
 
 Annelida. 
 
 a, Nais. 
 
 X 12. 
 
 FLORA. 
 
 DiATOMACE.E. 
 
 /, Cyclotella operculata ; 
 gj Pleurosigma atteniuitum. 
 y, Amphora ovalis. 
 
 SCHIZOMYCETES. 
 
 i, Leptothrix, filaments of. 
 
 MISCELLANEA. 
 
 h, Hair of mammal (wool). 
 
 X 220. 
 
 25 
 
386 
 
 WATER 
 
 Fig. 280. 
 
WATER 387 
 
 FAUNA. 
 
 Mastigophora (Flagellata). 
 i, Phacus longicaudus. 
 
 CiLiATA (Infusoria). 
 Cy c, Paramechiin aurelia '; 
 g, Oxytricha gihba ; 
 j, Dileptus folium. 
 
 FLORA. 
 
 DlATOMACE^. 
 
 a, a, Melosira varians ; 
 
 b, b, Cyclotella operculata ; 
 
 h, Pleurosigma attemiatwn ; 
 d, Synedra ulna ; 
 k, Cocconema lanceolatum. 
 I, Campy lodisctis costatus. 
 
 EUMYCETES. 
 
 Cy Hyphce. 
 
 MISCELLANEA. 
 
 /, Spicidum of fresh-water sponge. 
 
 X 220. 
 
 25—2 
 
388 
 
 WATER 
 
WATER 389 
 
 FAUNA. 
 
 CiLiATA (Infusoria). 
 a, Paramecium atirelia. 
 a, A mphileptiis fasciola. 
 
 FLORA. 
 
 DlATOMACE^. 
 
 by Nitzschia sigmoidea. 
 
 dy Himantidium imdulatum ? 
 
 h, Pleurosigina attenuatum. 
 
 h Cymatopleura = Sphinctocystis Solea. 
 
 SCHIZOMYCETES. 
 
 e, Leptothrix, filaments of. 
 
 Chlorophyce^ (Alg^). 
 c, c, Ulothrix ; 
 g, g, Conferva cerea, 
 
 MISCELLANEA. 
 
 /, ^usk of oat. 
 
 X 220. 
 
390 
 
 WATER 
 
 Fig. 282, 
 
WATER 391 
 
 FAUNA. 
 
 CiLiATA (Infusoria). 
 ^, Vorticella nebulifera ; 
 c, Paramecium aiirelia ; 
 i, Glaucoma scintillans. 
 
 FLORA. 
 
 DiATOMACE.E. 
 
 b, Asterionella formosa ; 
 d, Synedra idna ; 
 Cj Himantidium undulatum ? 
 gj Fragilaria capticina ; 
 h, Melosira varians, 
 
 SCHIZOMYCETES. 
 
 /, Leptothrix, filaments of. 
 
 X 220. 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
GLOSSARY 
 
 Achene : a monospermal, one-celled, hard, dry fruit ; indehiscent, and 
 
 separate from the integuments of the seed. 
 Acicular : needle-shaped. 
 Aggregate, Aggregation : a combination into a cluster, of crystals or 
 
 starch-grains. 
 A.leurone : granular and crystalloid proteid matter, occurring in seeds. 
 Aleurone Cells : usually, cells containing aleurone ; in the cereal grains, 
 
 cells containing fat-globules surrounded by proteid matter. 
 Alveoli (plural of Alveolus) : regular superficial cavities. 
 Amylodextrin : an amorphous, gummy substance, intermediate between 
 
 starch and dextrin. 
 Anastomosing : uniting, so as to form a network. 
 Anisodiametric : possessing unequal diameters. 
 Areolae (plural of Areola) : separate areas or spaces on a surface. 
 Arillus, or Aril : an additional covering or appendage to a seed, known 
 
 as the seed-mantle. 
 Ascospore : a spore contained within an ascus. 
 Ascus : a sac ; a species of fungal spore-case. 
 Bast : fibre composed of greatly elongated cells, forming the outer part 
 
 of a fibro-vascular bundle in a stem. 
 Bast Cells ( ^^^ick-walled flexible cells of great length, tapering to a 
 Bast Fibres i poii^t at each extremity, forming the outer fibrous 
 
 ( portion (liber or phloem) of a fibro-vascular bundle. 
 Bract : a modified leaf attached to a flower-stalk. 
 Bractiole : a smaller bract beneath a separate flower. 
 Cambium : the middle part of a fibro-vascular bundle. 
 Carpel : a pistil, or component of a pistil. 
 Cell-Bridges : bridges of communication between adjacent cells, a-, in 
 
 involuntary muscle-fibre. 
 Chlamydospore : the brood cell, resting cell, or gcuiina of a fungus. 
 Chromatophore : a pigment granule. 
 
 Cleistocarp : the closed vessel investing the asci of a fungus. 
 Cocci : a group of bacteria. 
 
 CoUenchyma : tissue in which the angles of the cell-walls are thickened. 
 Colostrum : milk first secreted after parturition. 
 Columella : the pillar occupying the centre of a fungal sporangium. 
 
 395 
 
396 GLOSSARY 
 
 Conidiophore : a mycelial branch, bearing conidia. 
 
 Conidium (plural, Conidia) : a fungal unicellular reproductive body. 
 
 Cortex : rind or bark. 
 
 Cotyledon : the embryonic lobe, or first embryonic leaf of a plant. 
 
 Crenate : provided with marginal curved indentations. 
 
 Cross Cells : cells with the major axes transversely disposed. 
 
 Crystal Clusters, Crystal Rosettes: aggregations of crystals, usually 
 non-acicular. 
 
 Curcumin : the orange-yellow colouring matter of turmeric. 
 
 Dissepiment : a partition or division of the ovary. 
 
 Distal : terminal, or remote from the central portion of an organ. 
 
 Drupe : a fruit consisting of a monospermal carpel, fleshy externally, 
 ligneous within. 
 
 Drupelet : a little drupe. 
 
 Embryo : the rudimentary plantlet present in the seed. 
 
 Endocarp : the innermost stratum of the pericarp, nearest to the seed. 
 
 Endoderm : the inner cell-layer or layers in a seed coat. 
 
 Endosperm : the protein produced within the embryo-sac. 
 
 Endospore : a spore formed within the fruit-bearing organ of a fungus. 
 
 Epicarp : the outermost coating of the pericarp. 
 
 Epidermis : the surface cell-layer of plants. 
 
 Eumycetes : the higher fungi. 
 
 Exospore : see Conidium. 
 
 Fasciculi : little bundles or packets. 
 
 Fence Cells : parallel-walled, elongated cells, disposed perpendicularly 
 to a surface, so as to resemble a wooden fence or paling. 
 
 Fibril, Fibrilla : a minute fibre. 
 
 Fibro -vascular Bundle : a sheaf of fibres and vessels. 
 
 Filiform : thread-like. 
 
 Gemma (plural, Gemma') : see CJilamydosporc. 
 
 Glandular Hair : one provided with a gland or cellular secreting organ. 
 
 Gluten Cells : aleurone cells (which see). 
 
 Hassallian Bodies : elongated bodies, first observed by Dr. A. H. 
 Hassall in the cacao-bean (pp. loi, 105). Sometimes called ' Mits- 
 cherhchian bodies,' from the supposed discoverer, A. Mitscherlich. 
 
 Hesperidin : a glucoside present in the orange. 
 
 Hilum : the cavit}' or mark characterizing many starch-granules ; the 
 organic centre of a granule, or portion which was at first formed. 
 
 Hyaline : colourless or transparent ; glass-like. 
 
 Hypha : the filament or thread of a fungus. 
 
 Hypbomycetes : filamentous fungi ; also used as a synonym for Eumy- 
 cetes (which see). 
 
 Hypoderm : the cells just beneath the epidermis. 
 
 Imbricated : overlapping. 
 
 Indehiscent : without regular openings. 
 
GLOSSARY 397 
 
 Intercellular Space : a non-cellular cavity among the cells. 
 
 Internode : the space between two nodes of a plant-stem. 
 
 Isodiametric : of equal diameters. 
 
 Lacuna (plural, Lacuiuv) : see Iiiicrcclhilar Space. 
 
 Lamina : the flat or extended part of a leaf. 
 
 Latex Tubes ( ramiiied and anastomosing ducts, containing the 
 
 Laticiferous Tubes 1 latex, or milky juice, of many plants. 
 
 Liber : see Bast 
 
 Lumen : the cavity of a cell. 
 
 Medullary Rays : lines radiating from the centre to the bark. 
 
 Mericarp : one carpel, or monospermal section of a fruit, consisting of 
 several monospermal carpels. 
 
 Mesocarp : the middle part of the pericarp. 
 
 Mesophyll : the central or internal parenchyma of a leaf. 
 
 Micrococcus: a genus of bacteria, of a spherical or nearly spherical form. 
 
 Midrib : the most prominent vein or nerve in a leaf. 
 
 Mitscherlichian Bodies : the multicellular hairs of the cacao-bean : 
 see Hassalliaii Bodies. 
 
 Mycelium : the matted hyphag of a fungus. 
 
 Nuclei : spheroidal or oval granular bodies within fibres or cells. 
 
 Nucleoli : granular specks within nuclei. 
 
 Oidia : chains of cells into which fungal mycelium is sometimes converted. 
 
 Oil Cells : cells containing essential oil, or fat oil. 
 
 Paling Cells ) „ ^ „ 
 
 Palisade Cells r^^^^"^^'^^'^^^- 
 
 Parenchyma : cellular tissue composed of large more or less thin- 
 walled cells. 
 
 Parietes : the walls of a cell or cavity. 
 
 Peduncle : a stalk. 
 
 Pericarp : the fruit-coat enveloping the seed or seeds. 
 
 Perisperm : tissue in a seed developed from the body of the ovule. 
 
 Perithecium : the receptacle in which the asci are formed in certain fungi. 
 
 Phloem : see Basi. 
 
 Pigment Cells : cells charged with colouring matter. 
 
 Placenta : the portion of the ovary to which the ovule is attached. 
 
 Planktology : the study of plankton. 
 
 Plankton : the minute, floating organisms in water. 
 
 Polygonal : possessing many angles. 
 
 Proglottides (plural of Proglottis) : the segments or joints of Taenia solium 
 and allied organisms. 
 
 Prosenchyma : tissue composed of greatly elongated or fusiform cells, 
 with tapering extremities applied to each other. 
 
 Raphides : acicular cr3'stals occurring in cells, especially of roots. 
 
 Reticulated Vessel : a vessel or duct possessing ridges and depressions 
 or pores, which give a net-like appearance. 
 
398 GLOSSARY 
 
 Rhizome : an underground, or partly underground, horizontal stem 
 
 often branched, and with rootlets beneath. 
 Rootstock : see Rhizome. 
 
 Saprophytic : subsisting on dead organic matter. 
 Sarcolemma : a sheath enclosing muscle-libre. 
 
 Scalariform: applied to vessels having ladder-like bars or markings. 
 Schizomycetes : fission-fungi. 
 Sclerenchyma : cellular tissue, consisting of cells with thickened walls, 
 
 often with pores. 
 Sclerotium : the compacted or hard myccUiiiu of a fungus. 
 Sclerous or Sclerotic Cells : cells with thickened walls — e.g., stone cells. 
 Seed Coat : the shell, husk, or covering of a seed, developed from the 
 
 outer part of the ovule. 
 Septa : partitions or dissepiments. 
 Septate : divided by partitions. 
 Spermoderm : see Seed Coat. 
 Spermophore : a prominence bearing seeds. 
 Sphacelia : the light-coloured conidial modification of Claviceps purpurea 
 
 (Ergot;. 
 Sphseraphides, Spherocrystals : spherical aggregates of acicular crystals. 
 Sporangiophore : a hypha bearing a sporangium or spore-case. 
 Sporangium : the spore-case of a fungus. 
 Stellate Cells : usually {a) star-shaped parenchyma cells, like those 
 
 in the mesocarp of the orange ; sometimes {b) sclerotic cells, the 
 
 walls of which show radial pores, imparting a star-like aspect. 
 Sterigmata (plural of Sterigma) : elongated protuberances which develop 
 
 into spores. 
 
 Stomata (plural of Stoma) : the breathing pores in epiderniiil cell-layers. 
 
 Stone Cells : see Stellate Cells. 
 
 Strobili (plural of Strobilus) : imbricated scaly inflorescences. 
 
 Suber : cork. 
 
 Teleutospores : winter spores of the Uredinea', or Rust Fungi. 
 
 Testa : see Seed Coat. 
 
 Thalamus : the receptacle at the top of the peduncle of a flower. 
 
 Thallus : the vegetative body of the lower plants. 
 
 Tracheides ^ 
 
 T h 'r\ Migi^eous vessels, elongated, and with transverse partitions. 
 
 Tracheae : see Vessels. 
 
 Uredospores : summer spores of the Uredinea^, or Rust Fungi. 
 Utricle : a little cavity, sac, or cell. 
 
 Vessels : ligneous tubes or ducts present in tlie fibro-vascular bundles. 
 Vittae (plural of Vitta) : oil-ducts. 
 Wood Fibre : see Xylem. 
 
 Xylem : thick-walled prosenchymatous cells, or wood-fibres, forming 
 the inner portion of a fibro-vascular bundle. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
 
WORKS RELATING TO FOOD, 
 
 CHIEFLY THOSE DEALING PROMINENTLY OR SOLELY WITH 
 METHODS OF MICROSCOPIC INVESTIGATION. INCLUDED 
 ARE SQUARE - BRACKETED REFERENCES TO CERTAIN 
 EARLIER WORKS, IN WHICH THE MICROSCOPE WAS 
 ENTIRELY, OR ALMOST ENTIRELY, NEGLECTED. 
 
 [1820. AccuM, F. A Treatise on Adulterations of Food, and Culinary 
 
 Poisons.] 
 [i8;;i. Williams, J. D. Deadly Adulteration and Slow Poisoning; 
 
 or, Disease and Death in the Pot and the Bottle.] 
 
 1843. Dl'Jardix, F. Nouveau Manuel complet de I'observateur a.i 
 
 Microscope . . . accompagne d'un Atlas. Paris. 
 [1844. Gakxikr, J. J. ].. and Harel, C. Des Falsifications des Sub- 
 stances Alimentaires. Paris.] 
 
 1844. DoxxE, A. Cours de Microscopic. Paris. 
 
 1845. DoxxE, A., and Foucault, L. Atlas . . . Microscope-daguerreo- 
 
 type. Paris. 
 
 [1848. Mitchell, J. Treatise on the Falsifications of Food.] 
 
 1848. Quekett, J. T. A Practical Treatise on the Use of the 
 Microscope. [Second edition, 1852.] 
 
 [1850. XoRMAXDY, A. R. The Commercial Handbook of Chemical 
 Analysis.] 
 
 1850. Quekett, J. T. Descriptive Catalogue . . . Histological Series 
 . . . College of Surgeons. [Tissues of Vegetables.] 
 
 [1850. Chevallier, J. B. A. Dictionnaire des Alterations et Falsifica- 
 tions des Substances Alimentaires, Medicamenteuses et Com- 
 merciales.] Paris. Later editions, 1875 (with E. Baudrimont), 
 1878, 1882 (sixth edition). 
 
 1852-54. Quekett, J. T. Lectures on Histology. 
 
 1851-52-53-54. Hassall, a. H. Series of Reports on the Adulteraticn 
 of Food, Drink, and Drugs. [Published in Tlie Lancet under 
 the title of the 'Analytical Sanitary Commission.'] 
 
 401 26 
 
402 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 1855. Hassall, a. H. Food and its Adulterations. 
 
 [1855. HuREAUX, J. P. Histoire des Falsifications des Substances 
 Alimentaires et Mddicamenteuses.] Paris. 
 
 1856. etc. Klexcke, p. F. H. Die Verfalschung der Nahrungsmittel 
 
 und Getranke. Leipzig. 
 
 1857. Hassall, A. H. Adulterations Detected in Food and Medicine. 
 1859. MiTSCHERLicH, A. Der Cacao und die Chocolade. Berlin. 
 1861. Hassall, A. H. Adulterations Detected in Food and Medicine. 
 
 Second edition. 
 
 1872. vox VoGL, A. E. Nahrungs- und Genussmittel aus dem 
 
 Pflanzenreiche. Vienna. 
 
 1873. VoELCKEK, A. On the Characters of Pure and Mixed Linseed 
 
 Cakes. 
 1871-74. Hassall, A. H. Food, Water, and Air : A Sanitary Journal. 
 
 1876. Hassall, A. H, Food : Its Adulterations and the Methods for 
 
 their Detection. 
 
 1877. Hehxek, O., and Axgell, A. Butter : Its Analysis, etc. [Earlier 
 
 edition in 1874.] 
 1877. Axgell, A. The Microscopical Structure of certain Fruits and 
 
 Roots to be met with in the Jams and Preserves of Commerce. 
 1879-1907. Allex, a. H. Commercial Organic Analysis.^ 
 1882. Haxausek, E. Anatomische, Physikahsche, und Chemische 
 
 Verhaltnisse der Pflanzenkorper, mit . . . Technologic. 
 
 Vienna. 
 1881-83. Bell, J. The Analysis and Adulteration of Foods. 
 
 1884. Haxausek, T. F. Die Nahrungs- und Genussmittel aus dem 
 
 Pflanzenreiche. 
 1886. ScHiMPER, A. F. W. Anleitung zur Mikroskopischen Unter- 
 suchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel. Jena. [Second 
 edition, 1900.] 
 
 1886. MoELLER, J. Mikroskopie der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel aus 
 
 dem Pflanzenreiche. Berlin. [Second edition, 1905.] 
 
 1887. Dam:sier, O. lUustriertes Lexikon der Verfalschungen und 
 
 Verunreinigungen der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel. Leipzig. 
 1889. TscHiRCH, A. Angewandte Pflanzenanatomie. Leipzig. 
 
 1885. Claytox, E. G. Mixtures of Malt Extract with Certain Fixed 
 
 Oils. [Analyst, 1885.] 
 1 89 1. Parkf;s, E. a. a Manual of Practical Hygiene. Edited by 
 J. Lane N otter. 
 
 1891. Mace, K. Les Substances Alimentaires Etudides au Microscope. 
 
 Paris. 
 
 1892. Grieeiths, W. ■ The Principal Starches used as Food. 
 
 ^ This monumental and splendid work treats far more of chemical than 
 microscopic methods of analysis, but it is impossible to omit it from a list 
 of books on the investigation of food. — E. G. C. 
 
WORKS RELATING TO FOOD 403 
 
 1894. GiRARD, C, et DuPRE, A. Analyse cles Matieres Alimeiitaires 
 et recherche de leurs Falsitications. [Vol. xci., tome x,, of 
 E. Fremy's ' Encyclopedic Chimique.'] Paris. 
 
 1894. Rupp, G. Die Untersuchiingvon Nahrun^smitteln. Heidelberg. 
 
 1895. Meyer, A. Untersuchungen iiber die Starke Korner. Jena. 
 i^95"97- Heret, L. Dictionnaire des Alterations et Falsifications des 
 
 Substances Alimentaires. [Seventh edition of A. Chevallier's 
 and K. Baudrimont's work.] 
 
 1896. Malfatti, Jos. Beitrage zur Anatomic der Birn- und Apfel- 
 
 frucht. Ztsch. f. Nahrungsmittel Untersuchung, Hygiene und 
 
 Waarenkunde, 265, 297, 313, 329. 
 1896. NoTTER, J. L., and Firth, R. H. The Theory and Practice of 
 
 of Hygiene. 
 1900. Galt, H. The Microscopy of the more commonly occurring 
 
 Starches. 
 1893-1900. TscHiRCH, A., and Oesterle, O. Anatomischer Atlas der 
 
 Pharmakognosie und Nahrungsmittelkunde. Leipzig. 
 
 1900. ViLLiERS, A., and Collin, E. Traitd des Alterations et Falsifica- 
 
 tions des Substances Alimentaires. Paris. 
 
 1901. Haxausek, T. F. Lehrbuch der technischen Mikroskopie. 
 
 Stuttgart. 
 1901. Meyer, A. Die Grundlagen und die Methoden fiir die Mikro- 
 
 skopische Untersuchung von PHanzenpulvern. Jena. 
 1903. Blyth,A. W. Foods: Their Composition and Analysis. [Earlier 
 
 editions, 1879, 1882, 1888, 1896.] 
 1903. Greexish, H. G. The Microscopical Examination of Foods 
 
 and Drugs. 
 
 1903. ScHXEiDEMtJHL, G. Die AnimaHschen Nahrungsmittel. [Flesh 
 
 parasites very fully described.] Berlin. 
 
 1904. Greexish, H. G., and Collix, E. An Anatomical Atlas of 
 
 Vegetable Powders. 
 1904. Leach, A. E. Food Inspection and Analysis. New York. 
 
 1904. Claytox, E. G. Roasted Beetroot. [Analyst, 1904.] 
 
 1905. MoELLER, J. Mikroskopie der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel aus 
 
 dem Pflanzenreiche. Berlin. 
 
 1906. KoxiG, J. Die Untersuchung landwirtschaftlich und gewerblich 
 
 wichtiger Stoffe. Berlin. Third edition. 
 
 1906. WiXTOx, A. L. The Microscopy of Vegetable Foods. New York. 
 
 1907. Haxausek, T. F. The Microscopy of Technical Products. 
 
 Translated by A. L. Winton. New York. 
 
 1907. Wiley, H. W. Foods and their Adulteration. 
 
 1908. Hager, H., — Mez, C. Das Mikroskop und seine Anwendung. 
 
 Berlin. 
 
 26 — 2 
 
404 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 WORKS RELATING LARGELY OR 
 CHIEFLY TO ENDOPARASITES. 
 
 1824. Bremser, J. G. Traite Zoologiquc ct Physiologiquc sur les vers 
 
 Intestinaux de riiomme. Translated from German into French 
 
 by M. Grundler. [And Atlas.] Paris, 
 1845. DuJARDix, F. Histoire Xaturelle des Helminthes 011 vers 
 
 Intestinaux. [And Atlas.] Paris. 
 1873. CoBBOLD, T. S. The Internal Parasites of our Domestic Animals. 
 1863-76. Leuckart, R. Die Menschlichen Parasiten und die von 
 
 ihnen herriihrenden Krankheiten. Leipzig and Heidelber*^. 
 1882. CoBBOLD, T. S. Human Parasites. 
 
 1885. CoBBOLD, T. S. The Parasites of Meat and Prepared Flesh Foods. 
 
 1886. Leuckart, R. The Parasites of Man. Translated by W. E. Hoyle. 
 1889. MoxiEZ, R. Les Parasites de I'homme (animaux et vdgetaux). 
 
 Paris. 
 1 879- 190 1. Leuckart, R. Die Parasiten des Menschen und die von 
 
 ihnen herriihrenden Krankheiten. Erster Band . . . Xach 
 
 dem Tode des Verfassers zu Ende ,ifefuhrt von . . . G. Brandes. 
 
 Leipzig and Heidelberg. 
 1896. MoxiEZ, R. Traite de Parasitologic animale et vegetale appliquee 
 
 a la medecine. Paris. 
 1903. ScHXEiDEMUHL, G. Die Animalischen Nahrungsmittel. Berlin. 
 1906. Mechxikov, Il'ya. The New Hygiene. 
 
 WORKS DEVOTED PARTLY OR 
 
 ENTIRELY TO THE MICROSCOPICAL 
 
 FAUNA AND FLORA OF FRESH 
 
 WATER AND SEWAGE. 
 
 1838. Ehrexberg, .C. G. Die Infusionsthierchen als vollkommene 
 Organismen. Leipzig. 
 
 1845. Hassall, a. H. a History of the British Fresh-water Alg:e. 2 vols. 
 
 1850. Hassall, A. H. A Microscopic Examination of the Water 
 supplied to London and the Suburban Districts. 
 
 1854. Hassall, A. H. Reports containing the Results of the Micro- 
 scopical Examination of Different Waters, principally those 
 used in the Metropolis . . . during the Cholera Epidemic in 
 1854. [General Board of Health.] 
 
PHARMACOGNOSTIC AND GENERAL 405 
 
 1857. Hassall, a. H. Report on the Microscopical Examination of 
 the MetropoHtan Water-Supply. [General Board of Health.] 
 
 1857. Hassall, A. H. Report, Microscopical and Chemical, on the 
 
 Water of the Serpentine. [General Board of Health.] 
 
 1858. Hassall, A. H. Microscopical Report on the Thames Water at 
 
 Richmond. [Embodied in ' A Letter to the Churchwardens 
 of Richmond, Surrey, having Reference . . . more especially 
 to the Water-Supply,' by Richard Hassall, M.D.] 
 
 1871. Bkll, J. Microscopical Examination of Water for Domestic 
 Use. Monthly Microscopical Journal, vol. v., p. 163. 
 
 1883. Macdoxald, J. D. A Guide to the Microscopical Examination 
 of Drinking Water. Second edition. 
 
 1891-95. KiRCHXER, O., and Blochmaxx, F. Die Mikroskopische 
 Pflanzen- und Tierwelt des Siisswassers. Braunschweig. 
 
 1894. ZuxE, A. J. Traitc d'Analyse Chimiquc, Micrographique et 
 
 Microbiologique des Eaux Potables. Paris and Brussels. 
 
 1895. TiEMAXX, F., and Gartxer, A. Die Chemische und Mikro- 
 
 skopisch - Bakteriologische 'Untersuchuug des Wassers. 
 Braunschweig. Fourth edition. 
 1895. Hexsex, V. Methodik der Untersuchungen bei der Plankton- 
 Expedition. Kiel and Leipzig. 
 
 1898. Mez, Carl. Mikroskopische Wasseranalyse. Berlin. 
 
 1899. Whipple, G. C. The Microscopy of Drinking Water. New 
 
 York. 
 1899. Pearmaix,T. H., and Moor, C.G. Chemical and Biological Analysis 
 
 of Water. [Part U. of 'The Analysis of Food and Drugs.'] 
 1899. DiHDix, W. J. The Purification of Sewage and Water. Third 
 
 edition, 1903. 
 1902. Rideal, S. Water and its Purification. An earlier edition in 
 
 1896. 
 1902-1904. Reports and Evidence of the Royal Commission on Sewage 
 
 Disposal. 
 
 WORKS MAINLY CONCERNED WITH 
 
 THE MICROSCOPIC INVESTIGATION 
 
 OF DRUGS. 
 
 1855. Hassall, A. H. On the Adulteration of Annatto. [Paper read 
 
 before the Pharmaceutical Society.] 
 
 1856. Hassall, A. H. On the Adulteration of Liquorice. [Paper read 
 
 before the INIedical Society of London.] 
 1887. vox VoGL, A. K. Anatomischer Atlas zur Pharmakognosie. 
 Vienna and Leipzig. 
 
4o6 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 1892. MoELLER, J. Pharmakognostischer Atlas. Berlin. 
 
 1892. Haxausek, T. E. Die Safranfalschungen. Vienna. 
 
 1893. CoLLix, E. Guide Pratique pour la Determination des Poudres 
 
 Officinales. 
 1893-1900. TscHiRCH, A., and Oesterle, O. Anatomischer Atlas der 
 
 Pharmakognosie und Nahrungsmittelkunde. Leipzig. 
 1895-96. Plaxchox, F. G., et Collix, E. Les Drogues Simples 
 
 d'Origine Vegetale. Paris. 
 
 1903. Greexish, H. G. The Microscopical Examination of Foods 
 
 and Drugs. 
 
 1904. Greexish, H. G., and Collix, E. An Anatomical Atlas of 
 
 Vegetable Powders. 
 
 WORKS ON GENERAL MICROSCOPY. 
 
 1859. Hartixg, p. Das Mikroskop. Translated from Dutch into 
 
 German by F. \V. Theile. Braunschweig. 
 1867. Wiesxer, J. Einfiihrungin die technische Mikroskopie. Vienna. 
 1878. Beale, L. S. The Microscope in Medicine. Fourth edition. 
 1878. Vax Heurck, H. Le Microscope, sa Construction, son 
 
 maniement et son application a I'anatomie vegetale . . . 
 
 Third edition. Brussels. 
 1893. Vax Heurck, H, The Microscope : Its Construction and 
 
 Management. Translated by W. E. Baxter. 
 1901. Carpexter, W. B., and Dallixger, \V. H. The Microscope 
 
 and its Revelations. 
 1903. Cross, M. I., and Cole, M. J. Modern Microscopy. 
 T905. Laxkester, E. Half-Hours with the Microscope. 
 1905. WixsLOW, C. E. A. Elements of Applied Microscopy. New 
 
 York and London. 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Portrait of Dr. A. H. Hassall . . . Facing iitlc-page 
 
 FIG. PAGE 
 
 1. Grain of Wheat (Transverse Section), x 200 . 
 
 2. Grain of Wheat (Longitudinal Section), x 200 
 
 3. Wheat Flour (Starch Granules and Starch Parenchyma), x 420 
 
 4. Wheat Starch (Raw, and Altered by Heat), x 400 . 
 
 5. Grain of Barley (Transverse Section of Pericarp, Testa, and 
 
 Surface of Kernel), x 200 .... 
 
 6. Barley (View of Surface of Grain), x 200 
 
 7. Barley Flour (Starch Granules and Starch Parenchyma), x 420 
 
 8. Grain of Rye (Vertical and Transverse Sectional Views of 
 
 External Portion), x 220 .... 
 
 9. Rye Flour (Starch Granules and Starch Cells), x 420 
 
 10. Grain of Oat (Transverse and Longitudinal Sections), x 200 
 
 11. Oat Flour (Starch Granules and Starch Parenchyma), x 420 
 
 12. Grain of Maize, x 100, 200, and 500 
 
 13. Indian Corn Flour (Starch Granules and Starch Cells), x 420 
 
 14. Husk of Rice, x 220 ..... 
 
 15. RicQ Flour (Starch Granules and Compound Grains). X420 
 
 16. Bean Flour. X420 ..... 
 
 17. Wheat Flour, adulterated with Bean Flour, x 420 
 
 18. Potato Flour, x 220 ..... 
 
 19. Wheat Flour, adulterated with Rice, x 420 
 
 20. Barley Flour, x 420 ..... 
 
 21. Wheat Flour, admixed with Maize Flour. X420 
 
 22. Cones Flour, admixed with Rice and Bean Flours, x 225 
 
 23. Oatmeal, adulterated with Barley Meal. X450 
 
 24. Grain of Durrha (Investing Membranes, Substance of Grain, 
 
 and Starch Granules), x 100, 200, and 500 . . 37 
 
 25. Wheaten Bread, with an Admixture of Potato, x 420 . 39 
 
 26. Bvewevs' YeTiS^t {Saccli a roiJiyccs). x 220 . . 41 
 
 27. Patent Yeast {SaccJiaroniyccs). x 220 . . . 41 
 
 28. Moulds, Mycelial Fungi, or Hyphomycetes, resembling Oidiiini 
 
 cLiid Monilia. x circa 120 . . . . -4.3 
 
 409 
 
4IO LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 FIG. *'AGK 
 
 29. A Mould : Mycelium, with Gemmie, of Species of Dcuiatiuni. 
 
 X 100 ........ 43 
 
 30. A Common Mould: PcniciUiiim Glaucitm, showing Branching 
 
 Hyphas, Fructification by Conidia, Conidiophores, and 
 Exospores. x 150 . . . . . . 44 
 
 31. A Common Mould: Miicor Miiccdo, fully developed, showing 
 
 Globular Sporangia and Endospores. x 95 and circa 200 . 44 
 
 32. Another Species of Miicor {M. Rouxii f), showing IVIycelium, 
 
 H^'pha?, and Sporangia . . . . -45 
 
 33. Tilldia triiici=T. caries (Bunt, Smut Bolls, Smut Balls, Stink- 
 
 ing Smut, or Pepper Brand). X420 . . -49 
 
 34. Ustilago Iiordci (Smut, or Dust Brand), x 420 . . 49 
 
 35. Wheat infested with Rust (the Credo riibigo stage of develop- 
 
 ment of P//a7///(? ^i^'n/;////7/i). X420 . . -50 
 
 36. Puccinia gramiiiis (Black Rust), Different Stages, x 500 . 50 
 
 37. Ergot {Claviceps purpurea), x 420 and 670 . . -51 
 
 38. Eurotium repeiis = Eiirotiiiin aspcrgilliis glaiiciis (De Bary) : 
 
 a Yellow or Green Mould. X420 . . . ■ 5^ 
 
 -^i). Eiiroiiiim aspergiUus glaiicus. x circa y^^o . . -5^ 
 
 40. Pt'/z/d//////;/ .(,^/^n/(//m (Green or Blue Mould), x 220 . . 53 
 
 41. Seed of LoUiim icmuleutum, or Bearded Darnel. Surface 
 
 View and Cross-Section ( x 200), with Starch Aggregations 
 and Granules ( x 500) . . . . . -55 
 
 42. TylencJius tritici = AngiiiUuJa iritici : Ear Cockles, Purples, or 
 
 Peppercorn, x 100 . . . . -57 
 
 43. Tyroglyphiis siro = Acariis fariiuv : Meal Mite, x 75 . -57 
 
 44. Glycipliagiis pliiiiiiger = Acanis pliimiger, the Feathered Mite. 
 
 X220 ........ 58 
 
 45. The Wheat Midge (Cecidoniyia tritici). Greatly magnified . 59 
 
 46. The Granary Weevil (Calandra granaria). Much enlarged . 59 
 
 47. Maranta, or West Indian Arrowroot, x 240 . . .62 
 
 48. Canna, or Tons les mois Arrowroot, x 225 . . . 62 
 
 49. Curcuma, or East Indian Arrowroot, x 240 . . . 63 
 
 50. Tacca, Tahiti, or Otaheite Arrowroot, x 220 . . -63 
 
 51. Manihot, or Brazilian Arrowroot, x 225 . . .66 
 
 52. Potato, or British Arrowroot, x 220 .... 66 
 
 53. Maize Arrowroot, or Corn Flour, x 420 . . ■ ^V 
 
 54. Rice Arrowroot, x 420 . . . . . • ^>7 
 
 55. Arum, or Portland Arrowroot, x 240 . . . .68 
 
 56. Sago Starch, as seen in Sago Meal and Flour, x 225 . -71 
 
 57. Sago Starch, altered by Heat, as seen in Granulated Sago, x 225 71 
 
 58. Factitious Sago, composed of Potato Flour, x 225 . . 72 
 
 59. Tapioca Starch, unaltered, as seen in the Meal or Flour 
 
 (Manihot, or Brazilian Arrowroot), x 225 . . -75 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIOXS 411 
 
 FIG. PAGE 
 
 60. Tapioca Starch, altered by the Heat used in its Preparation, 
 
 as seen in Granulated Tapioca, x 225 
 
 61. * Grape Nuts.' x 100 ..... 
 
 62. ' Force.' x 100 ...... 
 
 63. A Proprietary Food composed of Wheat, Potato, Maize, and 
 
 Tapioca, x 200 ..... 
 
 64. Proprietary Food, composed of Lentil and Maize or Corn Flour, 
 
 X 200 ....... 
 
 65. Similar Food, consisting of Lentil and Barley, x 200 
 
 66. Chestnut, x 420 ...... 
 
 67. Brazil Nut. x 140 ..... 
 
 68. Unroasted Coffee- Berry, x 140 
 
 69. Unroasted Coffee-Berry. x 140 
 
 70. Roasted Coffee-Berry. x 140 . 
 
 71. Roasted Coft'ee (Ground), x 140 
 
 72. Coft'ee and Chicory, x 140 .... 
 
 73. Coffee adulterated with Chicory and Roasted Wheat, x 140 
 
 74. Coffee, together with Chicory and Roasted Beans, x 140 
 
 75. Coff'ee, Chicory, and Ground Acorn, x 140 
 
 76. Mangold Wurzel : Cells of Root, x 140 
 
 77. Coff'ee admixed with Chicory and IMangold Wurzel. x 140 
 
 78. Lupine Seeds, Roasted and Ground, x 140 
 
 79. Roasted Chicory : the Parenchyma Cells of which it is chiefly 
 
 constituted, x 140 ..... 
 
 80. Roasted Chicory : showing ParencliN'ma Cells, dotted, pitted, 
 
 or interrupted Spiral Vessels, and Wood Fibres, x 140 
 
 81. Chicory : Laticiferous Tubes, x 140 
 
 82. Chicory and Roasted Wheat Flour, x 140 
 
 83. Chicory and Ground Acorn, x 140 
 
 84. Oak - Bark Powder : Wood Fibres, Stone Cells, Wood 
 
 Parenchyma, and Crystals, x 140 . 
 
 85. ' Croats,' a species of Tan-Bark used for Fuel : showing 
 
 Reticulated Vessels, Crystals, and Parenchyma, x 140 
 
 86. Cocoa : Tubular Fibres of the Pericarp, observed on th( 
 
 Surface of the Husk or 'Shell.' x 100 
 
 87. Cocoa : Outer Membranes of Shell, x 220 
 
 88. Cocoa : Rounded Cells, Fibres, and Spiral Vessels, constituting 
 
 Deeper Part of Husk, x 220 
 
 89. Cocoa: Membranes of the Perisperm, showing the Hassallian 
 
 Bodies, x 220 ..... 
 
 90. Cocoa : Cells forming the Substance of the Cotyledons, with 
 
 the contained Starch Granules, x 220 and 500 
 
 91. Pure Trinidad Cocoa (Decorticated and Pulverized), x 220 
 
 92. Pure Flaked Cocoa (Ground), x 220 . 
 

 109 
 
 
 III 
 
 
 IT2 
 
 the Upper 
 
 
 
 112 
 
 the Nether 
 
 
 X 350 
 
 113 
 
 
 113 
 
 412 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 FIG. I'AGK 
 
 93. A so-called 'Soluble' Cocoa, mixed with Potato Starch. 
 
 X 220 ........ 107 
 
 94. ' Homoeopathic' Cocoa, containing Sago Starch, x 220 . 107 
 
 95. Another ' Soluble ' Cocoa, mixed with Potato and Sago 
 
 Starches, x 220 . . . . . .108 
 
 96. ' Homoeopathic ' Cocoa, containing Tons les mois Arrowroot, 
 
 and Tapioca, x 220 . . . . . .109 
 
 97. So - called * Genuine Unadulterated Chocolate,' containing 
 
 Tapioca, Maranta, and Curcuma Arrowroots, with Maize 
 and Potato Starches, x 220 
 
 98. Leaves of China Tea .... 
 
 99. Leaf of Assam Tea .... 
 100. Tea-leaf (Upper Surface), showing Cells of 
 
 Epidermis, x 350 . 
 loi. Tea-leaf (Under Surface), showing Cells of 
 Epidermis, Stomata, and a Portion of a Hair. 
 
 102. Tea-leaf : Upper and Under Surfaces, x 420 . 
 
 103. Leaves which have been used in Admixture with, or as 
 
 Substitutes for, Tea (C///onr/;/////<> inconspiciiiis and Camellia 
 Sasanqiia . . . . . . • nS 
 
 104. Portions of Leaves of Camellia Sasainjiia, found in Sample 
 
 of Twankay. X420 . . . . . .116 
 
 105. Leaf of Plum {Pniiiiis domestica), found in Sample of Twankay. 
 
 X420 . . . . . . . • 117 
 
 106. Leaf of Willow^ ; Leaf of Poplar . . . .118 
 
 107. Leaf of Plane ; Leaf of Oak . . . . .118 
 
 108. Leaves of Hawthorn, Sloe-tree, Beech, Elder, and Elm . 119 
 
 109. Foreign Leaf and other Extraneous Bodies in a China Tea of 
 
 low quality, mainly composed of ' Lie-Tea.' x 350 . 122 
 
 no. 'Lie-Tea.' X420. ...... 122 
 
 111. Imitation Caper or Gunpowder Tea. X350 . . . 123 
 
 112. A Tea ' Economizer ': Sumach and Catechu. X350 . . 123 
 
 113. A Rival ' Economizer': Catechu and Flour, x 350 . . 124 
 
 1 14. Sugar Cane, Longitudinal Section : Fragment from near the 
 
 Centre of the Stem, showing Parenchymatous Cells and a 
 Fibro- Vascular Bundle, x 100 . . . .128 
 
 115. Sugar Cane, Longitudinal Section, showing Structure of the 
 
 two Kinds of Vessels, and the Cells constituting the 
 Wood Fibre, x 200 . ..... 128 
 
 116. Sugar Cane: Epidermal Layers, in Surface View: showing 
 
 Stone Cells, and Elongated Cells, x 200 .129 
 
 117. Crystals of Cane Sugar, x 100 . . . . .129 
 
 118. Glycipltagiis, or Acanis Saccliari: the Sugar Mite. Ova and 
 
 Young. X 200 . . . . . -131 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 413 
 
 FIG. I'AGK 
 
 119. Glyciphagiis of Medium Size, Alive and Crawling on a 
 
 Fragment of Cane, x 200 . . . . -131 
 
 120. Glycip/icJgns which has nearly attained Fall Development ; 
 
 as it frequently appears when Dead, x 200 . . 132 
 
 121. Spores of a Fungus, probably a Species of Tonila, found in 
 
 Brown Sugar, x 420 . . . . -133 
 
 122. Fragment of Deal, or Pine-wood, Abies cxccisa, probably 
 
 derived from Casks or other Vessels : showing the 
 characteristic tracheides with bordered pits, or so-called 
 ' discoidal tissue.' x 200 ..... 133 
 
 123. Honey: showing Crystals and Pollen Granules, x 225 . 135 
 
 124. Honey: shown by the Pollen Granules present to have been 
 
 collected chiefly from a Heath, x 225 . . . 136 
 
 125. Honey, Adulterated with Cane Sugar : the thick, irregular 
 
 Crystals are the Added Sugar, x 200 . . -137 
 
 125. Seeds of various Fruits : raspberry, gooseberry, white currant, 
 
 black currant, strawberry, and iig . . . .140 
 
 127. Apple : epidermis, x 180 . ' . . . .141 
 
 128. Apple : parenchyma, x 100 ..... 141 
 
 129. The Pear : Stone Cells, and radiating Parenchyma Cells, x 150 142 
 
 130. The Quince : Stone Cells, and Parenchyma, x 150 . . 142 
 
 131. The Banana : Parench^'ma of Mesocarp ; Starch ; Epicarp ; 
 
 and Hypoderm. x 150 and 230 . . . -144 
 
 132. Red Currant : sclerenchymatous cells of the endocarp. x 150 146 
 
 133. The Gooseberry : epicarp, with prickles, and epidermis of 
 
 calyx, with hairs, x 40 and 150 .... 146 
 
 134. The Strawberry : epidermal cells ; and epidermis of spermo- 
 
 derm. x 150 ....... 146 
 
 135. The Cherry: pulp cells, with raphides and sph:eraphides. 
 
 X 150 ........ 146 
 
 136. The Fig : epidermis of the receptacle, with hairs and a hair- 
 
 scar : also, cells of hypoderm, with aggregates of calcium 
 oxalate crystals, x circa 1^0 .... 148 
 
 137. The Date : cells of epidermis of spermoderm ; and endo- 
 
 spermal cells, x 200 and circa 150 . . . .148 
 
 138. Orange Marmalade, containing Apple or Turnip, x 100 . 150 
 
 139. Orris 'Root' (the rhizome of Iris Germanica, etc.): epidermis, 
 
 starch, crystals, and rootlet, x 100, 200, and 500 . -153 
 
 149. Turnip : epidermis, x 180 . . . . -155 
 
 141. Turnip : parenchyma, x circa 100 . . . -155 
 
 142. Beetroot : vessels and parenchyma, x 150 . . . 156 
 
 143. Vegetable Marrow: parenchyma, spiral vessels, and starch. 
 
 X circa 150 . . . . . . -156 
 
 144. Carrot : vessels, with side junctions, wood fibre, and 
 
 parenchyma, x 150 . . . . . -156 
 
414 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 [■AGE 
 
 145. Rhubarb : cylindrical cells, spiral vessels, and crystals, x 100 156 
 
 146. Tomato : epicarp ; and section of seed, x circa 180 and 150 . 158 
 
 147. White Mustard Seed. Outer Membrane of Hexagonal Mucilage 
 
 Cells ; One shown in Section, x 220 . . . 162 
 
 148. White Mustard Seed in Surface View. Middle Layer of Husk, 
 
 and Outer Layer of Seed Substance, x 220 . . 162 
 
 149. White Mustard. Substance of the Seed, Ground, x 220 . 163 
 i:;o. Black Mustard. Surface View of the Principal Structures. 
 
 X 220 ........ 163 
 
 151. Ground Mustard, admixed with Wheaten Flour and Turmeric. 
 
 X225 165 
 
 152. Ground Mustard, admixed with Wheaten Flour, Turmeric, 
 
 and Cayenne Pepper, x 225 .... 165 
 
 153. Husk of Seed, probably Brassica Bcsscriaiia, found in Imported 
 
 Rape Cake, x 220 . . . . . .168 
 
 154. Charlock Seed. X220 . . . . . .168 
 
 155. Common Rape Seed, x 220 and 325 .... 169 
 
 156. Husk of Seed described as East Indian Rape, probably Pasdi, 
 
 or PcilM^gi {Brassica riigosa). x 220 . . .170 
 
 157. Pepper-Berry (Section), x 80 . . . . -^75 
 
 158. Pepper-Berry. Part of Cortex viewed on Surface, x 120 . 175 
 
 159. Cortex of Pepper-Berry. Portion of Oil-bearing Layer of 
 
 Cells. X 120 . . . . . . .176 
 
 160. Pepper-Berry. Central or Inner Portion, x 120 . . 176 
 
 161. Black Pepper, Ground ; showing Stone Cells, Starch and 
 
 Resin Cells, Oil-bearing Layers, Starch, etc. x 150 . 177 
 
 162. Linseed. Section of Husk, and Sectional Plan, x 150 . 179 
 
 163. Epidermis of Capsicum Fruit : epicarp and endocarp. x 200 . 182 
 
 164. Epidermis of Capsicum Fruit : epicarp under a lower power. 
 
 X 100 ........ 182 
 
 165. Epidermis of Capsicum Fruit : another portion of the endocarp. 
 
 X 100 ........ 183 
 
 166. Capsicum Fruit : parenchyma of mesocarp, and parenchyma 
 
 surrounding the seeds, x 200 . . . -183 
 
 167. Capsicum Fruit : Transverse Section of Cortical Portion of 
 
 Pod. X 100 ....... 184 
 
 168. Seed of Capsicum Fruit, Vertical Section, x 100 . -185 
 
 169. Cayenne Pepper, x 225 . . . . . .186 
 
 170. Epidermis of Ginger Rhizome, x 100 . . .190 
 
 171. Substance of Ginger Rhizome, x 200 . . . .190 
 
 172. Pure Ginger, Ground, x 200 ..... 191 
 
 173. Ground Ginger, admixed with Sago Starch, x 200 . . 191 
 
 174. Ground Ginger, mixed with Potato and Sago Starches, x 200 . 192 
 
 175. Ground Ginger, mixed with Cayenne and Tapioca, x 200 . 192 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 FIG. 
 
 176. 
 
 177. 
 
 178. 
 
 179. 
 
 180. 
 
 181. 
 
 182. 
 
 183. 
 
 184. 
 
 185. 
 
 186. 
 187. 
 
 189. 
 190. 
 191. 
 192, 
 
 193- 
 194. 
 
 195- 
 196. 
 197. 
 198. 
 199. 
 200. 
 201. 
 202. 
 203. 
 
 204. 
 205. 
 206. 
 207. 
 208. 
 209. 
 210. 
 211. 
 212. 
 213. 
 
 Cinnamon : Longitudinal Radial Section, x 140 
 
 Ground Cinnamon, x 220 
 
 Cinnamon and Cassia Sticks (natural size) 
 
 Cassia : Longitudinal Radial Section, x 140 . 
 
 Ground Cassia, x 220 ..... 
 
 Nutmeg (Section), x 220 .... 
 
 Mace (Transverse Section), x 220 
 
 Petal of Clove Bud. x 60 
 
 Calyx Tube or Flower Stalk of Clove (Transverse Section) 
 
 x6o . 
 Calyx Tube or Flower Stalk of Clove (Longitudinal Section) 
 
 x6o . 
 
 Husk, or Pericarp, of Pimento Fruit (Vertical Section), x 220 
 Seed of Pimento Fruit : Membranes of the Spermoderm, or 
 
 Testa, in Surface View, x 220 
 Seed of Pimento Fruit (Vertical Section), x 220 
 Ground Pimento, or Allspice, x 220 . 
 Mixed Spice, x 220 . . ■ . 
 
 Coriander (Transverse Section of Carpel), x 220 
 Cardamom : Elongated Coloured Cells of Spermoderm, or 
 
 Seed-Covering, and Transverse Section of Seed, x 220 
 Fenugreek Seed : Testa, Spermoderm, or Outer Coat, x 220 
 Fenugreek Seed : Transverse Section of Cotyledon, or Lobe 
 
 X 220 ....... 
 
 Cumin, or Cummin : Transverse Section of Alericarp. x 220 
 
 Voluntary Muscle, x 220 and 350 
 
 Involuntary Muscle, x 300, etc. 
 
 Cysiicercits cclliilosd'. x 6 and 12 
 
 Tcvnia solium, x 30 . 
 
 Ta'iiia sagiiuiia. x circa 50 . 
 
 Tcvniii cchiiiococciis. x circa 12 . 
 
 TricJiiiia spiralis, x circa 100 
 
 Oxyiiris vcnnicitlaris (greatly magnified): and Distouuiiu 
 
 Jicpaiiciiin (natural size) 
 Trichoccphalits dispar (greatly magnified) 
 Ascaris htnihricoidcs (natural size) 
 Ova of some Internal Parasites, x circa 500 . 
 The Anchovy ..... 
 Milk : of Average Quality, x 630 
 Milk : Diluted, or of Poor Quality, x 630 
 Cream. X630 ..... 
 Casein of Milk, x 630 .... 
 Colostrum, x 630 .... 
 
 Milk, to which Cerebral Matter had been Added, x 6 
 
4i6 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 FIG. 
 
 214. Butter: A, Normal appearance; B, aspect after fusion, 
 
 followed by slow cooling . . . . . 263 
 
 215. The Dust of Old Cheese, consisting almost entirely of the 
 
 Cheese Mite, Tyroglyphiis domestkus or T. siro. x 40 . 265 
 
 216. The Cheese Mite, Tyroglyphiis ciomcsticiis. X40 . . 266 
 
 217. Lard containing Potato Starch, and probably Beef-Stearin . 269 
 
 218. Gelatin and Isinglass . . . . . .271 
 
 219. Tobacco Leaf : upper surface, showing epidermal cells, 
 
 stomata, and glandular hairs, x 220 . . -277 
 
 220. Tobacco Leaf : under surface, showing epidermis, with more 
 
 stomata and fewer hairs, x 220 , . . .278 
 
 221. Tobacco Leaf : transverse section of midrib, x 40 . .278 
 
 222. Tobacco Leaf : portion of transverse section of midrib, more 
 
 highly magnified. X90 . *. . . • -79 
 
 223. Tobacco Leaf : longitudinal section of midrib, x 90 . . 280 
 
 224. Tobacco reduced to powder, x 40 . . . .281 
 
 225. Dock Leaf : portion of under surface, x 220 . . . 285 
 
 226. Dock Leaf : transverse section of midrib, x 40 . . 286 
 
 227. Dock Leaf : transverse section of portion of midrib, more 
 
 highly magnified, x 90 . . . . .286 
 
 228. Dock Leaf : longitudinal section of portion of midrib, x 90 . 287 
 
 229. Rhubarb Leaf : portion of under surface, x 220 . .289 
 
 230. Rhubarb Leaf : transverse section of midrib, x 40 . . 289 
 
 231. Coltsfoot Leaf : upper epidermis, x 220 . . .291 
 
 232. Coltsfoot Leaf : under epidermis, x 220 . . .291 
 
 233. Coltsfoot Leaf : transverse section of one of the veins, x 40 . 292 
 
 234. Hop Leaf : portion of, with lupulin-glands. x 100 . . 2()5 
 
 235. Hop Seed, x 200 ...... 296 
 
 236. Poppy Capsule : portion of epicarp. x 220 . . . 301 
 
 237. Poppy Capsule : portion of endocarp. x 220 . . . 301 
 
 238. Poppy Capsule: surface of one of the place iitiv, or dissepiments, 
 
 showing a spermophore : also cellular tissue, x 60 and 220 302 
 
 239. Poppy Capsule : transverse section of a dissepiment, showing 
 
 spermophores, with seeds attached, x 10 . . , 303 
 
 240. Poppy Capsule and Seed : transverse section of a dissepiment, 
 
 showing two spermophores, and one seed attached, x 100 304 
 
 241. Poppy Seed : membranes of husk, and cells forming the seed- 
 
 substance. X 100 . . . . . . 305 
 
 242. Opium, containing an admixture of poppy capsule, x 100 . 307 
 
 243. Opium, admixed with poppy capsule and wheat liour. x 220 . 307 
 
 244. Egyptian Opium, containing guni, wood-tibre, and a little 
 
 wheat Hour, x 100 ...... 308 
 
 245. Turmeric: Section of Rhizome, x 220 . . -311 
 
 246. Ground Turmeric, x 220 . . . . -311 
 ^47. Annatto Seed, Section of. x 220 . . . -313 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 417 
 
 FIG, 1-AGK 
 
 24(S. Annatto. mixed with Turmeric, x 225 . . 314 
 
 249. Amiatto, mixed with Rye Flom-. X225 -314 
 
 250. Virgin Scammonv (Powdered), x 100 . -317 
 
 251. Scammonv, mixed with Wheat and Lentil Flours, x 220 . 317 
 
 252. Jalap Root : transverse section, x 30 . , . -3-1 
 2^2^- J'^l^ip Root : transverse section of inner portion of root ; and 
 
 starch grains, x 100 and 220 .... 322 
 
 254. Powdered Jalap, x 220 ...... 323 
 
 255. Powdered Jalap, mixed with Wood-Dust (L/^^/////7/ iv/^r). x 220 323 
 250. Ipecacuanha Root : transverse sections of cortex, x 220 and 
 
 420 . . . . . . . -327 
 
 257. Ipecacuanha Root : Central or Woody Portion, x 220 . 328 
 
 258. Ground Ipecacuanha, x 420 ..... 329 
 
 259. Colocynth Fruit : transverse section through rind and part of 
 
 pulp, X 100 . . . . . . -331 
 
 260. Colocynth Fruit : surface view, showing epicarpal cells, and 
 
 stomata. x 120 . . . . . -33- 
 
 261. Colocynth Seed. X150 . . ' . . . . 332 
 
 262. Rhubarb, mixed with Wheat Flour, x 220 . . . 335 
 
 263. Powdered Squill, mixed with Wheat Flour, x 220 . . 337 
 
 264. Liquorice Root : transverse section, x 40 . . . 339 
 
 265. Liquorice Root : longitudinal (radial) section, x 40 . . 340 
 
 266. Liquorice Root : transverse section, x 220 and 400 . . 341 
 
 267. Liquorice Powder, with an admixture of Turmeric and East 
 
 Indian Arrowroot, x 220 ..... 342 
 
 268. Plankton, or Microscopic Fauna and Flora of Water : showing 
 
 Paramecia, diatoms, algae and fungi ; muscle-fibre and 
 animal hair also present, x 220 .... 362 
 
 269. Plankton — cotitiiiiicd : Ciliata (Infusoria), Rotifera. Crustacea, 
 
 and Diatoms, x 25 and 220 . . . . 364 
 
 270. Plankton — continued : Infusoria, an Entomostracan Crus- 
 
 tacean, diatoms, and a Nematode worm, x 100 and 220 . 366 
 
 271. Plankton — continued : Infusoria, a Nematode worm, Diatoms, 
 
 Alg;t>. X 220 ...,,.. 368 
 
 272. Plankton — continued : Deposit from Water of the River Para, 
 
 Brazil, containing many Diatoms, x 220 . . . 370 
 
 273. Plankton — continued : Rhizopods, Ciliata, Rotifera, Annelid, 
 
 Diatoms, Alg:e, etc. x 12, 100, and 200 . . . 372 
 
 274. Plankton — continued : Fiagellata (mastigophora), many Dia- 
 
 toms, a Crustacean, etc. x 100 and 220 . . . 374 
 
 275. Plankton — continued : Numerous Infusoria and Diatoms : 
 
 also muscle-libre, starch, wheat-husk, etc. x 220 . 376 
 
 276. Plankton — continued : Ciliata, an Annelid, Diatoms, Alga? : 
 
 also mammalian hair and wheat-husk, x 12 and 220 . 378 
 
 27 
 
4i8 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 FIG. PAGE 
 
 277. FUnkton -colli ill II cd : chiefly Ciliata, Diatoms, a Rotifer, and 
 
 an Alga (Desmid). x 220 ..... 380 
 
 278. Plankton — continued : Ciliata, Thread-Bacteria, Alg.-e. x 220 . 382 
 
 279. Planktqn — continued: Rhizopods, Flagellata, Ciliata, a 
 
 Crustacean, an Annelid, Diatoms, Thread-Bacteria : also 
 animal hair, x 12 and 200 ..... 384 
 
 280. Plcinkton— continued : Ciliata, many Diatoms, Eumycetes, etc. 
 
 X 220 ........ 386 
 
 281. Plankton — continued: Ciliata, Diatoms, Thread - Bacteria, 
 
 Wgx : also oat-husk, x 220 . . . .388 
 
 282. Plankton — continued : JCiHata, Diatoms, and Thread-Bacteria 
 
 X 220 ........ 390 
 
INDEX 
 
 27—2 
 
INDEX 
 
 Acacia catechu, catechu, 120 
 AcaridcB, ' mites,' 130 
 Acarus farina — Tyroglyphus siro, the 
 meal mite, 56 
 plumiger = Glyciphagus plumiger, 
 
 the feathered mite, 56 
 sacchari — Glyciphagus cursor, the 
 sugar mite, 130 
 Acorn, Quercus pedunculata, 84 
 
 starch, 82 
 Actinophrys, 373, 385 
 Agar agar, Gracilaria lichenoides, addi- 
 tion of, to fruit prepara- 
 tions, as a stiffening agent, 
 
 151 
 method of detecting, in pre- 
 serves, 154 
 • Ahnit,' 82 
 
 Amphileptus, 373, 379, 385, 389 
 Amphora oralis, 385 
 Andropogon sorghum, var. durra = 
 Sorghum vulgare, Durrha or Dari, 
 29 
 Anguillula fluviatilis, 354, 367, 369 
 iritici, see Galls of wheat, 56 
 Animal hair in water, 359, 363, 367, 
 
 379. 385 
 Parasites which attack cereal 
 grains, 56 
 which infest flesh, 238 
 Animals' food must be clean and 
 
 wholesome, 248 
 Annatto, Bixa orellana, 312 
 
 Coal-tar colours substituted for, 
 
 312 
 considerable adulteration of, 312 
 mixed with Rye-flour, 314 
 mixed with turmeric, 314 
 Anthophysa, 385 
 Anuraa, 365 
 
 Apis mellijica, the honey-bee, 134 
 Appendicitis often traceable to in- 
 oculation of microbes through in- 
 testinal injuries caused by endo- 
 parasites, 239 
 
 Apple, Pirus mains, 143 
 Apricot, Pruniis Arvieniaca, 149 
 Aquatic fauna, Summary of, 350 
 
 flora, Summary of, 355 
 Arabian Lentil, 81 
 Arachis hypogaa, earth-nut, xxxi, 82 
 
 pea-nut, 82 
 Arrowroots, 60 
 
 Arum esculentum, A. Italicum, and 
 A. maculalum, Arum or Portland 
 arrowroot, 65 
 Arum, or Portland Arrowroot, Arum 
 maculatum, esculentum, and Italicum, 65 
 Ascaris lumbricoides, a parasitic round- 
 worm, 247 
 mystax, a parasitic round-worm, 
 247 
 discovered by author in vis- 
 cera of a cat, 247 
 Ascomycetes, 40 
 
 Asparagus, Asparagus officinalis, 157 
 Aspergillus glaucus, a common mould, 
 
 42 
 Assam Tea, 112 
 
 Asterionella (Hassall), 367, 369, 391 
 Avena sativa, oat, 17 
 
 Bacon, Francis, Viscount St. Albans, 
 
 on Breads {New Atlantis), 82 
 Bacon, Friar Roger, on Meats and 
 Drink {Libellus De re- 
 taraandis Senectutis), xv 
 on the feeding of ani- 
 mals {Libellus De re- 
 tardandis Senectutis) , 
 249 
 Bacteria, common water, 346 
 
 pathogenic, 346 
 Bad food, effect on health of nation, 
 and relation to fitness of young 
 men for military service, 249 
 Baked Livers, 92 
 Banana, Musa sapientum, 145 
 Barger, G., on Ergot, 47 
 
 421 
 
422 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Barley Flour, Hordeum sativum, 9-1 1, 
 28 
 
 Bean Flour, Faba vulgaris, 28, 31 
 
 Beans, Faha vulgaris, 84 
 
 Beech, Fagiis sylvatica, 114 
 
 Beetroot, Beta vulgaris, a substitute 
 for chicory, 96 
 
 Berthollctia excelsa, Brazil nut, 82 
 
 Beta vulgaris, beetroot, 96 
 
 var. altissima, the sugar-beet, 
 
 126 
 var. campestris, mangold- 
 wurzel, 84 
 
 Bibliography, 399 
 
 Bixa orellana, annatto, 312 
 
 Blackberry, Rubus friiticosus, 149 
 
 Black rust, Puccinia graminis, 47 
 
 Bladder-worm , Cysticercus cellulosa;, 240 
 
 Blyth's (A. W.) method of micro- 
 scopically examining water, 348 
 
 Boll (O.K. holla), 47 
 
 Bosmina, 367 
 
 Botanical text-books of Strasburger, 
 Vines, Goodale, Balfour, Bentley, 
 Mudge, and Maslen, xxxvii 
 
 Bothrioccphalus latus, a cestode para- 
 site prevalent in countries where 
 certain kinds of fish are consumed, 
 
 251 
 Brachionus, 373, 377, 381 
 Brandes, G., Continuation of R. 
 Leuckart's Die Parasiten des Men- 
 schen, 1 886-1 901, 246 
 Brazilian Arrowroot, Manihot utilis- 
 
 sima, 64 
 Brazil nut, Bertholletia excelsa, 82 
 Bread, Penicillium glaticum, the com- 
 monest mould of, 42 
 Brewer's Yeast, 40 
 British arrowroot, Solanum tuberosum^ 
 
 64 
 British gum, 4 
 * Bromose ' (malted nuts), 82 
 Budget, A, of Paradoxes, Professor 
 
 A. de Morgan, 238 
 Bunt, Tilletia tritici — T. caries, 47 
 Burnt Sugar, an Adulterant of 
 
 Chicory, 92 
 Bursaria, 377, 381 
 Butter, 261 
 
 chemical tests necessary to prove 
 
 falsification, 262 
 eighteen years old, characters 
 
 exhibited by, 262 
 microscopical features discussed, 
 261 
 
 C 
 
 Cabbage, Brassica oleracea, 157 
 C'llandra granaria, the weevil, 56 
 
 Camelina sativa, yellow dodder, xxxi 
 Camellia Sasanqua, Sasanqua tea, 114 
 
 Thea, no 
 Campy Iodise :is, 387 
 Cane Sugar, Sucrose, or Saccharose, 
 
 126 
 Cannaedulis, etc., Canna, Queensland, 
 
 or Tous les Mois arrowroot, 60 
 Canna, Queensland, or Tous les 
 
 Mois Arrowroot, Canna edulis, etc., 
 
 60 
 Cardamom, Elettaria cardamomum, 
 
 221 
 Cardiac muscle-fibres, 233 
 Carob-bean,or locust-bean, Ceratonia, 
 
 siliqua, xxxi 
 Carr, F. H., on Ergot, 47 
 Carrot, Daucus carota, 84, 154 
 Cassava Arrowroot, Manihot utilis- 
 sima, 64 
 starch of Manihot utilissima, etc., 
 
 74 
 Castanea sativa, chestnut, 82 
 Castor-oil cake {castor-poonac), xxxi 
 Catechu, Acacia catechu, 120 
 Cauliflower, Brassica oleracea, 157 
 Cayenne and tapioca, adulterants of 
 ginger, 192 
 pepper. Capsicum frutescens, an 
 adulterant of mustard, 164 
 Capsicum frutescens, C. an- 
 nuum, and C. minimum, or 
 C. fastigiatum , 180 
 Cecidomyia tritici, the wheat midge, 
 
 56 
 Celery, Apium graveolens, 157 
 Ceratonia siliqua, carob - bean or 
 
 locust-bean, xxxi 
 Charlock, Sinapis arvensis = Brassica 
 
 sinapistrum, 166 
 Cheap brawns, flesh-pastes, and the 
 
 like, examination of, 233 
 Cheese, 264 
 
 addition of starch to, 264 
 Cherry, Prunus cerasus, 149 
 , Chestnuts, Castanea sativa, 82 
 Chicory, Adulterants of, or Substi- 
 tutes for, 96 
 Cichorium Intybus, 84, 92 
 dandelion and beetroot, close 
 microscopical resemblances, 96 
 China Tea, in 
 Chloranthus inconspicuus, 114 
 Church, A. H., on food value of nuts, 
 
 82 
 Cichorium Intybus, Chicory, 84, 92 
 Ciliata (Infusoria), voracity of, 353 
 Cinnamon and Cassia, Cinnamomum 
 
 Zeylanicum and C. cassia, 194 
 Citrullus colocynthis, colocynth, 330 
 
INDEX 
 
 423 
 
 Claubry, G. de, and others, on the 
 alleged addition of cerebral matter 
 to milk, 256 
 Chiviceps purpurea, ergot, 47 
 Clayton, E. G. : ' Arthur Hill Has- 
 sall. Physician and Sani- 
 tary Reformer : A Short 
 History of his Work in 
 Public Hygiene, and of 
 the Movement against the 
 Adulteration of Food and 
 Drugs,' 1908, X 
 on Ascaris niystax, 247 
 on beetroot, 96 
 on chicory, 92 
 
 on commercial cocoa pre- 
 parations, lOI 
 on composition of ginger, 188 
 on Fossil Diatoms in sedi- 
 ment from River Para, 
 Brazil, 358 
 on Lemon and Orange Peel, 
 
 143 
 on mixtures of fish-oils with 
 extract of malt, 252 
 Closterium, 373, 381 
 Cloves, Eugenia caryophyllata, or 
 
 Caryophyllus aromaticus, 204 
 Cobbold, T. S. : on Trichocephalus 
 dispar, 247 
 on Parasites of fish, 251 
 Cocconema, 371, 375, 387 
 Cockle Galls, see Galls of wheat 
 Cocoa, ' Homoeopathic,' containing 
 sago starch, 107 
 containing Tous les Mois 
 arrowroot and tapioca, 109 
 Pure flaked, 106 
 Pure Trinidad, 106 
 So-called ' Genuine Unadulter- 
 ated Chocolate,' containing 
 tapioca, maranta, and curcuma 
 arrowroots, with maize and 
 potato starches, log 
 So-called ' Soluble,' mixed with 
 
 potato starch, 107 
 ' Soluble,' mixed with potato and 
 
 sago starches, 108 
 Theobroma Cacao, 100 
 Coco-nuts. Cocos nucifera, 82 
 ' Cocos butter,' 82 
 Cocos nucifera, coco-nut, 82 
 Coffea Arahica, Coffee, 84 
 Coffee, Coffea Arabica, 84 
 
 Admixture with various adulter- 
 ants and substitutes, 87 
 ' Coffee-flights,' 84 
 
 Infusions, striking scarcity of 
 coffee in the cheaper, ready- 
 made, 84 
 
 ' Cofifina ' (Roasted and ground 
 
 Lupine seeds), 87 
 Coleps hirtus, 365, 369, 377 
 Colocynth, Citrullus colocyntliis, 330 
 Colostrum, 255 
 Coltsfoot Leaf, Tussilago farfara, a 
 
 substitute for tobacco, 290 
 Condiments, Spices, and other Vege- 
 table Adjuncts of Food, 160 
 Cones Flour, 29 
 
 Observation by Dr. A. H. 
 Hassall in regard to, 29 
 Conferva ivrea, 389 
 Convolvulus scammonia , 316 
 Coriander, Coriandrum sativum, 21S 
 Corn Flour, Zea Mais, 64 
 Corylus avellana, filbert, hazel, and 
 
 cob-nuts, 82 
 Cratagus, sp. , hawthorn, 114 
 Cream, 255 
 'Croats,' a variety of tan-bark, said 
 
 to have been used as an adulterant 
 
 of chicory, 96 
 Cumin, or Cummin, Cuminum cymi- 
 
 num, 228 
 Curcuma angustifolia, Curcuma, or East 
 India arrowroot, 61 
 longa, turmeric, 310 
 Curcuma, or East India arrowroot, 
 Curcutna angusti folia, ruhescens, 
 etc., 61 
 Curcuma ruhescens. Curcuma, or East 
 
 India arrowroot, 61 
 Currants, Black, Ribes nigrum, 145 
 Red and White, Ribes rubrum, 
 
 145 
 Remarkable sclerenchymatous 
 cells of the endocarp, 147 
 Cuscuta epilinum, flax dodder, xxxi 
 Cycas circinalis, sago, 70 
 
 revoluta, sago, 70 
 Cyclops, 375 
 Cyclotella operculata, 363, ^(^5' 3>7i^ i75< 
 
 377. 379- 381, 385.387 
 Cymatopletira, see Sphinctocystis, Has- 
 sall 
 Cymbella, 367 
 Cysticercus bovis, 246 
 
 cellulose, the bladder- worm, 240 
 
 D 
 Dale, H. H., on Ergot, 47 
 Dandelion Root, Taraxacum officinale, 
 
 84 
 Taraxacum officinale, a substitute 
 for chicory, 96 
 DapJinia, 365, 385 
 Darnel, bearded or Poisonous, Lolium 
 
 temulentum, xxxi, 54 
 Date, Plicenix dactylifera, 151 
 
424 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Date-stones, Phcenix dactylifera, 84 
 
 Daucus carota, carrot, 84 
 
 Dedication, vii 
 
 De Morgan, Professor A,, 238 
 
 Dematium, Mycelium of, 42 
 
 Dextrin, 4 
 
 Diatoms, fossil, in sediment from 
 River Para, Brazil, 358 
 
 Dibdin's (W. J.) method of micro- 
 scopically investigating water, 348 
 
 DilepUis folium, 387 = 
 
 Distomum hepaticwn, the liver-fluke, 
 246 
 
 Dock Leaf, Rumex, sp,, a substitute 
 for tobacco, 283 I 
 
 Du Bois de Saint Sevrin, on microbes 
 in sardines, 251 
 
 Durrha or Dari, said to have been 
 used as an adulterant of wheat- 
 flour, 29, 36 i 
 
 Dust Brand, see Smut I 
 
 Ear Cockles, see Galls of wheat 
 Earth-nut, Arachis hypogaa, xxxi, 82 
 Eel- worms, see Galls of wheat 
 Egyptian opium, containing gum, ! 
 
 wood-iibre, and wheat-flour, 306 
 VAdex, Sambucus nigra, 114 { 
 
 Elm, Ulmus campestris, 114 \ 
 
 Enchelys nodulosa, 365 
 Endive, Cichorium endivia, 157 
 Endo-parasites or entozoa, ova and 
 
 larvae of, in water, 353 
 Epithelium in water, 359 
 Epizoa and entozoa, 238 
 Ergot, Claviceps purpurea, 47 
 Ervum Lens = Lens esculenta, lentil, 80 
 Euglena, 375 
 Eumycetes, 40 
 Euphorbiacea, 74 
 Euplotes charon, 373 
 Eurotium repens = Eurotium Aspergillus 
 
 glaucus, De Bary, 48 
 
 Faba vulgaris, bean, 28 
 
 beans, 84 
 Factitious Teas, and Adulterants of 
 
 Tea, 120 
 Fagus sylvatica, beech, 114 
 False Ergot, see Galls of wheat 
 ' Farola,' 77 
 Feathered Mite, The, Glyciphagus 
 
 plumiger = A carus plumiger, 56 
 Fennel, Foenicuhim vulgar e, 157 
 Fenugreek, Trigofieila Ftrnum-Gracum, 
 
 224 
 
 Fibres from paper, in water, 359 
 
 Fig, FicHS Carica, 151 
 
 Filbert, Hazel, and Cob-nuts, 
 
 Corylus avellana, 82 
 ' Fillers ' of cheap cigars, etc., 276 
 Fish, 251 
 
 commercial substitution of one 
 kind for another, 252 
 Flesh, 233 
 
 Foods Derived from Vegetable 
 Sources (Section 1. 1, 1-229 
 from Animal Sources (Sec- 
 tion II,), 231-271 
 ' Force, ' 76 
 
 Fragilaria, 369, 375, 391 
 Fragmental Organic Matters, or 
 
 Debris, 359 
 French Lentil, 81 
 Fresh Vegetables, 157 
 
 water sponges, Spicula of, 354 
 Fruit, Parasitic germs in, 139 
 
 preparations, Falsifications De- 
 tectable in, 151 
 Fruit Preserves, Addition of turnip, 
 beet - pulp, apple, and vege- 
 table marrow, 138, 151 
 Preserves and Jellies, 138 
 for preserving. Quality of, 139 
 Fruits, Distinctive microscopic 
 features of, 139 
 
 Galls of Wheat, Tylenchus tritici = An- 
 
 guillula tritici= Vibrio tritici, 56 
 Garlic, Allium sativum, 157 
 Gelatin, see Isinglass and Gelatin 
 Ginger : the rhizome of Zingiber 
 
 officinale, 188 
 Glaucoma, 353, 373, 377, 381, 383, 391 
 Glossary, 395-398 
 Glyciphagi, or sugsr mites, 127 
 Glyciphagus cursor = A carus sacchari , the 
 sugar mite, 130 
 plumiger = A carus plumiger, the 
 feathered mite, 56 
 Glycyrrhiza glabra, liquorice, 338 
 
 glandulifera, liquorice, 338 
 Gooseberry, Ribes Grossularia, 147 
 ' Granola,' 77 
 ' Granose, ' 77 
 ' Grape-nuts,' 76 
 Grape, Vitis vinifera, 149 
 Green or blue mould, Penicillium 
 
 glaucum, 48 
 Ground Acorn, an adulterant of 
 chicory, 96 
 an adulterant of coffee, 87 
 'Guiana arrowroot,' starch of the 
 banana, 145 
 
INDEX 
 
 425 
 
 Guiard, Dr., belief that typhoid 
 bacilH may be conveyed to mucous 
 surface by intestinal worms, 240 
 
 Gymnoascea, 40 
 
 H 
 
 Haeckel, Professor, of Jena, proposed 
 
 group, Protista, 350 
 Haig, Dr. A., on food-value of nuts, 82 
 ' Hassall, Arthur Hill,' memoir, by 
 
 E, G. Clayton, x 
 ' Hassall, Concentric Corpuscles of,' 
 
 in thymus gland, xxix 
 Hassall, Dr. A. H. : discovery in 
 1851 of acari in the brown 
 sugars of commerce, 130 
 discovery of concentric cor- 
 puscles in thymus, xxix 
 discovery of indigo in urine, 
 
 xxix 
 discovery in 1851 of the 
 pluricellular hairs (Has- 
 sallian bodies) on the peri- 
 spermal inner membrane 
 of the cacao seed, 100 
 on the adulteration of 
 
 liquorice, 338 
 on the impurity of com- 
 mercial annatto, 312 
 Portrait of, facing title-page 
 Summary of the Life-Work 
 
 of, XXV 
 
 repeated investigations of 
 the metropolitan water- 
 supply, 346, 347 
 the first to use the micro- 
 scope systematically and 
 practically to study the 
 fauna and flora of water, 
 346 
 Hassall's (Dr. A. H.) process of ex- 
 arnining water microscopically, 347 
 Hassallia, genus of algae, 356 
 Hassallian bodies : multicellular hairs 
 
 in the cacao-seed, 100 
 Hawthorn, Cratagtts, sp., 114 
 Hemp-cake, xxxi 
 
 Hensen, Dr. V., Professor of Physi- 
 ology at Kiel, 349 
 Hilum, definition of, 21 
 Himantidhim, 367, 375, 389, 391 
 Holophrya ovum, 381 
 Honey, 134 
 
 Honey-bee, The, Apis mellifica, 134 
 Hops, Hiimidus lupulus, 294 
 Hop Substitutes, less satisfactory 
 
 than the hop, 294 
 Hordeum sativum, Barley, 9 
 Human hair in water, 359 
 Humulus lupulus, Hop, 294 
 
 Hutchinson, Sir Jonathan, Belief that 
 leprosy is caused by the consump- 
 tion of tainted and uncured fish, 251 
 
 Hutchison, Dr. R., on nut-foods, 82 
 
 Hyphcc of Eumycetes in water, 363, 
 369. 387 
 
 Hypha of fungi resembling O'idium 
 and Monilia, 42 
 
 Hyphomycetes, 42-45 
 
 I 
 
 Imitation Caper and Gunpowder Tea, 
 
 120 
 Impracticability of distinguishing 
 
 microscopically one kind of fiesh 
 
 from another, 234 
 Impurities which have been found in 
 
 sugar, 130 
 Indian Corn, Zea Mays, or Mais, 
 
 21-23 
 
 Flour, 64 
 Indications of the quality of water 
 furnished by certain plant-forms, 
 357 
 Indigo, an ingredient of factitious tea, 
 120 
 in urine, xxix 
 Inorganic or Mineral Matter in water 
 
 clay, marl, chalk, and sand, 359 
 Intestinal worms. Irritation excited 
 
 by, 239 
 Invalids' and Infants' Foods, 77 
 Involuntary, or unstriped, muscle, 
 
 233 
 Ipecacuanha, Psychotria ipecacuanha, 
 
 325 
 Ipomoca purga, jaiap, 319 
 Isinglass and Gelatin, 270 
 Isthmia, 371 
 
 J 
 Jalap, Ipomcea purga, 319 
 
 mixed with wood-dust, 323 
 Jam Factories, Insanitary conditions 
 of some, 139 
 necessity for cleanliness in, 
 
 139 
 Jordan, D. S. : 'A Guide to the 
 
 Study of Fishes,' 254 
 Jiiglans regia, walnuts, 82 
 
 K 
 
 Kean's (A. L.) method of examining 
 water, 348 
 
 L 
 Lafar. F.. TecJinische Mykologie, 1903.42 
 Lard, 268 
 
 chemical tests necessary for the 
 
 proof of adulteration, 268 
 microscopical characters of, 268 
 
426 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Leaves used as Substitutes for 
 Tobacco, 283 
 which have been used in Ad- 
 mixture with, or as Substitutes 
 for, Tea, 114 
 Lemon, Citrus limoniim, 145 
 Lens esculeiita = Ervum Lens, lentil, 80 
 Lentil, Lens esculenta—Ervum Lens, 80 
 
 Starch, 80 
 Leprosy, Sir J. Hutchinson's theory 
 
 as to the cause of, 251 
 Leptothrix, 383, 385, 389, 391 
 Lettuce, Lactuca sativa, 157 
 Leuckart, Rudolf, ' The Parasites of 
 Man,' translated by H. E. Hoyle, 
 1886, 239 
 Liability of fruits and vegetables to 
 harbour ova of parasites and in- 
 fectious germs, 240 
 ' Lie-tea,' no, 120 
 
 Linseed, Limim usitatissimum, occa- 
 sionally used as an adulterant of 
 pepper, 178 
 Linum catharticum, purging flax, xxxi 
 Liquorice, admixed with turmeric and 
 arrowroot, 342 
 Glycyryhiza glabra, G. glandulifera, 
 338 
 List of Illustrations, 409-418 
 Liver-Fluke, Distomiim hepaticiim, 246 
 Locust -bean, or Carob-bean, Cera- 
 
 tonia siliqua, xxxi 
 Lolium temulentiim, bearded or poison- 
 ous darnel, xxxi, 54 
 Lupine Seeds, Lupimis luteiis, etc, 
 
 84 
 Lupimis luteiis, etc., lupine seeds, 84 
 Lupulin, the aromatic bitter of the 
 Hop, 294 
 
 M 
 
 MacDonald's (Dr. J. D.) process for 
 
 microscopically examining water, 
 
 347 
 Mace, Myristica fragrans, 202 
 Magnifications with different powers, 
 
 xxxix 
 Maize Arrowroot, Indian Corn Flour, 
 
 or Corn Flour, Zea Mais, 64 
 ^laize, Zea Mais or Mays, 21-23, 29 
 Malarial diseases, how originated, 
 
 239 
 Malfatti, Jos., Microscopic features of 
 
 the apple, 143 
 Malvery, Olive C, 'The Soul 
 
 Market,' 139 
 Mangold-wurzel, Beta vulgaris, var. 
 
 campestris, 84 
 Manihot aipi, tapioca or cassava, 74 
 Janipha, tapioca or cassava, 74 
 
 Manihot, Manioc, Cassava, or Bra- 
 zilian Arrowroot, Manihot utilissima, 
 64 
 Manihot utilissima, Manihot, Manioc, 
 Cassava, or Brazilian 
 Arrowroot, 64 
 tapioca or cassava, 74 
 Manioc Arrowroot, Manihot utilissima, 
 
 64 
 Manufactured products in water, 360 
 Maranta arundinacea, Maranta or West 
 
 India arrowroot, 60 
 Maranta, or West India Arrowroot, 
 
 Maranta arundinacea , 60 
 Margarine, microscopic characters of, 
 
 262 
 Marmalade : Detection of apple-pulp, 
 
 turnip, etc., 151 
 Mastogonia, 371 
 Maw-worm, or thread-worm, Oxyuris 
 
 vermicularis, 246 
 Meal Mite, The, Tyroglyphus siro = 
 
 Acarus farina, 56 
 Mechnikov, 11 'ya, advice to take only 
 cooked food, 240 
 on parasites in fruit, 139 
 Melosira, 373, 377, 387, 391 
 Methods of microscopical investiga- 
 tion, XXXV 
 of examining water microscopi- 
 cally, 347 
 Metroxylon lipve {Sagus lavis), sago, 70 
 Rumphii {Sagus Rumphii), sago, 70 
 Sagu, sago, 70 
 Micro-chemical Reactions, xxxiii 
 Micrometer, xxxviii 
 Microscope, Choice of a, xxxviii 
 Mildew of grain, Puccinia graminis, 42 
 Mildews and Moulds, 42-45 
 Milk, 255 
 
 condition of fat in, 255 
 various recorded adulterants, 255 
 Mitscherlich, Alfred, alleged Dis- 
 covery of multicellular hairs in the 
 cacao -seed, loi 
 ' Mitscherlichian bodies,' so-called, 
 
 see Hassallian bodies 
 Mixed Spice, 216 
 
 Mixtures of fish-oils with malt-ex- 
 tract, microscopic characters of, 
 252 
 Monilia Candida, a mould, 42 
 Mr. Brooks, the pie-man, 252 
 Mr. Samuel Weller, 252 
 Mucor mucedo, a mould which imparts 
 mustiness, 42 
 Rouxii, a mycelial fungus, 42 
 Muscle-fibre in water, 359 
 Mustard, Adulterated, 164 
 
 Sinapis alba and Brassica nigra, 160 
 
INDEX 
 
 427 
 
 Mustiness, imparted by Mucormuccdo, 
 
 42 
 Mycelium of Dematiinn, 42 
 
 of Penicillium glaiicum, 42 
 Mycomycetes, 40 
 Myristica fragrans, nutmeg, mace, 200, 
 
 202 
 
 N 
 
 ^«". 373. 379. 385 
 Navicula, 369 
 ' New Atlantis,' 82 
 Nicotiana rustica, tobacco, 275 
 
 tabacum, tobacco, 275 
 Nietzche, F. , on bodily healthiness, 
 
 249 
 Nitzschia (Hassall), 363, 365, 367, 
 
 371.373. 375. 377. 379. 389 
 
 * Nucoline,' 82 
 ' Nutmeal,' 82 
 'Nutmeat,' 82 
 
 Nutmeg, Myvistica fragrans, 200 
 
 ' Nutrose,' 82 
 
 Nuts, Composition of, 82 
 
 Dietetic value and vvholesome- 
 ness of, 82 
 
 * Nuttolene,' 82 
 •Nutton,' 82 
 
 * Nuttose,' 82 
 'Nutvejo,' 82 
 
 O 
 
 Oak, Quercus, sp., 114 
 Oak-bark Powder, 92 
 Oak-bark Powder a past adulterant of 
 
 chicory, 96 
 Oat Flour and Oatmeal, Various 
 additions to, 29 
 A vena sativa, 17-19 
 Oatmeal, 17 
 
 and barley meal, Mixture of, 29 
 Odours imparted to water by 
 Anahcrna, Lyngbya, and Beggiatoa, 
 358 
 Oidium lactis, a mould, 42 
 Onion, Allium cepa, 157 
 •On Poetry: A Rhapsody,' Dean 
 
 Swift, 23S 
 Opium, 306 
 
 admixed with poppy capsule and 
 
 wheat flour, 306 
 containing an admixture of poppy 
 capsule, 306 
 Orange, Sweet and Bitter, Citrus 
 aurantium, varieties Sinensis and 
 amara, 143 
 Orris Rhizome, Iris Gcrmanica, etc., 
 
 153 
 Oryza sativa, rice, 25 
 
 rice arrowroot, G4 
 OxytricJia, 353, 377, 383, 3S5, 387 
 
 Oxyuris vermicularis, the maw-worm 
 or thread- worm, 246 
 
 Oysters and mussels, Bacterial con- 
 tamination of, 252 
 
 Pandorina, 369 
 Panophrys, 3G9, 379 
 Papaver somniferum, poppy, 298 
 Paramecium, derivation of name, 351 
 occurrence of, 353, 363, 367, 369, 
 
 375. 377, 379. 381. 383. 385. 
 387, 389, 391 
 Reproductive processes in, 363, 
 380. 381 
 Parasites oi fish, 251 
 
 of flesh, 240 
 Parasitic Diseases of the Cereal 
 Grains, 47 
 Germs in fruit, 139 
 round-worms, Ascaris lumbricoides 
 and A. mystax, 247 
 Parsley, Petrosclinum sativum, 157 
 Par-snip, Pastinaca sativa, 84, 157 
 Pasai, or Palangi (East Indian Rape), 
 
 Brassica rugosa, 167 
 Pastinaca sativa, parsnip, 84, 157 
 Patent Yeast, 40 
 Peach, Priinus Persica, 149 
 Pea-flour, Pisuni sativum, 178 
 -nuts. Arachis hypogcea, 82 
 -starch, Pisum arvense, P, sativum, 
 80 
 Pear, Pirus communis, 143 
 Pease, Pisiwi sativum, 84 
 Pediastrum Boryanum, 363, 373, 375, 
 
 377. 379 
 Penicillium citophilum, a common bread 
 mould, 48 
 glaucum, green or blue mould, 42, 
 
 48 
 roseum, a common bread mould, 48 
 Penium Brcbissonii , 383 
 Pepper Brand, see Bunt 
 
 Piper nigrum, 172 
 Peppercorn, see Galls of wheat 
 Peridinium, 375 
 Phacus longicaudus, 387 
 Phoenix dactylifera, date- stones, 84 
 PIiytozoa = Protista, 350 
 Pickles, Sauces, and Preserved Vege- 
 tables, 157 
 Pimento, Pimenta officinalis, or Eugenia 
 
 pimenta, 210 
 Pisum arvense, the pea, 80 
 
 sativum, the pea, 80, 84 
 Plane, Platanus, sp., 114 
 Plankton, classification of, 349 
 
 series of figures representing, 
 362-391 
 
428 
 
 INDEX 
 
 ' Plankton,' term proposed by 
 
 V. Hensen, of Kiel, 349 
 Plantain, Musa paradisaica, 145 
 Platanus, sp., plane, 114 
 Pleurosigma, 365, 367, 373, 375, 385. 
 
 387. 389 ^ . . 
 
 Plumbago, a component of factitious 
 
 tea, 120 
 Plum, Prumis domestica, 114, 149 
 Poisonous Grass, A, 54 
 ' Poivrette ' (crushed olive-stones), an 
 
 adulterant of pepper, 174 
 Polyarthra, 377 
 Poplar, Populiis, 114 
 Poppy, Papaver somniferum, 298 
 Populiis, poplar, 114 
 Portland Arrowroot, Arum macula- 
 turn, esadentum and Italicum, 65 
 Potato and sago, used as additions to 
 Ginger, 192 
 Flour, Solanum tuberosum, 28 
 or British Arrowroot, Solanum 
 tuberosum, 64 
 Potted fish-pastes in the making: 
 
 ' Seasonin' as does it,' 252 
 Prain, D, , Account of Brassica rugosa, 
 
 167 
 Precautions to be followed in prepar- 
 ing food for the table, 248 
 Preface, ix 
 
 Preparation of objects, xxxv 
 Prolegomena : on the Use of the 
 Microscope in the Examination of 
 Foods, Drugs, and Water, xxxi 
 Proportions of added sugar found in 
 samples of chicory, 92 
 of coffee found in the cheaper 
 ready made coffee infusions of 
 commerce, 84 
 Proprietary Foods containing Lentil 
 in admixture with Cereal 
 Grains, 80 
 containing or consisting of 
 
 Wheat, 76 
 consisting partially or en- 
 tirely of Nuts, 82 
 Protophyta, 350 
 ' Protose, ' 82 
 Prunus domestica, plum, 114 
 
 communis, sweet almonds, 82 
 spinosa, sloe or wild plum, 114 
 Prussian blue, an ingredient of fac- 
 titious teas, 120 
 Psychotria ipecacuanha, ipecacuanha, 
 
 325 
 Pucctma graminis, black rust of grain, 
 
 .47 
 mildew or rust of grain, 42 
 Purging Flax, Linum catharttcum , xxxi 
 Purples, see Galls of wheat 
 
 Q 
 
 Quercus pedunculata, acorn, 84 
 
 sp., oak, 114 
 Quince, Cydonia vulgaris, 143 
 
 R 
 
 Radish, Raphanus sativus, 157 
 
 Rape, Brassica napus, var. oleifera, 
 
 166 
 Raphanus raphanistra, wild radish, xxxi 
 Raphides, and characteristic clusters 
 of oil-drops, in the rind of the 
 banana, 145 
 Raspberry Jelly, factitious, flavoured 
 with orris rhizome, 152 
 Rubus Idmis, 149 
 Raw Coffee Seed, The, 84 
 Red currant an ingredient of an 
 alleged ' Indian ' secret 
 remedy, 147 
 Gum, see Rust 
 
 lead, ground rice, and turmeric, 
 used as adulterants of Cayenne 
 pepper, 186 
 Rag, see Rust 
 Robin, see Rust 
 Residue of evaporation of water, 
 value of a microscopical examina- 
 tion, 345, 360 
 Rheum hybridum, rhubarb, 288 
 officinale, rhubarb, 334 
 palmatum, rhubarb, 334 
 Rhubarb, beetroot, carrot, vegetable 
 marrow, and turnip, occasional 
 adulterants of jams, 151 
 Leaf, Rheum hybridum, a substi- 
 tute for tobacco, 288 
 mixed with Wheat Flour, 335 
 Rheum palmatum, R. officinale, 334 
 Rheum rhaponticum, 154 
 Rhus, sp., sumach, 120 
 Rice, Oryza sativa, 25-27 
 
 Arrowroot, Oryza sativa, 64 
 Rings or Striations of Starch Grains, 
 
 28 
 Roasted Beans, an adulterant of 
 Coffee, 87 
 Coffee Seed, The, 84 
 Wheat, an adulterant of Coffee, 
 
 Flour, an adulterant of 
 Chicory, 96 
 Roger Bacon, Friar, on the feeding 
 
 of animals, 248 
 Rumex, sp., The Dock, 283 
 Rust, Red Rag, Red Robin, or Red 
 Gum, Uredo rubigo and U. linearis, 
 
 47 
 Rye Flour, Secale cereale, 13-15 
 
INDEX 
 
 429 
 
 Sabatini, Signer Italo, Picture of Dr. 
 
 A. H. Hassall, Facing title-page 
 Saccharine Substances, 126 
 Saccharobioses, 126 
 Saccharomyces cerevisia, brewer's yeast, 
 40 
 yeast, 48 
 Saccharomycetes, yeasts, 40 
 Saccharum officinarxim, the sugar-cane, 
 
 126 
 Sago, 70 
 
 Granulated, 70 
 -Meal, Raw, 70 
 Pearl, 70 
 
 starch of, Metroxylon lave {Sa.gus 
 IcBvis), M. Rumphii {Sagus 
 Riimphii), M. Sagu, etc. ; also 
 Cycas circinalis and C. revolitta, 
 70 
 used as an adulterant of ginger, 
 192 
 Sagus IcBvis, sago, 70 
 
 Rumphii, sago, 70 
 St. Albans, Francis, Viscount, 82 
 SaUx, sp., willow, 114 
 Samhucus nigra, elder, 114 
 Saprophytic bacteria, 346 
 Sarepta mustard, Brassica Besseriana, 
 
 166 
 Sasanqua tea, Camellia Sasanqua, 114 
 Sausage-meat, Bread, starch, bran, 
 spices, antiseptics, and dye- 
 stuffs, added to, 234 
 The hazard of the sausage : the 
 mystery of potted pastes, 233, 
 
 234 
 Sawdust, 92 
 
 Scammony, gum resin from Convol- 
 vulus scammonia, 316 
 Scenedesmus, 369, 373, 375, 377 
 Seakale, Crambe maritima, 157 
 Secale cereale, rye, 13-15 
 Section I. , Foods derived from Vege- 
 table Sources, 1-229 
 II., Foods derived from Animal 
 
 Sources, 231-271 
 III., Tobacco, Drugs, Bitters, 
 and Colouring Matters, 273-342 
 IV., Water, 343-391 
 Sections of microscopic objects, Pre- 
 paration of, XXXV 
 Sedgwick's (W. T.), Rafter's (G. W.), 
 Whipple's (G. C), and others' 
 methods of examining water, 348 
 Seeds, numbers of, in various fruits, 
 139 
 resembling mustard, or which 
 have been used as substitutes, 
 166 
 
 Serious bodily disturbance frequently 
 
 caused by intestinal worms. 239 
 Shallot, Allitcm ascalonicum, 157 
 ' Shredded wheat,' 77 
 Significance of certain infusorial and 
 
 other forms, 352-353 
 Sloe or Wild Plum, Prunus spinosa, 
 
 114 
 Smut Balls, see Bunt 
 Bolls, see Bunt 
 
 or Dust Brand, Ustilago Iwrdei 
 and U . avencB, 47 
 Solanum tuberosum, potato, 28 
 
 potato or British arrowroot. 
 64 
 Sorgh urn vulgar e = A ndropogon sorghum , 
 
 var. durra, Durrha or Dari, 29 
 'Soul Market, The," by Olive C. 
 
 Malvery, 139 
 Soy, Dolichos soya, 157 
 Spent tan, 92 
 Spharozosma, 383 
 
 Sphinctocystis (Hassall), or Cymato- 
 pleiira, a genus of diatoms, 377, 
 389 
 Spinach, Spinacia oleracea, 157 
 Spulivurm. see Ascaris lumbricoides 
 Squill, mixed with Wheat Flour. 337 
 
 Urginea scilla, 336 
 Stauroneis, 383 
 Stentor, 377 
 Stephanodiscus, 371 
 Stinking Smut, see Bunt 
 Strawberries, Ova of intestinal worms 
 
 in, 139 
 Strawberry, Fragariavesca, F. Virgini- 
 ana, etc., 147 
 jam, Acari in, 130 
 Stylonychia histrio, 365 
 Sugar-beet, Beta vulgaris, var. altis- 
 sima, 126 
 -cane, Saccharum officinarum , 126 
 -mites, Glyciphagi, 127 
 Sumach, Rhus, sp., 120 
 •Sunny Jim,' his identity doubtful, 
 
 76 
 Suspended and dissolved matters in 
 
 water, 345 
 Sweet almonds, Prunus communis 
 
 82 
 Swift, Jonathan, Dean of St. Patrick's 
 
 238 
 Synedra, 365, -j,j7„ 375, 387, 391 
 
 Table of Contents, xvii 
 
 Tacca pinnatifida, Tacca, Tahiti, or 
 
 Otaheite Arrowroot. 61 
 Tacca. Tahiti, or Otaheite Arrowroot. 
 
 Tacca pinnatifida, 61 
 
430 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Tania dentata, see T. sagiuata 
 
 ecJwwcoccits, the hydatid-forming 
 
 tape-worm, 246 
 mediocanellata, see Tmiia saginata 
 saginata, a species of tape- worm, 
 
 246 
 solium, the common tape-worm, 
 246 
 Tape-worm, Tania solium, 246 
 Tapioca, Granulated, 74 
 Meal or Flour, 74 
 or Cassava, starch of Manihot 
 iitilissima, etc., 74 
 Taraxacum officinale, dandelion-root, 
 84 
 dandelion, a substitute for 
 chicory, 96 
 Tarragon, Artemisia Dracnnculus, 
 
 157 
 Tastes and odours imported to water 
 by certain organisms — Uroglena, 
 Synura, and Peridinium, 354 
 Tea, Adulterants of, 120 
 Camellia Thea, no 
 ' Economizers,' 120-121 
 Teas, Factitious, 120 
 Tertullian on ' faith,' 256 
 Tetrapedia (?), 373 
 Theobroma Cacao, cocoa, 100 
 Tilletia tritici = T. caries, bunt, smut 
 
 balls, etc., 47 
 Title-page, v 
 
 Tobacco, mucilaginous and saccha- 
 rine adulterants, 276 
 Nicotiana tabacum, and N. Rustica, 
 
 275 
 Substitutes, Leaves used as, 
 283 
 Tomato, Lycoperstcum esculentum, 157 
 Torulo', 40 
 
 Transmutations of Saccharomycetes 
 into Hyphomycetes once believed 
 to occur, 42 
 Trichina spiralis, 246 
 Tricliocephalus dispar = Ascaris iricJiiura, 
 
 the whip-worm, 247 
 ' Triscuits,' 77 
 Triticum sativum, var. vulgare, 
 
 wheat, 3 
 True and false Anchovies, 254 
 
 Sardines, 254 
 Turmeric, Curcuma longa, an adul- 
 terant of mustard, 164 
 ingredient of ' lie-tea,' 120 
 the rhizome of Curcuma longa, 
 310 
 Turnip, Brassica rapa, 154 
 Tussilago farfara, coltsfoot, 290 
 Twankay tea, 114 
 Tylenchus trittci, see Galls of wheat 
 
 Tyroglyphus domesticus, see T. siro 
 
 siro = A cams farincF, the meal 
 mite, 56 
 the cheese mite, 264 
 
 U 
 
 Ulmus campestris, elm, 114 
 
 Ulothrix mucosa, 379 
 
 Upton Sinclair, 233 
 
 Uredo linearis, rust of grain, 47 
 
 rubigo, rust of grain, 47 
 Urginea scilla, squill, 336 
 Ustilago Jiordei and U. avence, smut or 
 dust brand, 47 
 
 'Vegetable butters,' 82 
 debris in water, 359 
 fibres in water, 359 
 Marrow, Cucurbita ovifera succada, 
 
 154 
 
 Parasites, 47 
 
 Substances used in the Prepara- 
 tion of Beverages, 84 
 Venetian red, 92 
 Vermes, 238 
 
 Vibrio tritici, see Galls of wheat 
 Vicia Faba, bean, 28 
 Voluntary or striped muscle, 233 
 Vorticella. 367, 369, 377, 391 
 
 W 
 
 Walnuts, Juglans regia, 82 
 Ward, Colonel Sir E. W. D., Sta- 
 tistics of Recruiting, 249 
 Watercress, celery, and the like, re- 
 quire especially careful clean- 
 sing, 248 
 Nasturtium officinale, 157 
 Weevil, The, Calandra granaria, 56 
 Wheat and other Cereal Grains, 
 Adulterants of and Substitutes 
 for, 28-37 
 Flour, admixed with bean flour, 
 28 
 and barley flour, admixture 
 
 of, 28 
 and maize flour, admixture 
 
 of, 29 
 and rice, mixture of, 28 
 Triticum sativum, var, vulgare. 
 
 3-7 
 Midge, The, Cecidomyia tritici, 
 
 56 
 starch, alterations in, by heat, 
 
 4.7 
 
INDEX 
 
 431 
 
 Wheaten Bread, admixed with 
 potato, 39 
 Foreign additions to, 38 
 Microscopical characters of, 
 38 
 Flour, an adulterant of mustard, 
 164 
 Whip -worm, Trichocephahis dispar, 
 
 247 
 Whitebait, nature of, 254 
 Willow, Salix, sp., 114 
 
 Yeasts, Saccharomycetes, 40, 41 
 Yellow Dodder, Camelina sativa, xxxi 
 Mould, Eiirotinm repots = E. As- 
 pergillus glaucus of De Bary, 48 
 
 Zea Mais or Mays, maize, 21 
 
 maize arrowroot, Indian Corn 
 Flour, or Corn Flour, 64 
 Zingiber officinale, Ginger, 188 
 
 THE END 
 
An Abridged List of Works 
 
 PUBI.ISHED BY 
 
 BAILLIERE, TINDALL & COX. 
 
 ADAMS & CASSIDY'S Acute Abdominal Diseases, includ- 
 ing Abdominal Injuries and t]ie Complications of External 
 
 Hernia. Demy 8vo. Pp. x + 572, with 28 Illustrations. Price 
 12s. 6d. net. 
 
 BJORKEGREN'S Handbook of Anatomy for Students of 
 
 Massage. Second Edition. Demy Svo. Pp. x + 233, with 73 
 Illustrations. Price 5s. net. 
 
 BLAIR BELL'S The Principles of Gynsecology. 
 
 Second Edition. Pp. xxviii + 551, with 6 Coloured Plates and 363 Illus 
 trations. Royal Svo. Price 21s. net. 
 
 BLAIR BELL'S The Sex Complex : A Study of the Relation- 
 ships of the Internal Secretions to the Female Character- 
 istics and Functions in Health and Disease. Demy Svo. 
 
 Pp. XX + 233. AVith 7 Coloured and 43 Plain Plates. Price 12s. 6d. net. 
 
 BLOMFIELD'S AnsBsthetics. 
 
 Fourth Edition. Crown Svo. Pp. viii+147, with 22 Illustrations. 
 Price 4s. net. 
 
 BRADFORD & LOVETT'S Orthopaedic Surg-ery. 
 
 Fifth Edition. Royal Svo. Pp. x + 416, with 369 Illu.strations. Price 
 16s. net. 
 
 BROWN'S Physiologrical Principles in Treatment. 
 
 Third Edition. Pp. x + 408. Price5s.net. 
 
 BUCHANAN'S Manual of Anatomy, Systematic and 
 Practical, including Embryology. Third Edition. Complete 
 
 in 1 volume. Demy Svo. Pp. 1780, with 670 Illustrations, mostly 
 original, and in several colours. Price 21s. net. {University Series.) 
 
 CABOT'S Physical Diagnosis. 
 
 Sixth Edition. Royal Svo. Pp. xxii + 521, with 260 Illustrations. 
 Price 16s. net. 
 
 CARREL'S Treatment of Infected Wounds. 
 
 Translated by Capt. H. Child, Surgeon French Red Cross. Introduction 
 by Sir Anthony Bowlby. Second Edition. Crown Svo. Pp. xii + 23S, 
 with 97 Illustrations. Price 6s. net. 
 
 CHAPIN & PISEK'S Diseases of Infants and Children. 
 
 Third Edition. Royal Svo. Pp. xviii4-57S, with 12 Coloured Plates 
 and 179 Illustrations. Price 15s. net. 
 
 CLARK'S Dispensary Treatment of Pulmonary Tuber- 
 culosis. Royal Svo. Pp. viii + 2S0, with 20 fold-in Tables. Price 
 15s. net. 
 
An Abridged List of Works Published by 
 
 COBB'S The Organs of Internal Secretions: their 
 
 Diseases and Therapeutic Applications. CiownSvo. Pp. x + 236. 
 
 Price 5s. net. 
 
 DIEULAFOY'S Text-Book Of Medicine. 
 
 Translated l>y V. E. Collins and J. A. Liebmann. In 2 volumes. 
 Second Edition. Royal Svo. Pp. xxiv + 2156, with 9 Coloured Plates 
 and 99 iriustrations. Price 25s. net. 
 
 DOYEN'S Surgical Therapeutics and Operative Tech- 
 nique. Prepared by the Autlror in eollaboration with H. Spencp:r 
 Browne, M.B. Cantab, To be completed in 3 volumes, price 75s. net. 
 Vol. I. now ready. Large Royal Svo .Pp. X + 7&2, with 1038 Illustrations. 
 Price 258. net. 
 
 FITZWILLIAMS' Operative Surgery, with Surgical 
 Anatomy and Surface Marking's. Demy 8vo. Pp. viii + 4o0, 
 
 with 284 Illustrations. Price 10s. 6d. net. 
 
 FOX'S Physical Remedies for Disabled Soldiers. 
 
 Demy Svo-. Pp. xiv + 277, with 90 Illu.strations. Price 78. 6d. net. 
 
 FRENCH'S Medical Laboratory Methods and Tests. 
 
 Third Edition. Pp. viii + 202, with 88 Figures, plain and coloured. 
 Leather, gilt tops. Price 5«. net. 
 
 GARDNER'S Manual of Surgical Anaesthesia. 
 
 Second Edition, Demy Svo. Pp. xii + 220, with 8 Plates and 36 oth&r 
 Illustrations. Price 7&. 6d. net. 
 
 GREEN'S Pathology. 
 
 Twelfth Edition. Demy 8va Pp. X- + 603, with 4 Coloured Plates 
 and 243 Illustrations. Price 18s. net. {University Series.) 
 
 HAYES' The Intensive Treatment of Syphilis and Loco- 
 motor Ataxia by Aachen Methods. Second Edition. Crown Svo. 
 Pp. vi + 88, and 4 Plates. Price 3s, 6d. net, 
 
 JUNG'S Collected Papers on Analytical Psychology. 
 
 Authorized Translation, Edited by Dk, Constance E. Long. Demy 
 Svo. Second Edition. Pp. xvtii-f-492. Illustrated. Pricel5B.net. 
 
 KERR'S Operative Midwifery. 
 
 Third Edition. Royal Svo. Pp. xvi+726, with 308 Illustrations, 
 mostly original. Price 25s. net. 
 
 KRAEPELIN'S Lectures on Clinical Psychiatry. 
 
 Authorized Translation of the Second German Edition. Revised and 
 Edited by Thomas Johnstone, M.D. Edin., M.R.C.P. Lond. Third 
 English Edition. Pp. xviii + 368. Price 10s. 6d. net. 
 
 LAMB'S Diseases of the Throat, Nose, and Ear. 
 
 Fourth Edition. Crown Svo. Pp. xvi + 372, with 61 Illustrations. 
 Price 88. 6d. net. 
 
Baillierg, Tindall &> Cox. 
 
 LUYS' Gonoprhoea and its Complications. 
 
 Translated by A. Fuerster, M.R.C.S. Second Edition. Royal 8vo. 
 Pp. XX + 386. 18 Coloured Plates and 201 Plain Illustrations. Price 
 21s. net. 
 
 McCARRISON'S The Thyroid Gland in Health and Disease. 
 
 Royal 8vo. Pp. xviii4-286, with 82 Illustrations. Price 12s. 6d. net. 
 
 McCAW'S Diseases of Children. 
 
 Demy 8vo. Pp. xii + 524. With 14 Plates and Illustrations. Price 
 lOs. 6d. net. 
 
 MACEWEN'S Surgical Anatomy. 
 
 Second Edition. Demy 8vo. Pp. xiv + 498, with 79 Illustrations, plain 
 and coloured. Price 10s. 6d. net. 
 
 McKlSACK'S Dictionary of Medical Diagnosis. 
 
 Second Edition. Demy 8vo. Pp. xii + 690, with 76 Illustrations. 
 Price lOs. 6d. net. 
 
 MARSHALL'S Syphilology and Venereal Disease. 
 
 Third Edition. Demy Svo. Pp. viii + 466. Price lOs. 6d. net. 
 
 MARTINIER & LEMERLE'S Injuries of the Face and Jaw 
 and their Repair, and the Treatment of Fractured Jaws. 
 
 Translated by H. Lawson Whale, M.D. Crown Svo. Pp. xvi + 345, 
 with 168 Illustrations. Price 5s. net. 
 
 MATHEWS' Physiological Chemistry. 
 
 Second Edition. Royal Svo. Pp. viii + 1040, with 77 Illustrations. 
 Price 21s. net. 
 
 MAY & WORTH'S Diseases of the Eye. 
 
 Fourth Edition. Demy Svo. Pp. viii + 442, with 336 Illustrations, 
 including 22 Coloured Plates. Price 10s. 6d. net. 
 
 MONRO'S Manual of Medicine. 
 
 Fourth Edition. Demy Svo. Pp. xxiv + 1045, with 47 Illustrations, 
 plain and coloured. Pricel8s.net. [University Series.) 
 
 MORISON'S Sensory and Motor Disorders of the Heart : 
 
 Their Nature and Treatment. Demy Svo. Pp. viii + 260, with 51 Illus- 
 trations. Price 7s. 6d. net. 
 
 MUMMERY'S After-Treatment of Operations. 
 
 Fourth Edition. Crown Svo. Pp. x + 276, with 39 Illustrations. Price 
 5s. net. 
 
 ROBERTSON'S LK. Therapy in the Treatment of Tuber- 
 culosis. Crown Svo! Pp. xii + 151, with 9 Illustrations and 2 Charts. 
 Price 5s. net. 
 
 ROSE & CARLESS' Manual of Surgery. 
 
 Ninth Edition. Demy Svo. Pp. xii+ 1408. With 16 Coloured 
 Plates and 609 Illustrations. Price 21s. net. [University Series.) 
 
An Abridged List of Works. 
 
 SCHMIEDEN'S The CouFse of Operative Surgfery. 
 
 Translated from the Second Edition and Edited by Arthur Turnbttll, 
 M.A., M.B.. B.Sc. Glasg. Royal 8vo. Pp. xx + 346, with 435 Illus- 
 trations, mostly coloured. Price 12s. 6d. net. 
 
 SIMON'S Infection and Immunity. 
 
 Third Edition. Royal 8vo. Pp. x + 352, with 12 coloured and 20 plain 
 Illustrations. Price 14s. net. 
 
 SOMMERVILLE'S Practical Sanitary Science. 
 
 Demy 8vo. Second Edition. Pp. viii + 328, with 79 Illustrations. 
 Price lOs. 6d. net. 
 
 STARR'S Organic and Functional Nervous Diseases. 
 
 Fourth Edition. Royal 8vo. Pp. 970, with 30 Plates, plain and 
 coloured, and 323 Figures in the text. Price 26s. net. 
 
 STEWART'S Manual of Physiolog-y. 
 
 Seventh Edition. Demy 8vo. Pp. xx + 1160, with Coloured Plate and 
 467 Illustrations. Price 18s. net. ( University Series. ) 
 
 TIBBLES' Dietetics; or, Food in Health and Disease, 
 
 ineludingr Vitamines and Defleieney Diseases. Demy 8vo. 
 
 Pp. X + 628. Price 12s. 6d. net. 
 
 TINEL'S Nerve Wounds : Symptomology of Peripheral 
 Nerve Lesions caused by War Wounds. Revised and Edited by 
 
 Cecil A. JoLL, F.R.C.S. Royal 8 vo. Pp. xii + 317, with 323 Illustra- 
 tions. Price 158. net. 
 
 TREDGOLD'S Mental Deficiency (Amentia). 
 
 Second Edition. Demy 8vo. Pp. xx + 492, with 67 Illustrations and 
 28 Tables, Charts, etc. Price 12s. 6d. net. 
 
 TUCKEY'S Treatment by Hypnotism and Sug-grestion. 
 
 Sixth Edition. Demy 8vo. Pp. xxviii4-432. Price lOs. 6d. net. 
 
 WALSH'S Diseases of the Skin. 
 
 Demy 8vo. Pp. xvi + 300, with 29 Illustrations. Price 6s. net. 
 
 WHITLA'S Pharmacy, Materia Medica, and Therapeutics. 
 
 Tenth Edition. Pp. xii + 680, with 23 Illustrations. Price9s.net. 
 
 WHITLA'S Dictionary of Treatment. Fifth Edition. 
 
 Pp. x+1204. Price 16s. net. 
 
 WILLIAMS' Minor Maladies and their Treatment. 
 
 Fourth Edition. Crown 8vo. Pp. viii + 396. Price 7s. 6d. net. 
 
 YOUNGER'S Insanity in Everyday Practice. 
 
 Fourth Edition. Crown Svo. Pp. xH- 134. Price 4s. 6d. net. 
 
 BAILLIERE, TINDALL & COX, 
 
 8, Henrietta St., Covent Garden, London, W.C. 2. 
 
THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE 
 STAMPED BELOW 
 
 AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS 
 
 WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN 
 THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY 
 WILL INCREASE TO 50 CENTS ON THE FOURTH 
 DAY AND TO $1.00 ON THE SEVENTH DAY 
 OVERDUE. 
 
 MAR 19 1934 
 
 
 MAR 20 1934 
 
 
 f£B 21 ms 
 
 
 y./in L 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 NOV 15 1937 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 l-tB 19 1938 
 
 
 ^ <,--, *'d'>ft 
 
 
 QLV. - 
 
 
 
 
 JUL ^ik. wa 
 
 
 -ifilan'""'^'^''- 
 
 
 -cU-''*" ^^^^ 
 
 
 JAN 1 01956 [fj 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 LD 21-100m-7,'33 
 
£: 93642 
 
 7 
 
 7 a 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY