John Swett 
 
THE 
 
 FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 
 
 DESIGNED TO CULTIVATE 
 
 THE OBSERVING POWERS OF CHILDREN, 
 
 . . . . Not that more is taught at an early age, but less ; that 
 time is taken; that the wall is not run up in haste; that the bricks 
 are set on carefully, and the mortar allowed time to dry. 
 
 LORD STANLEY. 
 
 "You study Nature in the house, and when you go out-of-doors 
 you cannot find her." PEOF. AGASSIZ. 
 
 BY 
 
 ELIZA A. YOUMANS. 
 
 NEW AND ENLAKGED EDITION, WITH 300 ENGBAVING9. 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 
 D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 
 549 & 551 BKOADWAY. 
 
 18T3. 
 
E^TKIIED according to Act of Congress, In the year 1870, by 
 
 D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 
 
 in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the 
 Southern District of New York. 
 
 L> U CA V * i/ 
 
PKEFACE. 
 
 THIS little book has a twofold claim upon those 
 concerned in the work of education. 
 
 In the first place, it introduces the beginner to 
 the study of Botany in the only way it can be prop- 
 erly done by the direct observation of vegetable 
 forms. The pupil is told very little, and from the 
 beginning, throughout, he is sent to the plant to get 
 his knowledge of the plant. The book is designed 
 to help him in this work, never to supersede it. In- 
 stead of memorizing the statements of others, he 
 brings report of the living reality as he sees it ; 
 it is the things themselves that are to be exam- 
 ined, questioned, and understood. The true basis 
 of a knowledge of Botany is that familiarity with 
 the actual characters of plants, which can only be 
 obtained by direct and habitual inspection of them. 
 The beginner should therefore commence with the 
 actual specimens, and le,arn to distinguish those ex- 
 ternal characters which Le open to observation ; the 
 knowledge of which leads aaturally to that arrange- 
 ment by related attributes which constitutes classifi- 
 cation. ' 
 
iv PREFACE. 
 
 But the present book has a still stronger claim to 
 attention ; it develops a new method of study which is 
 designed to correct that which is confessedly the deep- 
 est defect of our current education. This defect is the 
 almost total lack of any systematic cultivation of the 
 observing powers. Although all real knowledge 
 begins in attention to things, and consists in the dis- 
 crimination and comparison of the likenesses and dif- 
 ferences among objects ; yet, strange to say, in our 
 vaunted system of instruction there is no provision 
 for the regular training of the perceptive faculties. 
 That which should be first and fundamental is hardly 
 attended to at all. "We train in mathematics, and 
 cram the contents of books, but do little to exercise 
 the mind upon the realities of Nature, or to make it 
 alert, sensitive, and intelligent, in respect to the order 
 of the surrounding world. 
 
 Something, indeed, has been done in the way of 
 object-teaching, although but little that is satisfactory. 
 These exercises are notoriously loose, desultory, inco- 
 herent, and superficial, and hardly deserve the name 
 of mental training. What is wanted is, that object- 
 studies shall become more close and methodic, and 
 that the observations shall be wrought into connected 
 and organized knowledge. It is the merit of Botany 
 that, beyond all other studies, it is suited to the 
 attainment of this end. Plants furnish abundant 
 and ever-varying materials for observation. The ele- 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 mentary facts of Botany are so simple that their 
 study can be commenced in early childhood, and 
 so numerous as to sustain a prolonged course of 
 observation. From the most rudimentary facts the 
 pupil may proceed gradually to the more complex ; 
 from the concrete to the abstract ; from observation 
 to the truths resting upon observation, in a natural 
 order of ascent, as required by the laws of mental 
 growth. The means are thus furnished for organ- 
 izing object-teaching into a systematic method, so that 
 it may be pursued continuously through a course of 
 successively higher and more comprehensive exercises. 
 Carried out in this way, Botany is capable of doing 
 for the observing powers of the mind what mathe- 
 matics does for its reasoning powers. 
 
 Moreover, accuracy of observation requires accu- 
 racy of description ; precision of thought implies pre- 
 cision in the use of language. Here, again, Botany 
 has superior advantages. Its vocabulary is more 
 copious, precise, and well settled, than that of any 
 other of the natural sciences ; it is thus unrivalled in 
 the scope it offers for the cultivation of the descrip- 
 tive powers. 
 
 On purely mental grounds, therefore, and as a 
 means of attaining the most needed of educational 
 reforms, Botany has a claim to be admitted as a 
 fourth fundamental branch of common-school study ; 
 and the hope of contributing something to this end 
 
VI PREFACE. 
 
 has been tlie author's main incitement in the prepa- 
 ration of this rudimentary work. 
 
 It is needful here to state that the method of in- 
 struction developed in these pages is no mere educa- 
 tional novelty ; it has been tested, and its fitness for 
 the end proposed has been shown in practice. The 
 schedule feature which is here fully brought out, and 
 which is its leading peculiarity as a mode of study, 
 was devised and successfully used by Prof. J. S. 
 Henslow, of Cambridge, England. My attention 
 was first drawn to it as I was looking about in the 
 educational department of the South Kensington 
 Museum, in London. In a show-case of botanical 
 specimens, I noticed some slates covered with child- 
 ish handwriting, which proved to be illustrations of 
 a method of teaching Botany to the young. They 
 were furnished by Prof. Henslow for the Interna- 
 tional Exhibition of 1851. He died without pub- 
 lishing his method, but not without having subjected 
 it to thorough practical trial. He had gathered 
 together a class of poor country children, in the 
 parish where he officiated as clergyman, and taught 
 them Botany by a plan similar to the present, though 
 less simplified. The results of this experiment have 
 been given to the public by Dr. J. D. Hooker, Su 
 perintendent of the Botanical Gardens at Kew, who 
 was summoned to give evidence upon the subject 
 before a Parliamentary Commission on Education. 
 
PREFACE. VI 1 
 
 The following interesting passages from liis testi- 
 mony will give an idea of Prof. Henslow's method 
 of proceeding and its results : 
 
 Question. Have you ever turned your attention at all to the 
 possibility of teaching Botany to boys in classes at school ? 
 
 Answer. I have thought that it might be done very easily ; 
 that this deficiency might be easily remedied. 
 
 Q. What are your ideas on the subject ? 
 
 A. My own ideas are chiefly drawn from the experience of 
 my father-in-law, the late Prof. Henslow, Professor of Botany 
 at Cambridge. He introduced Botany into one of the lowest 
 possible class of schools that of village laborers' children in 
 a remote part of Suffolk. 
 
 Q. Perhaps you will have the goodness to tell us the sys- 
 tem he pursued ? 
 
 A. It was an entirely voluntary system. He offered to en- 
 roll the school children in a class to be taught Botany once a 
 week. The number of children in the class was limited, I 
 think, to forty-two. As his parish contained only one thou- 
 sand inhabitants, there never were, I suppose, the full forty-two 
 children in the class ; their ages varied from about eight years 
 old to about fourteen or fifteen. The class mostly consisted 
 of girls. ... He required that, before they were enrolled in 
 the class, they should be able to spell a few elementary botani- 
 cal terms, including some of the most difficult to spell, and 
 those that were the most essential to begin with. Those who 
 brought proof that they could do this were put into the third 
 class ; then they were taught once a week, by himself generally, 
 for an hour or an hour and a half, sometimes for two hours 
 (for they were exceedingly fond of it). 
 
 Q. Did he use to take them out in the country, or was it 
 limply lessons in the school ? 
 
 A. He left them to collect for themselves ; but he visited 
 his parish daily, when the children used to come up to him, 
 and bring the plants they had collected ; so that the lessons 
 went on all the week round. There was only one day in the 
 
Vlll PREFACE. 
 
 week on which definite instruction was given to the class ; but 
 on Sunday afternoon he used to allow the senior class, and 
 those who got marks at the examinations, to attend at his 
 house. . . . 
 
 Q. Did he find any difficulty in teaching this subject in 
 class ? 
 
 A. None whatever ; less than he would have had in dealing 
 with almost any other subject. 
 
 Q. Do you know in what way he taught it ? did he illus- 
 trate it ? 
 
 A. Invariably ; he made it practical. He made it an ob- 
 jective study. The children were taught to know the plants, 
 and to pull them to pieces ; to give their proper names to the 
 parts ; to indicate the relations of the parts to one another ; 
 and to find out the relation of one plant to another by the 
 knowledge thus obtained. 
 
 Q. They were children, you say, generally from eight to 
 twelve ? 
 
 A. Yes, and up to fourteen. 
 
 Q. And they learned it readily ? 
 
 A. Readily and voluntarily, entirely. 
 
 Q. And were interested in it ? 
 
 A. Extremely interested in it. They were exceedingly fond 
 of it. 
 
 Q. Do you happen to know whether Prof. Henslow thought 
 that the study of Botany developed the faculties of the mind 
 -that it taught these children to think ? and do you know 
 whether he perceived any improvement in their mental facul- 
 ties from that ? 
 
 A. Yes ; he used to think it was the most important agent 
 that could be employed for cultivating their faculties of obser- 
 vation, and for strengthening their reasoning powers. 
 
 Q. He really thought that he had arrived at a practical re- 
 mit! 
 
 A. Undoubtedly; and so did every one who visited the 
 school or the parish ? 
 
 Q. They were children of quite the lower class ? 
 
 A. The laboring agricultural class. 
 
PREFACE. IX 
 
 Q. And in other branches receiving the most elementary 
 Instruction ? 
 
 A. Yes. 
 
 Q. And Prof. Henslow thought that their minds were more 
 developed ; that they were become more reasoning beings, from 
 having this study superadded to the others ? 
 
 A. Most decidedly. It was also the opinion of some of the 
 inspectors of schools, who came to visit him, that such chil- 
 dren were in general more intelligent than those of other 
 parishes ; and they attribute the difference to their observant 
 and reasoning faculties being thus developed. . . . 
 
 Q. So that the intellectual success of this objective study 
 was beyond question ? 
 
 A. Beyond question. ... In conducting the examinations 
 of medical men for the army, which I have now conducted for 
 several years, and those for the East-India Company's Service, 
 which I have conducted for, I think, seven years, the questions 
 which I am in the habit of putting, and which are not an- 
 swered by the majority of the candidates, are what would have 
 been answered by the children in Prof. Henslow's village- 
 Bchool. I believe the chief reason .to be, that these students' 
 observing faculties, as children, had never been trained such 
 faculties having lain dormant with those who naturally pos- 
 sessed them in a high degree ; and having never been de- 
 veloped, by training, in those who possessed them in a low 
 degree. In most medical schools, the whole sum and sub- 
 stance of botanical science is crammed into a few weeks of lec- 
 tures, and the men leave the class without having acquired an 
 accurate knowledge of the merest elements of the science. . . . 
 
 The printed form or schedule contrived by Prof. 
 Henslow, and used in these classes, applied only to 
 the flower, the most complex part of the plant, and 
 the attention of children was directed by it chiefly to 
 those features upon which orders depend in classifica- 
 tion. But, instead of confining its use to the study 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 of a special part of plant-structure, it seemed to me 
 to apply equally to the whole course of descriptive 
 Botany, and to be capable of becoming a most 
 efficient instrument of regular observational train- 
 ing. I accordingly prepared a simplified series of 
 exercises on this plan, and used them to guide some 
 little children in studying the plants of the neigh- 
 borhood; and, had this experiment not been re- 
 garded, by those who witnessed it, as a success, the 
 book embodying these exercises would not now ap- 
 pear. 
 
 The successful experience here referred to, which 
 led to the publication of this book, has now been de- 
 cisively confirmed by the public after a year's trial 
 with it. It has had an extensive sale, has been in- 
 troduced into many schools of all grades, has been 
 much used by private students, and has been ap- 
 proved with a unanimity and earnestness quite un- 
 precedented in the history of school-books based upon 
 new methods of teaching. 
 
 A new edition now appears, with several additional 
 chapters treating of the seed, germination, buds, the 
 aspects of woody plants, etc. The descriptions will 
 here be more full and general, but the plan of de- 
 scribing only the results of actual observations is still 
 adhered to. Questions are asked, but no answers are 
 
PREFACE. X 
 
 given ; these are to be got by direct inspection of the 
 objects. Some simple experiments for the children 
 to make are introduced, and they will now be more 
 occupied in watching the changes which take place 
 in the different parts of plants. 
 
 In arranging a course of observations for begin- 
 ners in Botany, only those have been selected which 
 may be made with the naked eye. In another book 
 now in preparation the same plan of schedule study 
 will be carried out, and provision made for more 
 close and extended observations, requiring the help 
 of magnifying-glasses. 
 
 There have been attempts to teach classes by the 
 schedule method of this work by means of the black- 
 board, and without the book, but all such attempts 
 are violations of the method. Botany cannot be 
 " taught " by this system, for the very essence and 
 soul of it is that the pupil is himself to find out what 
 he wants to know. For repetition, comparison, and 
 verification, constant reference to past exercises is 
 required, which makes it indispensable that plant 
 and book should go together. Only as a manual of 
 practice, in individual observation, can the present 
 work subserve the purpose for which it was pre- 
 pared. 
 
PUBLISHEES' NOTICE. 
 
 The essay on the EDUCATIONAL CLAIMS OF BOTANY, 
 which was appended to former editions of this work, is 
 withdrawn from the present edition. Believing it to be a 
 very important addition to our educational literature, and 
 that they can in no way better subserve the interests of 
 sound progressive education, the publishers have reprinted 
 the argument in a neat pamphlet for gratuitous distribu- 
 tion. The object of the essay is to trace the laws of 
 mental growth, to explain the method of education which 
 these laws require ; and to show the special adaptation 
 of Botany to carry out that method in the systematic cul- 
 tivation of the observing powers. 
 
 The pamphlet treats of the following subjects : 
 
 I. How the body grows. 
 II. How the mind grows. 
 
 III. Extent of early mental growth. 
 
 IV. Nature's educational method. 
 
 V. Deficiency of existing school-methods. 
 VI. What is now most needed. 
 VII. Advantages offered by Botany. 
 VIII. Defects of common Botanical study. 
 IX. Aims of the present work. 
 
 Sent by mail to any part of the country on receipt of 
 postage-stamp. 
 
SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 
 
 THE method to be pursued by the aid of this book is th 
 following : The child, whether at home or at school, first of 
 all collects some specimens of plants almost any will answer 
 the purpose in commencing. These consist of organs, each 
 of which is made up of different parts, and these vary in form 
 and structure continually in different species. The object of 
 the learner is to find out these parts or characters, and to 
 learn their names, so as to be able to describe them. 
 
 The beginner, of course, must start with the simplest char- 
 acters. Turning to the first exercises, for example, he finds 
 the parts of leaves represented by pictures accompanied by 
 the names applied to them. Guided by these, he refers to his 
 specimens, and finds the real things which the pictures and the 
 words represent. "When a few characters are fixed in the mind 
 by two or three exercises, he will commence the practice of 
 noting down what he observes. For this purpose a form, or 
 schedule, is used, containing questions which indicate what he 
 is to search for. Models of these schedules, filled out, are 
 given in the successive exercises : the pupil will make them 
 for himself with pencil and paper.* He now carefully observes 
 his specimen, and writes down the characters it possesses, with 
 which he has thus far become acquainted. Having done this, 
 he pins the specimen to the paper describing it, and brings it 
 to the teacher as the report of his observation and judgment 
 in the case. 
 
 * I have thought it desirable also to present the whole set, at the end of 
 the volume, with the answers omitted, to illustrate at a glance the scope of 
 this first series of observations. As the pupil is to be constantly engaged in 
 schedule practice, and as the schedules are not to be preserved, the cheapest 
 kind of paper will answer, and it can be of course used on both sides. Slates 
 will do just as well ; but then the description must be numbered, and a. Corre- 
 sponding number attached to the specimen, so that they can be compared bj 
 the teacher. 
 
XIV SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 
 
 This operation is constantly repeated upon varying forms, 
 and slowly extended by the addition of new characters. He 
 thus goes on discovering new parts and acquiring their names 
 noting the variations of these parts and the names of their 
 variations. The schedules guide him forward in the right 
 direction, and hold him steadily to the essential work of ex- 
 ercising his faculties upon the living objects before him. In 
 every fresh collection of plants, new parts and new relations 
 will solicit the attention, and will have to be observed, com- 
 pared, and recorded. Particular kinds of plants, let it be 
 remembered, are not described in the look they are not even 
 named ; the object is, by constant practice and repetition, to 
 train the pupil to find out the characters of any that come 
 in his way, and make his own descriptions. 
 
 An acquaintance with Botany, although of course de- 
 sirable, is not indispensable in using these exercises. Any 
 teacher or parent who is willing to take the necessary pains can 
 conduct the children through them without difficulty ; and if 
 they will become fellow-students with them all the better. The 
 child is not so much to be taught, as to instruct himself. The 
 very essence of the plan is, that he is to make his own way, 
 and rely on nobody else ; it is intended for self- development. 
 Mistakes will, of course, be made ; but the whole method is 
 self -correcting, and the pupil, as he goes forward, will be con- 
 stantly rectifying his past errors. The object is less to get 
 perfect results at first than to get the pupil's opinion upon the 
 basis of his own observations. 
 
 Children can begin to study plants successfully by this 
 method at six or seven years of age, or as soon as they can 
 write. But close observations should not be required from 
 young beginners, nor the exercises be prolonged to weariness. 
 The transition from the unconscious and spontaneous observa- 
 tions of children to conscious observation with a definite pur- 
 pose should be gradual, beginning and continuing for some 
 time with the easiest exercises upon the most simple and obvi- 
 ous characters. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. THE LEAP. 15 
 
 Ex. 1. The Parts of a Leaf. 16 
 
 2. The Parts of a Grass-Leaf. 17 
 
 3. Venation. 18 
 
 4. The Framework and its Parts 19 
 
 5. Feather-veined and Palmate-veined Leaves 22 
 
 6. Margins 24 
 
 7. Bases 28 
 
 8. Apexes 31 
 
 9. Forms of Lobes 33 
 
 10. Forms of Sinuses 35 
 
 11. Kinds of Leaves 37 
 
 12. Shapes of Leaves 39 
 
 13. Petioles, Surfaces, and Colors 45 
 
 14. Simple and Compound Leaves 47 
 
 15. Parts of Compound Leaves 49 
 
 16. Pinnate and Digitate Leaves 51 
 
 17. Varieties of Pinnate Leaves 52 
 
 18. Varieties of Digitate Leaves 54 
 
 19. Forms of Stipules 57 
 
 20. Examples of Description 59 
 
 CHAJ>. H. THE STEM. 60 
 
 Ex. 21. Parts of the Stem, and Leaf Axil 60 
 
 22. Appendages of the Stem 62 
 
 23. Position of Leaves 64 
 
 24. Arrangement of Leaves on the Stem. 66 
 
 25. Shapes of Stems 69 
 
 26. Attitude of Stems 71 
 
 27. Color, Surface, Size, Structure 74 
 
XVI CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAP. IU. THE INFLORESCENCE Te 
 
 Ex. 28. Solitary and Clustered Inflorescence 76 
 
 29. Parts of the Inflorescence 78 
 
 30. Attitude of Inflorescence 80 
 
 31. Solitary Terminal and Axial Inflorescence 82 
 
 32. Clustered Axial and Terminal Inflorescence 84 
 
 33. Definite and Indefinite Inflorescence 87 
 
 34. Varieties of Inflorescence 90 
 
 CHAP. IV. THE FLOWER 96 
 
 Ex. 35. Parts of the Flower 96 
 
 36. Parts of the Calyx 97 
 
 37. Parts of the Corolla 98 
 
 38. Kinds of Calyx 99 
 
 39. Kinds of Corolla and Perianth 100 
 
 40. Regular and Irregular Corollas and Perianths 101 
 
 41. Parts of Stamens 103 
 
 42. Parts of the Pistil 105 
 
 43. Parts of the Ovary 105 
 
 44. Parts of the Petals 107 
 
 45. Kinds of Regular Polypetalous Corollas 108 
 
 46. Kinds of Irregular Polypetalous Corolla. . 109 
 
 47. Parts of a Gamopetalous Corolla 112 
 
 48. Kinds of Regular Gamopetalous Corollas 113 
 
 49. Irregular Gamopetalous Corollas. 114 
 
 50. Crowns, Spurs, and Nectaries 118 
 
 CHAP. V. THE ROOT 120 
 
 Ex. 51. Tap-Roots and Fibrous Roots 120 
 
 52. Kinds of Tap-Root 121 
 
 63. Kinds of Fibrous Roots 122 
 
 EXAMPLES IN PLANT DESCRIPTION 124 
 
 CHAP. VI. THE SEED 142 
 
 Ex. 54. Parts of the Seed 142 
 
 55. Parts of the Body or Kernel 145 
 
 56. Parts of the Embryo 147 
 
 57. Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons 150 
 
CONTENTS. XVU 
 
 PAG 
 
 CHAP. VII. WOODY PLANTS 153 
 
 Ex.58. Their Different Kinds 153 
 
 59. Parts of a Tree 156 
 
 60. Parts of the Trunk 158 
 
 61. Kinds of Trunk 159 
 
 62. Questions about Trees 160 
 
 CHAP. VIIL THE LEAF-BUD 166 
 
 Ex. 63. Parts of the Leaf-Bud 166 
 
 64. Vernation 167 
 
 CHAP. IX. STEM AND ROOT 174 
 
 Ex. 65. What are Roots? 174 
 
 66. Tubers, Bulbs, Conns, Rhizoma 175 
 
 CHAP. X. FRUIT 178 
 
 Ex 67. What is Fruit? 178 
 
 68. Sutures and Dehiscence 180 
 
 69. Parts of Carpels 182 
 
 CHAP. XI. THE ACTIONS OF PLANTS 184 
 
 Ex. 70. Root-action and Leaf-action 184 
 
 LEAF SCHEDULES 188 
 
 STEM SCHEDULES 193 
 
 INFLORESCENCE SCHEDULES 196 
 
 FLOWER SCHEDULES.., . 199 
 
CHAPTER I. THE LEAF. 
 
 THE pupil will see from. the picture what is to be done first, 
 and how we are to proceed in commencing the study of plants. 
 Having collected some specimens, let us begin with the leaf. On 
 these printed leaves there is a language which children have 
 already learned ; there is also a language written by Nature on 
 the leaves that grow : we will now learn to read that. 
 
L i$H * A THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 EXERCISE I. 
 The Parts of a Leaf. 
 
 THE beginner will gather some leaves, and find 
 out the names of their parts by comparing them with 
 the picture. 
 
 FIG. 1. 
 
 Blade. 
 
 Petiole. 
 
 s Stipules. 
 
 BLADE. The flattened green part of the leaf. 
 PET'IOLE. The leaf-stalk. 
 
 STIP'ULES. Small bodies at the base of the petiole, 
 that look more or less like leaves. 
 
 NOTES FOR TEACHERS. The exercises begin with leaves, be- 
 cause they are the simplest and the most common parts of 
 plants, and because they present the greatest variety of forms, 
 and are most easily procured. The aim of the first exercise is 
 to teach the parts of a leaf and their names. It is likely that 
 the first gathering of leaves will be done carelessly, and that, 
 
THE LEAF. 
 
 EXERCISE II. 
 Parte o/ a Grass-Leaf. 
 
 GATHER a handful of grass and see if you can find 
 the parts shown in Fig. 2. 
 
 FIG. 2. 
 
 ra M n BMe ' 
 
 Sheath. 
 Ligule. ... 
 
 I 
 
 Sheath. ~-l 
 
 BLADE. The flattened upper part of the leaf. 
 SHEATH. A leaf-stalk surrounding the stem. 
 LIG'ULE. The. scale-like stipule often seen be- 
 tween the sheath and the blade. 
 
 when compared with Fig. 1, the specimens will be found lacking 
 in some of the parts there seen. This will make it necessary to 
 repeat the exercise. At the second trial the leaves will be pulled 
 with more care, and the pupil will seek for those having all the 
 parts seen in the picture. Let him point out the parts in each 
 of his specimens, and give them their names, repeating the pro- 
 cess till he can do it without hesitation or mistake. 
 
. THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 EXERCISE III. 
 Venation. 
 
 VENA'TION. The lines seen upon the leaf-blade 
 are called its venation. 
 
 Hold up a leaf between your eye and the light, 
 and, if you see a net-work of irregular lines, it is a 
 net-veined leaf ; but, if you see no such net-work, as 
 in Fig. 4, it is a parallel-veined leaf. 
 
 FIG. 3. 
 
 FIG. 4. 
 
 A Net-veined Leaf. 
 
 A Parallel-veined Leaf. 
 
 LOOKING AND OBSERVING. There are plenty of 
 boys and girls who have always lived in a garden, 
 and yet, if you asked them the difference between a 
 potato-leaf and a bean-leaf, they could not tell you. 
 They have looked at potato-plants and bean-plants 
 often enough, but they have never observed them. 
 
THE LEAF. 
 
 19 
 
 When we observe a thing, we not only look at it, 
 but, as we look, we think particularly about it. For 
 instance, after these exercises, when you look at a 
 leaf, you will think, what parts has it ? and, is it net- 
 veined or not ? You will observe these particulars 
 about it. 
 
 THE SCHEDULE. That you may be sure to look 
 at plants with care, and that your teacher may see 
 what you think about them, little diagrams, called 
 schedules, are used, in which you are to write down 
 what you observe. They have questions written 
 upon them, which you are to answer by studying the 
 plants themselves. 
 
 FIG. 5. 
 
 SCHEDULE FIRST. DESCKIBIXG FIG. 5. 
 
 Parts ? 
 
 Yenation ? 
 
 XOTE. It will be observed that the attention of the child 
 is restricted to one additional point at each exercise. This 
 will prevent the confusion of ideas which is liable to arise 
 when several new features of plant-structure are presented to 
 the mind at the same time. 
 
20 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 Here is such a schedule about Fig. 5. On the 
 left, two words are printed with interrogation-points, 
 which show that they are questions. The word 
 Parts? means, what parts has this leaf ? The word 
 Venation ? means, what is its venation ? The an- 
 swers to these questions are found by looking at the 
 picture, and they are then written in the schedule as 
 you see. 
 
 Take a sheet of ruled paper, and make a vertical 
 pencil-mark an inch or two from the left edge ; at 
 the left of this mark write the questions, Parts? 
 Yenation ? Now examine a real leaf, and opposite 
 the question, Parts? write what parts you find. 
 Look again at its venation, and write the answer 
 to this question also. Pin each leaf upon the paper 
 that describes it, and hand the collection to the 
 teacher, to see if you have observed correctly. 
 
 EXERCISE IV. 
 The Framework and its Parts. 
 
 THE lines upon the blade of a leaf, shown in Fig. 
 6, are made by its framework. The spaces between 
 
 NOTE. A word of caution is here necessary against mis- 
 taking the purpose of this book for that of common botanies. 
 The aim of ordinary botanical teaching is simply to impart to 
 pupils a knowledge of plants. In our schools the ambition of 
 both teacher and pupil is to get something done as quickly as 
 possible that will show proficiency. Hence the early attempts 
 at the classification of plants and the consequent precipitation 
 
THE LEAF. 
 
 21 
 
 these lines, which are darkened in Fig. Y, are, in the 
 living leaf, filled with green matter. 
 
 FIG. 6. 
 
 You know the names of 
 the parts of a leaf, and the 
 two following pictures will 
 show you what to call the 
 different parts of the frame- 
 work. 
 
 RIBS. The stoutest 
 pieces of the framework that 
 begin at the petiole and 
 reach quite across the blade, 
 are called ribs. When there 
 is but one, as in Fig. 8, it is 
 called a midrib. 
 
 FIG. 7. 
 
 FIG. 8. 
 
 -Veinlets. 
 
 Vein. 
 
 -Midrib. 
 
 of the pnpil into the complexities of the subject before the 
 simpler portions have been sufficiently mastered. 
 
 Now, the aim of this book is carefully to guard against such 
 a result. These first observations are made without reference 
 to those combinations of characters by which plants are identi- 
 fied as belonging to a particular order, genus, or species. One 
 of our aims is to learn the elementary facts so thoroughly and 
 
THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 FIG. 9. 
 
 Veinlete. 
 
 YEINS. The branches of the ribs are called veins. 
 YEIN'LETS. The branches of the veins are called 
 veinlets. 
 
 EXERCISE Y. 
 Feather -veined and Palmate-veined Leaves. 
 
 IF you have carefully compared a few living leaves 
 with Figs. 8 and 9, you know the difference between 
 ribs and veins. 
 
 familiarly that we may be prepared to go forward and use them 
 afterward. We first study the parts of plants one after another, 
 on account of what they offer directly to observation. When 
 the characters of leaves, stems, flowers, etc., have become 
 familiar, their relations to each other in different plants, which 
 are usually thrust upon the attention at the outset of study, 
 will come to be seen with little effort. This spontaneous action 
 will be sure to occur as soon as the pupil is prepared for it. 
 All that need be done, therefore, is to keep the elements of 
 the subject before the mind, and to acquire the use of accurate 
 
THE LEAF. 
 
 FIG. 11. 
 
 Now, when a leaf lias but one rib a 
 midrib which gives off veins right and 
 left, like Fig. 10, making it look some- 
 thing like a feather, it is called a feather- 
 veined leaf; and when several ribs pass 
 
 across the blade 
 in a spreading 
 fashion, as in 
 Fig. 11, the 
 leaf is said to 
 be palmate- 
 veined. Who- 
 ever named it 
 so, must have 
 thought the ribs 
 looked like the 
 spread-out fingers branching off from the palm of 
 the hand. 
 
 If a leaf is net-veined, it will be in one of these 
 two fashions. It will be either feather-veined or 
 palmate-veined. In answering the question Vena- 
 tion ? in your schedule, you may now state whether 
 the leaf in hand is feather-veined or palmate- veined. 
 
 You may sometimes be troubled to decide whether 
 a leaf is feather-veined or palmate-veined. Large 
 Veins near the base sometimes look very much like 
 ribs. Compare your leaf carefully with the pictures 
 and definitions, and write your opinion in the sched- 
 ule. You may make mistakes at first, but further 
 observation will enable you to correct them. 
 
 terms in description, without troubling ourselves about the 
 higher growths of the science. 
 
24: 
 
 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 EXEKCISE VI. 
 Margins. 
 
 MARGIN. THE edge of a leaf-blade is called its 
 
 margin. 
 
 Fia. 12. 
 
 FIG. 13. 
 
 Entire. 
 
 Serrate. 
 
 An ENTIRE margin is even and smooth, like Fig. 12. 
 A SER'RATE margin has sharp teeth pointing for- 
 ward like a saw (see Fig. 13). 
 
 FIG. 14. 
 
 FIG. 15. 
 
 FIG. 16. 
 
 Dentate. Dentate. Crenate. 
 
 A DENTATE margin has sharp teeth pointing out- 
 
 
THE LEAF. 
 
 25 
 
 ward. Figs. 14 and 15 are different forms of Dentate 
 margin. 
 
 A CRE'NATE margin has broad, rounded notches, 
 like Fig. 16. 
 
 FIG. 17. 
 
 Eepand. 
 
 A Lobed Leaf. 
 
 In REPAND' (WAVY) margins the edge curves out- 
 ward and inward, as in Fig. 17. 
 
 Such deep notches as are seen in Fig. 18 form 
 lobes. 
 
 Each of these different kinds of margin varies in 
 many ways, and some of the variations are important 
 
 Fio. 19. 
 
 FIG. 20. 
 
 Coarsely Serrate. 
 
 Finely Serrate. 
 
 in description. For instance, serrate margins are 
 sometimes COARSELY SERRATE (Fig. 19), FINELY SER- 
 
26 
 
 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 RATE (Fig. 20), DOUBLY SERRATE (Fig. 21), and UN- 
 EVENLY SERRATE (Fig. 22). 
 
 FIG. 21. 
 
 FIG. 22. 
 
 Doubly Serrate. 
 
 Unevenly Serrate. 
 
 Look out for the same kinds of variation among 
 crenate margins. Fig. 23 shows you a FINELY ORE- 
 NATE margin. Doubly cre- 
 nate margins are very com- 
 mon. 
 
 Dentate margins are 
 coarse, fine, double, and also 
 uneven. 
 
 You will sometimes find 
 two kinds of margin on the 
 same leaf. Part of the notches may be serrate and 
 part dentate, and this forms a serrate-dentate margin. 
 If some of the notches are crenate and some serrate, 
 it will be crenate-serrate, and so on. 
 
 In answering the new question, Margin ? which 
 you will find in the next schedule, you must look 
 closely, for all these different forms, and get familiar 
 with the terms by which they are described. 
 
 Finely Crenate. 
 
ScHEDtrLE SECOND, DESCRIBING FIG. 24. 
 
 Parts? 
 
 &A*. W-* 3fr& 
 
 Yenation ? 
 
 m,^^. 
 
 Margin ? 
 
 (Sntt'te. 
 
28 THE FIRST BOOK OP BOTANY. 
 
 EXERCISE VII. 
 Bases. 
 
 THE BASE of a leaf is its lower or attached end. 
 Bases are 
 
 COR'DATE (HEART-SHAPED). Shaped like a heart, 
 at the base. Fig. 25. 
 
 FIG. 25. 
 
 FIG. 26. 
 
 FIG. 27. 
 
 REN'IFORM*(KIDNEY-SHAPED). Shaped like a kid- 
 ney. Broader than long. Fig. 26. 
 
 AURIC'TJLATE (EAR-SHAPED). With small, rounded 
 lobes at the base. Fig. 27. 
 
 FIG. 28. 
 
 FIG. 29. 
 
 FIG. 30. 
 
 FIG. 31. 
 
 HAS'TATE (HALBERT - SHAPED). With spreading 
 lobes at the base. Fig. 28. 
 
 SAGITTATE (ARROW-SHAPED). With sharp lobes at 
 the base pointing backward. Fig. 29. 
 
 * By some, this term is applied only to the whole leaf. 
 
THE LEAF. 
 
 29 
 
 OBLIQUE'. With one side of the base larger and 
 lower than the other. Fig. 30. 
 
 TAPERING. Where the blade tapers off at the 
 base. Fig. 31. 
 
 FIG. 32. 
 
 FIG. 33. 
 
 FIG. 34 
 
 CLASPING. "Where the base folds around the stem 
 of the plant. Fig. 32. 
 
 CONNATE'. Where the bases of two leaves grow 
 together around the plant-stem, as in Fig. 33. 
 
 DECUB'RENT. Where the lower part of the mid- 
 rib grows to the plant-stem, as in Fig. 34. 
 
 XOTE. Children will, of course, get leaves from the same 
 plants, and describe them over and over again as they pass on 
 from schedule to schedule. A few plants will ohtrude them- 
 selves upon the attention, and each day the pupil will gather 
 leaves from these alone. At first they will have very little 
 enterprise in searching for new specimens, but will be con- 
 tent with whatever is easiest. These will serve perhaps as 
 well as any to illustrate the new character brought out by 
 the new schedule, but the repetition of old observations upon 
 them will require but little effort of the attention. This repe- 
 tition of observations upon the same varieties of leaves is 
 proper and desirable, but not sufficient for our purpose. As the 
 wealth of varied forms that plants present is to be our means 
 of educating the observation, it is indispensable that our re- 
 
30 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTAJSIY. 
 
 FIG. 35. 
 
 SCHEDULE THIRD, DESCRIBING FIG. 
 
 Parts ? 
 
 Venation ? 
 
 Margin ? 
 
 fenfo'ie. 
 
 Base? 
 
 
 The base of Fig. 35 is much less tapering than 
 Fig. 31. You will find all degrees, in this respect, 
 from very blunt to very tapering. You will also 
 be likely to find many leaves to which none of 
 these pictures apply. In such cases you may 
 write, I do not know, in the schedule, and wait 
 till further exercises have shown you how to de- 
 scribe them. 
 
 sources shall be as extensive as possible. Teachers should there- 
 fore press beginners and negligent pupils about looking for 
 new specimens. After a little time, such pressing will, in most 
 cases, be unnecessary ; for, when the interest and pride of 
 a child are awakened by success in describing plants, he will 
 take increasing pains to find new subjects for description. 
 
THE LEAF. 31 
 
 EXERCISE VOL 
 
 Apices. 
 
 THE APEX of a leaf is its top, or free end. 
 
 FIG. 38. FIG. 39. FIG. 40. 
 
 FIG. 36. 
 
 The Apex of a leaf may be : 
 
 ACUTE'. Simply ending with a point. Fig. 36. 
 
 ACU'MIR ATE. Ending with a long tapering point. 
 Fig. 37. 
 
 OBTUSE'. Blnnt. Fig. 38. 
 
 TRUN'CATE. Cut off at the apex. Fig. 39. 
 
 KETUSE'. With the end rounded inward. Fig. 
 40. 
 
 FIG. 41. 
 
 FIG. 42. 
 
 FIG. 43. 
 
 FIG. 44. 
 
 OBCOR'DATE. Heart-shaped at the apex. Fig. 41. 
 
 EMAR'GINATE. With a small notch at the apex. 
 Fig. 42. 
 
 MT/CRONATE. Tipped with a stiff, sharp point. 
 Fig. 43. 
 
 CUS'PIDATE. Suddenly ending with a sharp, slen- 
 der point. Fig. 44. 
 
32 
 
 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 The words acute, acuminate, and obtuse may be 
 used to describe bases as well as apices, and, when we 
 wish to say that a shape is less acute or less acumi- 
 nate than Figs. 36 and 37, we may say it is sub-acute 
 or sub-acuminate, as in the schedule to Fig. 45. 
 
 Fro. 45. 
 
 SCHEDULE FOURTH, DESCRIBING FIG. 45. 
 
 Parts ? 
 
 Yeiiation ? 
 
 e, <jtih 
 
 Margin ? 
 
 Base? 
 
 t* 
 
 Apex 
 
 -acute. 
 
THE LEAF. 33 
 
 EXERCISE IX. 
 Forms of Lobes. 
 
 THE most striking difference in lobed leaves is the 
 one seen in contrasting Fig. 46 with Fig. 47. It will 
 be quite enough to ask of young beginners that they 
 report whether the lobes of a leaf are rounded or acute. 
 
 FIG. 46. 
 
 FIG. 47. 
 
 Rounded Lobes. 
 
 Acute Lobes. 
 
 But there may be older pupils who could profit- 
 ably go further in observing the lobes of leaves. They 
 vary much in size and shape, and are rarely all alike 
 upon the same leaf. The lobe at the apex of a leaf 
 is called the Terminal lobe, and is usually unlike all 
 the others. The two lobes at the base are called 
 basal lobes, and these also are usually unlike all the 
 rest ; for any pupils who would desire fuller observa- 
 tions upon lobes, a schedule might be prepared with 
 two additional lines and the two questions, Terminal 2 
 and Basal ? added to the present one. It might be 
 well in such a case to give the number of lobes upon 
 
THE FIKST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 the leaf, along with their form, in answer to the ques- 
 tion Lobes ? While the peculiarities of the terminal 
 and basal lobes would be given after these questions. 
 
 FIG. 48. 
 
 SCHEDULE FIFTH, DESCRIBING FIG. 48. 
 
 Parts? 
 
 Venation 
 
 Margin 
 
 Base 
 
 Apex 
 
 Lobes 
 
 and 
 
 In dealing with lobed leaves, you will not always 
 find the base and apex so easily described as is Fig. 
 53, in the schedule. If they give you trouble, you 
 may omit the questions, Base ? and Apex ? 
 
THE LEAF. 35 
 
 EXERCISE X. 
 Forms of Sinuses. 
 
 The SI'NUS of a leaf is the space left between lobes. 
 
 We represent here some of the most usual forms 
 presented by Sinuses, with the terms describing them 
 printed below the pictures. 
 
 FIG. 49. 
 
 FIG. 50. 
 
 FIG. 51. 
 
 Sharp and deep Sinus. 
 
 Broad, round, ehallovr Sinus. 
 
36 THE FIEST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 FIG. 54. FIG. 55. 
 
 Round, deep Sinus. 
 
 SCHEDULE Six, DESCRIBING FIG. 55. 
 
 Parts 
 
 Venation ? 
 
 Margin ? 
 
 Cfebiafe. 
 
 Base 
 
 , o/ien 
 
 Apex 
 
 Lobes ? 
 
 Sinuses ? 
 
 dcc/t,. 
 
 NOTE. It will be observed that our exercises contain none 
 of the descriptions of plants and explanations of their growth 
 which usually make up the text of botanies. These might be 
 
THE LEAF. 37 
 
 EXERCISE XI. 
 Kinds of Leaves. 
 
 FIG. 56. FIG. 57. FIG. 58. 
 
 <? Pafl ,-ip T P*f Stipulate and Petiolate A Petiolate and Ex- 
 
 ssile Leat Leaf stipulate Leaf. 
 
 A SES'SILE Leaf is a leaf without a petiole. 
 A SIMULATE Leaf is a leaf that has stipules. 
 A PET'IOLATE Leaf is a leaf that has a petiole. 
 An EXSTIP'IJLATE Leaf is a leaf without stipules. 
 
 In Schedule Seven, it will be seen, we have 
 dropped the question Parts 1 and put Kind \ in its 
 place. The words by which you answer this ques- 
 tion are very long, but you can soon learn to handle 
 them, and by-and-by you will find them much more 
 convenient in leaf-description than it will be always 
 to give a list of the parts. 
 
 easily given, but it would be a departure from our essential 
 plan. The work before us the observation of the external 
 characters of plants is itself extensive, and it can only be well 
 done by making it at first our sole occupation. To observe 
 carefully, to repeat our observations till they are familiar, and 
 to acquire the ready and accurate use of the vocabulary of de- 
 scription, are the only true foundation of a knowledge of botany ; 
 
38 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 FIG. 59. 
 
 SCHEDULE SEVEN, DESCRIBING FIG. 
 
 Kind 
 
 Venation 
 
 Margin ? 
 
 Base? 
 
 Apex? 
 
 Lobes ? 
 
 Sinuses 
 
 and we must be careful not to anticipate the work which be- 
 longs to a higher stage of the pupil's progress. The accounts 
 of tissues, structures, and functions, add nothing to the under- 
 standing of plant-forms, and they afford proper subjects for 
 future exercises in observation, to be given in a second book. 
 What we have presented is eminently adapted to childhood, 
 when sense-impressibility, and curiosity about appearances are 
 strongest, and before the reflective powers are much developed. 
 The apparent meagreness of these pages is, therefore, inten- 
 tional. They might easily have been filled with interesting 
 reading matter about plants, but that would have opened the 
 door to lesson-learning and reciting, which is a thing we special- 
 ly wish to prevent. 
 
THE LEAP. 
 
 39 
 
 EXERCISE XII. 
 
 Shapes of Leaves. 
 
 COMPARE leaves that are not lobed with the first 
 three groups of pictures. 
 
 LEAVES THAT ARE BROADEST IN THE MIDDLE. 
 
 v 
 
 FIG. 60. FIG. 61. FIG. 62. 
 
 Rotun'date. Broadly elliptical 
 
 FIG. 64. FIG. 65. FIG. 66. 
 
 Elliptical. 
 
 Oblong. 
 
 f 
 
 V 
 
 \ 
 
 I 
 
 Linear. 
 
 Aci(/ular. 
 
THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 LEAVES THAT ARE BROADEST AT BASE. 
 
 FIG. 67. FIG. 68. FIG. 69. FIG. 70. 
 
 Cordiform. 
 
 Hastate. 
 
 Sagittate. 
 
 Some of the names here applied to the whole leaf 
 have already been used to describe a part of a leaf. 
 For instance, among bases we had the heart-shaped 
 base, and now a particular leaf-form is said to be 
 heart-shaped. But it will soon be seen that heart- 
 shaped bases may occur in leaves of very various 
 forms, though there is one general form in which the 
 
THE LEAF. 
 
 4:1 
 
 entire leaf resembles a heart, and is therefore said 
 to be cordate. So the base of a leaf may look like 
 an arrow, while the rest of it is very unlike an 
 arrow. The apex may be truncate or obcordate, or 
 any other form rather than the acute ending of an ar- 
 rowshaped leaf. Follow the order of the" schedule 
 carefully in your descriptions till you begin to grow 
 familiar with varying leaf-forms, and soon all ap- 
 pearance of confusion in the use of words will be at 
 an end. 
 
 LEAVES THAT ABE BROADEST AT THE APEX. 
 FIG. 74. FIG. 75. FIG. 76. FIG. 77. 
 
 Obcordiform. 
 
 Obo^vate. 
 
 Oblan'ceolate. Spatb/ulate. 
 
 Do not expect to find an exact reproduction in 
 Nature of the forms pictured in the book. You are 
 simply to see which of the pictures your leaf is near- 
 est like, and give it the name or the combination of 
 names which the comparison seems to justify. 
 
 There are, of course, many leaves that you will 
 not at first be able to describe. But if you find a 
 
42 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 very puzzling leaf, to which the schedule does not 
 seem to apply, you may compare it with the follow- 
 ing pictures. Perhaps it will be like one of these, 
 and if so, if you cannot describe it, you can at least 
 learn what to call it. If it is not like any of these 
 pictures, it will be best to postpone its study for the 
 present. By-and-by you will know better how to 
 manage it. 
 
 FIG. 78. 
 
 FIG. 79. 
 
 FIG. 80. 
 
 Euncinate. 
 
 Bipinnatifid. 
 
 Pedate. 
 
 A KTJN'CINATE leaf is a lobed feather-veined leaf, 
 in which the lobes point backward toward the base. 
 Fig. 78. 
 
 BIPINNAT'IFID leaves are formed when a deeply- 
 lobed feather-veined leaf has its lobes again lobed, as 
 in Fig. 79. 
 
 A PED'ATE leaf is a lobed palmate- veined leaf, in 
 which the lobes at the base are lobed again, and give 
 the leaf a look like the foot of a bird. Fig. 80. 
 
 CURLED leaves (Fig. 81) are formed by a spread- 
 ing of the border of the blade. 
 
43 
 
 PIG. 82. 
 
 FIG. 83. 
 
 FIG. 84. 
 
 Peltate. 
 
 Kidney-shaped. 
 
 PELTATE leaves are round, and have the petiole 
 attached near the middle of the under surface of the 
 blade. Fig. 82. 
 
 A KIDNEY-SHAPED leaf is short and broad, with a 
 rounded apex and heart-shaped base. Fig. 83. 
 
 A LYRATE leaf is a lobed feather- veined leaf, with 
 the terminal lobe much larger than the others. Fig. 
 84. 
 
44: 
 
 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTAJSTY. 
 
 LACINIATE leaves are so named because they look 
 as if they had been gashed with scissors. Fig. 85 is 
 an example of such a leaf. 
 
 FIG. 85. 
 
 SCHEDULE SEVEN, DESCRIBING FIG. 85. 
 
 Kind 
 
 Yenation ? 
 
 / 
 
 =vemea . 
 
 Margin 
 
 Base? 
 
 Apex? 
 
 Lobes ? 
 
 Sinuses ? 
 
 Shape 
 
THE LEAF. 45 
 
 EXERCISE XIII. 
 Petioles, Surfaces, and Colors. 
 
 THE following schedule has three new questions 
 added to it. The first is Petiole ? The shape of the 
 petiole, whether round, roundish, or half-round, should 
 be observed, and written down. And if it be re- 
 markable for its length or shortness, if it be unusu- 
 ally limber, or unusually stiff, you must mention 
 these peculiarities about it. 
 
 COLOR ? To this question the answer is easy. 
 Leaves are sometimes light green, sometimes dark 
 green ; and sometimes the upper surface is one color, 
 and the lower another. There are spotted and striped 
 leaves, and some leaves have a brownish or reddish 
 tinge. All these things are to be noted when you 
 see them. 
 
 SURFACE ? Observe whether the surface of a leaf 
 has hairs or not. If it has hairs, write hairy after 
 this question ; but, if it has no hairs, write glabrous, 
 which means free from hairs. 
 
 Again, surfaces are either smooth or rough, ob- 
 serve which, and write the result in the schedule. 
 
 Some leaves have a very shiny surface, and some 
 are very dull, and these differences should be ob- 
 served, and ^vritten down ; but these qualities need 
 not be noted unless they are strongly marked. 
 
 These characters cannot be conveniently repre- 
 sented by pictures, but they are readily seen in 
 actual leaves. Feeling sure that you can easily make 
 them out, we have not attempted to describe a leaf 
 in schedule eight. 
 
THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTAISTY. 
 
 The schedule is now made up of the following 
 questions : 
 
 SCHEDULE EIGHT. 
 
 NOTE. While in a book 
 we must present one definite 
 order of exercises, it is well if 
 teachers use their own judg- 
 ment in adhering to this order. 
 Often, doubtless, much will be 
 gained by judicious deviation. 
 There are minds that demand 
 variety, or their interest flags ; 
 and the minds of children, 
 especially, are liable to grow 
 weary of continued attention 
 to one class of objects. Before 
 proceeding with the exercises 
 upon compound leaves, it may, 
 therefore, be advisable to turn 
 to the chapter upon the In- 
 florescence, or that upon the 
 Flower, and occupy a little 
 time with the opening exercise 
 in which the names of parts 
 are brought before the mind. 
 The identification and naming 
 of the parts of the flower will 
 be easier to most children than 
 the discrimination of simple 
 and compound leaves; while 
 dealing with another and more 
 showy portion of the plant 
 will stimulate the attention. 
 
 The use of schedule eight 
 
 should, however, still be kept up, and, after a little while, the 
 pupil will come back to the study of compound leaves with a 
 fresh relish for the subject. 
 
 Kind? 
 
 
 Yenation ? 
 
 
 Margin ? 
 
 
 Base? 
 
 
 Apex? 
 
 
 Lobes? 
 
 
 Sinuses ? 
 
 
 Shape ? 
 
 
 Petiole ? 
 
 
 Color? 
 
 
 Surface? * 
 
 
COMPOUND LEAVES. 
 
 EXERCISE XIY. 
 Simple and Compound Leaves. 
 
 FIG. 88. 
 
 FIG. 89. 
 
 Simple Leaf. 
 
 Compound Leaf. 
 
 SIMPLE LEAVES have only one blade. 
 
 COMPOUND LEAVES consist of several distinct 
 blades, called leaflets. You may know leaflets from 
 lobes by their being entirely separate from each other. 
 
 UP to this time I suppose that pupils have de- 
 scribed leaflets as leaves ; but they must now be care- 
 ful not to make this mistake. Let them confine 
 themselves to simple leaves in using schedule eight, 
 and write simple leaf upon it, to show that they 
 have considered the matter. 
 
 It is sometimes a very nice point to decide be- 
 tween a deeply-lobed leaf and a compound leaf. If 
 
48 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 confusion at first arises, it must be patiently borne. 
 We might add to the above definition of a compound 
 leaf, that leaflets are jointed to the stalk, while the 
 divisions called lobes never are. Such a statement 
 would save trouble at first, but it would make greater 
 trouble in the end. The truth is, that deeply-lobed 
 leaves pass by insensible gradations into compound 
 leaves, and compound leaves have their leaflets in all 
 stages of connection with the common stalk, from a 
 complete continuation of one into the other, up to a 
 perfectly-jointed connection. 
 
 If the green matter of a leaf is continuous around 
 the veins and along the ribs, however narrow the 
 strip may be, it is quite correct to call such a speci- 
 men a simple leaf. 
 
 Fio. 90. 
 
 FIG. 91. 
 
 Lobes. 
 
 Leaflets. 
 
 There is no way, for the pupil, out of this diffi- 
 culty except through a course of careful observation. 
 Doubtless many mistakes will be made ; but mistakes 
 are very useful in education. 
 
COMPOUND LEAVES. 
 
 EXERCISE XV. 
 Parts of Compound Leaves. 
 
 FIG. 92. 
 
 FIG. 93. 
 
 Leaflet. 
 
 Kachis. 
 
 Petiolule. 
 
 Petiole. 
 
 Stipules. 
 
 Leaflets. 
 
 Petiole. 
 
 Stipules. 
 
50 
 
 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 FIG. 94. 
 
 Petiole. 
 
 Stipules. 
 
 LEAFLET. One of the blades of a compound leaf. 
 PET'IOLTJLE. The stem of a leaflet. 
 STI'PELS. The stipules of leaflets. 
 RA'CHIS. The continuation of the petiole to 
 which leaflets are attached. 
 
 FIG. 95. 
 
 SCHEDULE NINE, DESCRIBING FIG. 95. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 <m~to. fc4 &&*. 
 
 No. of Leaflets. 
 
 // 
 
COMPOUND LEAVES. 
 
 EXERCISE XVI. 
 Pirfnate and Digitate Leaves. 
 
 FIG. 96. FIG. 97. 
 
 51 
 
 Digitate Leat 
 
 In PINNATE Leaves, the leaf- 
 lets grow along the sides of the 
 rachis. 
 
 In DIGITATE Leaves, the leaf- 
 lets all start together from the 
 petiole. 
 
 Pinnate Leaf. 
 
 SCHEDULE TEN, DESCRIBING FIG. 97. 
 
 Parts ? 
 
 &*A 3tyK*. 
 
 No. Leaflets ? 
 
 5, 
 
 Kind? 
 
 gjfy^ 
 
52 
 
 THE FIKST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 EXEKCISE XVII. 
 Varieties of Pinnate Leaves. 
 
 FIG. 98. FIG. 99. 
 
 Abruptly Pinnate. 
 
 FIG. 100. 
 
 Unequally Pinnate. 
 
 FIG. 101. 
 
 Cirrose. 
 
 Interruptedly Pinnate. 
 
COMPOUND LEAVES. 
 
 53 
 
 ABRUPTLY PINNATE. When the leaf terminates 
 in a pair of leaflets. Fig. 98. 
 
 UNEQUALLY PINNATE. When the leaf terminates 
 in an odd, or single, leaflet. Fig. 9. 
 
 CIKROSE. When the rachis ends in slender 
 branching curls, called tendrils. Fig. 100. 
 
 INTERRUPTEDLY PINNATE. When the leaflets are 
 alternately large and small. Fig. 101. 
 
 FIG. 102. 
 
 Twice Pinnate. 
 
 TWICE PINNATE. When the petiolule is continued 
 as a rachis which bears the leaflets. 
 
THE FIEST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 FIG. 103. 
 
 Thrice Pinnate. 
 
 THRICE PINNATE. When the leaflets are borne 
 upon a third rachis, branching off from the second. 
 
 EXERCISE XVIII. 
 Varieties of Digitate Leaves. 
 
 THREE - FINGEEED. A digitate leaf with three 
 leaflets. 
 
Three-fingered. 
 
 Five-fingered. 
 
 FIVE-FINGERED. A digitate leaf with five fingers 
 or leaflets. 
 
 FIG. 106. 
 
 FIG. 107. 
 
 Seven-fingered. 
 
 Twice Three-fingered. 
 
56 
 
 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 SEVEN - FINGERED. A digitate leaf with seven 
 fingers or leaflets. Fig. 106. 
 
 FIG. 108. 
 
 SCHEDULE ELEVEN, DESCRIBING FIG. 108. 
 
 Parts ? 
 
 No. Leaflets ? 
 
 SO. 
 
 Kind ? 
 
 innate. 
 
 Variety ? 
 
 NOTE. This is the last leaf-schedule. With the next chap- 
 ter we begin the study of the stem. But we must still in some 
 way pursue the study of leaf-forms, if we would render per- 
 manent the knowledge we have already acquired. An observa- 
 tion is by no means a mental possession as soon as it is made. 
 True knowledge is always a growth requiring time ; and ob- 
 servations have not only to be made, but to be repeated, and 
 
COMPOUND LEAVES. 
 
 EXERCISE XIX. 
 Forms of Stipules. 
 
 57 
 
 Fio. 109. 
 
 FIG. 110. 
 
 Free Stipules. 
 
 Adnate Stipules. 
 
 STIPULES are: 
 
 FKEE. When not united with any other part. 
 
 ADXATE. When they grow to the petiole. 
 
 the facts knit into their places, to make them reliable mental 
 possessions. Understanding a thing is but the first step 
 toward its real acquirement. A succession of frequent ob- 
 servations is necessary to induce familiarity with objects, and 
 there must also be a recurrence to them a revival of impres- 
 sions after considerable intervals of time. It is possible to 
 have an intense familiarity with things observed, by occupying 
 the whole consciousness with them for a short time, but effects 
 thus produced are not lasting. We shall, therefore, continue 
 our observations of leaves, and record them upon the stem- 
 schedule. Pupils who have been diligent in the use of the 
 
58 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 FIG. 111. Fio. 112. 
 
 Prickly Stipules. 
 
 Ochreate Stipules. 
 
 PRICKLY. Like thorns. 
 
 OCHREATE. When they form a sheath around the 
 stem. 
 
 If any of the distinctions among compound leaves 
 bother very young pupils, let the observation of such 
 be omitted for the present. 
 
 preceding schedules, ought now to be able to describe leaves 
 without their aid. Exercise XX. consists of two descriptions, 
 in which the schedule questions are omitted. The order of 
 description which has all along been followed will naturally 
 have become the order of thought with pupils, and the prompt- 
 
COMPOUND LEAVES. 
 
 EXERCISE XX. 
 
 59 
 
 FIG 113. 
 
 FIG. 114. 
 
 LEAF (Fig. 113). Simple, petiolate, stipulate, net- 
 veined, feather-veined, entire, abruptly acuminate, 
 broadly oval ; petiole, short, bordered by the blade ; 
 stipules, free. 
 
 LEAF (Fig. 114). Compound, petiolate, stipulate, 
 unequally pinnate, number of leaflets, 5 ; leaflets, petio- 
 late, feather- veined, serrate, ovate ; stipules, adnate. 
 
 ing of questions is now unnecessary. They have answered 
 their purpose if they have led to a knowledge of the parts of 
 leaves and their most important modifications of form. When 
 this is done, it will be much more important that the pupil 
 be unassisted in making descriptions than that he be always 
 methodical and correct. 
 
 For pupils that are old enough to punctuate their descrip- 
 tions, the following rule will be useful : 1. Separate adjectives 
 relating to the same noun, by commas ; 2. Parts of the same 
 organ, by semicolons ; 3. Distinct organs, by a period. 
 
CHAPTEE II. 
 THE STEM. 
 
 EXERCISE XXI. 
 Parts of the Stem, and Leaf Axil. 
 
 FIG. 115. 
 
 /Axil of Leaf. 
 
 Internode. 
 
 -Node. 
 
 Nodes and luternodes. 
 
THE STEM. 
 
 61 
 
 FIG. 116. 
 
 FIG. 117. 
 
 The point on the stem from which leaves 
 are given off. 
 
 INTEKNODE. The portion of the stem between 
 two nodes. 
 
 LEAF AXTL. The point at the upper side of the 
 leaf where it joins the stem. 
 
 NOTE. Children will easily find the nodes and.internodes 
 of most stems, but they should not, therefore, hurry past this 
 exercise without tracing the successive internodes of many 
 stems from the root upward. The teacher should also see that 
 a clear idea is gained of the axil of a leaf. 
 
 If Figs. 116 and 117 are not intelligible to beginners, and 
 the parts of short stems like these are distinguished with 
 difficulty, let them be passed over, as the coming exercises 
 are not dependent upon these discriminations. But, for those 
 who can make them out, they will be profitable. 
 
62 
 
 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 EXERCISE XXII. 
 Appendages of the Stem. 
 
 FIG. 118. 
 
 Terminal bud. 
 
 Axillary bud. 
 
 .Branch. 
 
 TERMINAL BUD. The bud at the end of the stem. 
 AX'ILLARY BUD. The bud in the axil of a leaf. 
 BRANCH. A stem which grows out of an axillary 
 bud. 
 
THE STEM. 
 
 63 
 
 SCHEDULE TWELVE, DESCRIBING FIG. 119. 
 
 Parts? 
 
 Appendages ? 
 
 LEAF. Petiolate, exstipulate, palmate-veined, 5- 
 lobed, broad as long ; lobes rounded, entire ; sinuses 
 deep, round ; petiole long, slender. 
 
 The appendages of the stem (Fig. 118) are leaves, 
 buds, and branches. The terminal bud continues the 
 growth of the main stem. Axillary buds give rise to 
 branches, or, secondary stems. 
 
THE FIKST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 EXERCISE XXIII. 
 Position of Leaves. 
 
 Fro. 121. 
 
 Stem Leaves. 
 
 Eadical Leaves. 
 
 STEM leaves grow along the stem. 
 RADICAL leaves start close to the ground, or below 
 its surface. 
 
 NOTE. The term radical would seem to imply that the leaves 
 spring from roots, which is not the case, as shown in Fig. 117. 
 
65 
 
 SCHEDULE THIRTEEN, DESCRIBING FIG. 122. 
 
 Appendages ? 
 
 tQeava), <S%owett. 
 
 Leaf-position ? 
 
 ^au/tne. 
 
 LEAF. Simple, sessile, feather-veined, entire, lan- 
 ceolate; stipule, ochreate. 
 
 The question, Parts ? is now dropped, because it 
 is answered in giving the position of the leaves. 
 To say that leaves are cauline is to say that the stem 
 is composed of both nodes and internodes, while, if the 
 stem has radical leaves only, there are no internodes. 
 
 NOTE. When the nodes of a stem are distinctly jointed, 
 when they are swollen and watery (tumid), when they are 
 hairy, or when of a different color from the internodes, they 
 give a peculiar aspect to the plant, and pupils should be en- 
 
66 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 EXERCISE XXIY. 
 Arrangement of Leaves on the Stem. 
 
 FIG. 123. FIG. 124. 
 
 Alternate Leaves. 
 
 Opposite Leaves. 
 
 ALTEKNATE LEAVES. Leaves are alternate on the 
 stem when there is but one at each node, as in Fig. 
 123. 
 
 couraged to record such facts upon the schedule. Very long or 
 very short internodes, and other noticeable peculiarities, should 
 
THE STEM. 
 
 67 
 
 OPPOSITE LEAVES. When two leaves grow oppo- 
 site each other, we call it the opposite arrangement. 
 Fig. 124. 
 
 FIG. 125. 
 
 Whorled Leaves. 
 
 WHOKLED LEAVES. When there are more than 
 two leaves at a node, we say the leaves are whorled. 
 
 be stated. A word or two at the bottom or back of the sched- 
 ule, as, nodes tumid, or, inter-nodes very long, is all that is 
 requisite. Brevity and precision of statement should always 
 be insisted upon. 
 
68 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 FIG. 126. 
 
 SCHEDULE FIFTEEN, DESCRIBING FIG. 126. 
 
 Appendages ? 
 
 <=seave4. 
 
 Leaf-position ? 
 
 ^hau&ne. 
 
 Leaf-arrangement ? 
 
 Od^ebnate. 
 
 THE LEAF. 
 ceolate. 
 
 Sessile, feather-veined, serrate, lan- 
 
 NOTE. Leaf-position and leaf- arrangement pertain as much 
 to the leaf as to the stem, but observations concern ing them 
 could not be properly made until something was known of the 
 stem. "When the pupil becomes familiar with these characters, 
 it will, perhaps, be more appropriate to notice them in the 
 leaf-description than in the stem-description. 
 
THE STEM. 
 
 69 
 
 FIG. 127. 
 
 EXERCISE XXY. 
 Shapes of Stems, 
 
 FIG. 128. 
 
 FIG. 129. 
 
 Square. 
 
 Five-sided. 
 
 Four-angled. 
 
 These are by no means all the shapes, nor the 
 precise shapes that stems assume, but their forms will 
 most commonly be found to approach very nearly to 
 some of these outlines. If any forms occur that are 
 so widely different from the pictures as to perplex 
 the pupil, he will consult the teacher. 
 
70 
 
 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTAKY. 
 
 FIG. 13fi. 
 
 SCHEDULE SIXTEEN, DESCRIBING FIG. 136. 
 
 Appendages ? 
 
 Leaf-position ? 
 Leaf-arrangement ? 
 
 Shape ? 
 
THE STEM. 
 
 71 
 
 LEAF. Petiolate, exstipulate, palmate - veined, 
 serrate, base cordate, 5-lobed, terminal lobe acumin- 
 ate, leaf broader than long. 
 
 EXEECISE XXYI. 
 Attitude of Stems. 
 
 FIG. 138. 
 
 Erect. 
 
 Drooping. 
 
 ERECT stems stand upright. 
 
 DROOPING, stems are weak, and bend over. 
 
72 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 FIG. 139. 
 
 /;- ~-yO -^--^^^^cr 
 
 *<J$F^. 
 
 Creeping 
 
 FIG. 140. 
 
 Ascending. 
 
THE STEM. 
 
 73 
 
 CKEEPING stems lie along or below the surface of 
 the ground, and send down roots from their nodes. 
 
 TKAILING stems are weak, and lie loosely along 
 the ground. Fig. 140. 
 
 ASCENDING stems stand slanting. Fig. 141. 
 
 FIG. 142. 
 
 Climbing. 
 
 FIG. 113. 
 
 Twining. 
 
 CLIMBING stems are weak, and cling by tendrils to 
 the objects about them. 
 
 TWINING stems are too weak to stand alone, 
 and support themselves by winding around other 
 stems. 
 
THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 SCHEDTTLE SEVENTEEN, DESCRIBING FIG. 143. 
 
 Appendages ? 
 
 J2eave6 t G^'/owett. 
 
 Leaf-position ? 
 
 mpautine. 
 
 Leaf-arrangement ? 
 
 Q&Mnate. 
 
 Shape ? 
 
 J^lound. 
 
 Attitude ? 
 
 Q/winina . 
 
 / 
 
 LEAF. Simple, petiolate, exstipulate, feather- 
 veined, entire, cordate, sub-acuminate. 
 
 EXEECISE XXVII. 
 Color, Surface, Size, Structure. 
 
 COLOR. Stems may be spotted, striped, green, 
 brown, red, or purple. 
 
 SURFACE. The surface of stems, like that of 
 leaves, is smooth, rough, shiny, dull, hairy, and 
 glabrous. 
 
 SIZE. - Sterns may be high or low, slender or thick, 
 and it is easy to determine these points. 
 
 STRUCTURE. To find out the structure of a stem, 
 you must break it, and observe first whether it is 
 hollow or solid. Next examine it to ascertain if it 
 have any tenacious threads ; these are woody fibres, 
 and, when present, they help to make the stem hard 
 
THE STEM. 
 
 75 
 
 and tough. It is then called a WOODY stem. But, 
 if it is soft and brittle, it is *m HERBACEOUS stem. 
 The stem schedule consists now of the following 
 questions : 
 
 SCHEDULE EIGHTEEN. 
 
 Appendages ? 
 
 i 
 
 Leaf-position ? 
 
 
 Leaf-arrangement ? 
 
 
 Shape? 
 
 
 Attitude ? 
 
 
 Color ? 
 
 
 Surface ? 
 
 
 Size? 
 
 
 Structure ? 
 
 
 NOTE. In schedule eighteen, as in schedule nine, no picture is 
 described, because two of the questions now added, viz., Color? 
 and Structure ? relate to features that cannot be easily repre- 
 sented in a picture, while size and surface, as seen in nature, 
 are so unlike pictorial presentations, that an example given 
 here would be but a poor guide in schedule practise. The 
 descriptive terras used in answering these questions are so 
 familiar as not to need illustration. 
 
CHAPTEK III. 
 THE INFLORESCENCE. 
 
 INFLORESCENCE. The way flowers are placed upon 
 plants is called their inflorescence. 
 
 EXERCISE XXVIII. 
 Solitary and Clustered Inflorescence. 
 
 FIG. 144. 
 
 Solitary Inflorescence. 
 
THE INFLORESCENCE. 
 FIG. 145. 
 
 77 
 
 Clustered Inflorescence. 
 
 SOLITARY INFLORESCENCE is where only one flower 
 grows upon a flower-stem. Fig. 144. 
 
 CLUSTERED INFLORESCENCE is where several flowers 
 grow from the same flower-stem. 
 
 Flowers, or flower-clusters without stems, are said 
 to be sessile. 
 
 XOTE. This and the following exercise should be dealt with 
 in the same manner as the first exercises in the chapters upon 
 the leaf and ..stem. 
 
78 
 
 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 EXERCISE XXIX. 
 Parts of the Inflorescence. 
 
 FIG. 146. 
 
 Peduncle. 
 
 -Peduncle. 
 
 PEDUN'CLE. The stem of a solitary flower, or of a 
 flower cluster. 
 
 BRACTS. The small leaves of a flower-cluster on 
 the peduncle, or rachis. 
 
 IN'VOLUCRE. A whorl of bracts. 
 
 PED'ICEL. One of the flower-stems in a cluster. 
 
 BRACELETS. Yery small leaves growing upon 
 pedicels. 
 
THE INFLORESCENCE. 
 FIG. 147. 
 
 Involucre. 
 redunclo. 
 
 RA'CHIS. The continuation of a peduncle, from 
 which flowers branch off. 
 
 RECEP'TACLE. The top of a peduncle, from which 
 several flowers start together. 
 
80 
 
 FIG. 150, 
 
 THE FIKST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 EXERCISE XXX. 
 Attitude of Inflorescence. 
 
 FIG. 151. 
 
 Nodding. 
 
 ERECT. Upright. 
 NODDING. Bending over. 
 
 NOTE. Many of the characters already noted as belonging 
 to the stem of a plant, belong also to the peduncle. Its color, 
 surface, shape, length, limpness, twist, and curvature, may be 
 recorded in connection with the attitude in the same terms as 
 are used in stem-descriptions. 
 
 Some of the statements in the description of Fig. 152 are 
 to be compared with the living plant, and not the picture. 
 
THE INFLORESCENCE. 
 FIG. 152. 
 
 81 
 
 Pendulous. 
 
 PEN'DULOUS. Hanging down. 
 
 SCHEDULE EIGHTEEN, DESCRIBING FIG. 152. 
 
 Parts? 
 
 ^ec/unc/e, &wet. 
 
 Attitude? 
 
 c/enauu-u^ 
 
 LEAF. Simple, petiolate, exstipulate, feather- 
 veined, irregularly-dentate, ovate-acuminate, green, 
 smooth, cauline, opposite. 
 
 STEM. Round, slightly bending, reddish brown, 
 smooth, slender, solid, woody. 
 
82 
 
 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 EXERCISE XXXI. 
 
 Solitary Terminal and Axillary Inflorescence* 
 
 Solitary Terminal. 
 
 An inflorescence is SOLITARY TERMINAL when the 
 stem, or branch, ends in a single flower. 
 
 The presence of nodes upon ordinary stems dis- 
 tinguishes them from flower-stems or peduncles. 
 
THE INFLORESCENCE. 
 
 FIG. 154. 
 
 83 
 
 Solitary Axillary. 
 
 A SOLITARY AXILLARY flower is one where the 
 peduncle starts from the axil of a leaf. 
 
 In Fig. 154 the peduncle of the lowest flower 
 starts from the axil of the leaf, it is hence an axil- 
 lary flower ; but the peduncle of the lowest flower 
 in Fig. 153 starts at the first node of the branch, the 
 growth of which it terminates ; it is hence a terminal 
 flower. 
 
4 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 EXERCISE XXXII. 
 Clustered Axillary and Terminal Inflorescence. 
 
 FIG. 156. 
 
 Clustered Terminal. 
 
 A TERMINAL CLUSTER of flowers is one that ends 
 the growth of a stem, or branch. Fig. 156. 
 
 Observe that the lowest bud in Fig. 156 is hardly 
 discernible as a flower-bud. The next is a little more 
 advanced, the third still more, and so on till, at the 
 top of the cluster, you see a fully expanded flower. 
 The oldest flowers are at the top or centre of the 
 cluster. This order is often reversed, the oldest 
 flowers being at the bottom or outside of the cluster, 
 and it is important for you to notice this circumstance 
 in studying inflorescence. 
 
THE INFLORESCENCE. 
 PIG. 157. 
 
 85 
 
 ANA 
 
 Clustered Axillary. 
 
 <ARY CLUSTER of flowers is one where the 
 
 peduncle starts from a leaf axil. 
 
 The question, Position ? is now added to the in- 
 florescence-schedule. Every inflorescence is either 
 terminal or axillary, and the pupil is to determine 
 this point, in order to answer the new question. 
 When he hegins the study of botany in its higher 
 aspects, he will find that much depends upon his 
 having carefully observed such points as these. 
 
86 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 SCHEDULE NINETEEN, DESCRIBING FIG. 157. 
 
 P-arts ? 
 
 &*~A. &AJ. <&*. 
 
 Attitude? 
 
 (Sleet. 
 
 Position ? 
 
 Qt* 
 
 LEAF. Cauline, opposite, simple, sessile, feather- 
 veined, crenate, or creiiate-serrate, lower leaves, sub- 
 acute, upper ones obtuse, lower leaves broadly ovate, 
 upper ones broadly oval. 
 
 STEM round, erect, herbaceous. 
 
 NOTE. Determination of the position of an inflorescence 
 is often very easy, yet sometimes it is puzzling and difficult. 
 For instance, although the cluster (Fig. 156) is clearly ter- 
 minal, a thoughtful child might notice that each flower in 
 this cluster is axial, and so hesitate in deciding how to describe 
 it. Such perplexities will be gradually cleared up as the child 
 advances with the study. It should be remembered that many 
 of the observations begun with this book are necessarily in- 
 complete. Cloudiness of perception concerning some matters 
 must, therefore, be tolerated at first. Clear and complete ideas 
 can only arise as the mind develops, and the subject is further 
 pursued. There are portions of almost every study over which 
 children are liable to get confused at first. They see difficulties, 
 but cannot see through them. Yet the discovery of difficulties 
 is as much a part of education as the discovery of facts. It 
 is the overcoming of difficulties, and this mainly, that exercises 
 the judgment, and calls forth mental power. But, to gain these 
 ends, it is important that the child be left to himself. It is bet- 
 ter for him to form his own opinion, even though it be wrong, 
 than to have every thing explained in advance. Extended ob- 
 servation and continued thought may be trusted to correct 
 errors made at first, as, without these conditions, there can 
 be little real improvement. 
 
THE INFLORESCENCE. 
 
 EXERCISE XXXIII. 
 Definite and Indefinite Inflorescence. 
 
 87 
 
 ALL solitary terminal inflorescence, and all ter- 
 minal clusters that, like Fig. 156, have their oldest 
 flowers at the top or centre of the cluster, are said to 
 be DEFINITE, because they end the growth of the 
 stem or branch that bears them. 
 
88 
 
 THE FIKST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 FIG. 150. 
 
 Indefinite. 
 
 All axillary inflorescence is INDEFINITE, because 
 the stem and branches, if there be any, may grow on 
 just the same as before blossoming. The inflores- 
 cence in Fig. 159 is indefinite. The stem does not 
 end with flowers, but with a leaf-bud, which con- 
 tinues its growth. 
 
 The question, Kind ? is now added to the inflo- 
 rescence-schedule, and pupils will state, in answer, 
 whether the inflorescence is definite or indefinite. 
 
THE INFLORESCENCE. 
 FIG. 160. 
 
 89 
 
 SCHEDULE TWENTY, DESCRIBING FIG. 160. 
 
 Parts? 
 
 . 
 
 , Jl/lacnM. 
 
 Attitude? 
 
 Position 
 
 Kind? 
 
 , 
 
 ite. 
 
 LEAF. Cauline, opposite, simple, sessile, feather- 
 veined, entire, oval. 
 
 STEM round, erect, slender, herbaceous. 
 
 NOTE. Compare Fig. 160 with Fig. 156, and observe that 
 they differ in the order in which the flowers unfold. In Fig. 
 160 the oldest flowers are the lowest in the cluster. There 
 is no flower at the top of the cluster, ending the growth of the 
 
90 
 
 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 EXERCISE XXXIV. 
 Varieties of Inflorescence. 
 
 FIG. Ifil. 
 
 SIMPLE. 
 Fio. 162. 
 
 FIG. 163. 
 
 Head. 
 
 Spike. 
 
 Spadix. 
 
 HEAD. A more or less globular cluster of flowers, 
 sessile upon the receptacle. 
 
 SPIKE. A cluster of flowers, sessile upon a rachis. 
 
 SPA'DEX. A spike with a thick rachis, and covered 
 around by a single large leaf, or bract, called a 
 spathe. 
 
 stem, and so, as the rachis may grow on, sending off flowers 
 from its side, we say the inflorescence is indefinite. 
 
 The primary, or main stem, of a plant sometimes ends defi- 
 nitely, or with a flower, while the branches, or secondary stems, 
 grow on, or are indefinite. Sometimes the main stem is indefi- 
 nite, and the branches are definite. When both kinds of in- 
 florescence are found upon the same plant, it should be stated. 
 
 To determine whether a flower-head is definite or indefinite, 
 observe whether the unopened flowers are at the top or on the 
 lower part of the cluster. It is only in rare instances that 
 they all open so nearly at the same time as to show no differ- 
 
THE INFLORESCENCE. 91 
 
 FIG. 1C4. FIG. 163. 
 
 
 * 
 
 Catkin. 
 
 Racoaie. 
 
 AMENT, OR CATKIN. A spike, with sessile bracts 
 among its flowers. It grows on trees and shrubs, 
 and falls off after a while. 
 
 The RACEME is a flower cluster, where the flowers 
 grow upon pedicels of about equal length along the 
 rachis. 
 
 FIG. 166. 
 
 Glomerule. 
 
 A GLOMERULE is formed by nearly sessile clusters 
 of flowers in the axils of opposite leaves. 
 
 ence of age; but, when this is the case, you must leave the 
 question undecided till you have discovered some other mode 
 of solving it. 
 
02 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 FIG. 167. FIG. 168. 
 
 Corymb. 
 
 Umbel. 
 
 The CORYMB is a flower cluster, with a short 
 rachis, the lower pedicels of which are lengthened, so 
 that the cluster is flat at top. 
 
 An UMBEL has no rachis, and the pedicels are of 
 nearly equal length. 
 
 COMPOUND. 
 
 FIG. 
 
 FIG. 170. 
 
 Compound Raceme. 
 
 Compound Corymb. 
 
 A COMPOUND RACEME, OR PANICLE, has a long 
 rachis, and the flowers grow upon branches of the 
 pedicels. When such a cluster is thick and cone- 
 shaped, it is called a Thryse. 
 
THE INFLORESCENCE. 93 
 
 A COMPOUND CORYMB is a corymb with the flowers 
 growing upon branches of the pedicels. Fig. 170. 
 
 FIG. 171. 
 
 Compound Umbel. 
 
 A COMPOUND UMBEL has a second umbel, or um- 
 bellet, upon each pedicel. 
 
 NOTE. Most of the clusters pictured in this exercise are 
 represented as without bracts, that differences in their modes 
 of branching may be more easily compared. The pictures 
 represent certain styles of flowering, and each of these styles 
 varies very much in nature. You will find umbels very unlike 
 each other, and very unlike Fig. 170, but still more nearly like 
 that figure than any of the others. And so of panicles, co- 
 rymbs, &c. Great differences among the clusters of one variety 
 may be occasioned by the presence or absence of bracts, by 
 their groupings, forms, and colors, by the length, stiffness, and 
 ever varying positions of peduncles and pedicels, as well as by 
 differences in the form of receptacles. And besides, the vari- 
 ous sorts run together in many different ways. You will 
 sometimes find a flower-cluster resembling two different varie- 
 ties so much that you will have to combine the names of the 
 two in order to characterize it properly ; as, for instance, a 
 corymbose panicle, a panicle of heads, or a spicose umbel. 
 When you cannot name the variety, say so, and keep the in- 
 stance in mind until it becomes clear to you. 
 
 5 ' 
 
94 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 FIG. 172. FIG. 17?. FIG. 174. 
 
 NOTE. The difference between definite and indefinite flow- 
 er-clusters is shown above. Fig. 172 represents an indefinite 
 raceme, the growing end of which is surrounded by unopened 
 flowers. In Fig. 174 the reverse is the case; the rachis ends 
 with a flower the oldest flower of the .cluster, while at the 
 other end, near the peduncle, the buds have scarcely .begun to 
 unfold. This, therefore, is clearly a definite raceme. In Fig. 
 173 the oldest flowers of the cluster are near the peduncle, 
 the growing end is surrounded by undeveloped buds, and its 
 kind is easily determined. 
 
THE INFLORESCENCE. 95 
 
 SCHEDULE TWENTY-ONE, DESCRIBING FIG. 173. 
 
 Parts \ 
 
 unc^, gPuc*. ^tacfa, &M. 
 
 
 tceti, (^s'wuseM. 
 
 Attitude ? 
 
 Stect. 
 
 Position ? 
 
 y ' ^ 
 
 ^/ekTmncit'. 
 
 Kind? 
 
 Q/nc/efimte . 
 
 Variety? 
 
 m^. 
 
 LEAF. Cauline, simple, sessile, exstipulate, feath- 
 er-veined, serrate, oval-acute. 
 
 STEM. Erect, round, herbaceous. 
 
 This is the last inflorescence schedule, and future 
 descriptions of this part of plants will be made with- 
 out the help of questions. There are some obvious 
 characters of the inflorescence, easily understood and 
 described, that have not been named in the schedule, 
 and, that they may be noted in future descriptions, 
 we call attention to them here. 
 
 When many flowers are crowded upon a rachis, or 
 receptacle, the cluster is said to be dense ; but when 
 they are few and scattering, it is said to be loose. 
 
 The bracts of a cluster may be very numerous, or 
 they may present peculiarities that a child can easily 
 describe, such, for instance, as relate to shape or 
 color, or they may form an involucre at the base of 
 the cluster, and these points might well be included 
 in a description. 
 
CHAPTER IY. 
 THE FLOWER. 
 
 EXERCISE XXXV. 
 Parts of the Flower. 
 
 FIG. 175 represents one flower the parts, though 
 separated, stand in their natural relation to each other. 
 
 FIG. 175. 
 
 Pistil. 
 
 Stamens. 
 
 Corolla. 
 1 Periaulh. 
 
 Receptacle- 
 
 RECEP'TACLE. The top of the peduncle, more or 
 less swollen, from which the flower grows. 
 
 CA'LYX. The outer circle of green flower-leaves. 
 
 COROI/LA. The inner circle of delicately-colored 
 flower-leaves. 
 
THE FLOWER. 97 
 
 PER'IANTH. A name given to both circles of 
 flower-leaves when they are so nearly alike as not to 
 be separable into calyx and corolla. 
 
 STA'MENS. Slender, thread-like parts next inside 
 the corolla. 
 
 PIS'TIL. The central part of the flower inside the 
 stamens. 
 
 When there is but one whorl of flower-leaves, 
 whatever its color, it is called a calyx. 
 
 EXERCISE XXXVI. 
 Parts of the Calyx. 
 
 FIG. 176. FIG. 177. 
 
 1 
 
 Sepal. 
 
 Sepal. 
 Calyx. ^xis^ sepal. 
 
 SE'PAL. One of the leaves of the calyx. 
 
 NOTE. The first thing in studying the flower is to become 
 acquainted with its leading parts and their names. This is 
 done by comparing numerous specimens with Fig. 175. The 
 pupil is then ready to begin work with the flower schedule. 
 Figs. 177 and 179 are given to assist the pupil in answering the 
 first questions upon it. Write under the question, calyx? the 
 names of the parts that compose the calyx, and under the question, 
 corolla? the names of the parts that compose the corolla. Then 
 count the sepals in your flower, and write their number after 
 the word sepals, in the next column ; count also the petals in 
 the corolla, and write their number after the word petals. 
 
THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 EXERCISE XXXVII. 
 Parts of the Corolla. 
 
 FIG. 178. FIG. 179. 
 
 Petal. 
 
 Petal. 
 
 Corolla. 
 
 PET'AL. A leaf of the corolla. 
 
 Petal. 
 
 Petal. 
 
 FIG. 180. 
 
 SCHEDULE TWENTY-TWO, 
 
 DESCRIBING FlG. 178. 
 
 Names of Parts. 
 
 Calyx 
 
 Corolla ? 
 
 No. 
 
 SCHEDULE TWENTY-THREE, 
 
 DESCRIBING FlG. 179. 
 
 Names of Parts. 
 
 No. 
 
 
 Perianth ? 
 
 
 
 <=zeave. 
 
 6. 
 
 
THE FLOWER. 
 
 EXERCISE XXXVIII. 
 Kinds of Calyx. 
 
 FIG. 182. 
 
 FIG. 183. 
 
 Polyscpalous Calyx. 
 
 Gamoscpa.ous Calyx. 
 
 A POLYSEP'ALOUS CALYX has its sepals distinct from 
 each other, so that each one can be pulled off separately. 
 
 A GAMOSEP'ALOUS CALYX has its sepals more or 
 less grown together by their edges, so that, if you 
 pull one, the whole calyx comes off. 
 
 Having used schedules twenty-two and twenty- 
 three till the names of the parts that compose the 
 calyx, corolla, and perianth, are firmly associated 
 with the parts themselves, we are now ready to begin 
 their description. Schedule twenty-four shows you 
 where to write what you have to say about them. 
 Observe first whether the sepals of a calyx, the 
 petals of a corolla, or the leaves of a perianth, are 
 grown together or not. Sometimes they cohere so 
 slightly, that close observation is necessary to ascer- 
 tain it. Be cautious about pronouncing a corolla 
 polypetalous until you have made many observations 
 upon different specimens of it. Do not guess. 
 
 You can count the petals of gamopetalous corollas 
 by their marks of cohesion. 
 
100 ^ THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 EXERCISE XXXIX. 
 Kinds of Corolla and Perianth. 
 
 . 184. FIG. 185. 
 
 Polypetalous Corolla. Gamopctalous Corolla. 
 
 A POLYPET'ALOUS COROLLA has its petals distinct 
 and separate from each other, so that each one can be 
 pulled off without disturbing the others. 
 
 A GAMOPET'ALOTJS COROLLA has its petals more or 
 less grown together by their edges, so that if you 
 pull one the whole corolla comes off. 
 
 SCHEDULE TWENTY-POUR, DESCRIBING FIG. 185. 
 
 Names of Parts. No. 
 
 Calyx? 
 
 Corolla? 
 
 4. 
 
 Description. 
 
 a 
 
 4. 
 
THE FLOWER. 
 
 A POLYPHYL'LOUS PERIANTH lias its leaves entirely 
 distinct and separate from each other. 
 
 A GAMOPHYI/LOUS PERIANTH has its leaves more 
 or less coherent by their edges. 
 
 In the schedule will be seen a space where the 
 forms of sepals and petals should be recorded in the 
 same terms used to describe leaves. 
 
 EXERCISE XL. 
 Regular and Irregular Corollas and Perianths. 
 
 FIG. 186. 
 
 Regular Gamopetalous Corolla. Irregular Gamopetalous Corolla. 
 
 A KEGULAR CALYX, COROLLA, or PERIANTH, has 
 its parts of the same size and shape. 
 
 An IRREGULAR CALYX, COROLLA, or PERIANTH, has 
 its parts unlike in size or form. 
 
:THE FIKST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 FIG. 188. FIG. 189. 
 
 SCHEDULE TWENTY-FIVE, DESCRIBING FIG. 188. 
 
 Names of Parts. 
 
 No. 
 
 Description. 
 
 Calyx? 
 
 
 '^//amotefeafout, tUeauiai. 
 
 fyad. 
 
 0. 
 
 
 Corolla ? 
 
 
 ^&ame/i.etawat , tiieautai. 
 
 m^. 
 
 3. 
 
 
 SCHEDULE TWENTY-SIX, DESCRIBING FIG. 189. 
 
 Names of Parts. 
 
 No. 
 
 Description. 
 
 Perianth ? 
 J^eave6. 
 
 6 
 
 J^Zo/u/inuJlfout, ieau/ak. 
 /' / <f 
 
103 
 
 THE FLOWER. 
 
 EXERCISE XLI. 
 farts of Stamens. 
 
 FIG. 190. 
 
 Anther. 
 
 I "life- Pollen. 
 
 Filament. 
 
 1 
 
 FIL'AMENT. The stem-like part of a stamen. 
 
 AN'THER. The thickened oblong head of a fila- 
 ment. 
 
 POI/LEN. The dust, or powder, seen upon the 
 anther. 
 
 Schedule twenty-seven has added to it the new 
 question, Stamens ? Write underneath it the name 
 of the parts that compose a stamen of your flower. 
 Count the number of stamens, and write it down, 
 unless they are too numerous, when you will use 
 the character oo , signifying many. Write free, when 
 they are so ; and coherent, when they are grown to- 
 gether. 
 
 When the filament is absent, write sessile after 
 anther. To describe the filaments, observe whether 
 they are long or short, slender or thick, flat or 
 round, distinct or grown together. 
 
 Observe whether the anthers are one-lobed or 
 two-lobed, that is, whether they are in two parts or 
 pieces ; and note also whether they are oblong, round, 
 curved, straight, large or small, longer or shorter than 
 the filaments, distinct or grown together. 
 
104 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTAKY. 
 
 FIG. 191. 
 
 SCHEDULE TWENTY-SEVEN, DESCRIBING FIG. 191. 
 
 Names of Parts. 
 
 Calyx? 
 
 Corolla? 
 
 Stamens ? 
 
 nament. 
 
 No. 
 
 4. 
 
 GO 
 
 Description. 
 
 , iegua 
 
 Q/wo-ceMJ, 0Mma. 
 
 NOTE. Our descriptions of pictured flowers are necessarily 
 imperfect, because the pictures are themselves imperfect. As 
 the pollen is not represented in Fig. 191, it is, of course, omit- 
 ted from the schedule. We can say nothing, in a book, of the 
 color or size of specimens ; yet the plan of working is clearly 
 illustrated, and pupils will not find it difficult, at this stage, 
 to add such points without the guidance of a pattern schedule. 
 
THE FLOWER. 
 
 105 
 
 EXERCISE XLII. 
 Parts of the Pistil. 
 
 Fio. 192. 
 
 ~ Stigma. 
 
 Style. 
 
 I ___. Ovary. 
 
 li 
 
 O'VARY. The lowest part of 
 the pistil, containing the seeds. 
 
 STYLE. The slender stem- 
 like part of the pistil next above 
 the ovary. 
 
 STIG'MA. The top of the 
 pistil. 
 
 EXERCISE XLIH. 
 Parts of the Ovary. 
 
 FIG. 193. 
 
 FIG 
 
 Carpel. 
 - Carpel. 
 
 ^ Carpel. 
 Carpel. 
 -- CarpeL 
 
 Four 
 Carpels. 
 
 CAR'PEL. One of the divisions, or cells, of the 
 ovary. 
 
1C6 
 
 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 FIG. 195. FIG. 196. FIG. 197. 
 
 SCHEDULE TWENTY-EIGHT. DESCRIBING FIG. 195. 
 
 Names of Parts. No. 
 
 Perianth ? 
 
 Stamens? 
 
 Pistil ? 
 
 f <ma. 
 
 Description. 
 
 ia 
 
THE FLOWER. 107 
 
 The question Pistil? is now added to the sched- 
 ule, and is to be answered in the same way as the 
 questions Perianth? and Stamens? First write the 
 name of its parts underneath, and then find out, if 
 you can, the number of carpels that compose the 
 ovary. It is sometimes quite difficult to do this, but 
 it is well always to make the effort. When the car- 
 pels cannot be distinguished, you determine their 
 number by counting the styles, and, if these are 
 grown smoothly together, then count the lobes of the 
 stigma. It is very seldom that this part of the pistil 
 is so coherent that the lines of union are invisible. 
 You can often, in this way, find out the number of 
 carpels in a pistil, when every other means fails. In 
 describing the various forms of style no new terms 
 are needed. 
 
 EXERCISE XLIV. 
 Parts of the Petals. 
 
 FIG. 199. 
 
 -Limb. 
 
 -Claw. 
 
 LIMB. The upper, and usually the broadest and 
 thinnest, part of a petal. 
 
 CLAW. The lower part of a petal, which attaches 
 it to the receptacle. 
 
108 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 EXERCISE XLV. 
 Kinds of Regular Polypetalous Corollas. 
 
 FIG. 200. 
 
 Cruciferous. Caryophyllaceous. 
 
 A CRUCTF'EROUS COROLLA has four petals growing 
 in the shape of a cross. 
 
 A CARYOPHYLLA'CEOUS COROLLA has five petals, 
 having each a long, slender claw, and a spreading 
 blade. 
 
 FIG. 202. 
 
 FIG. 2C3. 
 
 Rosaceous. 
 
 Liliaceous. 
 
 A ROSA'CEOUS COROLLA has five petals, with spread^ 
 ing lamina and short claw. 
 
 A LILIACEOUS PERIANTH has six leaves, bending 
 away something like a bell. 
 
THE FLOWER. 
 
 109 
 
 EXERCISE XLVI. 
 Kinds of Irregular Polypetalous Corolla. 
 
 FIG. 204. 
 
 FIG. 205. 
 
 Papilionaceous Corolla. 
 
 FIG. 206. 
 
 Banner. 
 
 Win us. 
 
 Keel. 
 
 The PAPILIONACEOUS COROLLA has five dissimilar 
 petals, arranged like Fig. 204. The one nearest the 
 stem (the upper, Fig. 206) is called the banner; the 
 two side ones are called wings, and the lower one the 
 
 NOTE. Learn to distinguish the banner, wings, and keel of 
 papilionaceous corollas, and note the differences of their forms 
 in different kinds of flowers. You can write such observations 
 upon the back of the schedule. 
 
110 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 FIG. 207. FIG. 203. 
 
 FIG. 209. 
 
 There are many other varieties 
 of polypetalous irregular corollas 
 which are described generally as 
 anomalous. Fig. 207 is a com- 
 mon form of anomalous corolla. 
 There is an interesting tribe of 
 plants known as orchids, which 
 present many anomalous forms of corolla ; Fig. 208 
 is an example, Fig. 209 being a separate flower from 
 the same plant. Anomalous flowers should be further 
 described as polypetalous or gamopetalous, for they 
 occur among both these forms. 
 
FIG. 210. 
 
 THE FLOWER. Ill 
 
 FIG. 211. FIG. 212. 
 
 SCHEDULE TWENTY-NINE, DESCRIBING Fro. 211. 
 
 Names of Part-. 
 
 Calx? 
 
 Corolla 
 
 Stamens ? 
 
 oten . 
 
 No. 
 
 4. 
 
 4. 
 
 Description. 
 
 wna, Ltmu, 4 
 
 / 
 
 ona. 
 
 <7 
 
 at an 
 
 tnet. 
 
 Pistil? 
 
112 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 EXERCISE XLVII. 
 Parts of a Gamopetalous Corolla. 
 
 FIG. 213. FIG. 214. 
 
 Throat. 
 
 ^T~ Border, or 
 Limb. 
 
 Tube. 
 
 TUBE. That part of the corolla, whether long or 
 short, in which the petals are united together. 
 
 LIMB, OR BORDER. The upper part of the corolla, 
 where the petals are not united. 
 
 THROAT. The opening of the tube. 
 
 COROLLA TUBES may be long or short, slender or 
 swollen, tapering or cylindrical, or with a pouch, or 
 sack, on one side. 
 
 The LIMB may be narrow or broad, erect or 
 spreading; and, 
 
 The THROAT is either open or constricted, hairy 
 or smooth. 
 
 Note these features in describing gamopetalous 
 corollas. 
 
 . The last exercises of this chapter introduce twenty or 
 thirty new terms, expressive of as many different ideas of form. 
 In learning the precise word for each form, proceed very slowly 
 from exercise to exercise, searching constantly for illustrative 
 specimens. Learn the names of the parts of a petal and of a 
 gamopetalous corolla. Let time he taken to examine all the 
 flowers that can be found, comparing their corollas with the 
 pictures, fixing, for each flower, upon the picture it most nearly 
 resemhles. 
 
THE FLOWER. 
 
 EXERCISE XLVIH. 
 Kinds of Regular Gamopetalous Corollas. 
 
 113 
 
 FIG. 215. 
 
 FIG. 216. 
 
 FIG. 217. 
 
 Tubular. Urceolate. Rotate. 
 
 FIG. 218. FIG. 219. FIG. 
 
 Funnel-form. 
 
 Salver- form. 
 
 TU'BULAR. A tubular corolla is one in which the 
 tube spreads little or none at the border. Fig. 215. 
 
 UR'CEOLATE. A corolla is urceolate when the tube 
 is swollen in the middle, with a narrow opening like 
 an urn, as in Fig. 216. 
 
 RO'TATE, OR WHEEL-SHAPED COROLLAS have a 
 short tube and flat, spreading border. Fig. 217. 
 
THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 FUN'NEL-FORM. When the corolla-tube is small 
 below, and enlarges gradually to the border, as in 
 Fig. 218. 
 
 SAL'VER-FORM. When the long, slender tube of a 
 corolla ends abruptly in a flat spreading border, as 
 seen in Fig. 219. 
 
 CAMPAN'ULATE. Bell-shaped corollas are said to 
 be campanulate. Fig. 220. 
 
 EXERCISE XLIX. 
 Irregular Gamopetalous Corollas. 
 
 LABIATE COROLLAS. 
 
 FIG. 2S3. 
 
 FIG. 22 1. 
 
 FIG. 2-72. 
 
 Personate. 
 
 Ringent. Ligulate. 
 
 LA'BIATE. In labiate corollas the limb has the 
 appearance of lips ; Figs. 221 and 222. Labiate 
 corollas are of two kinds, personate and ringent. 
 
THE FLOWEK. 
 
 115 
 
 PERSONATE. With the throat closed. Fig. 221. 
 
 KIN'GENT. With the throat open. Fig. 222. 
 
 A LIG/ULATE, or strap-shaped, corolla, is one which 
 appears as if it were formed by the splitting of the 
 tube on one side. Fig. 223. 
 
 FIG. 224. 
 
 FIG. 225. 
 
 Anomalous. 
 
 Anomalous. 
 
 ANOM'ALOUS. All other irregular gamopetalous 
 corollas, as Figs. 224 and 225, are called anomalous. 
 
 In describing corollas, the terms cruciferous, lil- 
 iaceous, tubular, etc., may now be used in place of 
 polypetalous, gamopetalous, regular and irregular, as 
 the new terms include these characters, along with 
 others, more limited and special. To say, for ex- 
 ample, that a corolla is cruciferous, is to say that it 
 is polypetalous and regular, and also to state the 
 number and position of its petals. To say that a 
 corolla is strap-shaped, is the same as saying that it 
 is gamopetalous and irregular as well as what par- 
 ticular form it has. 
 
116 
 
 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 FIG. 226. 
 
 SCHEDULE THIBTY, DESCRIBING FIG. 226. 
 
 Names of Parts. 
 
 No. 
 
 Description. 
 
 Perianth ? 
 
 Stamens ? 
 
 v 
 
 Pistil ? 
 
THE FLOWEK. 
 
 117 
 
 Names of Parts. No. | 
 
 SCHEDITLE THIRTY-ONE, DESCRIBING FIG. 227. 
 Description. 
 
 Calyx ? 
 
 Corolla? 
 
 % m. 
 
 Stamens? 
 
 5. 
 
 Pistil? 
 
118 
 
 THE FIKST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 EXEKCISE L. 
 Crowns, Spurs, and Nectaries. 
 
 FIG. 228. 
 
 FIG. 229. 
 
 The CORONA, or GROWN, is a scale-like structure 
 (Fig. 228) on the inner surface of corollas, at the 
 summit of the claw, or tube. 
 
 A SPUR is a tubular prolongation of a petal or 
 sepal. Fig. 229. 
 
 FIG. 230. 
 
 FIG. 231. 
 
 Nectary. 
 
 Nectary. 
 
 A NECTARY is a little gland on the claw of a 
 petal that secretes a sugary liquid. In Fig. 230 
 these glands are naked, while in Fig. 231 the little 
 gland is covered by a scale. 
 
FIG. 232. 
 
 THE FLOWER. 
 
 FIG. 233. 
 
 119 
 
 Corolla with Crown. 
 
 Spurred Calyx and Corolla. 
 
 The statement proper in describing the corolla 
 (Fig. 232) is as follows : 
 
 Corolla ? 
 
 , ofrcobdafe 
 at 6a4e. 
 
 We describe a calyx and corolla like that shown 
 (Fig. 233) as follows: 
 
 Calyx ? 
 
 one 
 
 Corolla? 
 
 4. 
 
 one wita 6fiat, 
 
 wnaec/ info ccr^x 4/iuk. 
 / * 
 
 t 
 
CHAPTEK Y. 
 THE ROOT. 
 
 EXERCISE LI. 
 Tap-Moots and Fibrous Hoots. 
 
 THERE are two classes of roots, called tap-roots 
 and fibrous roots, which differ from each other in the 
 way shown in Figs. 234 and 235. 
 
 FIG. 234. FIG. 235. 
 
 Tap-root. Fibrous Root. 
 
 Fig. 234 represents a TAP-BOOT, which is seen to 
 be simply a continuation of the stem downward. 
 
 In Fig. 235 the stem is not continued downward 
 as a tap-root, but sends off rootlets or fibres at the 
 outset. It is hence called a FI'BKOUS ROOT. 
 
THE ROOT. 
 
 121 
 
 EXERCISE LIT. 
 Kinds of Tap-Hoot. 
 
 FIG. 237. 
 
 FIG. 238. 
 
 Conical Root. 
 
 Fusiform Root. 
 
 Napiform Root. 
 
 CON'ICAL ROOTS are tap-roots, which taper gradu- 
 ally downward, and so are shaped like a cone. Fig. 
 236. 
 
 FU'SIFORM, OR SPINDLE - SHAPED ROOTS, are tap- 
 roots enlarged in the middle of their length, and 
 tapering toward both ends. Fig. 237. 
 
 A NAP'IFORM, OR TURNIP-SHAPED ROOT (Fig. 238), 
 is a tap-root, more or less globular in form. 
 
 The kinds of tap-root illustrated in this exercise 
 are equally continuations of the stem, with that 
 shown in Fig. 234. By reference to Fig. 116, it will 
 be seen that these stems are made up of nodes, and 
 are just as really stems as those in which the intervals 
 between the nodes are considerable. 
 
122 
 
 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 EXERCISE LIII. 
 Kinds of Fibrous Roots. 
 
 FIG. 239. FIG. 240. 
 
 FIG. 241. 
 
 Moniliform Hoot. 
 
 FIG. 242. 
 
 Fasciculated Root. 
 
 Tubercular Root. 
 
THE ROOT. 
 
 In MONII/IFORM KOOTS (Fig. 240) some of the fibres 
 have numerous small swellings, that succeed each 
 other so as to look like a string of beads. 
 
 In FASCIC'ULATED BOOTS (Fig. 241) the fibres be- 
 come swollen along their length, and look like a 
 bundle of fusiform roots. 
 
 When some of the rootlets of fibrous roots become 
 fleshy and enlarged, taking the form shown in Fig. 
 242, they are called TUBERCULAR KOOTS. 
 
 NOTE. It is not difficult to see that the moniliform root is 
 only a fibrous root, in which regular portions of the fibres have 
 become swollen. When all these swellings unite in one con- 
 tinuous enlargement, we have a fasciculated root (Fig. 241). 
 When the swellings are shortened and globular (Fig. 242), we 
 name them tubercular roots, but their resemblance to the 
 fibrous root is still apparent. 
 
 The questions about roots suggested by this chapter are, 
 first, is the specimen in hand a tap or fibrous root? The 
 answer may not always be easy, but the pupil will exercise 
 his best judgment upon it. If it be fibrous, however, say so ; 
 if any modification of fibrous, say which, and similarly if the 
 kind be a tap-root. For aid in describing roots, we must refer 
 pupils to the exercises in plant description, which follow. 
 
 There is usually a certain balance between the size of the 
 root and stem of a plant ; but sometimes the root is very small 
 compared with the stem and branches, and sometimes it is 
 large. Roots may also be loosely attached to the soil or firmly 
 planted therein; they may ">e spreading near the surface, or 
 may grow directly downward, and such facts are worthy of 
 note in root descriptions. 
 
EXAMPLES IN PLANT DESCRIPTION, 
 
 ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE FOREGOING EXERCISES. 
 
PLANT DESCRIPTION. 125 
 
 Description of Fig. 242. 
 
 ROOTS fibrous. 
 
 LEAVES radical, petiolate, exstipulate, palmate- 
 veined, acutely three-lobed; base cordate, surface 
 hairy. Bracts hairy, in a whorl of three near 
 the flower. 
 
 INFLORESCENCE solitary, on a slender hairy scape.* 
 
 FLOWER. CALYX; sepals 8-12, oblong spread- 
 ing : COROLLA none : STAMENS many ; filaments 
 threadlike ; anthers oval, two-celled : PISTIL ; car- 
 pels many ; style very short ; stigma continued down 
 the inner face of the style. 
 
 * Scape, a peduncle which arises from an underground stem. 
 
FIG. 243. 
 
PLANT DESCRIPTION. 127 
 
 Description of Fig. 243. 
 
 
 ROOTS fibrous. 
 
 STEM a scaly bulb. 
 
 LEAVES radical, petiolate, exstipulate, digitately 
 three-fingered ; leaflets sessile, feather-veined, entire, 
 ' obcordate ; petiole long, slender. 
 
 INFLORESCENCE a loose terminal umbel. 
 
 FLOWER. CALYX ; sepals 5, polysepalous : COROL- 
 LA ; petals 5, regular, polypetalous, obovate, mucn 
 larger than the sepals : STAMENS 10, of unequal length, 
 hairy ; filaments awl-shaped, flattened below, grown 
 together ; anthers short, oval, two-celled : PISTIL : 
 ovary ovoid, of 5 united carpels ; styles free, hairy ; 
 stigmas enlarged, rounded* 
 
Fia. 244. 
 
PLANT DESCRIPTION. 129 
 
 Description of Fig. 244. 
 
 BOOTS fasciculated. 
 
 STEM erect, round, slender, herbaceous. 
 
 LEAVES radical and cauliue. Radical leaves 
 twice ternately three-fingered ; leaflets petiolulate, 
 palmate-veined, three-lobed at the end, sub-cordate; 
 petiole long and slender. Cauline leaves numer- 
 ous, simple, petiolate, exstipulate, formed like the 
 leaflets of the radical leaves, placed in a whorl at 
 the base of the inflorescence. 
 
 INFLORESCENCE a loose terminal umbel. 
 
 FLOWER. CALYX ; sepals 6-8, spreading, poly- 
 sepalous, regular : COROLLA ; petals none : STAMENS 
 many ; filaments thread-like ; anthers two-celled : 
 PISTIL ; carpels many. 
 
FIG. 345. 
 
PLANT DESCRIPTION. 131 
 
 Description of Fig. 245. 
 
 ROOTS branching tap. 
 
 STEM erect, slender, herbaceous, round, hairy. 
 
 LEAVES cauline, opposite, simple, sessile, exstipu- 
 late, entire, ovate-acute. 
 
 INFLORESCENCE clustered, terminal, umbellate. 
 
 FLOWER. CALYX ; sepals 5 : COROLLA ; petals 5, 
 obcordate, spreading : STAMENS 10 ; filaments thread- 
 like ; anthers oval, two-celled : PISTIL ; ovary ovoid, 
 consisting of five united carpels ; styles short, free ; 
 stigma along the inner face of the style. 
 
Fio 246. 
 
PLANT DESCRIPTION. 133 
 
 Description of Fig. 246. 
 
 ROOTS tuberous. 
 
 STEM smooth, low, weak, slender, herbaceous, 
 round. 
 
 LEAVES cauline, opposite, a single pair, sessile, 
 exstipulate* feather-veined, entire, lanceolate. 
 
 INFLORESCENCE a loose definite raceme. 
 
 FLOWER. CALYX ; sepals 2, polysepalous, regu- 
 lar : COROLLA ; petals 5, polypetalous (or slightly 
 coherent at the short claws), spreading ; stamens 5 ; 
 jttaments threadlike ; anthers oval : PISTIL ; carpels 
 3 ; style slender, three-cleft ; stigma along the inner 
 side of the three-cleft style. 
 
FIG. 247. 
 
PLANT DESCRIPTION. 135 
 
 Description of Fig. 247. 
 
 ROOTS fibrous, matted, somewhat spreading. 
 
 STEM of scaly nodes, internodes none. 
 
 LEAVES radical, simple, exstipulate, peltately pal- 
 mate-veined, wavy, deeply two-lobed, shut sinus at 
 base ; petiole long, round, rather erect. 
 
 INFLORESCENCE solitary, on a smooth, naked scape. 
 
 FLOWER. CALYX ; sepals 4, polysepalous, oblong : 
 COROLLA; petals 8, polypetalous, regular, oblong, 
 spreading : STAMENS 8 ; filaments threadlike, shorter 
 than anther; anthers two-celled, oblong: PISTIL; 
 carpels 2 ; style short ; stigma spreading, two-lobed. 
 
Fro. 248. 
 
PLANT DESCRIPTION. 137 
 
 Description of Fig. 248. 
 
 ROOTS fibrous, growing from the entire under-side 
 of the stem. 
 
 STEM creeping below the ground. 
 
 LEAF radical, petiolate, exstipulate, wavy-dentate, 
 palmate- veined, slightly reniform, obtusely seven- 
 lobed, sinuses rounded, nearly closed ; petiole half- 
 round, channelled. 
 
 INFLORESCENCE solitary, on a smooth, slender 
 scape. 
 
 FLOWER. CALYX ; sepals $, ovate, regular : 
 COROLLA ; petals 8, polypetalous, regular, obovate- 
 oblong, spreading : STAMENS many, shorter than the 
 petals ; filaments short, threadlike ; anthers oblong, 
 two-celled : PISTIL ; ovary oblong, of two carpels ; 
 styles united in a column ; stigma two-lobed. 
 
FIG. 249. 
 
PLANT DESCRIPTION. 139 
 
 Description of Fig. 249. 
 
 KOOTS fasciculated. 
 
 STEM slender, weak, round, herbaceous, hairy. 
 
 LEAVES radical and cauline. Radical leaves, 
 petiolate, exstipulate, deeply twice ternately lobed; 
 petioles long, hairy. Cauline leaves sessile alter- 
 nate, shaped like the radical leaves, but much 
 smaller. 
 
 INFLORESCENCE solitary, terminal. 
 
 FLOWER. CALYX ; sepals 5, polysepalous, regu- 
 lar, spreading : COROLLA ; petals 5, polypetalous, 
 regular, oval, spreading: STAMENS many; filaments 
 threadlike ; anthers short, two-celled : PISTIL ; car- 
 pels many ; styles very short or absent ; stigma 
 inner and upper part of carpel or style. 
 
 
FIG. 
 
PLANT DESCRIPTION. 141 
 
 Description of Fig. 25O. 
 
 ROOTS moniliform. 
 
 STEM erect, slender, herbaceous, round. 
 
 LEAVES radical and cauline, ternately compound. 
 Cauline leaves alternate ; leaflets lobed ; petioles 
 spreading at base. 
 
 INFLORESCENCE solitary, terminal. 
 
 FLOWER. CALYX ; sepals 5, polysepalous, regular, 
 spreading, ovate : COROLLA ; petals, none : STAMENS 
 numerous ; filaments threadlike ; anthers oblong : 
 PISTIL ; carpels many ; stigma sessile on the upper, 
 inner face of carpel. 
 
CHAPTEE VI. 
 THE SEED. 
 
 EXERCISE LIV. 
 Parts of the Seed. 
 
 WE now pass to another class of observations, in 
 which, besides noting new parts of plants, you will 
 also have to watch the changes which take place in 
 those parts. 
 
 PREPARE for the study of seeds by planting all 
 the kinds you can get that are large enough for easy 
 examination. 
 
 The seeds of the pumpkin, squash, four-o'clock, 
 bean, pea, apple, Indian corn, oats, and barley, are 
 good examples for the purpose. Plant two or three 
 dozens of each sort, one inch deep, in a box of soil or 
 sawdust, which must be kept warm and moist. Put 
 the different kinds in rows by themselves, and mark 
 each row, so that, when you want any particular one, 
 you can get it without mistake.* 
 
 You should also be provided with a blank-book 
 
 * If pupils cannot get time to prepare for these exercises 
 out of school-hours, they should be encouraged to do it during 
 school-time. 
 
THE SEED. 143 
 
 in which to write the results of study. Such a note- 
 book is easily made by twice folding enough sheet- 
 paper to allow a page to each kind of seed you have 
 planted. Write the name of a kind, as pea, oat, etc., 
 on each successive page, till all are inserted. 
 
 When your seeds have soaked for a day or two 
 in the wet earth, take a bean from the box and com- 
 pare it with one that has not been planted. 
 
 How has it changed in appearance ? 
 
 Cut it in two and see whether, like a piece of 
 chalk, it looks alike outside and inside, or whether 
 the parts are unlike. 
 
 Has it a skin or shell that you can loosen ? 
 
 Take a second bean from the box, cut carefully 
 around it, and try to peel off the outer part. 
 
 FIG. 251. 
 
 Body. 
 
 SEED-COAT, OR INTEG'UMENT. The skin or shell 
 around the outside of a seed. 
 
 BODY, KERNEL, OR NU'CLEUS. The substance 
 within the seed-coat. 
 
 Compare your specimen with Fig. 251. 
 
 Can you separate the seed-coat from the body of 
 the bean as it is seen to be separated in the picture ? 
 
 Now take a pea from your box and see if it is 
 made up of parts. 
 
144: THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 Has it a seed-coat ? Is there a kernel or body 
 within the seed-coat ? 
 
 Try a pumpkin-seed. Compare the coat of a 
 pumpkin-seed with that of the pea or bean. 
 
 Are they alike in thickness ? in hardness ? in 
 color? in transparency? Name all the differences 
 you see between them. 
 
 In the same way, take up and examine, one after 
 another, some seeds from each of the rows. Find 
 their parts, and compare the parts of one kind of seed 
 with those of another kind. 
 
 If you are not able at first readily to separate a 
 seed into distinct portions, do not hastily conclude 
 that it is without them. Let it lie in its warm, wet 
 bed a while longer, and then try again.* 
 
 JSTow write in your note-book just what you have 
 discovered about the parts of seeds. For instance : 
 if at the top of the first page you have written ~becm, 
 on the line beneath you now write the question, 
 Parts ? and the answer which you have found to this 
 question thus : 
 
 Parts f Seed-coat. Body. Coat, thin, skinny 
 or, on the page devoted to the apple-seed, you write 
 
 * Much that is important in their experiments, children will 
 fail to see, and they will fancy they see much that does not 
 exist. Their omissions, misinterpretations, and difficulties, can 
 be dealt with in many ways, but a desire on the part of the 
 teacher for nicety of experiment, and accuracy of statement, 
 should never lead to discouraging criticism. To keep the child 
 happily busy with his growing plants is the main thing, and 
 all degrees of awkwardness and imperfection in childish per- 
 formance should be tolerated. 
 
THE SEED. 145 
 
 Parts ? Seed-coat. Body. Coat, woody, brown, 
 thin ; 
 
 or, on the page for pumpkin-seed you say 
 
 Parts f Seed-coat. Body. Coat, shelly, thick, 
 limber. 
 
 Write on all the pages of your note-book in this 
 way, and keep it at hand for reference. 
 
 EXERCISE LV. 
 farts of the Body, or Kernel. 
 
 WHEN you have carefully examined all the seeds 
 you planted to find the parts that make them up, you 
 will be ready to study one of these by itself. After 
 taking off the skin or coat of a seed, look closely at 
 the body of it. Begin with a well-soaked seed of 
 Indian corn. 
 
 FIG. 252. 
 
 Compare it with Fig. 252. 
 
 Is your seed narrower at one end than the other ? 
 Are the two sides of it alike ? Is there a little pointed 
 or rounded figure to be seen on one side ? 
 
 Remove the skin and look carefully at the figured 
 side of your specimen. Can you sea a thick, lumpy 
 body like the one marked a in the picture ? 
 
14:6 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 Try, with a dull knife or the finger-nail, to pry 
 this lump out of its bed. If the seed is soaked to its 
 centre, you can easily do this. Look carefully at the 
 hole it leaves. Is not its surface smooth ? Do you 
 see any spot where the lump seems to have been 
 grown to the other part, and to have broken away 
 when you took it out ? 
 
 Compare the parts you have got with Fig. 253. 
 
 FI&. 253. 
 
 Embryo. 
 
 EM'BKYO. The young plant contained in a seed. 
 ALBU'MEN, EN'DOSPERM. The material in which 
 the embryo is embedded. 
 
 "What names are given to the two parts of the 
 body of a seed of Indian corn ? 
 
 "Which is the embryo in your specimen ? Which 
 is the albumen ? 
 
 Now examine the kernel of a pea or bean. Can 
 you separate this into two parts without breaking it 
 somewhere ? 
 
 Compare it with Fig. 254. 
 
 FIG. 254. 
 
 Embryo. 
 
THE SEED. 147 
 
 What name is given to the entire kernel ? What 
 part, found in the Indian corn, is missing here ? 
 
 Look at the body of a seed of four-o'clock and see 
 how many and what parts it has ? Look also at the 
 body of a pumpkin-seed. 
 
 Examine the kernel of each of the kinds of seed 
 you have planted, and observe which consist of em- 
 bryo alone, and which are part embryo and part 
 albumen. 
 
 At the same time, write in your note-book, as 
 before, the results of observation. For 'example, to 
 the question, Parts of the body ? write for Indian 
 corn, Parts of body? Albumen. Embryo. For 
 Pea. Parts of body f Embryo. 
 
 EXERCISE LVL 
 Parts of the Embryo. 
 
 TAKE out of the soil a bean which has begun to 
 sprout. Remove the seed-coat, and let the parts of 
 the embryo separate, as seen in Figs. 255 and 256. 
 
 FIG. 255. 
 Plumule. Radicle 
 
 Cotyledon... __^ Cotyledon. 
 
 Cotyledon. I 1 Radicle. 
 
 COTYLE'DON. The bulky first leaf or leaves of the 
 embryo more or less formed before, the growth of 
 the seed begins. 
 
148 THE FIKST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 RAD'ICLE. The lower, or root-end, of the embryo. 
 PLU'MULE. The first the terminal bud the up- 
 per end of the embryo. 
 
 GERMINA'TION. The beginning of growth in a seed. 
 
 Read the names of the parts of the embryo given 
 in Figs. 255 and 256. Look at the definitions of these 
 Words. Compare your specimen with the figures, and 
 point out its Cotyledons ; its Eadicle ; its Plumule. 
 Handle your embryo with care, for it breaks easily. 
 Has its radicle begun to put forth roots ? 
 
 Take from your box a vigorous seed of Indian 
 
 FIG. 257. 
 
 Plumule. 
 
 corn in which the roots have begun to grow, and 
 compare it with Fig. 257. 
 
 Separate the embryo and albumen, and, if it has 
 grown as much as the one pictured above, you may 
 easily find the cotyledon, the plumule, and the radicle. 
 
 When you are sure that you have found the radi- 
 
THE SEED. 149 
 
 cle or root-end of your embryo, that you know which 
 part is cotyledon, and which plumule, take another 
 seed of the same kind, but less grown one where the 
 root-end of the embryo has scarcely begun to swell 
 and see if you can find the parts. 
 
 Fio. 258. 
 ; Plumule. 
 
 Cotyledon. [ ,\ \ Plumule. 
 
 Badicle. 
 
 Fig. 258 represents such an embryo with the parts 
 shown. 
 
 Point out and name the parts of the embryo of an 
 apple-seed ; of a pumpkin-seed ; and of each of your 
 specimens successively, as in former exercises. Which 
 of your seeds has the largest plumule before growth 
 begins ? Have you any in which the embryo has at 
 first no plumule at all ? 
 
 Have you failed to find cotyledons in any em- 
 bryo looked at ? * 
 
 * If these experiments with seeds are made as early as April, 
 in this climate, the children who have made them will be ready 
 for more extended observations when planting in the garden 
 begins. Most garden-seeds are too small to be separated into 
 parts by young children. But, when growth begins, their parts 
 enlarge, and a child, who has before studied larger seeds, will 
 be able to identify the radicle, cotyledons, and plumule, without 
 difficulty. In the kitchen-garden, a universal appendage of 
 country-houses, the sprouting of the radish, onion, beet, parsnip, 
 lettuce, tomato, carrot, cabbage, cucumber, etc., will furnish an 
 excellent continuation of the study of seeds. 
 
150 
 
 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 As the number of your observations increases, and 
 their character varies, you will see more and more 
 the value of your notes recording them. 
 
 To the question of this exercise, Parts of Embryo ? 
 you give the answers, as before, from direct observa- 
 tion of the structure of the embryo itself. If some 
 seeds give uncertain appearances, wait till growth 
 has proceeded a little further before you decide about 
 them. By premature judgments you may fill your 
 note-book with errors which you will be compelled to 
 erase. 
 
 EXERCISE LYII. 
 Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons. 
 
 FIG. 259. 
 
 FIG. 260. 
 
 Cotyledon. 
 
 Cotyledon. 
 
 Cotyledon. 
 
 A MONOCOTYLED'ONOUS embryo has one cotyledon 
 or seed-leaf (Fig. 259). 
 
THE SEED. 151 
 
 A DICOTYLED'ONOUS embryo has two cotyledons 
 or seed-leaves (Fig. 260). 
 
 These are long, hard words, hard to pronounce, 
 and hard to spell. But they are very necessary words 
 in describing seeds. You can soon learn them. 
 
 Go over the seeds you have planted, and point 
 out the dicotyledons. Show the two thick leaves 
 that were packed within the seed-coat when the seed 
 ripened ? 
 
 Are any of your seeds monocotyledonous ? If 
 so, which? 
 
 Figs. 259 and 260 were drawn from plants that 
 had grown a little. When your seeds have also grown 
 a little, compare them one after another with these 
 pictures. Look at your young bean-plant. Find the 
 first node above the cotyledons. How many leaves 
 are growing there ? how many at the first node of 
 the corn-stem ? how many in each of your growing 
 seeds ? 
 
 Observe whether the cotyledons in all cases rise 
 into the light and air. Observe whether all cotyle- 
 dons are shaped alike, and also whether they resem- 
 ble the true leaves of the plant. Write carefully in 
 your note-book the decision you have made in this 
 exercise about each of your seeds. You will have 
 occasion to refer to it as soon as your plants have put 
 forth perfect full-grown leaves.* 
 
 * A word of caution may not here be amiss. There is danger 
 that the sympathy of teachers with bright and interested pupils 
 will lead them to tell in advance what children can find out for 
 themselves by continued observation. The connection between 
 number of cotyledons and venation is an instance of such temp- 
 
152 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 tation. This relation is an impressive one, and prominent in 
 classification ; but there is no need of haste in getting to it. By- 
 and-by, when the leaves of his growing plants are well developed, 
 by the aid of his note-book, the pupil might be put in the way of 
 discovery, by asking him to make a list of his monocotyledons, 
 and to give their venation in each case. Let him do the same 
 with his dicotyledons. He will now see a perfect uniformity 
 of relation in a few cases, and will be curious to know if it is 
 everywhere constant. He will thus arrive at the induction by 
 his own observation. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 WOODY PLANTS. 
 
 EXERCISE LYIII. 
 Their Different Kinds. 
 
 WHAT do you name all the soft, fragile plants that 
 die down to the ground in winter ? * Is there any 
 name for all woody plants ? Do you know of any 
 woody plants.that are not trees ? If so, what do you 
 call them ? "What is the difference between a young 
 tree and a bush ? Between a bush and a shrub ? 
 
 The following pictures and definitions are given 
 
 FIG. 261. 
 
 Tree. 
 
 See page 75. 
 
154: THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 to help you in distinguishing one group of woody 
 plants from another. After carefully looking them 
 over, you should go through the streets and the fields, 
 and whenever you see a woody plant, decide whether 
 it is a tree, shrub, bush, under-shrub, or vine. It' you 
 take with you a companion who is interested in the 
 same pursuit, it will be all the better. 
 
 Although trees vary much in size, height, and 
 shape, and are often not nearly so tree-like as the one 
 represented by Fig. 261, yet it is not easy to mistake 
 them when full grown. If you are doubtful whether 
 a particular plant is a tree or shrub, remember that, 
 when a full-grown woody plant, less than fifteen feet 
 high, is slender, and perhaps has several stems start- 
 ing together at or near the ground, as seen in Fig. 
 262, it is called a SHEUB. 
 
 Fm. 262. 
 
 Shrub. 
 
 When a full-grown, woody plant, with several 
 stems, is not more than five feet high, it is a BUSH. 
 
WOODY PLANTS. 155 
 
 FIG. 263. 
 
 Bush. 
 
 And when only two or three feet high, whatever 
 its shape, it is called an TJNDER-SHKUB. Slender, 
 woody plants that cannot hold themselves up, but 
 depend on other objects for support, or trail along 
 the ground, are called VINES. 
 
 Besides this separation of woody plants into groups 
 depending upon size and shape, they are again divided 
 into two sorts, called Evergreen and Deciduous. 
 
 EVERGREEN trees, shrubs, etc., keep their foliage 
 all the year round. 
 
 DECTD'UOUS trees, shrubs, etc., lose their foliage in 
 winter. 
 
 So that in winter it is very easy to tell Evergreens 
 from deciduous plants. Look carefully at the foliage 
 of Evergreens, and see if it resembles that of Decidu- 
 ous trees. 
 
156 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 EXERCISE LIX. 
 Parts of a Tree. 
 
 FIG. 264. 
 
 Trunk. 
 
 TRUNK. The main stem of a tree. 
 HEAD. The branching top of a tree. 
 
 Observe the varying lengths of the trunks in the 
 trees about you. Measure the size around their 
 trunks at different heights from the ground. Judge 
 as well as you can at what distance from the ground 
 the lowest limb starts from the trunk. Then test 
 your judgment by measuring. 
 
 If you call the branches that start from the trunk 
 primary, the branches which these put forth may be 
 called secondary branches, and those given off next 
 would be tertiary branches. In observing the heads 
 of trees, fix your attention upon a primary branch, 
 and see if you can find these divisions. Observe 
 whether the tertiary branches bear still other branches. 
 
WOODY PLANTS. 
 FIG. 265. 
 
 157 
 
 Crown. 
 
 Caadcx. 
 
 CAUDEX OR STOCK. An unbranched trunk pro- 
 duced by the terminal bud alone (Fig. 265). 
 
 CKOWN. The collection of leaves at the top of a 
 caudex. 
 
158 
 
 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 EXEKCISE LX. 
 Parts of the Trunk, 
 
 FIG. 266. 
 
 Bark. 
 
 Pith. 
 
 Wood 
 
 In living trees there grows eacli year a ring of 
 wood between the old wood and the bark, and by 
 counting the rings you can tell the age of the tree. 
 Fig. 266 is a picture of the end of a tree-trunk. A 
 dark and light streak, taken together, represent a 
 yearly ring of wood. Can you tell how many years 
 it was in growing ? When you see saw-logs, find out 
 their ages by counting the rings. Observe whether 
 
 O / O 
 
 these annual layers are always of the same thickness. 
 Notice whether the wood of a tree, from the centre 
 to the circumference, is all of one color. 
 
WOODY PLANTS. 
 
 EXERCISE LXI. 
 Kinds of Trunk. 
 
 Fio. 268. 
 
 159 
 
 Indefinite Trunli. 
 
 Definite Trunk. 
 
 AN INDEFINITE TBTJNK is one in which the trunk 
 runs through to the top, the terminal bud growing 
 on from year to year with more vigor than any of the 
 branches. 
 
 IN A DEFINITE TRUNK the stem breaks up into 
 branches, and so disappears, as seen in Fig. 268. 
 
 Have apple-trees definite trunks ? 
 
 Have pine-trees definite or indefinite trunks ? 
 
160 
 
 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 EXERCISE LXII. 
 Questions about Trees. 
 
 FIG. 269. 
 
WOODY PLANTS. 
 
 161 
 
 Pia. 270. 
 
 FIG. 271. 
 
162 
 
 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 FIG. 272. 
 
WOODY PLANTS. 
 
 163 
 
 FIG. 273. 
 
164 THE FIRST BOOK OP BOTANY. 
 
 What is the attitude of the trunk in Fig. 269 ? 
 
 What is the form of the head ? 
 
 Which are the longest the upper, lower, or 
 middle branches ? 
 
 What is the direction of the branches ? 
 
 Are the branches much subdivided ? 
 
 What proportion of the trunk is below the lowest 
 branches ? 
 
 Observe whether field-trees and forest-trees differ 
 in this respect. 
 
 Answer the same questions in regard to Fig. 270. 
 Fig. 271. Fig. 272. Fig. 273. 
 
 Which of these pictures represent definite trunks? 
 
 Which indefinite trunks ? 
 
 If the head of a tree is cone-shaped, which of its 
 branches are longest ? 
 
 If the head is round, which are longest ? 
 
 Mention all the differences you see between Figs. 
 269 and 270. 
 
 Between Figs. 269 and 271. 
 
 Between Figs. 269 and 272. 
 
 Between Figs. 269 and 273. 
 
 Which of the pictures shows the most compact 
 head? 
 
 Are its branches more subdivided than the 
 
 others ? 
 
 % 
 
 Now that you are somewhat acquainted with the 
 woody plants of your neighborhood, find among 
 them an evergreen and observe it carefully through- 
 out the year. Describe, in your note-book, its ap- 
 pearance in winter. Watch it in spring, and note 
 
WOODY PLANTS. 165 
 
 the changes produced on it by the warm weather. 
 See if any of its foliage ever falls ; or if it changes 
 color in the course of the year. Watch for its flowers 
 and fruit. Observe the appearance of its bark, and 
 whether it looks the same in different parts of the 
 tree. 
 
 Make and record similar observations upon a 
 deciduous tree. Describe its winter aspect. What 
 time does it put forth leaves ? When does it flower ? 
 Does its foliage change in color after it is full grown ? 
 If so, how 2 When does it fall ? Compare the bark 
 of its trunk with that of its twigs.* Compare its 
 bark with that of an evergreen. 
 
 In the same way watch the progress of a fruit- 
 tree, after carefully observing its appearance before 
 growth in the spring begins. 
 
 Every bush, shrub, and tree, passes each year 
 through a succession of striking changes, which very 
 few people ever observe. Let it be your purpose to 
 see them all. 
 
 * TWIGS. The remote ends of the branches. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 THE LEAF-BUD. 
 
 EXERCISE LXITI. 
 Parts of the Leaf-bud. 
 
 FIG. 271 FIG. 275. - FIG. 276. 
 
 Leaves. 
 
 a. Grow- 
 ing point. 
 
 Scales. 
 
 BUD-SCALES. The covering of winter buds (Figs. 
 274, 275). 
 
 GEOWING-POINT. The soft extremity of the stem 
 at the centre of the bud, and enclosed in the young 
 unexpanded leaves and the bud-scales a (Fig. 276). 
 
 UNEXPANDED LEAVES are found in buds, as seen 
 in Fig. 276. 
 
 The time to study bud-scales is in early spring, 
 before the buds begin to swell. At this season gather 
 buds from all the trees and shrubs within your reach. 
 
 Observe whether the branches from which they 
 are taken have terminal buds. 
 
THE LEAF-BUD. 167 
 
 Are any of these buds without a protective cover- 
 ing to the growing-point ? 
 
 Observe in each case whether the scales are mem- 
 branous, waxy, gummy, lined with down, wool, or 
 dense hairs, or varnished upon the exterior. 
 
 What is the use of the gummy matter, varnish, 
 and wax, around the bud ? 
 
 Of what use are the woolly, downy, and hairy 
 linings of the bud-scales ? 
 
 What separates the gummed bud-scales when 
 growth begins ? 
 
 When you are familiar with the winter aspect of 
 the buds upon the trees around, you will be interested 
 in their unfolding. Observe what becomes of the 
 scales on each of the trees you have examined. Scales 
 may be changed into other parts, or they may fall off 
 all together. Observe these changes. Notice the scars 
 left by their fall. 
 
 PET'IOLAR scales are formed from the petiole. 
 
 STIP'ULAR scales are formed from the stipules. 
 
 FOLIA'CEOUS scales are formed from the blade of the 
 leaf. 
 
 EXERCISE LXIY. 
 Vernation. 
 
 VERNATION is the way in which leaves are folded, 
 rolled, and arranged, in the leaf-bud. 
 
 Observe the buds closely as warm weather ap- 
 proaches. When they are just opening out, examine 
 them to find the various ways in which the young 
 leaves are folded or rolled. If you are watchful at 
 
168 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 this time, you will be sure to find them at a moment 
 when the growing leaves have not yet smoothed out 
 the shapes they had while in the bud. 
 
 Fresh buds are also constantly appearing through- 
 out the growing season, at the ends of stems and 
 shoots* and in the axils of leaves. Observe the parts 
 of such summer buds, and learn in what ways they 
 differ from winter buds.f 
 
 WAYS IN WHICH LEAVES ARE FOLDED AND ROLLED 
 IN THE BUD. 
 
 FIG. 277. 
 
 BEC'LINATE, or INFLEXED'. Folded from apex to 
 base (Fig. 277). 
 
 * SHOOT. Any fresh branch. 
 
 t Although the science of the folding and arrangement of 
 the parts of buds has been called vernation (from vernalis, 
 spring-time), yet its study need not be restricted to the spring 
 season. All the features of buds illustrated here may be found 
 equally well in summer upon growing plants. 
 
THE LEAF-BUD. 
 
 169 
 
 Fio.273. 
 
 C i R'C i N A T E. Rolled 
 from apex to base (Fig. 
 
 278). 
 
 Fio. 279. 
 
 CONDTTPLICATE. Folded 
 along the mid-rib so that 
 the two halves are applied 
 to each other (Fig. 279). 
 
FIG. 280. 
 
 FIG. 281. 
 
 PLI'CATE. 
 Folded like a 
 fan (Figs. 280 
 and 281). 
 
 CONVOLUTE. 
 
 With the 
 leaf rolled 
 spirally s o 
 that one edge 
 is in the cen- 
 tre of the coil 
 and one out- 
 side (Fig. 
 282). 
 
THE LEAF-BUD. 
 FIG. 283. 
 
 171 
 
 IN'VOLUTE. 
 ,With both 
 edges rolled 
 inward to- 
 ward the mid- 
 rib (Fig. 283). 
 
 FIG. 231 
 
 REV'OLUTE. 
 With both 
 edges rolled 
 outward to- 
 ward the mid- 
 rib (Fig. 284). 
 
172 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 When leaves are neither folded nor rolled in the 
 bud, they are said to be FLAT. 
 
 ARRANGEMENT OF LEAVES IN THE BUD. 
 
 By the arrangement of the leaves in a bud is 
 meant the ways in which they are placed in relation 
 to each other. For instance, Fig. 285 shows what 
 is called the equita/nt arrangement. 
 
 FIG. 285. 
 
 EQ'UITAOT. "When opposite con duplicate leaves 
 overlap each other at the base, as seen in Fig. 285, 
 the arrangement is called equitant. 
 
 Leaves are always arranged in one or other of the 
 two ways called valvate and imbricate. 
 
 The YAL'VATE arrangement is seen when the edges 
 of corresponding leaves barely touch each other. 
 
 The IM'BKICATE arrangement is seen when the 
 edges of the leaves overlap each other. Fig. 285 
 shows an imbricate arrangement. 
 
THE LEAF-BUD. 173 
 
 The directions for observing the folding and roll- 
 ing of leaves apply also to the study of their arrange- 
 ment. But there are several different ways in which 
 imbricate leaves are placed, and it is sometimes quite 
 difficult to make them out. The best way to study 
 the arrangement of leaves in the bud is to cut off the 
 top of the bud with a sharp knife, and look down on 
 the cut edges, which will show not only whether the 
 leaves are imbricate or valvate, but also, if they are 
 imbricate, the particular mode of overlapping. In 
 most cases, however, a magnifying-glass is needed to 
 show the details of a complex arrangement, and so 
 we shall leave the illustration of this branch of ver- 
 nation to be taken up again in the Second Book of 
 Botany. 
 
 In your notes about trees you can now include 
 your discoveries about the buds of the particular 
 kinds of woody plants you are studying. 
 
 Answer the following questions in regard to each 
 sort by frequent observations made during their 
 growth. Answer them in writing in your book for 
 each of the woody plants that you have selected to 
 study throughout the year. 
 
 QUESTIONS ON THE BUDS OF A PLANT. 
 
 When do the buds begin to swell ? 
 How long are they in unfolding ? 
 Are they naked, scaly, woolly, or gummy ? 
 Can you find the growing point within them ? 
 Is there any appearance of leaves within them [ 
 What are the size, color, and structure, of the bud 
 before swelling commences ? 
 
THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 How long is it from the first bursting of the bud 
 till the leaves are full grown ? 
 
 What changes of color do the leaves undergo 
 during growth ? 
 
 Are the first-formed leaves as large as those formed 
 later in the season ? 
 
 What becomes of the bud-scales as the buds unfold 1 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 STEM AND ROOT. 
 
 EXERCISE LXV. 
 What are Hoots? 
 
 CAREFULLY pull up a buttercup, or any common 
 plant, and rinse away the dirt from the roots. 
 
 Take the stem-schedule on page 63, and answer 
 its questions as if they were asked concerning these 
 roots. 
 
 Look at the tip of the stem, or of one of the 
 branches of the stem, and compare it with the tip of 
 a rootlet. 
 
 What is the difference between them ? 
 
 What appendages has the stem that you do not 
 find on the root ? 
 
 How do the root and stem differ in color ? 
 
 How in direction of growth ? 
 
 Where do branches start from on the stem ? 
 
THE STEM AND BOOT. 
 
 175 
 
 Are they regular or irregular I 
 
 Where do the root-branches start from ? 
 
 Pull up another plant and examine the root and 
 stem in the same way. Do you find the same differ- 
 ences as before? 
 
 Examine as many plants as you can, by thus com- 
 paring the root and stem, so as to find out for your- 
 self the differences between them. 
 
 Get a potato that has begun to sprout, and observe 
 its surface ? 
 
 Have you seen any thing like this upon roots ? 
 
 Did the potato grow under or above the ground ? 
 
 Have you ever found buds upon roots ? 
 
 EXERCISE LXVI. 
 Tubers, Hulks, Corms, Rhizoma, 
 
 FIG. 286. 
 
 TU'BERS, thickened portions of underground stems. 
 
1T6 
 
 TIIE FLEST BOOK OF B0TAOT, 
 FIG, 287. 
 
 CORM. When the base of an underground stem 
 is abruptly thickened so as to resemble a tuber, it is 
 called a corm (Fig. 287). 
 
 FIG. 283. 
 
 FIG. 289. 
 
THE STEM AND BOOT. 177 
 
 BULB. A mass of thickened, scale-like leaves, 
 growing from a flat or conical solid base, from the 
 under side of which, roots are given off (Figs. 
 288, 289). 
 
 RHIZO'MA. A stem more or less covered by the 
 soil, which gives off buds above, and roots below, as 
 
 seen in Fig. 290. 
 
 FIG. 290. 
 
 Point out the root and the stem of an onion ? 
 
 Is the bulb a stem or root ? 
 
 Examine a growing hyacinth, and find the root 
 and the stem. 
 
 "Which is the root and which the stem in a lily ? 
 
 Look for sweet-flag, blue-flag, peppermint, knot- 
 grass, Solomon's-seal, and try the stem-schedule as 
 before, upon their entire underground portions. You 
 will find flag in marshes and by the water's side ; 
 Solomon's-seal, trillium, artichoke, etc., in meadows 
 and old gardens. If you cannot at once get abundant 
 specimens illustrating this exercise, put it off till you 
 have an opportunity to gather a good variety of such 
 plants as are here named. 
 
178 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 Observe the lower joints of the stem in the plants 
 of a cornfield. Look at a good many of them. Can 
 you tell whether the branches you see growing on 
 this part of some of the stalks are stem-like or root- 
 like? 
 
 Observe the stem of ivy. Notice the little fingers 
 it puts out for support. Are they stems or roots ? 
 
 Would you now say that all the parts of plants 
 growing above-ground are stems? Would you say 
 that all the parts of plants growing underground are 
 roots ? 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 FRUIT. 
 
 EXEECISE LXVII. 
 What is Fruit? 
 
 PLUCK from the vine of the pea or bean several 
 pods of different ages, from one still enveloped by the 
 flower, to one that is full grown. Compare the 
 youngest pod you have gathered with Fig. 192. What 
 part of the pistil becomes the pod ? Compare it with 
 Fig. 193. How many carpels has the ovary of the 
 bean or pea ? 
 
 Observe the contents of this pod. 
 
 What name is given to these little soft bodies ? 
 
 Answer. O'vules. 
 
 Compare these ovules with the contents of a full- 
 
FKUIT. 179 
 
 grown pod. "What are these full-grown ripe bodies 
 called ? 
 
 What name is given to pod and contents taken 
 together ? 
 
 Answer. Fruit. 
 
 What is every ovary and its contents ? 
 
 Answer. It is fruit. The fruit of a plant is its 
 ripened ovary. 
 
 By what words would you distinguish the young 
 from the mature ovary ? 
 
 Examine all the flowers that are just fading, and 
 look for the ovules in their unripe fruit. Find the 
 ovules of a young apple. Of an unripe cucumber. 
 Of an unripe tomato. Of any unripe fruit you see 
 growing within reach. 
 
 Observe the same plants when the fruit is ripe, 
 and compare the aspect of the seeds with the appear- 
 ance the ovules presented. 
 
 Try to count the carpels in all the ovaries you 
 examine. Observe whether they are grown together 
 or not. Count the carpels shown in Fig. 197. Do 
 you see the three white lines passing outward from 
 the centre in this picture? Should you judge that 
 the carpels from which this picture was taken were 
 grown together ? Search, among plants that are go- 
 ing to seed, for ovaries resembling this one. 
 
180 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 EXEECISE LXVIII. 
 Sutures and Dehiscence. 
 
 LOOK among the ripe and dry pea and bean pods, 
 upon the dry vines, for those that have begun to open. 
 Examine the edges of the separate parts. Do you 
 see something like a joint where the two parts were 
 united ? Compare them with Fig. 291. 
 
 FIG. 291. 
 
 DEIIIS'CENCE. The opening of a seed-vessel at 
 maturity. See Fig. 291. 
 
 STJT'TJKE. A seam. The line along which dehis- 
 cence occurs, and so permits the escape of the seeds. 
 
 VEN'TRAL SUTURE. The inner suture of a carpel. 
 The one looking toward the centre of the flower. In 
 Fig. 291, it is the suture along which the ovules are 
 attached. 
 
 DOR'SAL SUTURE. The outer suture. See Fig. 291. 
 
 What name is given to those joints in ovaries at 
 which they open when the seeds are ripe ? How many 
 
FRUIT. 181 
 
 sutures has a bean-pod? To which suture are the 
 beans attached ? 
 
 When an ovary opens spontaneously, and thus 
 liberates its seeds, it is called a DEHISCENT OVARY. 
 "When it does not open, it is an DTDEHISCENT ovary. 
 
 Are there any indehi scent ovaries among the fruits 
 of the garden or farm ? 
 
 Mention all the dehiscent ovaries you can think of. 
 
 Again turn to Fig. 19Y, and compare it with 
 Fig. 292. 
 
 FIG. 292. 
 
 Apex. 
 
 Obtain the ripe fruit of IRIS [flower de luce], and 
 compare it with the pictures ? Is it a dehiscent or 
 indehiscent fruit ? Can you find sutures at which the 
 carpels open ? What do you call the suture at which 
 the seeds are attached ? "What do you call the line 
 in the outer wall of each carpel, opposite the ventral 
 suture ? 
 
 BASE. The bottom of the ovary. The end at- 
 tached to the peduncle. Figs. 292, 293. 
 
 A'PEX. The top of the ovary. Fig. 292. 
 
 DISSIP'IMENTS. The partitions between the cells 
 of syncarpous [carpels united] ovaries. Fig. 293. 
 
182 
 
 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 FIG. 293. 
 
 Pariet9S. 
 
 PARI'ETES. The wall of the ovary. Fig. 293. 
 Ax'is. The central part of the ovary where the 
 ventral sutures join together. , Fig. 293. 
 
 EXERCISE LXIX. 
 Parts of Carpels* 
 
 FIG. 294. 
 
 / 
 
 VALVES. The parts into which carpels separate 
 by dehiscence. Fig. 294. 
 
 PLACEN'TA. The cord along the ventral suture, to 
 which the ovules are attached. It is the "string" 
 that pulls off in preparing string-beans for the table. 
 pi, Fig. 294 
 
FRUIT. 183 
 
 Find the placenta in full grown bean and pea- 
 pods. Find it in little ones where you can just see 
 the ovules. Observe the little stem by which the 
 ovules and seeds are attached to the placenta. By 
 what name is it known ? 
 
 Answer. It is called the FUNIC'ULUS. 
 
 QUESTIONS UPON ANY OVARY. 
 Is it dehiscent or indehiscent ? 
 
 IF DEHISCENT 
 
 How many carpels compose it? 
 
 Are the carpels grown together ? 
 
 Point out the sutures ? 
 
 "Which is dorsal and which ventral ? 
 
 Find the valves. The placenta. The funiculus. 
 
 IF INDEHISCENT 
 
 Can you count the carpels ? 
 Look for the ovules or seeds. 
 Point to the funiculus. The placenta. 
 Point out the base of the ovary. The apex. The 
 axis. The parietes. The dissipiments. 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 THE ACTIONS OF PLANTS 
 
 EXERCISE LXX. 
 Root-action and Leaf-action. 
 
 FIG. 295. 
 
 COVER a tumbler with a piece of card-board, cut 
 as seen in Fig. 296. Pull up by the roots a young 
 growing plant of any kind, and slip it root downward 
 into the hole made in the centre of the card-board. 
 Pour into the tumbler water enough to cover the 
 roots, and expose the leaves to sunshine. 
 
THE ACTIONS OF PLANTS. 
 FIG. 296. 
 
 185 
 
 Into another tumbler of water with a similar 
 cover put a second plant, leaves downward, as shown 
 in Fig. 297, and expose it to sunshine. 
 
 After a few hours, compare the two plants. How 
 has it fared with the one that had its roots in water ? 
 What is the appearance of the other ? 
 
 Let us now find, if we can, what was going on in 
 the plant that kept up its freshness. 
 
 Arrange a glass of water with a cover of slit card- 
 board as before. Place in it a plant, root downward, 
 and cover the leaves with a glass, as shown in Fig. 
 297. Let it stand for a time in the sunshine. In a 
 little while look at the inverted tumbler. What do 
 you see upon its inner surface ? Where did it come 
 from ? What had the roots to do with it ? 
 
186 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 FIG. 297. 
 
 Invert a tumbler in this way above the roots of a 
 plant placed as in Fig. 296. Do you, in this case, get 
 moisture on the inside of the inverted tumbler ? 
 Can you not make leaves do the work of roots? 
 
 Strip a plant of its leaves and place it under a 
 glass as in Fig. 297, with the roots in water. Place 
 it in the sun as before and see if any moisture gathers 
 upon the glass. 
 
 "What can be done by a plant with leaves, that 
 cannot be done by a plant without leaves ? What, 
 then, is one use of leaves ? 
 
THE ACTIONS OF PLANTS. 187 
 
 The action of the root in sucking up water is 
 named ABSORPTION. 
 
 The action of leaves in giving off water is called 
 
 TRANSPIRATION. 
 
 The roots absorb. The leaves transpire. 
 
 There are two more words that these experiments 
 illustrate. The first of these is the word ORGAN. An 
 organ is any part of a plant or animal that does a 
 particular kind of work different from that done by 
 other parts. 
 
 Is the root an organ ? "What do your legs do that 
 no other part of your body can do ? ATP, they organs ? 
 Is your tongue an organ ? Are leaves organs ? 
 
 The other word to be explained is FUNCTION. Or- 
 gans have functions. The function of an organ is 
 what it .does. What is the function of your eye ? 
 What is the function of a bird's wings ? What func- 
 tion of roots have you discovered by your experiments ? 
 What is one of the functions of leaves ? 
 
 Remember that the particular work any organ 
 does is its FUNCTION. 
 
LEAF SCHEDULES. 
 
 SCHEDULE ONE. 
 See Page 19, Exercises Z, 7Z, J/Z, /F., and V. 
 
 Parts? 
 
 
 Venation ? 
 
 
 SCHEDULE Two. 
 &*? Pa^e 27, Exercise VI. 
 
 Parts? 
 
 
 Venation ? 
 
 
 Margin ? 
 
 
 SCHEDULE THEEE. 
 See Page 30, Exercise VII. 
 
 Parts 2 
 
 
 Venation ? 
 
 
 Margin ? 
 
 
 Base? 
 
 
LEAF SCHEDULES. 
 
 SCHEDULE FOUE. 
 See Page 32, Exercise VIII. 
 
 189 
 
 Parts? 
 
 
 Venation ? 
 
 
 Margin ? 
 
 
 Base? 
 
 
 Apex? 
 
 
 SCHEDULE FIVE. 
 See Page 34, Exercise IX. 
 
 Parts? 
 
 
 Yenation ? 
 
 
 Margin ? 
 
 
 Base? 
 
 
 Apex? 
 
 . 
 
 Lobes ? 
 
 
190 
 
 LEAF SCHEDULES. 
 
 SCHEDULE Six. 
 See Page 36, Exercise X. 
 
 Parts ? 
 
 
 Venation ? 
 
 
 Margin ? 
 
 
 Base? 
 
 
 Apex? 
 
 
 Lobes ? 
 
 
 Sinuses ? 
 
 
 SCHEDULE SEVEN. 
 Page 38, Exercises XL and XII. 
 
 Kind? 
 
 
 Venation ? 
 
 
 Margin ? 
 
 
 Base? 
 
 
LEAF SCHEDULES. 
 SCHEDULE SEVEX. ( Continued.) 
 
 191 
 
 Apex? 
 
 
 Lobes ? 
 
 
 Sinuses ? 
 
 
 Shape ? 
 
 
 SCHEDFLE EIGHT. 
 See Page 44, Exercises XIII. and XIV. 
 
 Kind? 
 
 
 Yenation ? 
 
 
 Margin ? 
 
 
 Base? 
 
 
 Apex? 
 
 
 Lobes? 
 
 
 Sinuses ? 
 
 
 
 Shape ? 
 
 
192 
 
 LEAF SCHEDULES. 
 
 SCHEDULE EIGHT. (Continued.} 
 
 Petiole ? 
 
 
 Color? 
 
 
 Surface? 
 
 
 SCHEDULE NINE. 
 See Page 50, Exercise XV. 
 
 Parts? 
 
 
 
 No. of Leaflets? 
 
 
 SCHEDULE TEN. 
 
 61, Exercise XVI. 
 
 Parts ? 
 
 
 No. of Leaflets ? 
 
 
 Kind? 
 
 
 
STEM SCHEDULES. 
 
 SCHEDULE ELEYEN. 
 Page 56, Exercises XVII. and XVIII. 
 
 193 
 
 Parts? 
 
 
 No. Leaflets ? 
 
 
 Kind? 
 
 
 Variety ? 
 
 
 STEM SCHEDULES. 
 
 SCHEDULE TWELVE. 
 See Page 63, Exercises XXL and XXII. 
 
 Parts? 
 
 
 Appendages ? 
 
 
 LEAF. 
 
194 
 
 STEM SCHEDULES. 
 
 SCHEDULE THIRTEEN. 
 See Page 65, Exercise XXIII. 
 
 ~ 
 
 Appendages ? 
 
 
 Leaf-position ? 
 
 
 LEAF. 
 
 SCHEDULE FIFTEEN. 
 See Page 68, Exercise XXIV. 
 
 Appendages ? 
 
 
 Leaf-position ? 
 
 
 Leaf-arrangement ? 
 
 
 LEAF. 
 
 SCHEDULE SIXTEEN. 
 See Page 70, Exercise XXV. 
 
 Appendages ? 
 
 
 Leaf-position ? 
 
 
 Leaf-arrangement ? 
 
 
 Shape ? 
 
 
 LEAF. 
 
STEM SCHEDULES. 
 
 195 
 
 SCHEDULE SEVENTEEN. 
 See Page 74, Exercise XXVI. 
 
 Appendages ? 
 
 
 Leaf-position ? 
 
 
 Leaf-arrangement ? 
 
 
 Shape? 
 
 
 Attitude? 
 
 
 LEAF. 
 
 SCHEDULE EIGHTEEN. 
 See Page 75, Exercise XXVII. 
 
 Appendages ? 
 
 
 Leaf-position ? 
 
 
 Leaf-arrangement ? 
 
 
 Shape? 
 
 
 Attitude ? 
 
 
 Color ? 
 
 
196 INFLORESCENCE SCHEDULES. 
 
 SCHEDULE EIGHTEEN. (Continued.) 
 
 Surface ? 
 
 1 
 
 Size? 
 
 
 Structure ? 
 
 
 LEAF. 
 
 lETLOEESCENCE SCHEDULES. 
 
 SCHEDULE EIGHTEEN. 
 See Page 81, Exercises XXVIIL, XXIX., and XXX. 
 
 Parts ? 
 
 
 Attitude ? 
 
 
 LEAP. 
 
 STEM. 
 
INFLORESCENCE SCHEDULES. 
 
 SCHEDULE NINETEEN. 
 See Page 86, Exercises XXXL and XXXII. 
 
 197 
 
 Parts? 
 
 
 Attitude? 
 
 
 Position ? 
 
 
 LEAF. 
 STEM. 
 
 SCHEDULE TWENTY. 
 See Page 89, Exercise XXXJJI. 
 
 Parts? 
 
 i 
 
 Attitude? 
 
 
 Position ? 
 
 
 Kind? 
 
 
 LEAF. 
 
 STEM. 
 
198 
 
 INFLORESCENCE SCHEDULES. 
 
 SCHEDULE TWENTY-ONE. 
 See Page 95, Exercise XXXIV. 
 
 Parts? 
 
 
 Attitude ? 
 
 
 Position ? 
 
 
 Kind? 
 
 
 Variety ? 
 
 
 LEAF. 
 STEM. 
 
FLO WEE SCHEDULES. ^99 
 
 FLOWER SCHEDULES. 
 
 SCHEDULE TWENTY-TWO. 
 See Page 98, Exercises XXXV., XXXVI., 
 
 XXXVII. 
 
 Names of Parts. 
 
 No. 
 
 
 Calyx? 
 
 
 
 Corolla ? 
 
 
 
 LEAF. 
 STEM. 
 INFLORESCENCE. 
 
 SCHEDULE TWENTY-THBEE. 
 See Page 98, Exercises XXXV., XXXVI., and XXXVH. 
 
 Names of Parts. 
 
 No. 
 
 
 Perianth? 
 
 
 
 LEAF. 
 STEM. 
 INFLORESCENCE. 
 
200 
 
 FLOWER SCHEDULES. 
 
 SCHEDULE TWENTY-FOUB. 
 See Page 100, Exercises XXXVIII. and XXXIX. 
 
 Names of Parts. 
 
 No. 
 
 Description. 
 
 Calyx? 
 
 
 
 Corolla? 
 
 
 
 LEAF. 
 STEM. 
 INFLORESCENCE. 
 
 SCHEDULE TWENTY-FIVE. 
 See Page 102, Exercise XL. 
 
 Names of Parts. 
 
 No. 
 
 Description. 
 
 Calyx? 
 
 
 
 Corolla? 
 
 
 
 LEAF. 
 STEM. 
 INFLORESCENCE. 
 
FLOWER SCHEDULES. 
 
 201 
 
 SCHEDULE TWENTY-SIX. 
 See Page 102, Exercise XL. 
 
 Names of Parts. 
 
 No. 
 
 Description. 
 
 Perianth? 
 
 
 
 LEAF. 
 STEM. 
 INFLORESCENCE. 
 
 SCHEDULE 
 See Page 104, Exercise XLI. 
 
 Names of Parts. 
 
 No. 
 
 Description. 
 
 Calyx? 
 
 
 
 Corolla? 
 
 
 
 Stamens ? 
 
 
 
 LEAF. 
 
 STEM. 
 INFLORESCENCE. 
 
202 
 
 FLOWIK SCHEDULES. 
 
 SCHEDUIE TWENTY-EIGHT. 
 See Page 106, Exercises XLII. and XLIII. 
 
 Names of Parts. 
 
 No. 
 
 ~1 
 Description. 
 
 Calyx? 
 
 
 
 Corolla ? 
 
 
 
 Stamens ? 
 
 
 
 Pistil? 
 
 
 
 LEAF. 
 STEM. 
 INFLORESCENCE. 
 
 NOTE. This is the last form of schedule in the book. As 
 the pupil passes on from exercise to exercise, he will he en- 
 ahled to add one feature after another to his descriptions ; but 
 the mode of inserting these new points will not make any 
 change in the form of the schedule. 
 
OPINIONS CONCERNING 
 
 FIEST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 IT is bnt rarely that a school-book appears which is at once 
 so novel in plan, so successful in execution, and so suited to 
 the general want as to command universal and unqualified ap- 
 probation, but such has been the case with Miss Youmans's 
 First Book of Botany. Her work is an outgrowth of the most 
 reqent scientific views, and has been practically tested by care- 
 ful trial with juvenile classes, and it has been everywhere wel- 
 comed as a timely and invaluable contribution to the improve- 
 ment of primary education. We select the following out of the 
 mass of testimonials which have come to us from the highest 
 sources, and commend them to the attention of teachers, par- 
 ents, and boards of education : 
 
 From PBO*. JOHK S. HART, Principal of the Trenton Normal School. 
 
 This little book seems to me to supply the very thing needed in our con re e 
 of primary instruction. I refer not to the study of botany, but to the method 
 of studying it here developed. We have here a fourth fundamental branch of 
 Btudy, which shall afford a systematic training of the observing powers ; and 
 its general introduction into our primary schools would work a great and most 
 important revolution in our whole system of education. 
 
OPINIONS CONCERNING 
 
 From the Nation. 
 
 Natural history is about as well suited to be taught by a text-book as mo- 
 rality or religion. If a book must come into the business, it will be good in 
 proportion to its want of all the characters which belong to the class. Judged 
 by this standard, we must award the unpretending work of Miss Yonmann 
 high praise. The authoress has unquestionably the true conception of the duty 
 of the teacher. Every effort is made to keep the attention of the student upon 
 the object to be studied, and so well has she succeeded that one may safely say 
 that the student can do nothing with the book unless he has the specimen in 
 hand. The plan is so arranged as to be suitable for a primary school, but the 
 method is one which may apply to the college as well. We heartily recom. 
 mend every teacher in any department of natural science, who is wise enough 
 to doubt the perfection of his methods, to look over this book. 
 
 As an appendix, the authoress gives us her opinions on the educational 
 claims of botany. Although she assigns a high value to this study, it is not 
 a higher value than any teacher, who has had varied experience in teaching 
 natural history, must award to it. The proper road into the biological sci- 
 ences is certainly through the vegetable kingdom. The material is more ac- 
 cessible ; the forms are less influenced by vitality, and the problems are not 
 BO complicated ; and, in giving us this good guide for the student and better 
 guide for the teacher, Miss Youmans has earned the thanks of all those who 
 desire to see education what it should be. 
 
 From EDWARD SMITH, Superintendent of Schools, Syracuse, N. T. 
 
 Miss Youmans's Botany is the only work I have ever seen that meets the 
 wants of our schools in the lower grades. I believe it will do more to turn th 
 attention of instructors into the proper channel for the education of children 
 than any thing heretofore published. 
 
 From PBOI-. WM. F. PHBLPS, Principal of the Normal School, Winona, Minn. 
 
 I am delighted with this little work. It gives us a scientific plan for the de- 
 velopment of the observing powers of the young. Send us at once 150 copies 
 for the use of this institution. 
 
 After using it several weeks, Prof. Phelps thus closes an elaborate notice 
 of the book in the Winona Republican : 
 
 Every class in the institution is now devoting a regular portion of its 
 time, daily, to this study pursued in this practical way. The results thus far 
 are highly satisfactory. It has awakened a new interest in study throughout 
 the school. Many, who have heretofore been indifferent in their work, have 
 taken hold with great zeal, and are pursuing this fascinating branch with ardor 
 and enthusiasm. It is no uncommon spectacle, as we are informed, to see 
 children occupying their play-hours with a bunch of plants, and, book in hand, 
 pursuing this study as a pastime. This, surely, is an unerring test of ita 
 value, as it is the highest recommendation that could be given of its adaptation 
 to the wants of our primary schools. We heartily commend the book to pai 
 ents and teachers everywhere. 
 
THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 From D. C. SCOVILLB, Superintendent of Schools, Bay City, Mich. 
 
 Miss Youmans's Botany has been submitted to several of our teachers, and 
 we are a unit in the opinion that it ia the best book of the kind and degree yet 
 published. It promises to do what no other I know of can do enable teach- 
 ers in the junior and even the primary grades of our public schools to teach 
 botany in a scientific and systematic, yet simple and fascinating manner. 
 Another year you may be sure we shall call on you for a large number of these 
 books. 
 
 From WM. L. DICKINSON, Superintendent of Public Schools, Jersey City. 
 
 I shall recommend Miss Youmans's Botany as the best book of the present 
 age, in the science of botany, for beginners. 
 
 From the New York Tribune. 
 
 The strong point of Miss Youmans's book is that it combines methodical 
 object-study with the acquisition of an established branch of knowledge; and 
 we cordially recommend it to teachers as a valuable contribution to educational 
 progress in one of its most important aspects. 
 
 From REV. S. LOCKWOOD, Ph. D., Supt. of Pub. Inst., Monmoufh Co., N. J. 
 
 I have been anxiously looking for Miss Youmans's work with much hope, 
 but not without fear; for school-books are so often the evolvings of crotch- 
 ety egotists ; they promise so much and fulfil so little, that caution in regard 
 to promises is indispensable. But my best expectations of this little book have 
 been fairly met. An examination of it has begotten very positive convictions 
 as to its merit. I regard its method as the true initiative key to botanical 
 and zoological science. Bj' this I mean the mastery of the technical terms 
 and elementary facts on the skilful handling of which so much depends in 
 the correct determination of species. It is here that the usual teaching ia 
 loose, indistinct, and repulsive, and it is precisely here that the method of this 
 work is incisive and alive with interest. I am confident that the plan of 
 the late Prof. Henslow, here unfolded, will do the same for the observing fac- 
 ulties that mathematics accomplish for the reasoning powers. 
 
 From V. C. DOUGL&.S, Superintendent of Schools, Oswego, N. T. 
 
 I am very much pleased indeed with Miss Youmans's work, and beliere It 
 to be most admirably adapted to the wants of children and youth. 
 
 From W. A. HAMMOND, M. D., Professor of Diseases of the Mind and Nervout 
 System, Bettemte Hospital Medical College, New York. 
 
 This is the best manual of the kind I 'have ever seen, and it is the only true 
 method of teaching botany; it should be adopted in ail branches of natural 
 history. 
 
OPINIONS CONCERNING 
 
 From the New York World. 
 
 We hare seen no book of the kind for a long time which is so well calcu- 
 lated to be an aid to the teacher and a delight to pupils. 
 
 From War. C BOWEN, A. M., Principal of STcaneateles Academy. 
 
 Should I speak as strongly as my approbation of Miss Youmans's object 
 and method would warrant, I might be thought extravagant This book 
 should be introduced into every primary and common school, and into every 
 family, in the land. 
 
 From W. JOHNSON, Superintendent of Schools of the State of Maine, 
 
 As a text-book for beginners, Miss Toumans's work is almost faultless. 
 The arrangement and development seem to me most natural. 
 
 From the Galaxy. 
 
 Miss Toumans's elaborate essay cannot fail to attract the attention of 
 thoughtful teachers, as it not only goes to the root of educational questions, 
 but is an admirable example of lucid and forcible presentation. It is no 
 vague and aimless criticism of existing school methods. Nothing is easier 
 than to point out defects ; nothing harder than to remedy them. But the author- 
 ess not only shows what is lacking ; she offers what is wanting. She has de- 
 veloped a plan of botanical study in which there are no " lessons " to be learned, 
 but which carries the pupil straight to the living objects, and secures the con- 
 tinuous action of the mind upon them. MissYoumans has rendered a very 
 important service to elementary education in the preparation of her book. 
 
 From SAMUEL Q. Low, Superintendent of Schools, Jamestown, N. Y. 
 
 I am greatly pleased with this work. It is a wonder that some one did not 
 think to treat the subject of botany in the same way long before this. 
 
 From G. C. PIOKABD, Principal High School, Milwaukee, Wis. 
 
 Miss Youmans's Botany is a book long needed, and ought to come at once 
 into popular use and be made a text-book in all our primary schools. The 
 advantages of making botany a fourth study if not too many to be enumerated 
 are, it seems to me, too great to be measured. 
 
 From the Christian Union. 
 
 No greater service can be rendered to education than to rescue it from the 
 Btupefying routine of mere verbal acquisition by any method that will stimu- 
 late the curiosity, arouse inquiry, awaken observation, and provoke inde- 
 pendent thought. Miss Youmans has skilfully adapted her book to the at 
 
THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 La'.nment of these objects, and, In doing this, she has earned the cordial thanks 
 of all the best friends of education. 
 
 From the Kansas Educational Journal. 
 
 We have no hesitation in pronouncing this book much above the averaef 
 of " First Books " in science. It is the earnest desire of the author and to it 
 we add our own that botany be taught in public schools of all grades. It 
 is the science of all sciences for children. 
 
 From EDWAHD BROOKS, Prin. of the State Normal School, M&lersvitte, Pa. 
 
 The First Book of Botany is both a novelty and a success ; two things not 
 often contained in a text-book. 
 
 from the Ohio Educational Monthly. 
 
 Here at last is a manual for teachers presenting a simple and well-graded 
 course of oral instruction in botany. Its aim is to show the teacher how to 
 lead his pupils step by step to an elementary knowledge of plants, and to 
 this end the successive lessons are so fully sketched and illustrated that no 
 teacher with ordinary skill and energy need fail of success. 
 
 From the Journal of Applied Chemistry. 
 
 Miss Youmans's manual can be recommended as affording an admirable 
 foundation for the study of botany, and can be profitably used by parents ai 
 well as teachers. 
 
 From the Independent. 
 Miss Youmans is on the right track, and her work is admirably done. 
 
 From the Ohio Farmer. 
 
 This is not a great book nor upon a new subject, but it is a very important 
 Improvement in the way of teaching botany. 
 
 From J. H. HOOSE, Superintendent State Normal School, Cortiand, N. T. 
 
 I have pleasure in recommending the extensive introduction of Miss You 
 mans's book into the schools of the country. I think it superior to any ele 
 mentary work upon this subject that has previously come under my observa 
 lion. 
 
 From M. A. MACDONAIJ>, Principal of the Locust VaUey, L. /., Public School, 
 I have been at some pains to give this book, and especially the system em 
 
OPINIONS CONCERNING THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 
 ployed in the work, a careful study ; and have no hesitation in giving both 
 my unqualified preference to every thing I have seen on the subject elsewhere 
 
 From E. A. APGAB, Superintendent of Pub. Inst. in New Jersey. 
 
 This is just the book I would desire to put into the hands of all children 
 commencing botany. 
 
 From MBS. BBTAN, Principal of the Female Seminary at Batavia. 
 
 Nothing better can be said of Miss Youmans's fresh and well-arranged 
 book, than that it is exactly what was wanted. This is the opinion I formed 
 upon its first examination, and which has been confirmed by its use in our 
 institution. 
 
 From C. G. COLLINS, Supt. Pub. Schools, Wilkesbarre, Pa. 
 Miss Youmans's little book must accomplish much in our schools. 
 
 From the Sisters of the Sacred Heart. 
 
 As a text-book for classes, we consider Miss Youmans's book the best that 
 we have seen. 
 
 THE 
 
 FIRST BOOK OF BOTANI: 
 
 DESIGNED TO 
 
 CULTIVATE THE OBSERVING POWERS OF CHILDREN. 
 BY ELIZA A. YOUMANS. 
 Price, $1. 
 
 Specimen copy of the work will be mailed, post-paid, to Teachers, 
 Professors, and School-Officers, on receipt of one-half the retail price. 
 
 Communications from School-Officers and Teachers are respectfully 
 invited. 
 
 D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, 
 
 549 & 551 Broadway, New York. 
 
Appletons' Standard Scientific Text-Books, 
 
 Youmans's First Book of Botany. Designed to cultivate the Observing 
 
 Powers of Children. By ELIZA A. YOUMANS. i2mo. 183 pages. $1.00. 
 This little book has proved a wonderful success, and is emphatically a step in the 
 right direction. Although it has been issued but a short time, it has been adopted for 
 use in the cities of Chicago, St. Louis, New York, Columbus, Nashville, Milwaukee, 
 etc., etc., and in the States of Maryland, Illinois, and Arkansas. It is to be speedily 
 followed by the Second Book of Botany and six large and beautifully-colored Botanical 
 Charts, after the plan of Henslow. 
 
 Hon. Superintendent Bateman, of Illinois, says: "As a sample of the true method 
 of teaching the elements of science in primary schools, Miss Youmans's book is deserv- 
 ing of the highest praise. In this respect I have seen nothing equal to it. The same 
 method, pursued in all the natural sciences, would soon give us a generation of accu- 
 rate and intelligent young observers of natural objects and phenomena, and change for 
 the better the whole tone and character of common-school instruction. 
 
 "NEWTON BATEMAN, Sup' t Public Instruction" 
 
 IiOckyer's Astronomy, accompanied with numerous Illustrations, a Colored 
 epresentation of the Solar, Stellar, and Nebular Spectra, and Celestial Charts of 
 the Northern and the Southern Hemispheres. American Edition, revised and 
 specially adapted to the Schools of the United States. i2mo. 312 pages. 
 Quackenbos's Natural Philosophy. Revised Edition. Embracing the 
 most recent Discoveries in the various Branches of Physics, and exhibiting the 
 Application of Scientific Principles in Every-day Life. Adapted to use with or 
 without Apparatus, and accompanied with Practical Exercises and numerous Illus- 
 trations. i2mo. 450 pages. 
 
 Quackenbos's Philosophy has long been a favorite Text-Book. To those who have 
 used it, no words of commendatin are necessary ; to those who have not, we would 
 earnestly suggest a careful examination of its claims. We would here merely say that 
 it has recently been THOROUGHLY REVISED, in view of recent discoveries in Physics, 
 and the general acceptance of new theories respecting Heat, Light, and Electricity, 
 the Correlation and Conservation of Forces, etc. The present Edition is in all respects 
 an accurate exponent of the present state of science. 
 
 Huxley and Youmans's Physiology. The Elements of Physiology and 
 Hygiene. A Text-Book for Educational Institutions. By THOMAS H. HUXLEY, 
 F. R. S., and WILLIAM JAY YOUMANS, M. D. i2mo. 420 pages. 
 
 Nicholson's Text-Book of Geology. Well condensed, accurate, and clear. 
 
 i2mo. 266 pages. 
 
 Nicholson's Text-Book of Zoology. A comprehensive Manual for the use 
 of Academies and Colleges. By Prof. NICHOLSON, of Toronto. iamo. 353 pages. 
 
 Wragre's German Grammar: based on the Natural Method Language be- 
 fore Grammar. Teaches German rapidly, pleasantly, and thoroughly. i2mo. 
 350 pages. 
 
 Krusi's New Series of Drawing-Books : Teacher's Manual, and Synthetic 
 Series of Inventive Drawing (4 Nos.), now ready. Something new and excellent 
 one of the most valuable and efficient of educational agencies. 
 
 Send, for Catalogues and further information, to 
 
 D. APPLETON & CO., 549 & 551 Broadway, N. Y. 
 
D. APPLE TON & CO: 8 PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 Cornell's Physical Geography: 
 
 ACCOMPANIED WITH NINETEEN PAGES OF MAPS, A GREAT VARIETY OF MAP 
 
 QUESTIONS, AND ONE HUNDRED AND THIRTY DIAGRAMS AND 
 
 PICTORIAL ILLUSTRATIONS ; AND EMBRACING A 
 
 DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE 
 
 Physical Features of the United States* 
 
 By s. s. CORNELL. 
 
 1 vol. Large 4to. 104 pages. 
 
 The attention of teachers is particularly requested to this new volume 
 by the Author of Cornell's popular Series of Geographies, in the belief 
 that it will be found to embrace all that is valuable and interesting in 
 this important branch of study, and to be, beyond competition, the best 
 text-book on the subject. It is no mere rehash of time-honored details, but 
 has been drawn from original sources, and is on a level with the present 
 advanced state of the science. Clearness, adaptation to the school-room, 
 inductiveness of arrangement, and the presentation of one thing at a 
 time and every thing in its proper place features which have contrib- 
 uted so largely to the success of the other Geographies of the CORNELL 
 Series are among its striking characteristics. 
 
 It is interesting to the learner. The dry statistical style usual in 
 similar text-books has been avoided, and the great wonders of Nature, 
 always fascinating to the inquiring mind, are presented in the most strik- 
 ing manner, so as to rivet the attention and impress the memory. 
 
 The illustrations are numerous and beautiful, and are used wherever 
 it was thought they would help to elucidate the text. Maps and diagrams 
 have been liberally introduced. The maps are executed in the finest 
 style of the art carefully drawn, distinctly engraved, and tastefully col- 
 ored according to the most approved style. Each map is accompanied 
 with questions in great variety. 
 
 The physical features of our own country receive particular attention 
 in a closing chapter. The student is aided by a fine Physical Map of the 
 United States, which (hi addition to the features usually presented) shows 
 the mean annual temperature of diiferent parts of the country, the vege- 
 table products of different sections, and their mineral resources, the rela- 
 tive values of the precious metals produced in the several States being 
 clearly represented to the eye by an ingenious plan. A Map of Alaska, 
 on a comparatively large scale, is also presented. 
 
 It is believed that the above features, besides others which there ie 
 no space here to enumerate, cannot fail to recommend this work to all. 
 
D. Appleton d: Co., New York, have now ready, 
 
 A NEW 
 
 CLASS-BOOK OF CHEMISTRY, 
 
 IN WHICH 
 
 THE LATEST FACTS AND PRINCIPLES OF THE SCIENCE ARE 
 
 EXPLAINED AND APPLIED TO THE ARTS OF LIFE 
 
 AND THE PHENOMENA OF NATURE. 
 
 A NEW EDITION, 
 
 ENTIBELY BEWBITTEN AND MUCH ENLABGED. 
 
 WITH 
 
 nb m Draftings. 
 
 BY EDWARD L. YOUMANB, M.D. 
 
 12mo. 460 pages. 
 
 The special attention of Educators is solicited to this work, on the fol- 
 lowing grounds : 
 
 I. It brings up the science to the present date, incorporating the new discov- 
 eries, the corrected views and more comprehensive principles which have resulted 
 from recent inquiry. Among these may be mentioned the discoveries in Spectrum 
 Analysis, the doctrines of the Conservation and Correlation of Forces, the researches 
 of Berthelot on the Artificial Production of Organic Substances, the interesting re- 
 searches of Graham on the Crystalloid and Colloid condition of matter, with many 
 other results of recent investigation not found in contemporary text-books. 
 
 II. Avoiding excess of technicalities, it presents the subject in a lucid, forcible, 
 and attractive style. 
 
 III. It is profusely illustrated with cuts of objects, apparatus, and experiments, 
 \vhic-h enable the student to pursue the subject alone or in schools without ap- 
 paratus. 
 
 IV. Directions for experimental operations are much condensed, and descrip- 
 tions of unimportant chemical substances are made very brief, or altogether omit- 
 ted, thus obtaining space to treat with unusual fulness the " chemistry of common 
 Hie," and the later revelations of this beautiful science. 
 
 V. It presents just such a view of the leading principles and more important 
 facts of the science as is demanded for the purposes of general education. 
 
 VI. The work is arranged upon a natural method, the topics being so presented 
 as to unfold the true order of Nature's activities. Part 1 treats of the natural 
 forces by which matter is transformed. Part II, of the application of these forces 
 to the lower or mineral world. Part III, of the organic kingdom, which rises out 
 of the preceding ; while Part IV, or Physiological Chemistry, completes the scheme 
 in the world of life. 
 
 VII. It presents the science not only as a branch but as a means of education 
 a valuable instrument of intellectual culture and discipline. 
 
 VIII. It gives a clear exposition of the origin and nature of scientific knowl- 
 edge and the value of scientific studies for purposes of education. 
 
 -4 Specimen Copy for examination will be sent, post paid, on 
 receipt of 62 cents. 
 
D. APPLETON & COSS PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 Quackenbos's Standard Text-Books : 
 
 AN ENGLISH GRAMMAR : 12mo, 288 pages. 
 
 FIRST BOOK IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR : 16mo, 120 pages. 
 
 ADVANCED COURSE OF COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC: 
 12mo, 450 pages. 
 
 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION : 12mo, 182 pages. 
 
 ILLUSTRATED SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES: 
 12mo, 638 pages. 
 
 ELEMENTARY HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES: Beauti- 
 fully illustratad with Engravings and Maps. 12mo, 230 pages. 
 
 A NATURAL PHILOSOPHY: Just Revised. 12mo, 450 pages. 
 
 APPLETONS' ARITHMETICAL SERIES : Consisting of a Primary, 
 Elementary, Practical, Higher, and Mental Arithmetic. 
 
 Benj. Wilcox, A. M., Princ. Eiver Falls Acad., "Wis.: "I have taught in semi* 
 naries in this State and hi New York for more than twenty years, and am familiar with 
 most of the works that have been issued by different authors within that period ; and I 
 consider Quackenbos's Text-Books the most unexceptional hi then- respective depart- 
 ments." C. B. Tillinghast, Princ. of Academy, Moosop, Conn.: "I think Quack- 
 enbos's books the nearest perfection of any I have examined on the various subjects 
 of which they treat" 
 
 Pres. Savag-e, Female College, Millersburg, Ky. : " Mr. Q. certainly possesses rare 
 qualifications as an author of school-books. His United States History has no equal, 
 and his Ehetoric is really indispensable."" David Y. Shan't), Pres. Teachers 1 Inst, 
 Fogelsville, Pa. : " I approve of all the Text-Books written by Mr. Quackenbos." Eev. 
 Dr. Winslow, K T., Author of "Intellectual Pkilosophy:" "All the works of this 
 excellent author are characterized by clearness, accuracy, thoroughness, and complete- 
 ness; also by a gradual and continuous development of ulterior results from their pre- 
 viously taught elements." 
 
 Eev. Dr. Rivers, Pres. Wesleyan University: "I cordially approve of all the Text- 
 Books edited by G. P. Quackenbos." W. B. McCrate, Princ. Acad., E. SuUivan, 
 Me. : " Quackenbos's books need only to be known to be used in all the schools in the 
 State. Wherever they are introduced, they are universally UkecC'JsiS. B. Rue, 
 County Supt. of Schools, Council Bluffs, Iowa: "Any thing that has Quackenbcm'i 
 name is sufficient guarantee* with me." Methodist Quarterly Review, Jan. 
 1860: "Every thing we have noticed from Mr. Quackenbos shows that the making of 
 bookb of this class is his proper vocation." 
 
 Single copies of the above Standard works will be mailed, post-paid, for 
 examination, on receipt of one-half the retail prices. Liberal terms made 
 for introduction. Address 
 
 D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, 
 
 649 & 551 Broadway, New York. 
 
RETURN / 
 
 TO *> <fZ> ;: Ps-i/aA 
 
 LOAN PERIOD 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS 
 
 DUE AS STAMPED BELOW 
 
 DUENRLF JAN1 
 
 71986 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY 
 FORM NO. DDO, 5m, 12/80 BERKELEY, CA 94720 
 
yp 
 ' C 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY