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 University In Press. 
 
IRRIGATION 
 
 IN THE UNITE*) .STATES 
 
 E*) ^T 
 
 w 
 
 BY 
 
 FREDERICK HAYNES NEWELL 
 
 HYDRAULIC ENGINEER AND CHIEF OF THE DIVISION OF HYDROGRAPHY OF THE 
 UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY; MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN 
 SOCIETY OK CIVIL ENGINEERS; EXPERT ON IRRIGATION FOR 
 THE ELEVENTH AND TWELFTH UNITED STATES CEN- 
 SUSES; SECRETARY OF THE AMERICAN FORESTRY 
 ASSOCIATION, ETC. 
 
 The forest and water problems are perhaps the most vital 
 internal questions of the United States. 
 
 ROOSEVELT 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 THOMAS Y. CROWELL & CO. 
 PUBLISHERS 
 
AGRICULTURE 
 GIFT 
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1902, 
 BY THOMAS Y. CROWELL & CO. 
 
 Published February, 1902. 
 
f 
 
 XL, 
 
 Co 
 JOHN WESLEY POWELL 
 
 THE PIONEER ix SCIENTIFIC CONQUEST OF THE ARID 
 
 LANDS OF THE NATIONAL DOMAIN 
 
 989 
 
There is no one question now before the people of the 
 United States of greater importance than the conservation 
 of the water supply and the reclamation of the arid lands 
 of the West, and their settlement by men who will actu- 
 ally build homes and create communities. 
 
 ETHAN ALLEN HITCHCOCK. 
 
 Throughout our history the success of the home-maker 
 has been but another name for the upbuilding of the 
 
 nation. 
 
 THEODORE ROOSEVELT. 
 
 Stability of national character goes with foothold on 
 the soil. 
 
 DAVID STARR JORDAN. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 IRRIGATION as it is related to the utilization of 
 some of the great untouched resources of the 
 United States is here discussed, and especial at- 
 tention is devoted to the opportunities for making 
 homes upon the vast extent of vacant public lands 
 now waste and desolate. A somewhat elementary 
 and popular description of irrigation and of the 
 devices for obtaining and distributing water is 
 given, including details of interest to persons who 
 are beginning to give attention to the subject. 
 More space is devoted to the crude, but effective, 
 home-made contrivances than to the elaborate or 
 expensive machinery purchased from manufac- 
 turers, for the success of irrigation depends most 
 largely upon the rough-and-ready ingenuity of the 
 first settlers in a new country in adapting their 
 ways to the environment. 
 
 The writer has been continuously engaged for 
 the last twelve years in conducting investigations 
 of the extent to which the arid regions can be 
 reclaimed by irrigation, ascertaining the cost and 
 capacity of reservoirs, measuring the flow of rivers 
 useful for power, irrigation, and other industrial 
 
vi PREFACE. 
 
 purposes, and mapping the artesian or under- 
 ground waters. The attempt is here made to 
 bring together, in as non-technical a manner as 
 possible, the results of this study and experience. 
 
 Acknowledgment is due to the Director of the 
 United States Geological Survey, Hon. Charles D. 
 Walcott, for his interest in the matter and for per- 
 mission to use illustrations and data from the files 
 of the office, and to numerous friends and co- 
 workers in the Survey who have generously aided 
 in many ways. Especial recognition should be 
 given to Major John Wesley Powell, the former 
 Director, to whose foresight and energy is due the 
 inauguration, in 1888, of the investigation by the 
 Geological Survey of the extent to which the arid 
 lands can be reclaimed by irrigation. 
 
 Thanks for material and assistance are given to 
 Mr. Herbert M. Wilson, the author of the "Manual 
 of Irrigation Engineering," of "Irrigation in India." 
 etc.; to Mr. Arthur P. Davis, hydrographer for the 
 Geological Survey and also for the Nicaragua and 
 Isthmian Canal Commissions ; to Mr. J. B. Lippin- 
 cott and to Mr. A. L. Fellows, irrigation experts 
 respectively for California and Colorado; to Mr. 
 George H. Maxwell, of The National Irrigation 
 Association; to Professor F. H. King, author of 
 "Irrigation and Drainage"; to Mr. James I). 
 Schuyler, author of "Reservoirs for Irrigation"; 
 and to various writers on water supply and arte- 
 conditions, particularly to Professor Israel C. 
 
PREFACE. vii 
 
 Russell, Mr. N. H. Darton, Professor T. C. Cham- 
 berlin, Professor Samuel Fortier, Professor E. C. 
 Murphy, Mr. Frank Leverett, Professor E. H. 
 Barbour, Professor Alfred C. Lane, Professor J. E. 
 Todd, Professor Thomas U. Taylor, and Mr. George 
 Otis Smith, all being connected to a greater or 
 less degree with the investigation of the water 
 resources of the United States. 
 
 Mention should also be made of various books 
 which have been consulted : " The Conquest of 
 Arid America," by William E. Smythe ; " Irriga- 
 tion Farming," by Lute Wilcox ; "The Nation as 
 a Landowner," by J. D. Whelpley, and pamphlets 
 and reports by C. E. Grunsky, Marsden Manson, 
 Elvvood Mead, Clarence T. Johnston, E. J. Wick- 
 son, B. C. Buffum, J. C. Ulrich, R. H. Forbes, 
 E. B. Voorhees, and others. 
 
 The literature on irrigation is now so extensive 
 that few persons can claim to have more than a 
 general knowledge of it. Free use has been made 
 of all available sources of information, but no 
 attempt has been made to assign credit for any 
 particular item of information or illustration. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 PREFACE . v 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 RECLAMATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS i 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE ARID REGIONS 13 
 
 Precipitation 16 
 
 Forests 27 
 
 Grazing Lands 36 
 
 Cultivated Lands 49 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 SURFACE WATERS 57 
 
 Periodic Fluctuation 62 
 
 Seepage 72 
 
 Importance of Stream Measurements .... 79 
 
 Methods of Stream Measurement 82 
 
 Floats 86 
 
 Current Meters 89 
 
 Weirs 97 
 
 ix 
 
X CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 PAGE 
 CN\T.YIN<; AND DIVIDING. STREAM WATERS . . . IO2 
 
 Inversion from the Stream 102 
 
 Distribution of Flow 108 
 
 Dams and Head Gates 115 
 
 Measuring Devices or Modules . . . . .120 
 
 Flumes and Wooden Pipes 1 34 
 
 Tunnels . . . . . . . . . .138 
 
 Lining of Canals 139 
 
 Erosion and Sedimentation in Canals . . . .141 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 RESERVOIRS 149 
 
 Requirements for Water Storage . ... 150 
 Keeping Reservoirs Clean . . . . . .156 
 
 Masonry Dams . . 159 
 
 Rock-filled Dams 162 
 
 Earth Dams 166 
 
 Hydraulic Dams 170 
 
 Stored Waters 173 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 METHODS OF IRRIGATION 179 
 
 Flooding in Checks 185 
 
 Watering by Furrows 193 
 
 Wild Flooding 199 
 
 Orchards and Vineyards 202 
 
 Subirrigation 207 
 
 Amount of Water applied . . . 212 
 
 Arrangement of Irrigated Farm . ... 220 
 
CONTENTS. xi 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 UNDERGROUND WATERS t 225 
 
 Return Waters 226 
 
 Underflow 229 
 
 Ordinary Wells . 241 
 
 Artesian Wells 246 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 PUMPING WATER 254 
 
 Pumping by Hand or Animal Power . . . .255 
 
 Use of Water-wheels .... . 258 
 
 Windmills 265 
 
 Steam and Gasolene 270 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF IRRIGATION , . 272 
 
 Sewage Irrigation ........ 275 
 
 Alkali 281 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 IRRIGATION LAW 286 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE ARID REGIONS . . 299 
 
 Arizona 304 
 
 California 312 
 
 Colorado 329 
 
 Idaho 333 
 
xii CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Montana 338 
 
 Nevada 341 
 
 New Mexico 346 
 
 Oregon 350 
 
 Utah 353 
 
 Washington 358 
 
 Wyoming 361 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 STATES OF THE SEMIARID REGION 364 
 
 Fluctuations in Water Supply 364 
 
 Artesian and Deep Wells 373 
 
 North Dakota and South Dakota 376 
 
 Nebraska . 377 
 
 Kansas 379 
 
 Oklahoma and Texas 380 
 
 CHAFFER XIII. 
 
 HI-MID RKC;IN.S .... .... 383 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 CONCLUSION 393 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 PLATES. 
 
 FACING PAGE 
 
 I. The isolated home on the wind-swept unirrigated 
 
 plain ......... 2 
 
 II. The home made possible by irrigation ... 6 
 
 III. Results of attempts to make homes on the public 
 
 lands without first providing methods of irrigation 14 
 
 IV. Results attained by irrigation 22 
 
 V. A, Forests partly destroyed. B, Cultivated fields re- 
 ceiving water from the partly forested mountains . 30 
 
 VI. Ay Young forest growth succeeding a fire. B, Sheep 
 
 grazing in the forests 44 
 
 VII. Cattle on the open range 56 
 
 VIII. A flood in Salt River, Arizona 62 
 
 IX. A, Seepage water appearing on land formerly dry 
 near Rincon, California. B, Dredge cutting canal 
 
 to receive seepage water 76 
 
 X. A, Electric current meter, conducting cord, and 
 battery. B, Method of using electric current 
 
 meter from suspended car 90 
 
 XI. A, Supports for suspended car. B, Method of using 
 
 meter from boat 94 
 
 XII. A, Weir on Genesee River, New York. B, Weir 
 
 on Cottonwood Creek, Utah .... 98 
 
 XIII. A, Digging a ditch from a river. B, The finished 
 
 ditch 106 
 
 XIV. Dredge cutting large canal of Central Irrigation 
 
 District, California no 
 
 XV. A, Head gates of canal. B, Timber regulator . 114 
 XVI. A, Regulating or measuring device near head of 
 
 canal. B, Distribution box on farmer's lateral . 120 
 
XIV 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 FACING PACK 
 
 XVII. A, Flume on rocky hillside. B, Flume across 
 
 earth in a sidehill cut 130 
 
 XVIII. Raising the trestles for a large flume . .132 
 XIX. Semicircular wooden flume .... 134 
 XX. A, Pipe under i6ofoot head, Santa Ana Canal, 
 California. By Old flume and redwood pipe 
 replacing it, Redlands Canal, California . .136 
 X X I. A, Tunnel on Turlock Canal, California. By Tun- 
 nel in earth on Crocker-Huffman Canal, Cali- 
 fornia 
 
 XXII. A, Semicircular flume in Santa Ana Canal, Cali- 
 fornia. By Cement lining of Santa Ana Canal, 
 California 
 
 XXIII. A, Drop in an Arizona canal. B, Check weir 
 
 and drop ....... 
 
 XXIV. Sweetwater Dam near San Diego, California 
 XXV. A, Lagrange Dam, nearly completed. B t La- 
 grange Dam with flood passing over crest and 
 spillways 
 
 XXVI. A, Dam at Austin, Texas, looking toward power 
 house. B t Portions of Austin Dam immedi- 
 ately after failure 162 
 
 XXVII. Ay Otay Dam, California, showing method of 
 protecting steel plates. B, Construction of 
 timber dam at Blue Lakes, California . .166 
 XXVIII. A, Building clam by hydraulic process at Santa 
 Fe, New Mexico, showing hydraulic giant in 
 use. B t Building dam by hydraulic process at 
 Santa Fe, New Mexico, showing outlet pipe . 1 70 
 
 XXIX. Excavating deep cut for canal by hydraulic 
 
 process 172 
 
 XXX. Skyline Canal diverting water across the moun- 
 tains 176 
 
 XXXI. Ay Field prepared in rectangular checks. B, Ir- 
 rigation by checks in San Joaquin Valley, 
 California .... 188 
 
 138 
 
 142 
 
 146 
 '54 
 
 158 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 xv 
 
 FACING PAGE 
 
 XXXII. A, Canvas dam in temporary ditch. B, Irrigat- 
 ing a young alfalfa field 194 
 
 XXXIII. Furrow irrigation of grove 198 
 
 XXXIV. A, Furrow irrigation of vines. B, Furrow irri- 
 
 gation of orchard 
 
 XXXV. Cement-lined distributing ditch .... 
 
 XXXVI. Cultivation after irrigation ..... 
 
 XXXVII. A, Weir measurements of Los Angeles River in 
 
 San Fernando Valley, California. J?, Results 
 
 of irrigation from rivers of Southern California 
 
 XXXVIII. A, Artesian well in Arizona. B, Artesian well 
 
 in Kansas 
 
 XXXIX. Outfit for drilling deep artesian wells . 
 
 XL. Well at Woonsocket, South Dakota, throwing a 
 three-inch stream to a height of ninety-seven 
 
 feet 
 
 XLI. Current wheels lifting water .... 
 XLII. A, Jumbo type of home-made windmills. 
 
 B, Battle-axe type of home-made windmills 
 XLIII. Windmill pumping into sod-lined reservoir 
 
 XLIV. The desert reclaimed 
 
 XLV. Sewage irrigation at Plainfield, New Jersey 
 XLVI. A, Sewage irrigation at Phoenix, Arizona. 
 
 , Sewage irrigation in England 
 XLVII. Irrigated vineyard near Phoenix, Arizona . 
 
 XLVIII. Drying apricots .310 
 
 XLIX. A, Irrigation of vineyard in San Joaquin Valley, 
 California. B, Irrigation of orchard in San 
 Joaquin Valley, California . . . .320 
 
 L. Redwood stave pipe, fifty-two inches in diameter, 
 crossing Warmsprings Canyon, near Redlands, 
 California ....... 
 
 LI. Irrigating a wheat field in Colorado . 
 LII. A, Twin Falls, Snake River, Idaho. B, Con- 
 structing a canal by means of a grader . 
 LIII. Wooden pipe line on Phyllis Canal, Idaho 
 LIV. Canyon of Snake River above Lewiston, Idaho . 
 
 202 
 206 
 216 
 
 236 
 
 246 
 
 248 
 
 252 
 260 
 
 266 
 270 
 
 274 
 278 
 
 282 
 34 
 
 326 
 332 
 
 334 
 336 
 
 338 
 
xvi ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 FACING PAGB 
 
 LV. Tunnel of Bear River Canal, Utah . . -354 
 LVI. Wheat-fields of Washington . . . . 358 
 I. VI I. ./, Sunnyside Canal, Washington. B, Fruit 
 
 orchard, Yakima Valley, Washington . . 362 
 LVI 1 1. A, Irrigation in South Dakota by use of water 
 from an artesian well. B, Stock-watering plant 
 
 on upland 37 
 
 I.IX. ./, Settler trying to cultivate without irrigation. 
 
 B, Water for irrigation provided by windmill . 374 
 LX. -/, Looking down North Flatte River from the 
 Nebraska-Wyoming line. B, Head gates of 
 Farmers and Merchants Irrigation Company 
 on I'latte River, near Co/ad, Nebraska . . 378 
 l.XI. I )utch windmill at Lawrence, Kansas .' . ;S-? 
 
 LXIl. ./, Clean sweep of the prairie lire. /.'. The car- 
 pet of grass on the high plains . . . 386 
 
 FIGURES, 
 
 PAGR 
 
 1. Map of vacant public lands 5 
 
 2. Map of humid, semiarid, and arid regions of the United 
 
 States 14 
 
 3. Map of humid and arid regions of the world . . 15 
 
 4. Mean monthly precipitation at twelve localities in western 
 
 United States 18 
 
 5. Types of monthly distribution of precipitation ... 20 
 ('. \nnualprecipitationatthreepointsinaridregions . 22 
 
 7. Map of mean annual rainfall 24 
 
 8. Map of mean annual run-off 25 
 
 9. Forests and woodlands of the West .... 32 
 
 10. Relative position of forest and Indian reservations . . "34 
 
 11. Approximate location and extent of the open range . 39 
 
 1 2. Map of dry farming 50 
 
 13. Comparison of cultivable and cultivated areas in belt of 
 
 states 52 
 
 14. Map of irrigated nnd irrigable lands .... 54 
 
 15. Larger river systems of the United States ... 60 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS. xvii 
 
 1 6. Diagram of daily discharge of Rio Grande at Embudo, 
 
 New Mexico, for 1896, 1897, an< ^ *&98 ... 65 
 
 17. Diagram of daily discharge of Susquehanna River at 
 
 Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, for 1896, 1897, an d 1898 . 68 
 
 1 8. Double or submerged floats ...... 88 
 
 19. Method of measuring river from car suspended from a 
 
 steel cable ......... 94 
 
 20. Section of flume, illustrating methods of measurement . 96 
 
 21. Ordinary weir in a small stream ..... 99 
 
 22. Diagram showing method of diverting a canal from a 
 
 river .......... 104 
 
 23. Levelling device for laying out ditches . . . .106 
 
 24. Map of ditches along a stream ..... 113 
 
 25. Plan of diversion works in river ..... 116 
 
 26. Brush dams of canals heading near each other . . 117 
 
 27. Plan of dam and regulator ...... 118 
 
 28. Details of small head gate ...... 119 
 
 29. Plan of device for dividing water ..... 121 
 
 30. Flume for measuring miner's inches . . . .125 
 
 31. Foote measuring box ....... 127 
 
 32. Methods of measuring miner's inch in ditch . . .128 
 
 33. Rectangular weir ........ 131 
 
 34. Trapezoidal or Cippoletti weir . . . . .132 
 
 35. Trapezoidal weir with self-recording device . . . 133 
 
 36. Vertical section of trestle and flume . . . .135 
 
 37. Siphon passage for canal ..... . 137 
 
 38. Section of cement-lined ditch with stop gate . . . 140 
 
 39. Cross-section of canal partly filled with sediment . . 144 
 
 40. Map of a reservoir . . . . . . . .153 
 
 41. Section of masonry dam at La Grange, California . . 160 
 
 42. Plan of dam at La Grange, California .... 161 
 
 43. Portion of earth reservoir showing outlet . . .168 
 
 44. Portion of earth reservoir showing inlet . . . .169 
 
 45. Section of reservoir bank showing outlet . . .169 
 
 46. Section of small distributing ditch . . . . . 183 
 
 47. Section of small raised ditch ...... 183 
 
 48. Sections and elevation of small flumes . . . .184 
 
xviii ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 49. Box for taking water from main ditch . . . .184 
 
 50. Details of construction of box for distributing \\ater . 186 
 
 51. Portion of field, divided by rectangular levees . . . 187 
 
 52. Application of water by the block system . . .188 
 
 53. Flooding in rectangular checks 190 
 
 54. Plan of irrigated garden divided into compartments or 
 
 checks 191 
 
 55. Checks on sloping land 193 
 
 56. Application of water by furrows 195 
 
 57. Water turned from furrow by a canvas dam . . .196 
 
 58. Canvas dam 197 
 
 59. Metal tappoons 198 
 
 60. Wooden tappoon provided with outlets . . ... 198 
 
 61. Metal tappoon with measuring gate . . . .198 
 
 62. Plan of wild flooding 200 
 
 63. Plan of distributing water on rolling lands . . . 201 
 
 64. Box for distributing water in an orchard .... 202 
 
 65. Outlet from side of small flume 203 
 
 66. Orchard irrigation by pools 204 
 
 67. Irrigation on slope with stepped flume .... 205 
 
 68. Pipes and hydrant for distributing water in an orchard . 208 
 
 69. Plan of subirrigating system 209 
 
 70. Section of small galvanized sheet-iron pipe . . .210 
 71 Plan of an irrigated farm 221 
 
 72. Rise of ground water following irrigation . . . 223 
 
 73. Diagram illustrating inflow and outflow of Ogden Valley, 
 
 Utah 228 
 
 74. Dam across a rocky canyon, cutting off the underflow . 234 
 
 75. Ordinary well curbing and windlass . . . . 244 
 
 76. Diagram illustrating evils of insufficient casing . . 245 
 
 77. Section of one side of an artesian basin .... 247 
 
 78. Section illustrating the thinning out of a porous water- 
 
 bearing bed 248 
 
 79. Geologic section from the Black Hills east across South 
 
 Dakota (western half) 250 
 
 80. Geologic section from the Black Hills east across South 
 
 Dakota (eastern half) 251 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS. xix 
 
 PAGE 
 
 81. The doon, or tilting trough 254 
 
 82. Series of shadoofs as used in Egypt .... 255 
 
 83. A mot, operated by oxen 256 
 
 84. Horse-power for lifting water . , . . . .257 
 
 85. Current wheel lifting water 258 
 
 86. Impulse water-wheel 260 
 
 87. Windmills pumping into earth reservoir .... 268 
 
 88. Channels and gates for sewage irrigation . . . 280 
 
 89. United States compared with foreign countries . . 301 
 
 90. Western United States compared with foreign countries . 303 
 
 91. California compared with the Atlantic States lying in the 
 
 same latitude 314 
 
 92. California compared with Old World countries lying in 
 
 the same latitude 315 
 
 93. Canal system from Kern River, California . . . 320 
 
 94. Ideal section of Columbia River lava .... 361 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 RECLAMATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS. 
 
 HOME-MAKING is the aim of this book ; the recla- 
 mation of places now waste and desolate and the 
 creation there of fruitful farms, each tilled by its 
 owner, is its object. The attainment of this end 
 is sought by directing attention to the resources 
 of our great unutilized domain, in the hope that, 
 through a more complete knowledge of these and 
 the methods of their utilization, vigorous and wise 
 action may supersede the present lax and improvi- 
 dent policy. 
 
 One-third of the whole United States, exclusive 
 of Alaska and outlying possessions, consists of 
 vacant public land. One of the greatest economic 
 questions before our people is that relating to the 
 utilization of this vast area, much of which has a 
 rich soil and under good management is capable of 
 sustaining a large population ; while, if neglected, 
 there will continue to be only widely separated 
 ranches and nomadic herdsmen. As the control 
 of the vacant public lands is now tending, these 
 areas are not being made available for the crea- 
 tion of the largest number of homes. 
 
2 IRRIGATION. 
 
 This matter is one not merely of local interest 
 to the West, but is of even greater concern to the 
 East, and to all who are dependent upon the manu- 
 facturing and transporting interests, as well as to 
 the farmers who supply all of these workers with 
 food. The widening of settlement in the West 
 means a rapidly increasing market for goods manu- 
 factured in the East and transported to the West. 
 With more people engaged in making the finished 
 articles and carrying them to the West, there comes 
 a larger and larger demand for agricultural prod- 
 ucts, especially those raised near the manufactur- 
 ing centres. In short, the prosperity of the whole 
 country follows the upbuilding of any considerable 
 portion. 
 
 The vacant public lands are for the most part 
 desert-like in character, and their utilization can 
 come about only through irrigation, or the arti- 
 ficial application of water to the soil, to supplement 
 the scanty rainfall or to supply its absence. In 
 a wider sense, irrigation is taken to include the 
 whole question of conservation and utilization of 
 water in the development of the arid regions, and 
 to embrace a discussion of features of social and 
 political importance arising from the reclamation 
 of the arid public domain. In the first instance, 
 irrigation is of greatest importance to the farmer 
 who is attempting to raise crops in a country of 
 deficient rainfall. He wishes to produce the most 
 profitable fruits or grains with the least expendi- 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE I. 
 
RECLAMATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS. 3 
 
 ture of time and energy. For him a discussion of 
 irrigation means a description of the methods of 
 applying water, the amount to be given to various 
 soils and to different crops, and the results obtained 
 by applying or withholding water at various periods 
 of plant life. In the second instance, irrigation is 
 of concern to all citizens of the United States, 
 since they are the great landowners, and as such 
 are interested to see that their lands are put to the 
 best uses ; it is their duty, as citizens, to guard 
 the public lands, the heritage of their children, 
 and prevent their falling into the hands of persons 
 who will treat them as speculative commodities. 
 
 It is from both these standpoints that the subject 
 is here discussed. It is unquestionably a duty of 
 the highest citizenship to enable a hundred homes 
 of independent farmers to exist, rather than one 
 or two great stock ranches, controlled by non- 
 residents, furnishing employment only to nomadic 
 herders. These alternatives and their results must 
 be borne in mind to appreciate properly the effect 
 of either neglect or forethought upon the future of 
 the country. 
 
 The mineral or substance which has the greatest 
 direct influence upon man, his health and indus- 
 tries, is water. Its quality, and especially its 
 quantity, directly affect his occupations. If there 
 is too much, the ground is marshy, malarial, and 
 unfit for cultivation ; if too little, the plants valuable 
 for food do not thrive. There is a narrow range 
 
4 IRRIGATION. 
 
 between excess and deficiency, and upon the nice 
 adjustment of the balance between moisture and 
 drought depends the existence of prosperous com- 
 munities. 
 
 Taking the world as a whole, the greater part of 
 the earth's surface is not utilized, even though the 
 climatic conditions as regards heat and cold are 
 favorable for occupation. The outer covering of 
 disintegrated rock and vegetal mould known as 
 the soil is suitable for the support of useful plants, 
 except in the one respect that of moisture. Most 
 plants require a certain continuous supply of water, 
 neither too much nor too little. In humid cli- 
 mates where the annual rainfall is fifty inches or 
 over, there are enormous areas so thoroughly 
 saturated with water that farm crops are not pos- 
 sible. The creation of homes here is dependent 
 upon ability to remove by drainage the excess of 
 water. In contrast to this there are in the arid 
 region still greater expanses of good soil where 
 the occasional rains are not sufficient to bring food 
 plants to maturity. 
 
 The location of the vacant public land is shown 
 on the accompanying diagram (Fig. i), which gives 
 the outline of the United States from the 9/th 
 meridian westerly to the Pacific coast. Texas is 
 excluded, as this state, entering the Union from 
 the condition of an independent republic, retained 
 control of its land. The black areas on the small 
 map indicate the lands which have passed out of 
 
VACANT PUBLIC LAND. 
 
 the possession of the general government. In the 
 eastern part it is seen that practically all of the 
 land has been disposed of. White spots appearing 
 in the black areas of western Kansas and Nebraska 
 
 J Forest reservations 
 
 =>.irod aod wagon grants ^^^Unds disposed of HHHI"* 
 
 FIG. i. Map of vacant public land. 
 
 indicate that there are still a few tracts left un- 
 touched. Near its centre the greater part of the 
 map is white, indicating that nearly all of the land 
 is under the control of Congress, the black spots 
 
6 IRRIGATION. 
 
 iii this area showing, usually in exaggerated form, 
 the relative position of lands taken by farmers or 
 stock men. Near the Pacific coast the area dis- 
 posed of again increases, including most of the 
 valleys. The area of the land surface of each 
 state and territory and the amount vacant in each, 
 also the extent of land held in forest, Indian, 
 military, and other reservations are shown in the 
 following table. 
 
 VACANT AND RESERVED AREAS IN I HI \\K>I'KKN PUBLIC 
 LAND STATES. 
 
 STATH OR TERRITORY. 
 
 Total Area. 
 
 V.u -ant. 
 
 
 Reserved. 
 
 . 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Per 
 cent. 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Arizona .... 
 California .... 
 Colorado .... 
 Idaho 
 
 72,268,800 
 99,827,200 
 66,332,800 
 
 C? ,Q4 C ,6OO 
 
 48,771,000 
 42,049,000 
 
 39, 1 1 6,000 
 
 42,475,000 
 
 6 7-5 
 42.. 
 59-o 
 78.7 
 
 18,285,000 
 16,064,000 
 5,694,000 
 I,747,OOO 
 
 Kansas 
 Montana .... 
 
 Nebraska .... 
 Nevada 
 
 52,288,000 
 92,998,400 
 49,177,600 
 
 7O 233 6oO 
 
 1,085,000 
 65,803,000 
 9,927,000 
 
 61,322 ooo 
 
 ' ' 
 
 2.1 
 70.8 
 20. 2 
 
 87.1 
 
 988,000 
 12,348,000 
 70,000 
 c.q83 OOO 
 
 New Mexico . . . 
 North Dakota . . 
 Oklahoma .... 
 Oregon ... 
 
 78,374,400 
 44,924,800 
 24,851,200 
 
 60. ? 1 8.4.00 
 
 55,589,000 
 16,956,000 
 4,654,000 
 
 3 3, 784,000 
 
 70.9 
 
 37-7 
 18.7 
 .8 
 
 6,385,000 
 ^3-70,000 
 
 ;.i5S,o<M> 
 ; ;<jo.ooe 
 
 South Dakota . . 
 Utah . 
 
 49,184,000 
 
 52,601 600 
 
 11,869,000 
 4.2 t;i6 ooo 
 
 24.1 
 808 
 
 ' '3,ooo 
 5 488000 
 
 Washington . . . 
 Wyoming .... 
 
 42,803,200 
 62,448,000 
 
 11,913,000 
 47,657,000 
 
 27.8 
 
 7o 
 
 10,765,000 
 
 ,5,000 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 972,777,600 
 
 535,486^)00 
 
 55-' 
 
 120,643,000 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE II. 
 
RAILROAD LAND GRANTS. 7 
 
 Stretching across the map are a number of bands 
 made up of lines crossing one another. These indi- 
 cate the size and position of the great railroad land 
 grants, within which every alternate section has 
 been given as bonus for the construction of trans- 
 continental lines of communication. These are, 
 from north to south : the Northern Pacific, the 
 Union Pacific to Ogden, the Central Pacific from 
 there to California, the Atlantic and Pacific, and 
 the Southern Pacific. In addition to these vast 
 grants of land are seen the narrower wagon-road 
 grants in the state of Oregon. Two classes of 
 reservations are indicated on the map, namely, 
 the lands held for Indians, and those set aside for 
 the preservation of the forests. The locations of 
 these are shown on the map, Fig. 10, p. 34. 
 The fact which it is desired to bring out at this 
 time is the enormous extent of the public land and 
 the way in which it is cut up by grants, reserva- 
 tions, and private holdings. 
 
 The public lands are open to entry and settle- 
 ment under what is known as the Homestead Law, 
 the intent of which is to provide homes especially 
 for that part of the population who are capable of 
 self-support, and who, having little or no capital 
 beyond their labor, are eager to make for them- 
 selves homes and to become landowning citizens. 
 It is not the purpose of the land laws to dispose of 
 the lands as rapidly as possible, but on the contrary 
 to serve as an outlet for the energy and labor of 
 
8 IRRIGATION. 
 
 the nation. This object is peculiarly important at 
 times of industrial depression when men seek work 
 in vain, and gladly avail themselves of the oppor- 
 tunities which in the past have been offered on the 
 public domain. The stability of the government 
 has been largely due to the fact that there has 
 always been this outlet for superfluous labor, and 
 opportunities for the making of homes. 
 
 Within the last decade, however, a great change 
 has gradually come about, and its effects are only 
 now being noticed. The original intent of the land 
 laws is not being accomplished as far as home- 
 steading is concerned, because the remaining public 
 lands, although of enormous extent as previously 
 stated, are for the most part within the arid region, 
 and crops cannot be produced until a water supply 
 has been obtained sufficient to moisten the soil 
 during the growing time. There is a considerable 
 amount of water which can thus be employed, but 
 the expense of utilizing it is too great for the 
 settler. The localities where water can easily be 
 diverted to the thirsty soil have already been taken 
 up by the pioneers. The larger works necessary 
 to take water to less accessible localities require 
 the investment of considerable sums of money, far 
 beyond the reach of the ordinary settler. 
 
 In the old days it was possible for a man with a 
 team and the ordinary farm tools to construct 
 ditches leading from the creeks flowing out of the 
 mountains, and to provide channels by which his 
 
RECTANGULAR SURVEYS. 9 
 
 farm could be irrigated. In this way he was able 
 to produce crops on the low lands along the rivers, 
 and to gradually extend the system of water supply 
 even to the adjacent terraces or bench lands. But 
 the later comers find that the small streams are 
 already fringed with farms, and the land lying be- 
 yond these, although sometimes better in quality, 
 cannot be reached without incurring great expense. 
 
 It is for the interest of the public at large and 
 the nation to have all of these good agricultural 
 lands utilized ; and the question arises, Who is to 
 make it possible for the settler to occupy them ? 
 This is a question which, if satisfactorily answered, 
 must be by the lawmakers of the nation, and for 
 this purpose they, as well as the thinking public, 
 should be in possession of the facts. 
 
 The laws governing the disposal of public lands 
 have been drawn almost wholly with reference to 
 the broad prairies and plains of the Mississippi 
 Valley, where the rainfall is sufficient for the 
 maturing of crops. Under the prevailing system 
 of dividing the land, surveys are made in such a 
 manner as to cut it into blocks as nearly square as 
 possible, lines being run north and south, east and 
 west, at intervals of six miles, enclosing areas of 
 approximately thirty-six square miles, known as 
 townships. Each side of the township is divided 
 into miles, and from these points are run cross lines 
 which subdivide the land into thirty-six sections, 
 each containing one square mile, or 640 acres. 
 
10 IRRIGATION. 
 
 These again are cut into quarter-sections, consist- 
 ing of 160 acres, and finally into fourths of a 
 quarter-section, consisting of 40 acres and com- 
 monly known as forties. The sections are num- 
 bered consecutively, beginning at the northeast 
 corner of the township, and- continuing westerly, 
 then easterly, and back and forth, ending in Sec- 
 tion thirty-six in the southeast corner. 
 
 These lines of rectangular survey are run 
 wholly without reference to natural features, such 
 as smaller streams, hills, and valleys. In the well- 
 watered, comparatively level country, such as the 
 Ohio and Mississippi valleys and the Great Plains, 
 this disregard of the natural features is unimportant 
 when compared with the desirability of having 
 simple and easily defined boundaries. Here, where 
 the rainfall is sufficient for the production of crops, 
 practically every quarter-section of the flat or gently 
 rolling country is as good as the next, there being 
 small difference of soil or of surface slopes. Each 
 farmer taking up a quarter-section is independent as 
 regards his method of cultivation, and can conduct 
 his operations in such manner as his experience may 
 dictate. In the vast arid regions, however, where 
 lie the greater part of the remaining public lands, 
 the value of the farm depends almost wholly upon 
 the question of water supply. The accessibility 
 and permanence of this far outweigh all other 
 considerations. The interests of each farmer are 
 closely allied with those of his neighbor, as all must 
 
WATER MONOPOLY. II 
 
 depend upon streams or sources of supply used 
 in common. Here independence must give way 
 to cooperation ; and while adjoining lands may be 
 equally good as regards soil, their value may be far 
 different, because water can be taken to one tract 
 while for the other none can be had. The man 
 who controls the water virtually owns everything 
 of value. This fact has not been sufficiently rec- 
 ognized in laws governing the disposal of the pub- 
 lic lands, and in many localities water monopoly 
 has resulted from the neglect of needed safeguards. 
 Title to a few hundred acres along watercourses has 
 virtually given possession to thousands of acres of 
 other land, preventing settlers from acquiring these 
 because they are shut off from access to the springs 
 or streams. In short, the creation of hundreds of 
 homes has been prevented by neglecting to protect 
 the right to the use of the scanty water supply. 
 
 Without going into details, it is sufficient to state 
 that the rectangular system of division of the public 
 lands, while one of the most beneficial measures 
 leading to the settlement of the Ohio and Missis- 
 sippi valleys, has been found to be detrimental to 
 the best growth of the western two-fifths of the 
 United States. This has arisen from lack of knowl- 
 edge by the public, the owners of the land, as to 
 the part which irrigation plays in the utilization of 
 the resources of the West. Attention has been 
 concentrated upon land titles, and great care has 
 been exercised in the survey and marking of boun- 
 
12 IRRIGATION. 
 
 daries and in recording the patents or deeds ; while 
 the water, which alone gives value, has hardly 
 been considered, and the rights to its use have 
 often been left to be adjusted largely by local or 
 temporary expedients. It would have been far 
 better, if one or the other of these items must have 
 been neglected, to have given first thought to the 
 water and secondary consideration to the land, sub- 
 dividing this with reference more to the possibility 
 of obtaining water than for convenience of survey. 
 To remedy this and bring about such a condition 
 that the remaining public lands may furnish the 
 greatest possible number of homes, is an object 
 worthy the sustained effort of enlightened and pa- 
 triotic citizens. To assemble the facts upon which 
 intelligent action can be based is a task to which 
 the best efforts of aspiring students or investiga- 
 tors may be directed. These facts pertain first of 
 all to the water supply and its limitations, since, in 
 a country where arid land is in excess, the agricul- 
 tural area is limited by the available water. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE ARID REGIONS. 
 
 THE arid regions of the United States include 
 about two-fifths of its entire area, and extend from 
 about the middle of the continent west nearly to 
 the Pacific Ocean. There are no sharply marked 
 lines or divisions between the arid and humid areas, 
 but intermediate, especially near the centre of the 
 United States, is a broad belt neither distinctly 
 arid nor humid, which has sometimes been called 
 the subhumid, or again the semiarid, region. This 
 belt extends over South and North Dakota, west- 
 ern Nebraska, and western Kansas into Oklahoma 
 and the " pan handle " of Texas. In some years 
 of excessive moisture the subhumid region creeps 
 up toward the foothills of the Rocky Mountains, 
 while, during the dry years, the greater part of the 
 plains region west of the Missouri becomes semi- 
 arid. 
 
 In a general way arid regions are taken as in- 
 cluding those of twenty or less inches of aver- 
 age annual rainfall ; thus, the arid regions of 
 the United States are but a portion of those of 
 
 13 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 North America, which embraces a considerable part 
 of Mexico on the south and of Canada on the 
 north. The relative extent of these regions of 
 humidity and of aridity can best be shown by a 
 small diagram (Fig. 2). 
 
 Modern civilization has developed largely in 
 humid regions, and we have thus come to regard 
 
 V -/* -'- '< * ' 
 
 m 
 
 FIG. 2. Map of humid, semiarid, and arid regions of the United States. 
 
 aridity as something exceptional ; as a matter of 
 fact, however, a great part of the countries of the 
 Old World have less than twenty inches of annual 
 rainfall, and according to our ideas must be con- 
 sidered as arid. The civilization of former times 
 grew up in these arid regions, and we cannot fully 
 appreciate the writings of the ancients and the true 
 meaning of many familiar phrases handed down 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE 
 
 RESULTS OF ATTEMPTS TO MAKE HOMES ON THE PUBLIC LANDS 
 WITHOUT FIRST PROVIDING METHODS OF IRRIGATION. 
 
ARID REGIONS OF THE WORLD. 15 
 
 to us without bearing in mind that theirs was an 
 arid region, where agriculture was successful only 
 through irrigation. 
 
 The small map (Fig. 3) illustrates the great 
 extent of aridity, and shows that the Mediterra- 
 nean countries, including Egypt, the seat of an- 
 cient civilization, are for the most part arid and 
 
 Fit;. 3. Map of humid and arid regions of the world [the humid 
 indicated by the black areas]. 
 
 desert-like in character. The dense foliage of the 
 forests of eastern United States and of Europe 
 and the verdant covering of turf so common in our 
 modern towns and villages were practically unknown 
 to the races who produced the sacred books of the 
 East ; and their constant reference to the life-giving 
 qualities of water furnishes innumerable instances 
 of the high esteem in which this was held. 
 
16 IRRIGATION. 
 
 PRECIPITATION. 
 
 Aridity, or rather the unequal distribution of 
 moisture, is largely the result of topography, or in- 
 equalities of land surface. If the earth were per- 
 fectly flat, it is probable that the winds, meeting 
 with no obstructions, would distribute the rains with 
 considerable uniformity in broad bands approxi- 
 mately parallel to the equator ; but the relatively 
 thin layer of dense atmosphere surrounding the 
 globe is disturbed in its uniform flow by the lofty 
 mountain masses which traverse the continents. 
 The atmosphere surrounding the earth extends 
 outward for many miles, but it is the layer, a mile 
 or two in thickness, resting immediately upon the 
 surface, and relatively dense, within which occur 
 the changes or disturbances that make up what 
 we know as " weather." The movements of the 
 air above this thin layer concern us little ; but 
 the behavior of the clouds and the winds near the 
 surface of the ground brings success or failure to 
 the farmer, and affects more. or less directly other 
 industries, and even health. 
 
 Taking the United States as a whole, the general 
 atmospheric movement is from west to east ; the 
 moisture-laden winds from the Pacific, encounter- 
 ing the mountain masses which extend along or 
 parallel to the coast, are forced upward and cooled, 
 depositing much of their moisture, especially in 
 the winter season. They then pass easterly as dry 
 
PRECIPITATION. 17 
 
 winds, leaving the broad plains east of the Sierra 
 Nevada parched and sterile. In the summer, how- 
 ever, when the mountains have become relatively 
 warm, winds from the Pacific pass over them with- 
 out leaving their moisture, and the result is the 
 summer drought characteristic of the Pacific 
 coast. Passing onward, the winds not deprived of 
 humidity give up from time to time some of the 
 precious fluid, and thus in the interior there are 
 the occasional summer rains which tend to make 
 amends for the deficient precipitation of the winter 
 season. 
 
 East of the Sierra Nevada and Coast ranges, 
 and of the plains and deserts at their base, are 
 scattered irregular mountain ranges, and the great 
 Cordillera or Rocky Mountain system, whose high 
 summits intercept some of the rain-bearing winds, 
 and these for the most part are well watered, while 
 the low lands are parched with drought. From 
 the east face of the Rocky Mountains the High 
 Plains stretch out through the Mississippi Valley, 
 dropping gradually in altitude to the rolling plains 
 and prairies. 
 
 The average monthly precipitation is illustrated 
 by the accompanying diagram (Fig. 4), which brings 
 out graphically the contrast between the distribu- 
 tion of precipitation on the western coast and in 
 the interior. The height of each of the small 
 black columns represents the average amount of 
 rain for the corresponding month. Taking, for 
 
18 
 
 IRRIGATION. 
 
 example, San Francisco, it is seen that the rain 
 for January averages more than four inches, the 
 amount decreasing during February, March, and 
 April, and becoming less than one-half an inch 
 
 -> -J<<rtO Z 
 
 WALLAWALLA 
 
 BOISE. 
 
 FT ELLIS 
 
 h 
 
 IlllL^iil 
 
 1 
 
 lllLJl 
 
 Jilll 
 
 FT Bl DWELL 
 
 PROMONTORY 
 
 CHEYENNE 
 
 Jl 
 
 Hill. ..till 
 
 .llllll... 
 
 SAN FRANCISCO 
 
 B EOWAWE 
 
 SANTA FE 
 
 tt 
 
 
 
 Ill 
 
 SANDICGO 
 
 YUMA 
 
 FT STANTON 
 
 III 
 
 a 
 
 I 
 
 
 Fi'i. 4. Mean monthly precipitation at twelve localities in western 
 United States. 
 
 in May. In June, July, August, and September 
 there is practically a drought, with sudden increase 
 in amount of precipitation in October, November, 
 and December. In contrast to this is the distribu- 
 
MONTHLY RAINFALL. 19 
 
 tion of rainfall at Santa Fe, where the spring and 
 winter months have comparatively little rainfall, 
 the greatest amount occurring in July and August. 
 Thus it may happen that, although there is more 
 than twenty inches of rainfall each year at points 
 near the Pacific coast, yet irrigation is necessary 
 during the latter part of the crop season, and 
 especially in the summer; while in other localities 
 having less annual rainfall, but with heavy sum- 
 mer precipitation, the artificial application of water 
 is not needed. 
 
 This diagram (Fig. 4) illustrates the actual 
 amount of rain and snow fall in an average year 
 at the various points, and shows that there is 
 a wide difference in the quantity received. In 
 some localities there is about the same amount of 
 rainfall each month, and in others there are sum- 
 mer droughts. This matter is brought out more 
 clearly when we compare, not the actual amount 
 of rain each month, but the proportion which this 
 bears to the total precipitation of the year ; that is 
 to say, calling the average annual rainfall for each 
 locality 100, the amount for one month, if the rain 
 fell equally throughout the year, would be 8.33, or 
 iV, of the whole, whether the total amount for the 
 year be 15 inches or 50 inches. By thus obtain- 
 ing monthly percentages, it is possible to compare 
 the character of the rainfall in different parts of 
 the United States. This is done in the following 
 diagram (Fig. 5), which shows, not the actual 
 
20 
 
 IRRIGATION. 
 
 depth of rain, but the percentage for each month 
 in four localities, namely : Buffalo, New York ; 
 
 Buffalo, New York. 
 
 Preacott, Arizona. 
 
 Lawrence, Kansas. 
 
 San Francisco, California. 
 
 FIG. 5. Types of monthly distribution of precipitation, shown by per- 
 centages of average annual rainfall. 
 
 Lawrence, Kansas ; Prescott, Arizona ; and San 
 Francisco, California. 
 
 In the case of Buffalo it is seen that the average 
 
TYPES OF PRECIPITATION. 21 
 
 rainfall for each month ranges from 7 to 10 per 
 cent, never quite reaching the latter, and thus 
 showing that throughout the year very nearly 
 the same amount of precipitation occurs. Com- 
 paring this with Prescott, Arizona, it is seen that 
 the average precipitation in one month, June, is 
 less than 2 per cent, while in the next two months 
 it is raised to over 17 per cent, showing the great 
 irregularity and the necessity of providing against 
 a June drought. 
 
 The diagrams for Lawrence, Kansas, and for 
 San Francisco, California, are seen to supplement 
 each other, although in San Francisco the ex- 
 tremes are far greater than in Kansas. There is 
 no month in the latter state when the rain aver- 
 ages less than 4 per cent of the total, while in 
 California, during July and August, the precipita- 
 tion is practically nothing. 
 
 These diagrams, being illustrative of averages 
 of a considerable number of years, exhibit a regu- 
 larity which does not occur in any one year. The 
 monthly rainfall, while tending to follow in the 
 long run a certain law, is from season to season 
 extremely erratic, the amount in one year 
 being sometimes one-half as much or twice as 
 great as that of another. To illustrate these fluc- 
 tuations the accompanying diagram (Fig. 6) is 
 given, showing the variation in annual rainfall 
 at three points near the centre of the arid regions, 
 viz., Salt Lake City, Utah, Fort Wingate, and 
 
22 
 
 IRRIGATION. 
 
 FIG. 6. Variation in annual rainfall at points in 
 the arid region. 
 
 Santa Fe", New 
 Mexico. The 
 average annual 
 rainfall, indi- 
 cated by the 
 heavy horizon- 
 tal line, is for 
 Salt Lake City 
 a little over 1 5 
 inches. In 
 1880, however, 
 the amount was 
 1 1 inches, and 
 in 1885 nearly 
 22 inches, 
 fluctuating, as 
 shown on the 
 diagram, be- 
 tween icand 22 
 inches. Similar 
 differences can 
 be seen in the 
 diagrams for 
 Fort Win gate 
 and Santa Fe. 
 It is to be noted, 
 however, that 
 the years of 
 excess and de- 
 ficiency are not 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE IV. 
 
ANNUAL RAINFALL. 23 
 
 coincident even in the localities not so very far 
 apart. 
 
 When deficiency occurs, the effects of the aridity 
 are notably increased, and an exceptionally large 
 amount of water is needed to supply the lack of 
 rain. These same fluctuations occur in humid cli- 
 mates, but their effects are not so marked. For 
 example, in a country like that of the Atlantic sea- 
 board, where the precipitation averages 50 inches, 
 a deficiency of 10 inches during the year may not 
 have a noticeable effect upon the crops and indus- 
 trial conditions, but in a country of 20 inches of 
 annual rainfall a deficiency of 10 inches may re- 
 sult in the disappearance of rivers and the destruc- 
 tion of the scanty vegetation, so valuable in cattle 
 and sheep industries. 
 
 The amount of precipitation on the surface of 
 the country, although varying greatly from season 
 to season and from year to year, has been found to 
 have a certain stability when looked at in a large 
 way. That is to say, although for a series of years 
 the rainfall may apparently have been increasing 
 or diminishing, yet, taking a long record, as for 
 example one hundred years, it has been found that 
 the average for the first quarter or third of this 
 is practically the same as that for the last third or 
 quarter. In short, it has not been possible to de- 
 tect any progressive increase or diminution in the 
 amount of precipitation when records extending 
 over thirty or forty years are had. 
 
26 IRRIGATION. 
 
 The average or what is termed the normal pre- 
 cipitation for each part of the country can be com- 
 puted. Departures from this normal may be in 
 one year or another very great, and for a series of 
 years the rainfall may be above or below the nor- 
 mal ; nevertheless, the weather conditions seem to 
 swing back, no matter how far they have swayed. 
 The climate may be regarded as fixed, although 
 the weather changes widely and rapidly. 
 
 It is because climate has certain fixed relations 
 to localities, that it becomes possible to make maps 
 showing the general distribution of precipitation. 
 The accompanying map (Fig. 7) gives the distri- 
 bution of rainfall, including melted snow, over the 
 United States. It indicates that in the East, along 
 the Appalachian region and near the coast, there 
 is a heavy rainfall, the amount decreasing inland, 
 and increasing again very rapidly along the Pacific 
 coast. The points of greatest rainfall are in north- 
 western Washington near Puget Sound, and at the 
 opposite extreme of the country, near the Gulf and 
 Atlantic coast. 
 
 The above-described map shows the depth of 
 water which falls upon the land. If this did not 
 flow off during the year, but all stood where it fell, 
 the ground would be covered with water from an 
 inch or two in depth in the arid region up to five 
 or six feet, or even more, on the mountains and 
 along parts of the seacoast. Some of this water, 
 however, sinks into the soil or evaporates, and the 
 
FORESTS. 27 
 
 remainder flows off, forming streams. In the 
 present discussion we are particularly concerned 
 with that portion which runs off on the surface, 
 and at this place a companion map (Fig. 8) is in- 
 troduced to show the quantity of run-off, in com- 
 parison with the rainfall. This indicates that where 
 the rain is heaviest the run-off is largest, while in 
 localities where the rain is very light there may be 
 no run-off and perennial streams do not exist. 
 These matters are more fully discussed on page 
 58, but it should be noted that where there is 
 the greatest rainfall, there is also the largest pro- 
 portion of this 50 per cent or more flowing in 
 the stream ; while where the rainfall is least, only 
 i or 2 per cent, or even none, goes to form 
 
 rivers. 
 
 FORESTS. 
 
 The mistaken conception is sometimes held by 
 citizens of the humid East that aridity implies 
 desert conditions, the absence of vegetation, and 
 the existence of naked rocks and sand glistening 
 in the brilliant sunshine. On the contrary, the 
 area of land which should be classed as desert is 
 relatively small. West of the Great Salt Lake is 
 a desert-like plain of sand and alkali, almost desti- 
 tute of vegetation, where a few thorny or woody 
 plants are to be found at intervals. Also, in south- 
 ern California, west of the Colorado River, is the 
 Salton Desert, embracing the bottom of an ancient 
 arm of the Gulf of California, the land surface 
 
28 IRRIGATION. 
 
 being "in some places three hundred feet below sea 
 level, but shut off from the tides by the bars and 
 ridges of mud brought down by the river. It is 
 estimated that there are 70,000,000 acres of such 
 desert in the United States out of the entire area 
 of 973,000,000 acres comprising the western public 
 land states and territories, or about 7 per cent 
 of their land surface. The remainder of the arid 
 regions, exclusive of these deserts, is covered with 
 a more or less scanty vegetation of some value to 
 mankind. 
 
 In this connection it is desirable to emphasize 
 the fact that in the arid regions of the United 
 States there are no desert conditions comparable in 
 character and extent with those of Africa. There 
 are all gradations of aridity, these differing for the 
 same locality in successive years, owing to fltictiui- 
 tions in the amount of rainfall. In the somewhat 
 arbitrary classifications just adopted, the assump- 
 tion has been made that lands may be considered 
 as desert where for a number of years in succession 
 grazing is impossible. There may be seasons at 
 rare intervals when the explorer or surveyor can 
 cross even these areas and find occasional water 
 and forage plants. 
 
 The higher mountain slopes and mesas whose 
 abrupt rise forces upward the winds, and compels 
 them to deposit moisture, have, as a consequence 
 of the increased precipitation, a covering of trees. 
 These are often scattered, but in many localities 
 
EXTENT OF FORESTS. 29 
 
 they form dense and valuable forests. Within the 
 arid and semiarid portions of the Western states it 
 is estimated that nearly 120,000,000 acres are cov- 
 ered with woodland, the individual trees, though 
 scattered, having value for firewood, fence posts, 
 and other purposes essential to the success of the 
 pioneers and farmers. In addition, however, over 
 75,000,000 acres are covered with heavy forests, 
 having commercial value for timber and furnishing 
 logs for sawmills. 
 
 The aggregate of the area of desert, woodland, 
 and forest forms a little over one-third of the extent 
 of the arid and semiarid regions ; the remainder, 
 estimated at 470,000,000 acres, is grazing land. 
 Thus, so far as area is concerned, it is evident that 
 the grazing industry the raising of range stock, 
 cattle, horses, sheep, and goats is, and probably 
 always will be, the great industry. When values 
 are considered, however, there is another point of 
 view. 
 
 The open range of the arid regions is generally 
 stated to be capable of supporting a cow for every 
 twenty or thirty acres ; the same land, when watered 
 and put in alfalfa, will frequently feed ten times as 
 many cattle, or in orchards, with favorable climate, 
 will support a family of three, or even five persons. 
 The open range may have a value of 50 cents an 
 acre, while under irrigation the selling price may 
 rise to $50 per acre, or even $500 per acre when 
 in orchards. Thus the value of the lands is 
 
30 IRRIGATION. 
 
 directly reversed as regards acreage, the grazing 
 land having the greatest extent, and the irrigated 
 land the least, with the maximum value per 
 acre. 
 
 The forests of the arid region not only mark the 
 greatest rainfall, but also indicate the locality from 
 which come the principal streams. The head waters 
 of nearly all of the rivers which give value to the 
 lands are within forested regions (PL V.) It is 
 commonly known that the forests to a certain 
 extent protect, or even regulate, the flow of these 
 streams, and it has been urged that the largest and 
 best development of the country requires the con- 
 servation of the forests along the head waters. 
 
 Forest conservation is practicable, when joined 
 with a proper cutting of the timber. Experience 
 has shown that the removing of the mature or ripe 
 trees, such as are best adapted for lumber, may 
 improve the general conditions of the forests. In 
 some of the wooded areas of the West the propor- 
 tion of trees which have passed maturity and are 
 dying or dead is as hi<;h as 40 per cent. It is 
 clear that such trees should be removed before 
 they have lost their value and have become a source 
 of danger to the younger growth. From the com- 
 mercial standpoint trees have first value for lum- 
 ber. Fortunately the proper use of the forests in 
 producing lumber is not antagonistic to their pres- 
 ervation and to the perpetuation of favorable 
 conditions of water supply. 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE V. 
 
 FORESTS PARTLY DESTROYED (THE DRAINAGE FROM THIS 
 IRRIGATING THE FIELDS SHOWN BELOW). 
 
 CULTIVATED FIELDS RECEIVING WATER FROM THE PARTLY 
 FORESTED MOUNTAINS. 
 
FOREST PROTECTION. 31 
 
 Public sentiment has been aroused to such an 
 extent that steps have already been taken to pre- 
 serve some of the forests of the head water streams 
 of the West, primarily for the beneficial influence 
 the leafy cover may have upon the river flow. The 
 national government has set aside over 47,000,000 
 acres of the forests and adjacent woodlands, and 
 efforts are being made to preserve all the remain- 
 ing large bodies of public forests thus situated. 
 This first step is being followed by an administra- 
 tion which will preserve the forests from their 
 great enemy, fire, and will ensure a businesslike 
 treatment of them, under which they will yield a 
 revenue sufficient to pay the cost of patrolling and 
 protecting them. The preparation and execution 
 of systematic plans such as those made for the 
 public forests in other parts of the world will make 
 it possible to protect the head waters without cost 
 to the tax-payer. 
 
 The accompanying small map (Fig. 9) exhibits 
 the general distribution of the forests of the West, 
 dark spots marking the mountains or highlands. 
 On this map the black portions indicate the rela- 
 tive position of the areas upon which trees of 
 commercial value are growing, or have recently 
 grown ; the areas surrounded by an irregular line 
 indicate the wooded localities and lower mountains 
 upon which are scattered trees whose size or con- 
 dition is such that they are not suitable for lumber, 
 although they have great value to the settler and 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 farmer in the way of furnishing cheap fuel and 
 material for fence posts and for building cabins, 
 
 FlG. 9. Forests and woodlands of the West. 
 
 corrals, and shelter for cattle. Much of the open 
 woodland has been wisely included in forest res- 
 
LOCATION OF FORESTS. 33 
 
 ervations, because under efficient protection the 
 more valuable trees will thrive. 
 
 The forest reserves already created do not by 
 any means embrace all of the public lands covered 
 with valuable trees, but each has been set aside for 
 some specific purpose, particularly with reference 
 to the protection of the head waters of streams used 
 in irrigation. The relative location of these forest 
 reserves is shown by Fig. 10, on page 34. 
 
 On this map are shown not only the forest 
 reservations, but also the lands still held for the 
 use of various Indian tribes, some of these lands 
 including wooded areas. There are also shown 
 the Yellowstone, Rainier, and Yosemite National 
 Parks, which, although not forest reservations, are 
 of the same general character. It is to be noted 
 that the Indian reservations, which formerly em- 
 braced almost the entire West, have now shrunk 
 to a small percentage of the vast country, and 
 are steadily diminishing in area, while the forest 
 reserves are being enlarged. The lands are not 
 being entirely taken away from the Indians, but 
 as farms are allotted in severalty to the heads 
 of Indian families, the reservations are gradually 
 diminished, and the lands in excess of those 
 specifically allotted are sold or thrown open to 
 homestead entry by the whites. In a few cases 
 the wooded lands formerly embraced in the Ind- 
 ian reservations have been made into forest 
 reserves. 
 
 D 
 
34 
 
 IRRIGATION. 
 
 The care and protection of the forest reserva- 
 tions, while still remaining in the hands of the 
 
 I'KJ. 10. Relative position of the forest and Indian reservations. [The 
 forest reservations are shown in solid black.] 
 
 national government, has not as yet been placed 
 upon a wholly satisfactory basis. Three bureaus 
 of the government are closely concerned with the 
 
MAPPING THE FORESTS. 35 
 
 forest reservations. To the General Land Office 
 of the Department of the Interior has been in- 
 trusted the guarding and patrolling of the reser- 
 vations. The survey of the regions within and 
 adjacent to the reserves has been intrusted to the 
 Geological Survey, and detailed topographic maps 
 are being prepared, showing all elevations of the 
 surface, the streams and their catchment areas, the 
 extent of burns resulting from fires, the amount 
 of cutting, and the location of roads, trails, houses, 
 or cabins. Upon the topographic base thus pre- 
 pared are also shown, by appropriate colors, the 
 general character and commercial value of the 
 standing timber. 
 
 Following the mapping of the forest reserves by 
 the Geological Survey comes the systematic exam- 
 ination and preparation of working plans by the 
 Bureau of Forestry of the Department of Agricul- 
 ture. This bureau, which is working in close co- 
 operation with the Geological Survey, examines the 
 forests with great detail in respect to the particu- 
 lar species of trees, their characteristics and dis- 
 tribution, in order to obtain facts upon which to 
 base working plans that is, recommendations or 
 outlines of methods to be pursued in cutting or re- 
 moving certain sizes and grades of timber so as to 
 yield the largest returns and to produce the least 
 injury, or rather the greatest benefit, to the forests, 
 to perpetuate desirable species, and to minimize 
 losses by fire. In this a system has been followed 
 
36 IRRIGATION. 
 
 which has been adopted by some of the large 
 timber owners of the country. By an efficient 
 protection from fire and by following- carefully 
 considered working plans, it is possible to enlarge 
 the wooded areas upon the head waters of streams 
 of the arid West, and to increase the beneficial 
 effect, in regulating the flow of the streams upon 
 which the irrigators depend. 
 
 GRAZING LANDS. 
 
 By far the greater portion of the arid West 
 consists of open grazing lands. These vary in 
 their covering of forage plants from the extremely 
 scanty vegetation of the deserts up to the thick 
 turf which is to be found within the mountain 
 parks. The broad sandy deserts occasionally re- 
 ceive a downpour from the local storms or cloud- 
 bursts, and there springs up at once a scanty 
 herbage, which, though apparently dry and woody, 
 is nutritious and is eagerly sought by the cattle. 
 On the less arid plains there are to be found every 
 year a number of grasses and smaller plants or 
 shrubs, which, drying under the intense heat, be- 
 come in effect naturally cured hay, and which, 
 though sparsely distributed, thus furnish suste- 
 nance for horses, cattle, and sheep. 
 
 As summer approaches and the heat upon the 
 deserts and plains becomes intolerable, the herds 
 and flocks gradually move up into the mountains, 
 and find excellent grazing upon the broad slopes 
 
GRAZING IN THE FORESTS. 37 
 
 and open spaces within the forested areas ; thus 
 a considerable part of the land shown on the small 
 map (Fig. 9) as wooded and forested is also of 
 value for grazing. The interests of the cattle 
 owner, and especially the sheep owner, and of the 
 forester are sometimes at variance, since the cattle, 
 and more particularly the sheep, when the country 
 has been overgrazed, browse upon the young her- 
 bage and prevent the growth of small trees ; so it 
 is often important to exclude sheep, and even cat- 
 tle, from the forests in order that the trees may 
 reproduce themselves. The extension of forest 
 reserves has been frequently opposed by the sheep 
 and cattle interests, and the administration of the 
 reserves has been hampered by the demand for 
 free grazing upon the public lands, but this oppo- 
 sition has now ceased. 
 
 The sheep industry is one of the most important 
 of the arid regions, and the profits are large, so 
 that from a commercial standpoint it is highly im- 
 portant that the grazing lands extend as widely as 
 possible, even into the forest reserves. It is not 
 good public policy to prevent the growth of wool 
 valued at $10 in order to encourage trees which are 
 worth only $i. It is possible, however, to prepare 
 working plans for the forests which, while prevent- 
 ing overgrazing, will permit the use of the forests 
 as a summer range with a minimum amount of 
 injury to the young growth. A general plan has 
 recently been adopted, which it is hoped will ulti- 
 
38 IRRIGATION. 
 
 mately satisfy the irrigators on the one hand, who 
 are concerned in protecting their water supply, and 
 the sheep owners on the other, who demand that 
 their flocks shall graze wherever young plants can 
 be found. 
 
 Forest protection and sheep grazing are not 
 wholly incompatible, for there are certain forested 
 areas where sheep have been and can be allowed 
 to run without serious damage. The exclusion of 
 sheep from the forest reserves should, where neces- 
 sary, be brought about gradually, so as not to injure 
 this important industry, and the conditions of each 
 locality must be carefully considered before sheep 
 and cattle are either excluded or permitted to graze. 
 The tendency undoubtedly will be to restrict the 
 wide range of the sheep and to bring the indus- 
 try to the conditions prevailing in older, settled 
 communities, where the sheep are fed through a 
 considerable portion of the year upon improved 
 pastures, or with forage raised by irrigation. 
 
 The approximate location and extent of the open 
 or free grazing land are shown in the accompany- 
 ing map (Fig. n), the crossed lines indicating the 
 lands where, for the most part, sheep, cattle, and 
 horses graze freely. Some of this is in private 
 ownership, particularly in western Nebraska and 
 Kansas. Texas has been excluded, as the state 
 has sold or leased nearly all of its grazing lands to 
 large cattle owners and the range land is nearly all 
 enclosed by fences. The scale of the map is too 
 
EXTENT OF GRAZING. 
 
 39 
 
 small to exhibit deserts and mountain tops where 
 no forage plants are found. The* sketch empha- 
 sizes the fact that throughout nearly one-half of 
 
 FIG. ii. Approximate location and extent of the open range. 
 
 the United States grazing is the principal industry. 
 Any plan of reclamation and utilization of the 
 vast arid areas must take cognizance of this fact 
 and be shaped accordingly. 
 
 Irrigation may be regarded from one standpoint 
 
40 IRRIGATION. 
 
 as an outgrowth or later development of the graz- 
 ing industry, especially in the more northern part of 
 the arid region. In the early days the sheep and 
 cattle on the open ranges at the approach of cold 
 weather were brought into the lower valleys or 
 sought natural shelter. During severe winters the 
 losses were very large, occasionally one-half of 
 the stock dying during long-continued or extremely 
 stormy weather. With the increase in the busi- 
 ness and the overstocking of the ranges, the neces- 
 sity of providing winter feed for the young or less 
 vigorous animals became more evident, and at the 
 home ranches small areas began to be irrigated in 
 order to provide forage for the winter. 
 
 This process has continued to a greater and greater 
 extent, until a balance has been reached between the 
 available summer range and the winter food supply 
 raised by irrigation ; that is to say, a cattle owner 
 can maintain as many animals as he can feed for 
 two or three months with forage raised by irriga- 
 tion, provided he can obtain sufficient range. If, 
 however, his summer range is limited or is partly 
 injured by the incursions of sheep, he may find it 
 economical to reduce the amount of feed raised by 
 artificial watering. 
 
 The tendency in the stock-raising business is 
 toward an increase of small owners and decrease 
 of great herds and flocks, owing to the competition 
 for summer range and the necessity for providing 
 an increased amount of winter feed. There is a 
 
OVERGRAZING. 41 
 
 gradual evolution from stock raising toward what is 
 sometimes known as stock farming ; that is, the 
 owner of a relatively small herd is tempted to put 
 his irrigated land into other crops besides forage, 
 or to raise an additional amount for sale in local 
 markets. Thus, in the stock-raising districts there 
 is a gradual development toward intensive farming. 
 
 Nearly every settler upon the public domain, even 
 though intending ultimately to raise the ordinary 
 farm crops and fruits, requires for a time a certain 
 amount of grazing land. He must have a few 
 draft animals and dairy cows, and, as a rule, finds 
 it profitable to own a small herd of cattle or a 
 band of sheep. He desires and needs the use of 
 the public land in his vicinity, in order that he may 
 herd his cattle near his home and bring them in 
 each day or at frequent intervals. 
 
 Under existing law the settler who is making a 
 home has no legal claim or right to the use of this 
 public land other than the right possessed by every 
 citizen of the country. Thus, there frequently 
 occur acts which seem to the settler to be grossly 
 unjust, in that cattle or sheep belonging to some 
 non-resident individual, or to a wealthy corpora- 
 tion, may come upon the land in his vicinity and 
 destroy all of the nutritious vegetation, leaving his 
 own cattle to starve. Since the settler is trying to 
 make a home and is paying taxes for the mainte- 
 nance of law and order, he feels that he has a supe- 
 rior right to the use of the unoccupied land, at least 
 
42 IRRIGATION. 
 
 until the land is wanted for homes by other settlers, 
 or until he is in position to raise by irrigation suffi- 
 cient forage for his cattle. Thus the settler is often 
 at war with the cattle and sheep owners, and many 
 areas which might have been utilized for homes 
 have been kept vacant through fear of depreda- 
 tions by the cattlemen or even as the result of 
 open violence. 
 
 On the free range there are also controversies 
 between rival live-stock owners, and particularly be- 
 tween the sheep owners and the cattlemen. The 
 two kinds of animals cannot graze on the same area, 
 and, as a rule, a band of sheep will render the range 
 unfit for cattle and will drive the latter out. With 
 the growth of the wool industry, the range devoted 
 to cattle is being encroached upon, and many of the 
 owners are disposing of their herds and going into 
 the sheep business, finding it possible to make a 
 living on the public lands by sheep grazing when 
 not successful with cattle. 
 
 In many localities there has come about what 
 may be termed an armed neutrality among the 
 various interests concerned with the use of the 
 public land. The settler and irrigator, having ob- 
 tained a foothold, has been able by combining with 
 his fellows, and by show of force at times, to secure 
 for himself the use of certain pieces of public land 
 for grazing. The cattle companies and larger 
 owners have, as a rule, found it good policy not 
 to encroach upon the settlers who are already 
 
SHEEP GRAZING. 43 
 
 established, and have combined with these men 
 to exclude sheep from the cattle range used by 
 all in common. The sheep owners, after various 
 conflicts and conferences, have agreed to abide 
 within certain other ranges, and for a time at least 
 peace has been assured and all have been fairly 
 content. 
 
 The condition just noted is an unstable one, 
 likely to be upset at any moment by the gradually 
 increasing herds of one or another of the parties 
 to the mutual understanding, or by erratic bands 
 of sheep. For example, by tacit consent a certain 
 mountainous or hilly area may have been set aside 
 for cattle grazing for the benefit of the inhabitants 
 of a portion of a county. It has frequently hap- 
 pened that the owner of large bands of sheep in 
 another state, learning that the grazing is good in 
 this area, sends great bands (PI. VI, B) aggregat- 
 ing fifty thousand or one hundred thousand sheep 
 through this part of the country, travelling toward 
 the mountains or market. Such hordes of sheep, 
 progressing slowly, literally destroy all edible vege- 
 tation, devastate and ruin the land, and completely 
 upset all local customs and privileges. Occasion- 
 ally an inundation of this kind is resisted by force, 
 and from time to time local newspapers have a brief 
 item to the effect that an unknown sheep herder 
 was found dead in a remote spot, or that bands of 
 sheep have been dispersed or driven over cliffs by 
 unknown persons. 
 
44 IRRIGATION. 
 
 With the uncertain conditions surrounding the 
 use of the public lands, it is a natural consequence 
 that practically all the farmers and irrigators of 
 the arid region, as well as the stockmen, ask that 
 there be accorded the grazing lands some definite 
 treatment by which, pending complete or final r~t- 
 tlement, temporary rights may be had to the use of 
 the forage. It is highly essential for all concerned 
 to be able to enjoy undisturbed possession from 
 year to year of certain lands to be used for grazing 
 purposes. For such a license the owners of the 
 sheep, cattle, or horses are willing to pay a suitable 
 compensation. 
 
 The necessity of restricting grazing on portions 
 of the public domain has become apparent, partic- 
 ularly in Arizona, where in the southern part of the 
 territory there are areas upon which the industry 
 has practically exterminated itself. In one locality 
 in the vicinity of Tucson, where formerly 20,000 
 head of cattle ranged, only a few hundred can now 
 find subsistence. This is due to the fact that some 
 years ago, when there was a decline in the value 
 of cattle, the shipments were reduced and the herds 
 multiplied. Then came a season when the drought 
 was severe, the feed became scanty, and the starv- 
 ing cattle ate practically every living shrub, digging 
 down even to the roots, so that plants and cattle 
 perished together. The few cattle remaining have 
 been sufficient to prevent the forage plants from 
 spreading again, but where small areas have been 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE VI, 
 
 A. YOUNG FOREST GROWTH SUCCEEDING A FIRE. 
 
 B. SHEEP GRAZING IN THE FORESTS. 
 
RECOVERY FROM OVERGRAZING. 45 
 
 enclosed the native grasses have come back and 
 are flourishing. 
 
 This natural recovery of the enclosed range has 
 been demonstrated by the Agricultural Experiment 
 Station of Arizona. A field of 350 acres has been 
 fenced and carefully studied, the conditions of rain- 
 fall, moisture distribution, and plant reproduction 
 being observed. It has been shown that the 
 grasses, when protected, not only spread over the 
 ground, but also serve to obstruct the rapid run-off 
 of the water resulting from the sudden and capri- 
 cious storms of the country. The vegetation causes 
 a greater portion of this water to sink into the soil, 
 where it is stored for future use by the plants. 
 
 The Papago Indians of the Southwest, living by 
 crude methods of agriculture, have learned how to 
 make use of the erratic water supply and have 
 demonstrated the practicability of storing flood 
 waters in the soil. Whenever it rains and the 
 water runs down the little gullies near their lands, 
 every man, woman, and child turns out in the storm 
 and builds small dams, or levees, holding the water 
 as far as possible on the series of hastily con- 
 structed low terraces. When the water sinks in, 
 they at once plant corn upon the wet surface, and 
 as a result the tribe is fat and happy during the 
 next winter. Observation has shown that even as 
 small an amount of rain as o. I inches will cause 
 running water on lands denuded by excessive graz- 
 ing. If, however, this water can be held back by 
 
46 IRRIGATION. 
 
 the plants, it will soak into the ground and soon 
 increase the supply of forage. 
 
 There is a balance which must be preserved be- 
 tween the interests of the cattlemen in keeping the 
 largest possible number of cattle on a range and 
 those of irrigators and the public in general in secur- 
 ing the best ultimate use of the lands. Too many 
 cattle means the destruction of the forage plants, 
 washing of the soil, rapid run-off, and accumula- 
 tion of silt in the lower rivers. In a larger way 
 it is really to the interest of the cattlemen not to 
 overstock the range, but for immediate individual 
 gain this is always likely to happen unless regu- 
 lated. 
 
 By totally excluding cattle from certain depleted 
 areas it may be possible to restore these after a 
 few years, and the natural growth can be further 
 increased by the construction of inexpensive em- 
 bankments thrown up by suitable machines or 
 graders, such as to bring out upon the grazing 
 land the waters which from time to time come 
 rushing down the little gullies. It has been shown 
 on a small scale by the experiments at Tucson that 
 these embankments can be made by hand at a cost 
 of less than $1.00 per acre, sufficient to distribute 
 the storm waters and allow these to soak in, re- 
 sulting in a yield of grass in that dry climate dense 
 enough to be mowed by a machine. Instead of 
 three-quarters of the water rushing off to waste, 
 practically all of it can thus be held on the upper 
 
LICENSE FOR GRAZING. 47 
 
 catchment basins of the rivers and the value of the 
 range land enormously increased. 
 
 Under present conditions there is no inducement 
 for any person to guard or protect the open range 
 land, and as a result the valuable forage plants are 
 eaten down so closely as to be destroyed. If, how- 
 ever, one man or an association of men had the 
 exclusive right to the grazing on a certain area for 
 a term of years, it would be to his or their advan- 
 tage not to overstock the range, but to treat it in 
 such a manner that it would not deteriorate. 
 
 Should any law be enacted regulating the tem- 
 porary use of the public land for grazing, it should 
 be framed in such a way as not to retard the devel- 
 opment of irrigation and the settlement of the land 
 by homesteaders. It is probable that the licenses 
 granted for grazing could be made subject to the 
 deduction of relatively small areas for settlement 
 without in any way interfering with the value of 
 these licenses. The great object is to promote 
 the permanent settlement of the country and the 
 making of homes. 
 
 In order to provide wise laws, it is necessary to 
 take cognizance of the customs which have resulted 
 from experience. In nearly all counties of the arid 
 states certain practices have arisen in regard to 
 grazing, many of which might be recognized as 
 binding, temporarily at least, until better systems 
 are devised. For example, it has been customary 
 to take sheep from the winter feeding grounds, 
 
48 IRRIGATION. 
 
 where forage raised by irrigation has been pro- 
 vided, and drive them out along certain portions of 
 the cattle range up into the mountain valleys to 
 spend the summer, later bringing them back again 
 by a different route. This right of transit must be 
 recognized in any license given for cattle grazing, 
 and yet must be so guarded as not to be capable 
 of abuse by keeping the sheep too long on the 
 road and allowing them to eat too great a propor- 
 tion of the vegetation. 
 
 Provisions in permits for sheep grazing can be 
 made comparatively simple, since the sheep are 
 always herded and are under complete control. 
 With cattle and horses, however, close herding is 
 impracticable, except in the case of small numbers 
 owned by settlers. It is generally impossible to 
 assign a definite range to a certain owner, as the 
 cattle cannot be kept within bounds without expen- 
 sive fences, and the fencing of the public domain 
 is and should continue to be illegal. The use of 
 individual cattle ranges is to a large extent imprac- 
 ticable except by owners of great herds. As a 
 rule, it will be necessary to allow the cattle range 
 to be used in common by many owners, the number 
 of head of stock being agreed upon. 
 
 This matter of the regulation of grazing has 
 been emphasized in the preceding pages, as it is 
 one of fundamental concern in any new country, 
 and has an intimate relation to the development of 
 irrigation and the complete utilization of the public 
 
CULTIVATED LANDS. 49 
 
 domain. The land laws, which, as before noted, 
 have been made with reference to the humid con- 
 ditions, have not recognized this fact, and thus the 
 rights of the pioneers have been left undefined and 
 to the arbitration of force rather than of law. 
 
 CULTIVATED LANDS. 
 
 The cultivated lands of the western half of the 
 United States, especially those within the arid 
 region, form but a very small portion of the total 
 land surface, in some states being less than one 
 per cent. Dry farming that is, the cultivation 
 of the soil without the artificial application of 
 water has been attempted, but has been only 
 moderately successful west of the 9/th merid- 
 ian, except in the humid regions near the Pacific 
 coast and in a few localities where the conditions 
 of soil and of local rainfall have been favorable. 
 The accompanying map (Fig. 12) has been pre- 
 pared to illustrate the extent to which dry farming 
 has been attempted. In the extreme western por- 
 tion of Kansas and eastern Colorado, experiments 
 have been conducted on a large scale, but have 
 rarely been successful ; yet at many of the spots 
 shown in the centre of the map, and particularly 
 in Washington, Oregon, and California, wheat and 
 other cereals are successful where the annual rain- 
 fall is even less than in eastern Colorado. 
 
 One of the notable features on this map is the 
 fact that these dry farming areas are found in 
 
50 IRRIGATION. 
 
 nearly every state and territory of the arid region. 
 Agriculture without irrigation is thus widely prac- 
 
 f^ } ' \4HT. I 
 
 C*Si#--jH! 
 
 I*>T-^ / N ^ ,*/ % J^*5g 
 
 *tf '/ "*^^*s^l/ W VQ'' N f^l. ^ 
 
 v. i 
 / --COLO 
 
 ( ""'Hi, .CX. 
 
 FlG. 12. Map of dry farming. 
 
 tised, although it must be considered as excep- 
 tional. The area is gradually being extended as 
 skill is acquired in the cultivation of some of the 
 
DRY FARMING. 51 
 
 more hardy or drought-resisting plants, and as 
 species or varieties suited to the climatic condi- 
 tions are found. The cereals, such as rye, wheat, 
 and barley, form the greater part of the crops thus 
 raised by dry farming, the growth or development 
 of these being made possible by thorough tilling of 
 the soil and by planting at a season of the year 
 when the largest amount of moisture is available. 
 
 As an example of what is being accomplished 
 without irrigation may be given the bench lands 
 around Cache Valley in Utah. These high lands, 
 to which water cannot be brought by ditches, were 
 ten years ago considered as valueless. Experi- 
 ments were made by the farmers in growing wheat 
 on the lower lands without irrigation, and gradu- 
 ally the cultivated areas were extended up the hill 
 slopes to the higher lands. Various varieties of 
 winter wheat were tried, and it was found that 
 these bench lands, receiving a covering of snow 
 during the winter, were capable of producing good 
 crops of wheat. The yield, although not so large 
 as on irrigated land, is sufficient to afford a fair 
 profit. 
 
 There is reason to hope that, with the activity in 
 searching for new and valuable plants, and the 
 numerous experiments being made, the extent of 
 cultivable land can be greatly increased on the 
 areas of good soil for which water cannot be had. 
 It is not reasonable to suppose, however, that dry 
 farming will ever add greatly to the population 
 
52 IRRIGATION. 
 
 and wealth of the arid region ; it will rather tend 
 to perpetuate the condition of sparse settlement 
 and careless tilling of large areas. It is only by 
 practising irrigation where water can be had that 
 intensive farming is possible, and with this the 
 best development of the country. 
 
 In this connection it is interesting to note the 
 relative proportion of lands cultivated to those 
 which may be considered as cultivable, taking a 
 belt across the United States. The accompanying 
 figure, prepared by Mr. Willard D. Johnson, is in- 
 
 FIG. 13. Comparison of cultivable and cultivated areas in belt of 
 states across the United States. [The solid black show the cultivate 1 
 and the cross-lined portions indicate the uncultivated but cultivable 
 land.] 
 
 tended to illustrate the great difference which 
 exists. Beginning with Massachusetts, with 33 per 
 cent of the cultivable area in use, the proportion 
 gradually increases westward to Illinois and Iowa, 
 with nearly three-quarters of the land capable of 
 cultivation in crop, and then decreases rapidly, 
 until in Nevada only i per cent is utilized. With 
 complete water conservation and systems for its 
 distribution, the cultivated area of Utah, Nevada, 
 and adjacent states might be increased many fold. 
 The actual amount of land which is irrigable has 
 been variously estimated at from sixty to one .him- 
 
AREA CULTIVABLE. 53 
 
 dred millions of acres. There is possibility of 
 wide difference of opinion, since all estimates must 
 be based on certain assumptions as to the com- 
 pleteness with which the floods can be saved and 
 waters beneath the surface brought back to the 
 fields. Noting the wonderful progress in engineer- 
 ing and in various applications of scientific knowl- 
 edge, there seems to be ground for the most 
 optimistic view. On the other hand, when prog- 
 ress already made is considered, arguments can 
 be advanced against the practicability of utilizing 
 much of the erratically distributed water supply 
 of the arid region. In order to present, however, 
 some general conception of the possibilities of 
 irrigation, the accompanying diagram (Fig. 14) has 
 been prepared, showing by black spots the areas 
 irrigated and by dots the lands irrigable under a 
 better development of the water resources. 
 
 The irrigated lands, whose relative position is in- 
 dicated by the black spots, are of necessity greatly 
 exaggerated ; the lands which are actually under 
 ditch are so scattered and relatively small in area 
 that on a map of this scale it is impossible to show 
 them in anything like their true magnitude. The 
 object of the illustration is to bring to the eye the 
 fact that the irrigated lands are scattered through- 
 out the West, forming in aggregate less than i per 
 cent of the total land area, and are surrounded by 
 tracts 5 or 10 times as large, which are capable of 
 being irrigated under ideal conditions. 
 
54 
 
 IRRIGATION. 
 
 The following table gives in round numbers the 
 relative extent of the grazing, woodland, forest, des- 
 ert, and improved land in the arid and semiarid 
 
 FIG. 14. Map of irrigated and irrigable lands. 
 
 public land states. The totals are given in millions 
 of acres, omitting the figures of less than a million 
 in all cases except where the totals of improved or 
 irrigated land are below one million. There is also 
 
LAND CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 55 
 
 appended a statement of the estimated water sup- 
 ply, in similar terms, assuming a complete develop- 
 ment and conservation of the water resources. 
 
 GRAZING, WOODLAND, FOREST, DESERT, AND IRRIGATED 
 LAND, AND EXTENT OF WATER SUPPLY. IN WESTERN 
 PUBLIC LAND STATES, IN MILLIONS OF ACRES. 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "a 
 
 STATES AND TERRI- 
 
 i 
 
 3 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 "i 
 
 1 
 
 TORIES. 
 
 1! 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 a 
 
 .1 
 
 1 
 
 
 3 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 fo 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 ~ 
 
 * 
 
 Arizona .... 
 
 72 
 
 38 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 0.2 
 
 O.2 
 
 2 
 
 California . . . 
 
 99 
 
 20 
 
 26 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 17 
 
 Colorado .... 
 
 66 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 
 2 
 
 1.2 
 
 8 
 
 Idaho 
 
 C.A 
 
 2O 
 
 IQ 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 O. 
 
 
 
 *)T" 
 
 
 1 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Montana .... 
 
 93 
 
 56 
 
 15 
 
 21 
 
 
 I 
 
 0.8 
 
 ii 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 49 
 
 25 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 
 2 
 
 Nevada .... 
 
 70 
 
 42 
 
 6 
 
 I 
 
 20 
 
 I 
 
 o-5 
 
 2 
 
 New Mexico . . 
 
 78 
 
 57 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 
 o-5 
 
 0.2 
 
 4 
 
 North Dakota . . 
 
 45 
 
 38 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 2 
 
 Oregon .... 
 
 60 
 
 18 
 
 17 
 
 20 
 
 
 5 
 
 O-3 
 
 3 
 
 South Dakota . . 
 
 49 
 
 38 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 2 
 
 Utah 
 
 5 2 
 
 18 
 
 '4 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 ^5 
 
 4 
 
 Washington . . . 
 
 43 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 23 
 
 
 2 
 
 O.I 
 
 3 
 
 Wyoming . . . 
 
 62 
 
 39 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 I 
 
 0-5 
 
 9 
 
 The desert-like lands those upon which no 
 grazing is possible even in winter or after the rains 
 of early spring are relatively small; they are 
 found mainly in the states of California, Nevada, 
 Utah, Wyoming, and the territory of Arizona. In 
 all they aggregate about 70,000,000 acres, as noted 
 
56 IRRIGATION. 
 
 on page 28. The surface of these areas is 
 mainly sand and barren rock, the soil often being 
 charged with an excess of soluble earthy salts, so 
 that, even when moistened, plants cannot grow. 
 Such, for example, are the broad flats adjacent to 
 Great Salt Lake, in Utah, and the land around the 
 sinks of the Humboldt, Carson, and Walker in 
 Nevada. Other plains, such as those of south- 
 eastern California adjacent to the Colorado River, 
 have a soil which is fertile and produces large 
 crops whenever water can be had. Portions of 
 these lands are reclaimable by deep or artesian 
 wells, or by storing in reservoirs the intermittent 
 floods -of small streams which flow from the border- 
 ing mountains. 
 
 On PI. VII are shown views of the broad ex- 
 panses designated in the geographies of a genera- 
 tion ago as deserts, impassable for lack of water. 
 Beneath the surface of many of these almost 
 boundless wastes water has recently been found, 
 and by means of windmills it is brought to the 
 surface, making oases and rendering possible the 
 use of the land for grazing. The herbage, though 
 scanty, is nutritious ; and by placing windmills and 
 tanks at intervals of 10 or 15 miles, cattle can 
 graze over the whole region. 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE VII, 
 
 CATTLE ON THE OPEN RANGE. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 SURFACE WATERS. 
 
 IN the practice of irrigation and in the develop- 
 ment of the vacant lands of the country the waters 
 of the surface streams play the most important part, 
 supplying fully 90 per cent of the irrigated land. 
 Of less relative importance, but still of great value, 
 are the underground waters obtained by flowing 
 wells or by pumping. The accompanying small 
 map (Fig. 15) shows in a general way the princi- 
 pal river systems of the United States. The most 
 striking feature is the relatively large area drained 
 by the Mississippi and its tributaries. This extends 
 from the Appalachian mountain region on the east 
 to the Rocky Mountains on the west, including a 
 considerable portion of the arid region. To the 
 east of the Mississippi basin are numerous large 
 streams flowing into the Atlantic, and on the north 
 are the Great Lakes draining into the St. Lawrence. 
 All of this part of the United States receives a 
 copious rainfall, usually from 40 to 60 inches per 
 annum, or even more, as shown by Fig. 7 (p. 24). 
 
 In the eastern half of the United States the 
 great problem is to take away the excess water 
 
 57 
 
58 IRRIGATION. 
 
 from the lowlands, rather than to bring a needed 
 supply from some river. Drainage ditches are 
 dug, in many respects similar to irrigation canals, 
 but reversed as to slope or grade, that is, they 
 conduct the water from the land by gradually 
 descending channels into rivers at slightly lower 
 elevation. The methods of building these ditches 
 and the various devices for controlling the water 
 resemble those practised in the arid region. 
 
 The three principal tributaries of the main or 
 trunk stream of the Mississippi Valley are the 
 Ohio, the upper Mississippi, and the Missouri. Of 
 these the Ohio is by far the largest in volume, 
 although draining the smallest area of country. 
 Next to this in importance is the upper Mississippi, 
 with smaller volume of flow but larger catchment 
 area ; and third, the Missouri, with extremely large 
 drainage basin but relatively small flow. The dis- 
 charge of these streams illustrates a general law, 
 that, in going from a region of heavy rainfall to 
 one of light precipitation, there is a rapidly dimin- 
 ishing quantity of water flowing in the streams, or 
 "run-off," this decreasing at a more rapid ratio 
 than does the rainfall. There is proportionately 
 less run-off from the land as the annual precipita- 
 tion diminishes. That is, on the Ohio basin there 
 is not only a larger annual rainfall and snowfall, 
 40 to 60 inches, but a greater portion of this runs 
 off into the river and flows downward toward 
 the sea; in the Missouri basin the rainfall is 
 
RUN-OFF. 59 
 
 not only less, averaging 10 to 20 inches, but the 
 proportion which finds its way into the stream is 
 diminished, so that while possibly 50 per cent of 
 the rainfall in the Ohio basin appears as water 
 in the stream, probably not more than 20 per cent 
 of that which falls upon the country drained by the 
 Missouri is contributed to the river (see also p. 26). 
 
 This law of diminution of the ratio of run-off to 
 rainfall is further illustrated in the still more arid 
 country lying to the southwest of the Missouri. 
 Here is a country where the precipitation is so 
 small, and the proportion of this which appears in 
 the stream so insignificant, that the rivers have not 
 been able to maintain an outlet to the sea, but have 
 shrunk, and, as shown on the small map, have lost 
 their connection with the ocean. They flow from 
 the mountains out into broad valleys, desert-like in. 
 character, and here their waters either are lost by 
 evaporation or form in the bottom of the valley a 
 series of shallow lakes, marshes, or sinks. This 
 country is known as the Great Interior Basin, and 
 has within its borders on the east the Great Salt 
 Lake of Utah, the saline remnant of what was 
 formerly a large fresh water lake overflowing into 
 Snake River. West of this, in Nevada, are a 
 number of fresh or slightly brackish lakes, also 
 shrunken remnants of larger bodies of water. 
 
 Between the Great Interior Basin and the Mis- 
 sissippi and Gulf of Mexico drainage is the area 
 traversed by the Colorado. This receives its 
 
6o 
 
 IRRIGATION. 
 
 waters from the Rocky, Wasatch, and Uinta 
 Mountains, and with its large volume has been 
 able to maintain its outlet to the Gulf of Califor- 
 nia. Its energies have, however, been given prin- 
 cipally to downward cutting ; and the river, as well 
 as its principal tributaries, flows for the greater 
 part of its course through gigantic narrow can- 
 
 FlG. 15. Larger river systems of the United States. 
 
 yons incised into the hard rocks to a depth of five 
 thousand or even six thousand feet. 
 
 North of the Interior Basin is the Columbia 
 River system, receiving the greater part of its 
 waters from regions which are arid or partly sub- 
 humid. The principal tributary of importance in 
 irrigation is the Snake River, which rises adjacent 
 to the Yellowstone National Park and flows through 
 
WESTERN RIVERS. 6l 
 
 the lava fields of southern Idaho. In these it has 
 cut, for a considerable part of its course, deep, nar- 
 row canyons somewhat smaller than, but compa- 
 rable with, those of the Colorado River. 
 
 Below, or south of, the Columbia, are numerous 
 rivers, mostly short, flowing from the Cascade and 
 Coast ranges into the Pacific Ocean. The prin- 
 cipal river system of this group is the Sacramento, 
 which, with its equally important tributary, the 
 San Joaquin, drains the great valley of Califor- 
 nia, discharging into the Bay of San Francisco 
 and connecting with the Pacific Ocean through 
 the Golden Gate. 
 
 It is not the main or trunk streams above enu- 
 merated which are of chief importance in the de- 
 velopment of the arid country, but rather the 
 smaller tributaries, most of which cannot be ex- 
 hibited on the map of the United States unless it 
 is made of almost unwieldy size. The main streams 
 are too large to be controlled by ordinary hydraulic 
 works for irrigation or power, and in their lower 
 courses they have, as a rule, attained such gentle 
 grade or slope that they have little industrial value 
 except for navigation. 
 
 In the upper course, where the streams are small 
 and descend rapidly with falls and cascades, or 
 lower, where the swiftly flowing waters rush along 
 over beds which slope at the rate of ten to twenty 
 feet per mile of length, it is possible to erect struc- 
 tures by which power can be developed or the 
 
C>2 IRRIGATION. 
 
 waters taken by gravity to the lower lying fertile 
 lands. Head works can be placed on the banks 
 of these streams, or dams built across their beds, 
 raising and controlling the waters. 
 
 PERIODIC FLUCTUATIONS. 
 
 If the rivers coming from the mountains flowed 
 at a uniform rate month by month and year after 
 year, it would be a comparatively simple matter to 
 construct hydraulic works ; but this is not the case. 
 There are very few streams which do not fluctuate 
 widely in their flow, delivering during certain days 
 or weeks volumes of water many times the aver- 
 age flow, or falling in late autumn to a discharge 
 so small that the stream becomes almost worthless 
 for industrial purposes. Not only do the rivers 
 change from season to season, but in successive 
 years there may be a wide variation. Sometimes 
 for several years there may be apparently an in- 
 creasing volume of water and then a long period of 
 drought with diminished flow for nearly a decade. 
 It is this erratic character which makes difficult, 
 expensive, and sometimes profitless, the works for 
 utilizing the water resources. 
 
 In the humid East the variations in river flow, 
 while great, are not usually so extreme as those of 
 the arid region. The typical river in spring flood 
 increases to a volume several times that of the 
 ordinary flow, then gradually diminishes in dis- 
 charge, toward the time of summer drought, drop- 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE VIII. 
 
PERIODIC FLUCTUATIONS. 63 
 
 ping to a third or a quarter or even less of the 
 average, to rise again as cold weather comes on. 
 In contrast to this may be taken, for example, the 
 Gila River of southern Arizona, a stream of great 
 importance in the development of the rich land of 
 that territory, but one offering many difficulties 
 owing to its erratic character. Frequently its flow 
 for months at a time will practically cease, and 
 the water stand in pools along its channel. Sud- 
 denly a violent flood occurs, rising to a discharge 
 of ten thousand or more cubic feet per second, 
 but, in a day or two, the river drops to a small 
 stream, gradually diminishing until nearly dry. 
 Sometimes these floods follow one after another, 
 in rapid succession, washing down immense quan- 
 tities of gravel, sand, and clay, and piling these up 
 along the channel or overwhelming and washing 
 out the dams and head gates built for irrigating 
 purposes and the bridges, as shown on PL VIII. 
 
 In sharp contrast to the Gila River of Arizona 
 may be cited the Deschutes River of central Ore- 
 gon. This, although within the borders of the 
 arid region, has a wonderfully uniform flow, not 
 varying in height more than a foot or two through- 
 out the year and from one year to another. The 
 cause of this evenness is due mainly to the fact 
 that the catchment area of the river is for the 
 most part covered with lava, the pervious rock 
 serving as a reservoir or series of regulating cham- 
 bers for the stream at the time of melting snow 
 
64 IRRIGATION. 
 
 or after a storm. The excess water doubtless 
 percolates into the lava, to be delivered through 
 many tortuous channels into the stream at various 
 points along its course. 
 
 In order to illustrate the ordinary fluctuations 
 of a river of the arid regions there is given here- 
 with a diagram (Fig. 16) showing variations in 
 quantity of flow of the Rio Grande at Embudo, 
 New Mexico, for the years 1896, 1897, anc * 1898. 
 This exhibits a great difference in volume of floods 
 during the three successive years. Beginning in 
 January, 1896, the flow was approximately 500 cu- 
 bic feet per second, this continuing with slight rise 
 during February, and on the last of March reach- 
 ing 2000 cubic feet per second. In April there 
 were fluctuations, and about the 7th of May the 
 flood culminated at 3000 feet, the discharge drop- 
 ping off during May and June to the ordinary 
 summer flow of about 200 second-feet, interrupted 
 occasionally, as shown by the diagram, by small 
 floods of short duration. 
 
 In 1897 the discharge in January and February 
 was less than in the preceding year, and the amount 
 gradually increased, culminating during the latter 
 part of May in a volume of 8745 second-feet, 
 nearly three times the size of the greatest flood of 
 the preceding years. During June the river con- 
 tinued high, with large flow, not reaching low water 
 until August. There was a second flood reaching 
 2000 second-feet in the middle of October, this 
 
FlG. 16. Diagram of daily discharge of Rio Grande at Embudo, 
 
 New Mexico, for 1896, 1897, and 1898. 
 F 
 
66 IRRIGATION. 
 
 gradually decreasing toward winter. In 1898 there 
 were three well-marked floods. The first occurred 
 in the latter part of April, the water dropping 
 during May at a time when usually there is the 
 greatest discharge. In June there was another 
 flood, interrupted by a short decline, and in July 
 occurred the greatest flood of the year, this reach- 
 ing about 4500 second-feet. The amount rapidly 
 declined to the summer flow, and there were no 
 floods during the remainder of the year. 
 
 The average flow for the year 1896 was 645 
 second-feet; for 1897, 1497 second-feet; and for 
 1898, 1157 second-feet. In other words, during 
 1897 the river discharged more than twice as much 
 as in 1896. It is not unusual for a stream to deliver 
 two, three, or even four times as much in one year 
 as in the preceding or succeeding year. These 
 facts as to the quantity of water and the range 
 of fluctuations are essential in any discussion of 
 irrigation, and particularly of the extent to which 
 the arid lands can be reclaimed. 
 
 This diagram of the Rio Grande is typical of 
 drawings which could be made for most of the 
 rivers of the arid region. In nearly all cases they 
 have a well-marked period of flood from April to 
 June, during which time the greater part of the 
 water for the year flows away. This is the time 
 of planting and germinating seeds, and there is 
 usually water in abundance for thoroughly wetting 
 the ground. Later in the year, however, when the 
 
FLUCTUATIONS OF FLOWS. 67 
 
 crops are beginning to mature, the available supply 
 for irrigation is greatly reduced, and it is no longer 
 possible to supply the large areas planted in the 
 spring. 
 
 In looking at this diagram the idea at once 
 occurs that it should be a simple matter to hold 
 over some of the excess water of the spring, dimin- 
 ishing the height of the floods, and to turn this 
 back into the streams to replenish, or fill up, the 
 depressions shown in the diagram ; in other words, 
 to regulate the discharge to a more uniform condi- 
 tion, changing the diagram from one of erratic 
 points to a uniform curve. 
 
 For comparison with other rivers, and especially 
 with eastern conditions, a diagram (Fig. 17) of the 
 flow of Susquehanna River at Harrisburg, Pennsyl- 
 vania, for the same years is given. This carries a 
 far greater volume of water, as indicated by the 
 figures on the side of the diagram. The most 
 striking feature is the large number of the floods, 
 the short period of duration of each of these, and 
 their irregularity as regards time of year. Most 
 of them occur in the early spring or late fall, 
 June, July, August, and September being times 
 of low water. 
 
 Measurements of many important streams of the 
 United States have been made, and diagrams simi- 
 lar to the above constructed, illustrating this varia- 
 tion in river flow. They are, for the most part, 
 similar to the figures given, but careful comparison 
 
68 
 
 IRRIGATION. 
 
 Fl<;. 17. Diagram of daily discharge of Susquehanna River at Harris 
 burg, Pennsylvania, for 1896, 1897, and 1898. 
 
CLIMATIC CYCLES. 69 
 
 brings out individual peculiarities of each river, 
 dependent upon topographic and climatic condi- 
 tions. The study of a series of such diagrams 
 brings out clearly the fact that in the flow of 
 streams, as in the quantity of rainfall, there are 
 often cycles of irregular periods during which the 
 quantity increases with more or less persistency, 
 and then decreases for a number of years in suc- 
 cession. The attempt has been made to ascertain 
 whether there is any definite periodicity for these 
 cycles, and some investigators have occasionally 
 succeeded in demonstrating, to their own satisfac- 
 tion at least, that there is a regularity, but unfortu- 
 nately no two students are as yet agreed upon the 
 length of time of these. The cycles, if they may 
 be so termed, are probably not coincident in dif- 
 ferent parts of the United States. The rivers of 
 California may be very low for a series of years, 
 while during the same period those of Texas or 
 the Atlantic coast may have more than a normal 
 discharge. 
 
 In what has been above stated, the assumption 
 has been made that there are no large lakes along 
 the course of the rivers under discussion. In vari- 
 ous parts of the United States, however, particu- 
 larly in glaciated portions embracing New England 
 and states adjacent, the courses of the streams 
 have been disturbed by the incursion of the ice 
 sheet and by the material dropped in its retreat. 
 The boulders, gravels, and clays, irregularly de- 
 
70 IRRIGATION. 
 
 posited, have produced numerous lakes which serve 
 to retain, for a time at least, the precipitation 
 upon the surface, holding back the floods and al- 
 lowing the water to escape with comparative uni- 
 formity, thus giving rise to rivers of steady flow. 
 This condition is limited to a relatively small part 
 of the country, but the great development of water 
 resources which must take place within the arid 
 region will first be patterned largely after the 
 results attained by nature. The upper courses of 
 the streams must be blocked by suitably con- 
 structed dams, forming lakes to hold the floods 
 and to regulate the flow throughout the season 
 when water is needed. 
 
 The fluctuations which have taken place in the 
 volume of different rivers from season to season 
 and from year to year are believed to have a 
 certain range, which can be ascertained by meas- 
 urements carried on through a number of years in 
 succession. The results at present obtained often 
 appear to indicate that the rivers are steadily di- 
 minishing in volume, and the question is fre- 
 quently asked whether the rivers are not drying 
 up. It has been argued that, in the western 
 part of the country at least, there is a progres- 
 sive desiccation, and that, as time goes on, less 
 and less water will be available. From geological 
 evidence it is certain that in comparatively recent 
 times, as measured by the age of the rocks, the 
 climate of the West was far more humid. On the 
 
PERMANENCE OF RIVERS. 71 
 
 other hand, records of weather conditions obtained 
 for various parts of the United States and for 
 European countries, some of these extending over 
 a period of one hundred years or more, lead us to 
 believe that the present climate is permanent as 
 regards historical periods. In other words, for the 
 few hundred or thousand years that men have 
 made observations or records, there has been no de- 
 cided and permanent change in climate ; although 
 for the millions of years for which geological data 
 are available, there are found to be decided dif- 
 ferences. 
 
 From these and other considerations it is safe 
 to assume, as in the case of the rainfall, that the 
 quantity of water in the rivers of the country is 
 not permanently increasing or diminishing. It 
 is evident, however, that modifications are taking 
 place in their behavior, especially as regards the 
 amount and duration of floods and of low water. 
 The changes introduced incident to civilization, 
 the making of roads and trails, which act as con- 
 duits or ditches, the draining of swampy places, 
 the cutting of the trees, the burning of forests and 
 underbrush, all exert a more or less direct in- 
 fluence upon the rapidity with which water runs 
 off the ground after a rain and finds its way into 
 the streams. Thus there can be no doubt that 
 springs and smaller creeks at least have been de- 
 stroyed, or their flow greatly modified. 
 
/2 IRRIGATION. 
 
 SEEPAGE. 
 
 The streams within the arid regions of the 
 United States, having their sources amid the high, 
 rocky, or forest-clad slopes of the mountains, de- 
 scend rapidly toward the fertile plains, which often 
 stretch far out to the horizon. Their downward 
 course is seldom an uninterrupted one. Usually 
 at one point or another they meander for a time 
 through upper valleys or parks, whose summer 
 verdure is in striking contrast to the sunburned 
 plains beneath. Leaving these, the streams enter 
 rocky denies or narrow canyons, to again emerge 
 upon a narrow lower valley ; and, receiving tribu- 
 taries on the way, they finally pass through the 
 foothill regions and out upon the vast fertile plains. 
 At about this point a gradual transition takes 
 place in the character of the channel, which, from 
 a rocky, torrential, or gravelly stream-bed with 
 rapid fall, broadens into a shallow, shifting, sandy 
 channel, in which the stream, dividing and sub- 
 dividing in times of low water, finally, by imper- 
 ceptible degrees, loses itself. In times of flood 
 the water may fill the broad sandy waste, and after 
 a few days force its way far out to join some lake, 
 or finally reach some perennial stream making its 
 way to the ocean. 
 
 In its course the water of the stream may be 
 diverted at any point. It may be taken out in the 
 upper parks or valleys high among the mountain 
 
SEEPAGE. 73 
 
 peaks, and used during the spring or summer to 
 increase the growth of the forage plants ; or it 
 may be utilized in the lower valleys among the 
 foothills, or out upon the margin of the plain, or 
 upon the lower plain itself. If the stream chan- 
 nel were like an iron pipe or conduit, in which the 
 water, once received, must pass along until dis- 
 charged into some branch or at the lower end, the 
 estimation of water supply would be comparatively 
 simple. It would be assumed that whatever water 
 came into the pipe at any point must come out at 
 some other ; or, in other words, that the quantity 
 to be dealt with would be constant ; and our ac- 
 count books would balance. This, however, is not 
 the case in nature. 
 
 If among the mountains we measure all the vis- 
 ible affluents of a stream, add these together, and 
 then measure the volume of the main stream a 
 little distance below, we shall generally find that 
 the aggregate volume is greater than the sum of 
 the visible tributaries. Water has come in im- 
 perceptibly, this action continuing through a great 
 part of the year, after the frost has left the 
 ground and until late summer. Going down-stream 
 to the edge of the plain, there will be found, how- 
 ever, a different condition of affairs. If at the 
 edge of the foothills we measure all of the creeks, 
 add the results together, and then measure the 
 main stream a few miles below, it will usually be 
 found that this latter volume is less than the sum 
 
74 IRRIGATION. 
 
 of the various tributaries. This decrease will be 
 found to continue at a greater or less rate, with 
 perhaps an occasional increase. 
 
 This irregularity in the behavior of a stream, 
 increasing and decreasing without visible cause, is 
 explained by what is commonly known as seepage 
 or percolation. In the more elevated portions of 
 the basin, with cooler climates and larger water 
 supply, the rocks, more or less saturated by the 
 rains and melting snows, yield their waters to 
 the streams ; but in the lower and dryer part of 
 the basin, where the rocks or soils are loose or 
 unconsolidated, they receive and conduct away 
 some of the river water, until all may be taken, 
 transmitted laterally, and given out imperceptibly 
 to the dry air. Direct evaporation from the sur- 
 face of the flowing stream also aids seepage in 
 robbing the rivers in their lower courses. 
 
 Under natural conditions a river gradually in- 
 creases in volume, both by tributary surface streams 
 and by percolation, to a certain point, and then grad- 
 ually loses some of its volume by imperceptible de- 
 grees. This point is usually at or near the lower 
 foothill region, and in a general way corresponds 
 with the place where, from slope of channel and 
 other features, canals and ditches can be most 
 economically constructed to carry water out to the 
 edge of the lower plain. 
 
 This point of maximum available flow is often 
 coincident with other favorable features, as regards 
 
POINTS OF GREATEST FLOW. 75 
 
 both climate and soil. Being protected by the foot- 
 hills, winds are not so severe, and frosts do not 
 come so early in the fall nor linger so late in the 
 spring. This part of the river basin is thus pecul- 
 iarly favored for successful agriculture by irriga- 
 tion, and if physical conditions alone had been 
 considered, a concentration of efforts at such places 
 would have resulted in the largest and best utiliza- 
 tion of the public lands. The progress of settle- 
 ment has, however, not followed any systematic 
 course tending to make the largest amount of land 
 available for settlement ; and we now find that on 
 each stream the best lands and the best opportu- 
 nities for completely utilizing the water have some- 
 times been neglected through lack of knowledge 
 or experience on the part of pioneers. 
 
 A prospector, weary with the search for precious 
 minerals ; a cattleman, choosing a home ranch ; or 
 a pioneer farmer, seeking a location with ample 
 space for his growing family, has picked out what 
 seemed to him at the time the most desirable spot, 
 and, by his own efforts, or aided perhaps by neigh- 
 bors, has dug a small ditch where the ground was 
 most easily worked by simple farm tools. Above 
 or below, another ditch has been taken out by later 
 comers, attracted by the success of the first man, 
 and year by year, as more people settled along the 
 stream, new ditches have been dug and old ones 
 have been enlarged. 
 
 The older ditches have usually had an abundant 
 
76 IRRIGATION. 
 
 supply, and their owners have become accustomed 
 to use water freely, saturating the ground and fill- 
 ing the subsoil. The excess water, slowly perco- 
 lating downward and outward, progresses toward 
 the lowest point, and finally reaches daylight on 
 the lowlands (PL IX). The rate of movement is 
 extremely slow, being usually only a few inches a 
 day. Weeks, months, or even years may be re- 
 quired for the passage of any particular drop of 
 water from the irrigated field through the ground 
 and out into the river bed, so that the increase of 
 stream flow may not be recognized for several 
 years after irrigation has been introduced. When 
 once an extensive area has been thoroughly satu- 
 rated, the seepage may continue for a considerable 
 period. This effect of irrigation in increasing the 
 natural seepage is now well recognized, and it is 
 often esteemed a benefit to lower portions of a 
 valley to have water applied to lands higher up, 
 since by so doing the amount available in the latter 
 part of the crop season for the lower land is in- 
 creased. On the other hand, as discussed on page 
 226, the seepage may grow to such an extent as to 
 become a source of annoyance and even of injury. 
 To illustrate the effect of seepage, an example 
 may be taken of a typical catchment basin, in which 
 there is an upper valley, a long middle or lower 
 valley, and beyond this the broad expanse of margin 
 of the plain. The inhabitants of the highest val- 
 ley, by diverting the spring floods to the fields, and 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE IX. 
 
 A. SEEPAGE WATER APPEARING ON LAND FORMERLY DRY, 
 NEAR RINCON, CALIFORNIA. 
 
 B. DREDGE CUTTING CANAL TO RECEIVE SEEPAGE WATER. 
 
EFFECTS OF SEEPAGE. 77 
 
 distributing these over pasture or hay lands, put 
 to beneficial use waters which otherwise would be 
 wasted, since at that season there is an excess all 
 along the stream. A part of the water thus used 
 percolates back to the stream in the lower end of 
 this valley, and adds to the volume available for the 
 irrigators in the next or middle valley. If, how- 
 ever, this utilization in the highest valley continues 
 throughout the summer, when the heat and conse- 
 quent evaporation are greater, it may be possible to 
 divert all of the flowing water from the stream, by 
 spreading it upon the fields, and leave the channel 
 completely dry save for the seepage, which con- 
 tinues to flow. Under this condition the inhabitants 
 of the middle valley are deprived of the natural 
 flow of the stream, and have only the seepage 
 water, instead of the ordinary discharge increased 
 by seepage. 
 
 There is thus a time of year, shortly after the 
 occurrence of the spring floods, when continued 
 utilization of the waters in the highest valley be- 
 comes, not a benefit, but an injury, to the people 
 below. The same thing is true of the utilization 
 of the water in the middle valley. The extrava- 
 gant use of the water early in the year in the 
 middle valley may be of advantage to those below, 
 in adding to the summer flow through seepage ; 
 but further utilization, in taking all of the water 
 out of the stream, interferes greatly with the supply 
 at points farther down-stream. 
 
/8 IRRIGATION. 
 
 There is for every point along a river of any 
 considerable length a time when the diversion of 
 the water at points far above becomes, not a bless- 
 ing, but a curse. This time varies, not only with 
 the amount of water in the stream and the amount 
 taken out, but also with the weather conditions, 
 a dry year resulting in diminished seepage and 
 earlier passing of the critical point, and a cool 
 year in retardation of the time when diversions 
 above become an injury. This date, as a rule, 
 gradually grows earlier and earlier as years go by, 
 for with the usual extension of irrigating systems 
 comes greater economy in the use of water, and 
 with greater economy must be less seepage. With 
 increased irrigated area a smaller amount of water 
 is put upon each acre of the fields, and finally only 
 enough to supply the needs of the plants. When 
 this point is reached, there should be theoretically 
 no artificial seepage, and then no benefit to points 
 below. This, however, is an extreme condition 
 rarely realized. 
 
 The necessity of ascertaining, not only the water 
 supply, but also the modifications due to artificial 
 diversion of the water, is emphasized by considera- 
 tion of the prevalent customs and usual legislation 
 regarding water rights. As a rule, throughout the 
 arid region, priority of utilization carries with it 
 the first right to continued employment. The man 
 who along the course of the stream first took out 
 water and cultivated a given piece of land, is, by 
 
SEEPAGE AFFECTING PRIORITIES. 79 
 
 custom and law (see p. 291), entitled to take out the 
 same quantity of water to this land, regardless of 
 his neighbors. The man who came second, whether 
 by a day or by a generation, has a secondary right, 
 and can use forever the amount of water originally 
 diverted and put upon the cultivated soil, provided 
 there is sufficient to supply the first comer. The 
 man who is third in point of time can utilize his share 
 only after the first and second men have had their 
 prior claims satisfied ; and so on down the list, the 
 last comer being compelled, if necessary, to leave 
 the water untouched until all have had the exact 
 quantity legally claimed. By increasing or dimin- 
 ishing the flow of a stream at any point through 
 seepage the values of farm lands may be greatly 
 affected. 
 
 IMPORTANCE OF STREAM MEASUREMENT. 
 
 The above discussion of one of the problems of 
 water distribution illustrates the difficulties in the 
 way of the best development of the arid lands, 
 and shows the necessity of thorough and accurate 
 knowledge of all of the conditions. The matter is 
 further complicated by the manner in which politi- 
 cal divisions have been drawn, regardless of nat- 
 ural boundaries. In nearly all cases the more 
 important streams flow through several counties, 
 each of which has its own peculiar custom in re- 
 gard to the distribution of water, and in which the 
 inhabitants and officials are somewhat jealous of 
 
80 IRRIGATION. 
 
 other counties, or at least are not inclined to work 
 in harmony with them. The most difficult case, 
 however, is where state lines intersect drainage 
 basins, as it is then almost impossible to secure 
 any consideration by one state of the rights of 
 people lower down the stream in another state. 
 Each year these interstate questions are becoming 
 more and more complicated, and the demand for 
 laws or regulations which shall impartially settle 
 disputes is more urgent. 
 
 There are also important streams, such as the 
 Rio Grande, which flow along or across the 
 borders of the republic and give rise to interna- 
 tional complications similar in many respects to 
 the interstate questions. While in each case there 
 is necessity for accurate and detailed information 
 regarding local conditions, yet it should be possi- 
 ble to determine some broad principles applicable 
 to all. A thorough knowledge of the water sup- 
 ply, its fluctuations and limitations, is therefore 
 essential, in whatever aspect the future of the 
 public lands may be considered ; but the difficulty 
 of obtaining systematic knowledge can best be ap- 
 preciated when the vast extent and wide distri- 
 bution of the national domain are considered. 
 
 The principal streams of the arid region have 
 been measured by the Division of Hydrography 
 of the United States Geological Survey as part of 
 its investigation of the extent to which the arid 
 lands can be reclaimed by irrigation. This forms 
 
IMPORTANCE OF STREAM MEASUREMENTS. 8 1 
 
 a portion of the general study of the water re- 
 sources of the United States, and the oppor- 
 tunities for utilizing these in power and other 
 industrial purposes, as well as in agriculture. The 
 flow of rivers has been systematically observed in 
 various sections of the United States, to obtain 
 facts for use in considerations of problems relating 
 in the East mainly to power development, and in 
 the West to irrigation. 
 
 By far the greater portion of the vacant public 
 lands over 95 per cent is classed as arid or 
 semiarid in character and, as shown in earlier 
 pages, depends for its future value not so much 
 upon altitude, mineral contents, or geological struc- 
 ture as upon the presence or absence of water. 
 Thus it is that the question of water supply, its 
 quantity, quality, and availability, is one upon which 
 turns the future of the national domain. When 
 the essential facts concerning the water are clearly 
 known, it will be possible to determine upon the 
 best legislation for the reclamation of portions of 
 this vast area, and the dedication of other portions 
 to various purposes, such as grazing and woodland. 
 
 It is a fact now generally recognized that, owing 
 to the scarcity of water, only a small portion of 
 the public domain can be reclaimed for agriculture ; 
 but this amount, though small when compared with 
 the whole area, is in the aggregate larger than the 
 territorial extent of some of the states, and will 
 sustain a population of millions. After all of the 
 
82 IRRIGATION. 
 
 land that the water will cover has been utilized for 
 agriculture by means of irrigation, there will still 
 remain hundreds of millions of acres of rich land 
 suitable for grazing and for the growth of forest 
 products. 
 
 METHODS OF STREAM MEASUREMENT. 
 
 The operations of measuring the volume of a 
 flowing stream, although not complicated, possess 
 an element of mystery to the average citizen, 
 largely because he has not been accustomed to 
 consider fluctuating quantities. It is possible to 
 form a very definite conception of the amount of 
 water standing in a pond or reservoir, but in the 
 case of a stream the quantities considered are of 
 water in motion, and therefore another and some- 
 what novel element enters, that of time. The 
 statement of the quantity of water in a stream is 
 dependent upon the time considered, and therefore 
 it is necessary as a first step to take some unit. 
 This is usually the second, although the minute is 
 occasionally used. 
 
 In the United States the unit of quantity in 
 water measurement is the cubic foot, although the 
 gallon is largely employed by engineers and others 
 having to do with city waterworks. The objections 
 to the gallon are that there are several gallons of 
 different size, and that the quantity is so small that 
 figures of stream flow run up into inconveniently 
 large numbers. The gallon in customary use is 
 
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT. 83 
 
 equivalent to 231 cubic inches, or 7.48 gallons 
 make i cubic foot. 
 
 There are other units frequently employed in 
 statements of the amount of water, the most im- 
 portant being the acre-foot. This is used particu- 
 larly with reference to waters stored in reservoirs. 
 An acre-foot of water is the amount which would 
 cover one acre, or 43,560 square feet, to a depth of 
 one foot; or, in short, 43, 560 cubic feet, or 325,851 
 gallons. One cubic foot per second flowing for 
 twenty-four hours will cover an acre to a depth of 
 1.98 feet. It is customary in round numbers to 
 state that a cubic foot per second for a day is equiv- 
 alent to 2 acre-feet. The contents of reservoirs 
 built for city water supply are usually stated in 
 millions of gallons, while those for irrigation are 
 almost always given in acre-feet. It is convenient 
 to remember that 1,000,000 gallons equal a trifle 
 more than 3 acre-feet (3.069). 
 
 If we imagine a small stream filling a rectangu- 
 lar conduit i foot wide and I foot deep, we have a 
 stream whose sectional area is i square foot. 
 The volume of this stream will vary in proportion 
 to the speed with which the water flows through 
 the conduit. This speed is most conveniently ex- 
 pressed, as above noted, in the rate per second, the 
 foot being used as the unit of distance. If, for ex- 
 ample, the water is moving at the speed of i foot 
 per second, it follows that there is a flow of a vol- 
 ume of i cubic foot per second. If the water is 
 
84 IRRIGATION. 
 
 moving at a higher speed, as for example 5 linear 
 feet per second, the volume will be 5 cubic feet per 
 second. In the same way, if the conduit is 5 feet 
 wide and 20 feet deep, the areal section is 100 
 square feet, and if the average flow is 2 feet 
 per second, the total discharge will be 200 cubic 
 feet per second. This expression, " cubic feet per 
 second," is frequently abbreviated to " second-feet." 
 
 From what has been above stated, it is apparent 
 that the measurement of the flow of a stream con- 
 sists in obtaining the width, depth, and velocity. 
 If these were perfectly definite or fixed quantities, 
 the operation would be extremely simple ; but as 
 streams occur in nature, these quantities are not 
 always precisely bounded, and considerable judg- 
 ment is required in assuming the limiting points. 
 For example, the measurement of the width of a 
 stream necessitates an assumption as to the actual 
 point or line where the moving water ends and the 
 bank begins. As the natural banks are always 
 irregular, the width of a stream may vary consider- 
 ably in going short distances. The shores are 
 usually shallow, and there are often little areas of 
 stagnant water, or even returning currents creeping 
 along the shore, so that it becomes necessary to 
 decide from inspection where the shores may be 
 said to begin and end at the particular locality 
 where the measurements are made. 
 
 The depth of a stream is also a variable quan- 
 tity. Outward from the shore the depth gradually 
 
DEPTH AND WIDTH OF STREAM. 85 
 
 increases toward the centre, and then shallows 
 toward the farther bank. Often there are bars 
 or deposits of sand, gravel, and boulders, making 
 the bottom irregular, so that a sounding pole or 
 line may find a place on top of a stone or by its 
 side, making considerable difference in the reading 
 of the depth. It is thus necessary to make a num- 
 ber of measurements of depth by soundings across 
 the stream, taking these at intervals of I foot, 5 
 feet, 10 feet, or more, according to the width of the 
 stream and the irregularity of the bottom. 
 
 If the water were perfectly still it would be an 
 easy matter to read the distance from the bottom 
 to the top, but with most streams there are small 
 ripples or waves produced by the wind and by the 
 flowing water, so that in ascertaining the depth 
 allowance must be made for the wave motion as 
 the water rises and falls on the measuring pole. 
 In very careful determinations there are also found 
 to be fluctuations of the height of the water due to 
 the rhythmic flow, the surface slowly rising and fall- 
 ing through periods of from one to two minutes or 
 more. This slow oscillation can be noted by any 
 simple device which stills the waves ; for example, 
 by observing the water in a pipe whose lower part 
 beneath the water is perforated. 
 
 These measurements of the width and of the 
 depth of a stream can be readily made by meas- 
 uring lines or sticks ; but the third factor that of 
 speed requires additional apparatus, as the ele- 
 
86 IRRIGATION. 
 
 ment of time must be noted. The stream does not 
 move like a train of cars or a rigid bar, all portions 
 travelling at the same rate. On the contrary, each 
 particle moves along a path of its own, not neces- 
 sarily parallel with the banks, but usually with 
 more or less circular or gyratory motion. In the 
 centre of the stream, or where the water is deep- 
 est, it can be readily seen by the eye that the water 
 is moving faster than near the shore. The place 
 of greatest motion is about one-third of the distance 
 beneath the surface, this being the locality where 
 the water io least impeded by friction. Toward 
 the sides and bottom the rate of flow gradually 
 diminishes, the velocity being governed by the 
 roughness of the surface, boulders or projections 
 causing eddies and setting up disturbances which 
 retard the forward motion. 
 
 Floats. 
 
 The simplest way of obtaining the rate of flow 
 is by means of small objects floating upon the sur- 
 face. For example, a path 100 feet in length can 
 be laid off along the side of a stream, each end of 
 the path or course being marked by a stake. A 
 chip can be thrown into the stream above the 
 upper stake and the exact second noted when it 
 passes this point, and also when it passes the lower 
 point ioo feet below. If 20 seconds were required, 
 the velocity of the chip was 5 feet per second. 
 If the first chip or float followed near the centre 
 
FLOAT MEASUREMENTS. 87 
 
 of the stream, other floats can be tossed in so that 
 they will travel in lines intermediate between the 
 centre and the banks. These will move at the rate 
 of 4 feet a second, 3 feet a second, and so on. If 
 they are well distributed across the stream, the 
 average will be approximately the surface flow, 
 which for convenience may be taken as 3 feet per 
 second. 
 
 The entire stream is not flowing as rapidly as 
 the surface, and it is usually assumed that the 
 water as a whole moves at about 0.9 the average 
 surface velocity. It is necessary therefore to mul- 
 tiply the 3 feet per second surface flow by 0.9, giv- 
 ing an average rate of flow for the whole stream 
 of 2.7 feet per second. If we have found that the 
 width is 20 feet, the average depth 4 feet, the area 
 of cross-section is 80 square feet, and the rate of 
 flow, 2.7 feet per second, gives a volume of 216 
 second-feet. 
 
 In making this simple computation it is usually 
 desirable to take the precaution of dividing the 
 stream, if of considerable width, into several sec- 
 tions lying side by side, and considering each of 
 these as independent, for the reason that the sides 
 of the stream, where the depth is less, have the 
 least velocity, and the centre of the stream usually 
 has the greatest velocity. For accuracy in com- 
 putation the shallowest cross-section, say 10 feet in 
 width, should be multiplied by its velocity, and the 
 deepest cross-section, also of a uniform width of 
 
88 
 
 IRRIGATION. 
 
 10 feet, multiplied by its velocity ; and so on with 
 each portion of the stream. This is because of 
 the fact that the total area multiplied by the 
 
 FK;. 18. Double or submerged float. 
 
 average velocity does not give the same result 
 as obtained by the method just described. 
 
 This method of obtaining the discharge of a 
 stream by means of floats can be employed by any 
 
SUBMERGED FLOATS. 89 
 
 person of fair skill and judgment, and will yield 
 results suitable for most practical purposes. It is 
 susceptible of refinement in many ways. For ex- 
 ample, if the stream is wide, stakes can be set on 
 opposite sides of the bank in order to locate accu- 
 rately the course of 100 or 200 feet. The surface 
 floats can be replaced by rods or submerged floats ; 
 that is, poles or tubes of tin or other metal can be 
 prepared and weighted at the bottom in such a 
 way as to stand vertical in the water, just clearing 
 the bed of the stream and with the top appearing 
 above the surface. Such floats give very nearly 
 the average velocity of the water of that particular 
 section. Submerged floats can also be used, these 
 being small closed vessels, usually short cylinders 
 so loaded as to float at a given depth, and connected 
 by means of a small cord or wire to a marker float- 
 ing on the surface, as shown in Fig. 18. It is 
 difficult to determine the exact position of sub- 
 merged floats above the bottom and to make allow- 
 ance for the influence of the wire and the marker. 
 
 Current Meters. 
 
 The difficulty and even impossibility at times of 
 using floats, and the various uncertainties connected 
 with them, have led to the adoption of other devices 
 for obtaining the velocity by less direct methods. 
 The most common of these is the current meter, 
 an instrument which consists essentially of a small 
 mill or wheel held at a given point in the water 
 
90 IRRIGATION. 
 
 and caused to revolve by the stream, the speed of 
 revolution being dependent upon the speed of the 
 water. This rate of revolution may be noted in a 
 number of ways, either by means of small wheels 
 connected with a dial, or by a device making a rap 
 or click, or by some form of electric " make and 
 break." The latter is the preferred form, since the 
 meter can then be used in a great variety of ways 
 and at a considerable distance from the operator. 
 
 The accompanying view (PI. X, A) is of an 
 electric current meter, one which may be con- 
 sidered as illustrative of many different forms. 
 On the extreme right is shown a series of coni- 
 cal cups arranged on the periphery of a wheel in 
 such a way that the water striking the open face 
 of the cups causes them to revolve. Each revolu- 
 tion "makes and breaks" the electric current pass- 
 ing through the spindle or bearing of the wheel. 
 This electric impulse is transmitted through a 
 double insulated conducting cord, the battery sup- 
 plying the impulse being connected at the far end 
 of this cord. In the view the battery box is open, 
 and the small bisulphate of mercury cell is shown 
 taken out of the box and with the zinc pole 
 removed. 
 
 Behind or at the left of the revolving wheel or 
 head of the meter is seen the device for supporting 
 it with a lead weight below, and beyond this the 
 tail of the meter, consisting of two sheets of metal 
 at right angles to each other, intended to hold the 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE X. 
 
 A. ELECTRIC CURRENT METER, CONDUCTING CORD, AND 
 BATTERY. 
 
 -^ \ 
 
 B- METHOD OF USING ELECTRIC CURRENT METER FROM 
 SUSPENDED CAR. 
 
ELECTRIC CURRENT METER. 91 
 
 head of the meter horizontally in the flowing water. 
 When the meter is lowered into the stream by 
 means of the conducting cord, the head begins to 
 revolve, and each revolution opens and closes the 
 electric circuit, this fact being made known by a 
 little buzzer or sounder about the size of a watch 
 attached to the back of the battery box. The 
 engineer or hydrographer using the instrument can 
 put this battery box, with sounder attached, in his 
 pocket, and can hear the click, click, click, as the 
 meter wheel revolves under the water. By holding 
 his watch in his hand and noting the number of 
 clicks during, say, 50 seconds, he can readily 
 obtain the number of revolutions per second. 
 For example, if he counts 100 clicks in 50 seconds, 
 the meter head is obviously revolving at the rate 
 of two per second. Referring to the table con- 
 structed for the purpose, he notes that two revolu- 
 tions per second are equivalent to a speed of 5 feet 
 per second, and thus he obtains at once the speed 
 of the water at the particular point where the meter 
 is placed. 
 
 In using a current meter the chief operation 
 consists of placing the meter at a sufficient num- 
 ber of points across the stream, and from the sur- 
 face to the bottom, so as to obtain a full knowledge 
 of the rate of flow of each portion of the current. 
 In rivers and creeks of ordinary size it is usually 
 sufficient to make observations at intervals of, say, 
 i o or 20 feet horizontally, so that there will be from 
 
92 IRRIGATION. 
 
 eight to sixteen localities of measurement across the 
 stream. The velocity is usually found to vary but 
 little from one of these localities to another, unless 
 there are obstructions, such as large rocks or snags. 
 In deep streams it is necessary at each of these 
 localities across the section to observe the velocity 
 just below the surface and at intervals of from 
 2 to 5 feet to the bottom. In very shallow streams 
 usually only a single measurement at each point 
 across the stream can be made, as the meter requires 
 some space in order to be submerged and not strike 
 the stones on the bottom. 
 
 When these observations have been made at 
 evenly distributed points in the vertical, the aver- 
 age of them may be taken as the velocity at this 
 locality, or the figures can be plotted graphically 
 and the average velocity obtained by measurement 
 of the drawings. If the localities of measurement 
 of speed are taken at intervals of, say, 10 or 20 
 feet across the river, the average depth of each of 
 these portions of the stream should be multiplied 
 into the width and into the average velocity ; the 
 flow of each portion of the stream being thus sepa- 
 rately ascertained, the total will give the complete 
 discharge. 
 
 In order to use the current meter successfully, 
 it is necessary to be able to reach all parts of the 
 cross-section. This can be done by a plank laid 
 across a narrow brook, or by a bridge, if favorably 
 located, across the larger stream. Where there are 
 
USING CURRENT METER. 93 
 
 no bridges, boats are occasionally used, although in 
 flood times these are often dangerous. A device 
 which is largely used consists of a stout iron or 
 steel cable stretched across the stream at a con- 
 venient place and suspended from this a box, or car 
 (PI. X, B\ large enough for the hydrographer to 
 sit or stand in while using the meter. In this box, 
 out of the reach of the floods, the hydrographer can 
 propel himself from side to side and can lower his 
 meter to any desired depth beneath the surface. 
 
 The accompanying illustration (Fig. 19) has been 
 prepared to illustrate the operations of measure- 
 ment of velocity by this method. The drawing 
 represents a river flowing toward the reader, and 
 ending abruptly, as though cut off to give a section 
 showing the surface and bottom of the stream. 
 Across the river at this point is stretched a steel 
 cable suspended from posts, each end of the cable 
 being carried over the top of the post and continued 
 to an anchorage buried deeply in the soil. The 
 cable is drawn tight by means of a turnbuckle be- 
 tween the anchorage and the supporting post. On 
 this cable a small car is hung by means of two 
 pulleys, which allow easy motion forward and back. 
 Beside the cable, or immediately above it, is a small 
 wire carrying at intervals of ten feet a series of tags 
 marked ten, twenty, thirty, etc. ; these serve to give 
 the distance from some fixed point on the shore. 
 On the left side of the view on the bank of the 
 river, is shown a stick of timber inclined at about 
 
94 
 
 IRRIGATION. 
 
 the slope of the shore. This has been marked to 
 vertical feet and tenths, and is the gage upon which 
 record of the daily height of water is kept. 
 
 The curved, dotted lines of the figure are in- 
 tended to show points of equal velocity ; the points 
 forming an oval-shaped figure in the centre of a 
 section of the stream are those having the same 
 speed, this being greater than that shown by the 
 
 I-H;. 19. Method of measuring a river from a car suspended from 
 a steel cable. 
 
 curved line which surrounds it; and this in turn 
 having greater speed than the points lying outside 
 of it, and so on, the speed of the water decreasing 
 from a point beneath the centre out toward the 
 banks. The bottom being irregular, there is shown 
 on the right-hand side a portion of the stream where 
 the velocity increases somewhat and again dimin- 
 ishes toward the shore. 
 
 The vertical lines on the section divide the river 
 into compartments ten feet in width, these being 
 located by means of the tagged wire. The depth 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE XI. 
 
 A. SUPPORTS FOR SUSPENDED CAR. 
 
 B. METHOD OF USING METER FROM BOAT. 
 
MEASURING A RIVER. 95 
 
 of each of these compartments is ascertained by 
 sounding, by means of a cord and weight, or by a 
 stick or pole. The velocity is also measured near 
 the centre, this being taken as the average for the 
 whole compartment. The velocity thus obtained 
 by means of the current meter and computed in 
 feet per second is multiplied by the average depth 
 of the compartment and by its width, the result 
 being the discharge in cubic feet per second. The 
 sum of all the measurements gives the total flow of 
 the stream. 
 
 The methods of using the meter, or rather places 
 at which it is held in the cross-section, vary some- 
 what according to the nature of the stream to be 
 measured. In an artificial channel of regular size, 
 particularly in a wooden or masonry flume or 
 conduit with flat bottom and straight sides, there 
 is usually less variation in the velocity of different 
 portions of the section. Thus, the number of ob- 
 servations with the meter may frequently be reduced 
 without decreasing the accuracy of the work. In 
 the accompanying figure (20) is shown the cross- 
 section of a wooden flume, this being considered as 
 divided into four portions or compartments. In 
 that on the left-hand side, numbered i, dotted 
 lines and arrows have been drawn to indicate one 
 of the methods of using a current meter. Starting 
 at the top, the meter is lowered slowly along the 
 side of the flume to the bottom, then carried diago- 
 nally upward to the top, then vertically downward 
 
96 IRRIGATION. 
 
 to the bottom and diagonally across to the point of 
 beginning. The instrument is moved with a slow, 
 steady motion. The number of seconds required 
 to complete this circuit is usually from fifty to 
 seventy-five, record of these being kept by a stop- 
 watch, and the number of revolutions of the meter 
 being counted. This process and its modifications 
 are sometimes known as measurement by integra- 
 tion, it being assumed that the average velocity of 
 the water is obtained by the meter as it is moved 
 from place to place. 
 
 WATf* LCVCL 
 
 FKJ. 20. Section of flume illustrating methods of measurement. 
 
 In the division numbered 2 the course of the 
 meter is indicated as being moved slowly from the 
 top to the bottom, thus integrating the velocity 
 through the centre of the section, it being consid- 
 ered that at a distance from the side of the flume 
 a fairly uniform motion of the water takes place. 
 A third method of obtaining the velocity is that 
 shown in the division marked 3, where the meter 
 is held steadily for fifty or one hundred seconds 
 
WEIR MEASUREMENTS. 97 
 
 at the point of mean velocity, this being approxi- 
 mately three-fifths of the depth below the surface. 
 The speed at this point has been found by experi- 
 ment to be usually equal to the average for the 
 entire division or compartment. 
 
 It is usually preferable in streams with rough 
 sides and bottom to make observations of velocity at 
 various points across the section and near the top 
 and bottom, as it is not safe to rely upon the water 
 following any arbitrary rule deduced from other 
 streams. There are occasionally pools of stagnant 
 water near the edges or in deep holes, and these 
 can be discovered only by a well-distributed series 
 of velocity measurements at definite points. 
 
 Weirs. 
 
 The methods above described are what may be 
 termed direct forms of measurement, since they 
 involve ascertaining the simple elements of width, 
 depth, and velocity. There are, however, other 
 methods which arrive at the total flow by the ap- 
 plication of principles and formulae derived from 
 experiments. In these methods the velocity of 
 water is estimated as it passes over or through some 
 regularly formed channel or aperture ; for example, 
 over the crest of a dam or through openings cut 
 in it. A dam, whether in a large or small stream, 
 so constructed that the water passes over it or 
 through a regular section, usually with decided 
 fall, is termed a weir. The weir may be totally 
 H 
 
98 IRRIGATION. 
 
 submerged or its sides or ends may project above 
 the water, narrowing the channel. The term is 
 applied, on the one extreme, to the great masonry 
 structures built across large rivers for the purpose 
 of regulating the channel, and on the other ex- 
 treme, to a board placed across a small brook or 
 ditch, with a notch or opening cut in it, to per- 
 mit the regular flow of water for the purpose of 
 measurement. 
 
 Elaborate and careful experiments have been 
 made with weirs of various forms and dimensions, 
 to determine the rule or law of velocity of the water 
 flowing through openings of given size and shape. 
 From the facts thus obtained formulae have been 
 derived which are applied to streams of consider- 
 able size, as well as those comparable to the ones 
 upon which the experiments were tried. The 
 accompanying illustrations show two classes of 
 weirs. The first (PI. XII, A) is across Genesee 
 River, New York, taking the full flow of that 
 stream in high and low water. The second 
 (PI. XII, B) is on Cottonwood Creek, in Utah. 
 
 The essentials of a weir are that the water shall 
 be partially stilled and flow gently with uniform 
 current toward the edge. Above this edge there 
 should be deep water, so that the currents may 
 approach without disturbance. On the lower side 
 there should also be a free fall. There are a num- 
 ber of technical requirements to be observed ac- 
 cording to the formula to be applied ; that is to say, 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE XII. 
 
 A. WEIR ON GENESEE RIVER, NEW YORK. 
 
 B. WEIR ON COTTONWOOD CREEK, UTAH. 
 
ESSENTIALS OF A WEIR. 
 
 99 
 
 for a sharp-crested or flat-crested weir, or for one 
 with end contractions, certain precautions are to 
 be observed. In order to secure accuracy, atten- 
 tion must be given to all of these details, that they 
 may conform to the conditions of the original ex- 
 periments from which the rules were derived. 
 
 The accompanying figure (21) shows a small weir 
 placed in a running stream, ponding water some- 
 
 FIG. 21. Ordinary weir in a small stream. 
 
 what by contracting the channel. As the water 
 approaches the sharp edge over which it falls 
 the stream contracts, so that to ascertain the exact 
 height of the water above the horizontal crest 
 over which it falls it is necessary to drive down 
 a peg three or four feet back from the crest to the 
 exact level with the edge of the weir, and to meas- 
 ure from this peg up to the water surface. This 
 
100 IRRIGATION. 
 
 gives the height of the water on the weir; the 
 depth of water above the weir should be at least 
 twice this height. The weir should be placed' at 
 right angles to the current of the stream, and the 
 water should be brought as nearly as possible to 
 rest, passing with free fall over the crest, and with 
 a width at least three times the depth. By care- 
 fully observing certain precautions, and applying 
 suitable formulae or rules derived from experiment, 
 it is possible to ascertain the flow of a stream with 
 an error of only i or 2 per cent. Computations of 
 discharge can be avoided by using tables prepared 
 for weirs of different size and form, a number of 
 these having been printed as standard books of 
 reference for the use of engineers. 
 
 Many of the more important rivers of the United 
 States are used, in part at least, for water power, 
 and dams have been built across them, raising the 
 water and ponding it for many miles. Occasion- 
 ally the dam of one water power is placed near the 
 upper end of the slack water caused by the dam 
 below, and thus the free flow of the river is im- 
 peded and artificial conditions are created, so that 
 ordinary current meter or float measurements are 
 impossible. In such cases the discharge of the 
 stream can be ascertained only by using the dam as 
 a measuring weir and by various indirect methods. 
 It is necessary to know the amount which passes 
 through the water wheels, out of the waste ways, 
 as well as that flowing over the crest of the dam 
 
MILL DAMS AS WEIRS. ioi 
 
 in times of flood. To do this requires a large 
 number of observations. The amount of water 
 used by each wheel must be known, and the num- 
 ber of hours during which the wheel is operated 
 each day, the wheel being considered as a water 
 meter. The sum of the quantities used by the 
 wheels can thus be obtained, and to this must be 
 added the amount flowing over or through the dam. 
 Each of the openings must be measured, and the 
 amount which escapes over the top computed by 
 considering the dam as a weir. The matter is 
 further complicated by the fact that many mill 
 dams, especially those built of logs or timber, are 
 full of small leaks, permitting a quantity of water 
 to pass through or beneath them, the amount of 
 which can only be roughly approximated or guessed. 
 It is possible, however, by these somewhat round- 
 about methods to obtain a very fair estimate of 
 the discharge of a river, one which is of value 
 in all practical considerations. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 CONVEYING AND DIVIDING STREAM WATERS. 
 DIVERSION FROM THE STREAM. 
 
 THE greater part of the water used in irrigation 
 is taken from the river or creek by natural flow or 
 gravity. The cost of lifting or pumping water is 
 usually too great to be profitable for the produc- 
 tion of ordinary crops, and therefore most irriga- 
 tion systems must be planned with reference to 
 the relative altitude of the lands to be irrigated 
 and the source of water. 
 
 The streams issuing from the high mountains 
 descend with rapid fall toward the lower valleys, 
 where, as a rule, the slope is less and the water 
 moves more slowly. The lands to be irrigated in 
 the valley are, for the most part, along the river, 
 but at a higher elevation than the stream which 
 they border. They are, however, in part at least, 
 lower than the water farther up-stream ; and if 
 a canal or ditch is begun on a gentle grade above 
 the head of the valley and carried out along the 
 banks of the stream, it can be kept at a higher 
 elevation than some of the valley land. In the 
 
 102 
 
BEGINNING A DITCH. 103 
 
 narrow gorge or canyon above the valley the stream 
 may be falling at a rate of 10 feet per mile. Water 
 will flow in the ditch if a fall of only 2 feet per 
 mile is given to it. Starting on this grade from 
 the river, at the end of the first mile the water in 
 the ditch will be 8 feet above that in the river, 
 and at the end of the tenth mile will be 80 feet 
 higher, and will thus cover all land which is less 
 than 80 feet in altitude above the stream at this 
 locality. 
 
 In the accompanying diagram (Fig. 22) the 
 letter A is at the head of the valley and B at the 
 lower end. The river, E, flows with winding course 
 from A to B, with agricultural land on each side 
 sloping gently toward the river. Some point, C, 
 back from the river can be found which is lower 
 than A, and a canal line on a gently descending 
 grade, less than that of the river, can be taken out 
 from A and beyond C, following the contours of 
 the side slopes. The land between the canal and 
 the river is lower than the canal, and lateral or 
 distributing ditches can be taken out toward the 
 stream. These can be constructed directly down- 
 hill, or, if the slopes are too steep, can be carried 
 off diagonally. 
 
 In planning an irrigation system, it is usual to 
 begin at the highest point of the tract of land or 
 valley to be irrigated, and run a trial line on a 
 slightly ascending grade (a foot, more or less, to 
 a mile), following this line as it meanders in and 
 
IO4 
 
 IRRIGATION. 
 
 out along the slopes, and continuing it through 
 the upper end of the valley and into the canyon 
 from which the stream issues, until the trial line 
 finally reaches water level. Frequently it happens 
 
 FlG. 22. Diagram showing method of diverting a canal from a river. 
 
 that such a line will wind around bluffs and rocky 
 places where ditch construction may be impossible. 
 In such a case a higher or lower line must be 
 taken. If lower, it is apparent that the higher 
 points in the valley cannot be reached by the 
 water, and it may be necessary to leave unirrigated 
 above the ditch a considerable portion of the fer- 
 
LAYING OUT A DITCH. 105 
 
 tile land. Thus it sometimes occurs that, even 
 though there is an abundance of water, some of 
 the good land must be left unwatered, as it is im- 
 practicable to build a ditch which will reach it. 
 
 In the simplest case of laying out a ditch, a 
 farmer takes a straight-edge or board 16.5 feet, or 
 a rod, in length, and tacks on one end of this a pro- 
 jecting block or peg one-half of an inch or an inch 
 in height. When this board is placed horizontally, 
 the lower projecting point will give a fall of one- 
 half of an inch or an inch to the rod. Beginning 
 at a given point, one end of the straight-edge is 
 placed on a stake driven flush with the surface 
 of the ground, and the other end, having the pro- 
 jection upon it, is swung around until it strikes the 
 surface. A stake is driven in here, this stake be- 
 ing lower than the first by an amount equal to the 
 height of the projection or peg. The operation may 
 be reversed if the laying out of the ditch is begun 
 at the lower end. In this way stakes are driven into 
 the ground at intervals of a rod, marking out the 
 course of the ditch upon a slightly ascending or 
 descending grade according as the work is begun 
 from the lower or upper end. 
 
 The accompanying figure (23) shows an effec- 
 tive form of levelling device used by irrigators. It 
 consists of a straight-edge or board, from the ends 
 of which pieces extend diagonally upward to form 
 a support for a plumb bob. This is adjusted so 
 that when the straight-edge is horizontal the plumb 
 
io6 
 
 IRRIGATION. 
 
 bob will fall opposite a fixed point. The same 
 results can be obtained by using a carpenter's level, 
 but the device shown can be constructed by any 
 person of ordinary skill, and will suffice for laying 
 out ditches for irrigation or drainage. 
 
 The ditch having been staked out in the manner 
 above described, or better by means of surveying 
 instruments, a furrow is ploughed along the course, 
 
 i-K;. 23. Levelling device for laying out ditches. 
 
 and the earth thrown out by shovels or scrapers 
 (PI. XIII, A). Near the upper end of the ditch it 
 may be necessary to blast away the rocks, and at 
 intervals along its course depressions must some- 
 times be crossed by means of wooden flumes. As 
 far as possible, however, ditches are carried up 
 into and around depressions in the surface of the 
 ground, in order to avoid building these wooden 
 structures, since they decay rapidly and are sources 
 of considerable expense. (See Figs. 36 and 48.) 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE XIII. 
 
 
 J m ' 
 
 I. DIGGING A DITCH FROM A RIVER. 
 
 - * 
 
 B. THE FINISHED DITCH. 
 
FARMERS 1 ASSOCIATIONS. 107 
 
 For the purpose of digging large ditches or 
 canals, a number of farmers usually combine, form- 
 ing an association which may be incorporated. 
 Ownership is usually based upon the proportion of 
 labor contributed by each member, and this in turn 
 is determined largely by the amount of land owned 
 and to be irrigated by each person. These asso- 
 ciations may be simply partnerships without any 
 written agreement, or may be formally organized 
 with constitution and by-laws, and be incorporated 
 under the laws of the state. Frequently stock is 
 issued, each share entitling the owner to receive a 
 certain amount of water from the ditch, or a defi- 
 nite proportion of the whole amount available at 
 any particular time. Sometimes these shares spec- 
 ify the time of day, so that one man receives the 
 entire flow of the main ditch or a lateral from six 
 o'clock in the morning until noon, and his neighbor, 
 being entitled to less water, receives the entire flow 
 from noon until two in the afternoon ; and so on 
 throughout the day and night. 
 
 These associations or corporations elect their 
 own officers and manage their affairs in the same 
 manner as any other business concern. The most 
 important official, however, after the treasurer, is 
 the person charged with the management of the 
 canal. He is usually known as the " watermaster " 
 or " ditch-rider " ; or, in Spanish-speaking com- 
 munities, as majordomo or zanjero, from the word 
 " zanja " (usually called sankha), the Spanish term 
 
108 IRRIGATION. 
 
 for irrigation ditch. It is his business to see that 
 all stockholders or owners receive a fair amount of 
 water, using various means for measuring or divid- 
 ing it, as described on a later page. 
 
 The greater number of ditches and canals now 
 in use within the arid region have been built by 
 individuals and associations of this character. In 
 a relatively few instances large works have been 
 constructed by corporations issuing stock to per- 
 sons who were not landowners, and borrowing 
 additional capital upon bonds. Several canals have 
 been constructed in this way, but as a rule these 
 have not been financially successful, and develop- 
 ment is not continuing along this line. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF FLOW. 
 
 The pioneer, coming to a new portion of the 
 arid country, first sought a stream from which 
 water could be diverted upon arable land. As a 
 rule he laid claim to the whole flow and built a 
 ditch, small at first, taking only enough water to 
 supply the land which he could cultivate during 
 the first year or two. From time to time, as more 
 land was brought under irrigation, the ditch was 
 enlarged by being widened and deepened, more 
 and more water being taken from the stream as 
 needed. In the case of associations of farmers, 
 the same course has usually been followed, the 
 ditch or canal being at first small and built in the 
 quickest and cheapest manner possible, and then 
 
INCREASING DEMANDS FOR WATER. 109 
 
 gradually enlarged to take a greater and greater 
 proportion of the water in the river. 
 
 Soon after the first settler or association took 
 out water in a ditch, others would begin similar 
 works a few miles above or below the first, each 
 in turn generally claiming all the water to be had at 
 the particular point where the head works were 
 located. If the stream is of considerable volume, 
 sufficient to fill all of the ditches, no difficulties 
 arise ; but sooner or later the increasing size and 
 number of ditches and canals result in diminish- 
 ing the flow in the river to such an extent that it 
 becomes dry, and water does not reach the ditches 
 farthest down-stream. This scarcity of water first 
 becomes apparent during the latter part of the 
 crop season, in July and August, when the streams, 
 as shown by Fig. 16 (p. 65), are lowest and the 
 need of water is greatest. 
 
 It usually happens that the ditches lowest down- 
 stream are those which were built first, and which 
 under the customs prevalent in arid regions are 
 entitled to priority of right to the use of the water. 
 The farmers under these lower ditches, seeing their 
 crops wither and orchards which have reached 
 maturity die for lack of water, are tempted to take 
 desperate measures, and going up-stream, forcibly 
 close the head gates of the upper canals, tear out 
 dams in the river, and let down needed water for 
 their farms. Thus has come in some parts of the 
 arid region, a time when, owing to scarcity of water, 
 
1 10 IRRIGATION. 
 
 lawlessness has prevailed, and every man has en- 
 deavored to obtain for his own crops as much as 
 possible of the scanty supply. 
 
 The necessity for rules and regulations govern- 
 ing the division of water from the streams early 
 became apparent in all localities where develop- 
 ment has proceeded to any considerable extent, 
 and various schemes have been devised for such 
 regulation. Along some of the rivers, the farmers 
 and canal companies, becoming weary of the fre- 
 quent controversies among themselves, have volun- 
 tarily joined together, and after much debate and 
 experimenting have finally agreed upon rules by 
 which a division of the water has been made. 
 Where these matters could not be thus settled, 
 court decisions have been obtained. Such, for 
 example, has been the result along many of the 
 streams of California, the arrangements being com- 
 plicated and difficult of ready comprehension by 
 the stranger, but well understood by the irrigators 
 themselves and all based upon experience and local 
 needs. 
 
 In some parts of the arid region the states have 
 undertaken the regulation of disputes, and have 
 created special boards or tribunals to consider the 
 matter and apportion the water. For example, in 
 Colorado, where the state is divided into districts, 
 each embracing a single stream, the regulation of 
 the waters is intrusted to state officials known 
 as commissioners. The districts are grouped to- 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE XIV. 
 
STATE SUPERVISION. ill 
 
 gather to form divisions corresponding to the 
 principal river basins. Each division is under 
 the charge of a superintendent, who supervises the 
 work of the commissioners. Superintendents, in 
 turn, are under the state engineer. It is the duty 
 of these officials to regulate the head gates in time 
 of scarcity, carrying out the decrees of the state 
 courts, cutting off water from the new ditches in 
 order that the older priorities may be supplied, 
 following the decrees made by the courts as to the 
 order of priority and amount of water to which 
 each ditch is entitled. 
 
 In Wyoming the state engineer is empowered 
 to ascertain the amount of water flowing in the 
 stream, and with the superintendents forms what is 
 practically a court for the hearing of cases and the 
 adjudication of claims to the water, the principal 
 facts having been ascertained by observation and 
 measurement in the field rather than by testimony 
 of interested parties, as in Colorado. This has 
 sometimes been regarded as theoretically the best 
 method ; but practice has raised some doubts as 
 to its applicability in states where developments 
 have proceeded farther. 
 
 While there is little uniformity among the dif- 
 ferent states as regards the control and distribution 
 of water, there are certain underlying principles 
 which are discussed on page 286 under the head 
 of Irrigation Law ; and, more than this, there is 
 a gradual tendency toward evolution along lines 
 
112 IRRIGATION. 
 
 which experience has shown to be best suited to 
 American conditions. The first stage of develop- 
 ment is the construction of small ditches, each con- 
 ducting water from streams sufficiently large to 
 supply all needs. The next stage is where the 
 increase in number and capacity of the ditches has 
 resulted in scarcity of supply and in competition 
 among the claimants for water. The third stage 
 is one of mutual adjustment and division according 
 to court decrees or agreements reached by arbitra- 
 tion. The next stage, one which is being gradually 
 reached, is the adjustment of interests so as to allow 
 an apportionment of water in such a way as to 
 increase its economical use. For example, instead 
 of dividing the water strictly according to priority 
 and thus wasting considerable portions in forcing it 
 down the stream to lower ditches, the scanty supply 
 is so distributed as to give the greatest benefit to 
 the greatest numbers. 
 
 The last stage of evolution of water distribution 
 is that in which, all or the greater part of the in- 
 terests being mutually adjusted, the united efforts 
 are directed toward water storage and conservation 
 of the supply by building reservoirs and by adapt- 
 ing the methods of irrigation to suit the fluctuating 
 quantities. 
 
 The accompanying figure (24) illustrates the 
 manner in which ditches have been constructed 
 at regular intervals along a stream, taking water 
 out on one side or the other. In this figure the 
 
PRIORITIES. 
 
 ditches are numbered in geographical order from 
 the head waters down, and the lands irrigated 
 under them are indicated by shading. The order 
 of priority in the use of water is not that of the 
 position along the stream. For example, No. 22, 
 
 T.2SN. R.70W. 
 
 T.Z9N.R69W 
 
 T.Z9N.R63W 
 
 T.Z.QN.R.7OW. 
 
 FIG. 24. Map of ditches along n stream. 
 
 near the lower end, may be the 
 oldest, and therefore entitled to 
 the full share of water before all 
 the others, and No. 7 may be the 
 latest, and entitled to water only 
 in times of flood. When, there- 
 fore, a scarcity occurs in the river, 
 No. 7 is at once closed down, and then No. 10, if it 
 happens to be the next as regards recent construc- 
 tion, and so on, one ditch after another being de- 
 prived of water in order to supply the oldest ditches 
 with the needed amount, until finally, in extreme 
 drought, the ditch first constructed receives the 
 entire flow. With increase of discharge of the 
 
114 IRRIGATION. 
 
 stream, the head gates of the ditches are opened in 
 the order of date of priorities until, in times of 
 flood, all are opened. 
 
 After a ditch or canal has received its full sup- 
 ply, or the quantity to which it is entitled, there 
 usually arise among the various irrigators many 
 conflicting demands in times of scarcity, the con- 
 dition being comparable to the claims made by the 
 canals upon the main stream. In the early days, 
 when there was plenty of water in the river, and 
 the ditch or canal carried more water than was 
 needed, each user took all he chose, flooding his 
 land freely, sometimes drowning out and destroy- 
 ing portions of it, and running the excess over the 
 roads and neighboring grazing land. With the 
 gradual widening of the cultivated area, the need 
 for water has increased, and attempts have been 
 made to check the waste ; but the older irrigators, 
 accustomed to the lavish use of water, have been 
 loath to restrict themselves, even though it has 
 been demonstrated again and again that better 
 results could be had by using less water. 
 
 It has usually been found necessary for the 
 irrigators to appoint or elect one of their number 
 to serve for a season as watermaster, and to appor- 
 tion to each claimant a certain amount of the water, 
 or assign certain days and hours during which 
 water can be used. The watermaster must, when 
 the supply is scanty, go along the canal and see that 
 the various head gates are closed or opened to 
 
PLATE XV. 
 
 A. MASONRY HEAD-GATES OF CANAL. 
 
 B. TIMBER REGULATOR. 
 
WATERM ASTERS. 115 
 
 receive the determined quantity of water, locking 
 these so that they cannot be tampered with after 
 he has left. Often the quantity of water has been 
 settled only after vexatious lawsuits or neighbor- 
 hood quarrels, and great tact is required to preserve 
 friendly relations during times of scarcity, when 
 some crops must be left to wither under the intense 
 summer heat, in order to save others whose owners 
 enjoy older or prior rights. 
 
 DAMS AND HEAD GATES. 
 
 At the upper end of each ditch it is usual to 
 construct some device by which the amount of 
 water entering from the river can be regulated. 
 Without this, flood waters would fill the ditch 
 beyond its capacity, overflowing and washing away 
 the banks. In times of low water, also, the stream 
 may fall to such an extent that it must be raised 
 somewhat by a dam and forced into the ditch. At 
 all times it may be necessary to regulate the flow 
 in order to apportion the water fairly to all 
 concerned. 
 
 In the case of the simplest ditch, a small dam 
 of brush and stone, illustrated in Fig. 25, is usually 
 built diagonally into or across the stream bed as 
 the water becomes low in the summer, and this is 
 made tight by means of sod and earth. Such a 
 dam is usually washed away by high water, but 
 can be replaced at small labor and expense. More 
 permanent structures are sometimes built of timber 
 
u6 
 
 IRRIGATION. 
 
 or masonry, especially in the case of works con- 
 structed by large associations or corporations. 
 These dams, intended to resist the destructive 
 action of floods, must be solidly constructed and 
 carried down to bed rock. 
 
 Fir.. 25. Plan of diversion works in river. 
 
 The temporary brush dams are cheaply con- 
 structed and suffice for most of the smaller ditches, 
 and even for some of the larger canals. They pos- 
 sess the advantage that whenever a destructive 
 flood occurs, modifying the channel, they can be 
 rebuilt to suit the new conditions, the head of the 
 ditch being extended, or located at a point where- 
 ever the dam can be most cheaply or effectively 
 constructed. Sometimes, as shown in Fig. 26, two 
 canals head near each other, and the temporary 
 dams can be modified from time to time to divert 
 
BRUSH DAMS. 
 
 117 
 
 the water in the river according to the volume 
 available. 
 
 Near the head of a ditch or canal is usually 
 placed a head gate, or regulator. This consists of 
 a suitable framework of plank, firmly bedded in 
 the earth or rock, and containing one or more 
 openings, each of which can be closed by a gate 
 
 FIG. 26. Brush dams of canals heading near each other. 
 
 sliding vertically. The water enters under the 
 gates, the quantity being controlled by raising or 
 lowering them. On the better-built canals perma- 
 nent head gates are sometimes constructed of ma- 
 sonry, as shown by PL XV, A. The relative situa- 
 tions of the canal, dam, and regulator, where the 
 conditions are favorable, are shown on Fig. 27. 
 
 The adjustment of these head gates is a matter 
 of considerable importance in taking water from 
 the river, and for large canals it is necessary to 
 have a watchman stationed near the head, in order 
 
u8 
 
 IRRIGATION. 
 
 that the gates may be raised or lowered, according 
 to the amount in the river and the quantity appor- 
 tioned to the canal. 
 
 FlG. 27. Plan of dam and regulator. 
 
 The accompanying drawing (Fig. 28) shows the 
 method of construction of one of the small timber 
 head gates, or regulators, such as are used at the 
 
HEAD GATES. 
 
 119 
 
 head of small ditches leading from the stream or 
 from some large canal. These are built of plank, 
 each end being made flaring to meet the sides of 
 the ditch and to form a firm junction with the 
 
 FIG. 28. Details of small head gate. 
 
 earth. It is, of course, important to pack clay 
 and impervious material around the head gate so 
 as to prevent leakage, as a tiny stream working 
 its way through the earth will quickly be enlarged 
 and endanger the whole structure. Various forms 
 of head gates are shown on Pis. XV and XVI. 
 
120 IRRIGATION. 
 
 MEASURING DEVICES OR MODULES. 
 
 After water has been received into a canal and 
 at various points along its course to the fields of 
 the irrigators, there frequently arises the necessity 
 of making measurements of the volume, or of divid- 
 ing the flow proportionately among the users. 
 The methods employed are in general similar to 
 those in river measurements, described in preceding 
 pages. The quantity of water is, however, often 
 so small, and the means at hand so restricted, that 
 different ways are occasionally adopted. The per- 
 sons whose business it is to divide the water rarely 
 have instruments, such as a current meter, and 
 their knowledge of hydraulics is too limited to 
 enable them to make measurements of any con- 
 siderable accuracy. They usually judge of the 
 amount of water by its appearance, at most meas- 
 uring the width and depth, and guessing at the 
 velocity, or not taking it into account. There is 
 thus little attempt at accuracy, and, in fact, abso- 
 lute quantities are not often obtained, but rather 
 proportional parts of the flow. An irrigator usu- 
 ally receives a quarter or one-tenth of the water in 
 the ditch rather than a certain number of gallons 
 or cubic feet per second. Thus the measuring 
 boxes or flumes are generally made with the idea 
 of taking a certain proportion of the whole amount 
 of water irrespective of the volume. 
 
 One of the simplest devices for apportioning 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE XVI. 
 
 A. REGULATING OR MEASURING DEVICE NEAR HEAD OF CANAL. 
 
 B. DISTRIBUTION BOX ON FARMER'S LATERAL. 
 
DIVIDING WATER. 121 
 
 ditch water is shown diagrammatically in the accom- 
 panying plan (Fig. 29). The water, flowing toward 
 the left, is divided by the partition marked A. The 
 water passing on the left-hand side of the partition 
 A is conducted off by a side channel or lateral, 
 while that flowing 
 
 on the right-hand ; B 
 
 side of A continues 
 in the ditch. This 
 partition A may 
 be movable, so as 
 
 to divert different Fio. 29. Pian of device for dividing water. 
 
 quantities of water 
 
 at various times, or may be fixed, if it is understood 
 that a certain proportion of the water is always to 
 pass out of a lateral at this point. 
 
 If the partition A is in the centre of the stream, 
 equal amounts of water will be diverted on each 
 side, except as this may be affected by the retard- 
 ing influence of the channel beyond. In the con- 
 dition shown in the diagram, the right-angled turn 
 would' probably cause a slightly less amount of flow 
 on the left-hand side than on the right-hand side, 
 where the channel is straight. If, as shown in the 
 drawing, the partition A is one-third of the dis- 
 tance across the channel, the amount diverted on 
 the left side will probably be a trifle less than one- 
 third of the whole amount, because of the in- 
 creased friction in the narrower channel, and also 
 because of the right-angled turn beyond. Other 
 
122 IRRIGATION. 
 
 forms of boxes for dividing water are shown on 
 PL XVI. 
 
 The devices for measuring water flowing in open 
 ditches differ widely from those employed for 
 measuring in pipes, such as those of a city supply, 
 where various forms of water meters are utilized, 
 nearly all of these requiring a decided pressure 
 and rapid flow. The water in irrigating ditches 
 has usually only a trifling fall, and it is not possi- 
 ble to obtain a head or pressure of more than a 
 few inches. Any measuring device, to be generally 
 successful, must be so constructed as to pass a con- 
 siderable amount of water flowing at low velocity 
 and with little fall or loss of head. An apparatus 
 of this kind is generally known as a module, the 
 name being derived from Italian usage. The 
 term has not come into general use in the United 
 States, but the measurements of water from ditches 
 are usually spoken of as being made through boxes, 
 flumes, or over weirs. The device in use which may 
 be termed " module," and the one most generally 
 employed, is that for measuring the miner's fnch. 
 
 This unit, the miner's inch, is the one most used 
 throughout the West in speaking of quantity of 
 water. Irrigators frequently state that they re- 
 ceive so many miner's inches, or that to irrigate 
 ten acres it is necessary to have 8 miner's inches. 
 The term, although common, is not definite, the 
 actual quantity known as a miner's inch differ- 
 ing according to the method of measurement. 
 
MINER'S INCH. 123 
 
 It is comparable to the local usage of the word 
 " shilling," which has been commonly used in New 
 England to mean i6| cents, while in New York 
 it has been equally well known as I2| cents. So 
 the miner's inch in California may represent a 
 fiftieth part of a second-foot, and in Arizona a 
 fortieth part. 
 
 The miner's inch is also often confused with the 
 sectional area of a flowing stream, or even with 
 the number of cubic inches per second. In 
 Utah, for example, a stream 20 inches wide 
 and 3 inches deep has been incorrectly described 
 as discharging 60 miner's inches, because the 
 width multiplied by the depth gives this number of 
 square inches. The term, although indefinite, has 
 entered so largely into popular usage that it can- 
 not be easily abandoned, and it may be retained to 
 advantage if defined as a certain definite part of 
 the second-foot. 
 
 The miner's inch, as the name implies, is a unit 
 of measurement borrowed from the miners, who 
 first took out the water of flowing streams, con- 
 ducted it through ditches or flumes, and divided it 
 among themselves. The apportioning of water 
 was found to be most easily done by cutting a 
 rectangular hole in the side of a flume and allow- 
 ing a certain quantity of water to flow through 
 this aperture. The amount discharged depends 
 not only upon the size and shape of the hole, but 
 also upon the pressure or height of water standing 
 
124 IRRIGATION. 
 
 behind the aperture. That is to say, more water 
 will flow through a hole an inch square if behind 
 this hole the water is standing 6 inches deep, than 
 will be discharged if the water is only 4 inches deep. 
 In the same way, less water will flow through an 
 aperture 10 inches wide and i inch high than 
 through an aperture I inch wide and 10 inches 
 high, the water standing the same depth above the 
 top of the hole. These simple facts are often 
 overlooked, and the laws prescribing how the 
 miner's inch shall be measured frequently omit 
 necessary qualifications. Exact justice cannot be 
 done to all persons obtaining water by this form 
 of measurement. 
 
 The accompanying drawing (Fig. 30) illustrates 
 a simple form of a device for measuring miner's 
 inches. This consists of a flume, in the end of 
 which is placed a partition with an aperture closed 
 by a sliding bar or gate, marked B. Water flow- 
 ing in the flume passes out through the orifice, 
 which in this case is 2 inches high and of a 
 width dependent upon the space opened by the 
 sliding gate. Above the top of the orifice is a 
 plank 5 inches wide. To measure the flow in 
 the flume, the sliding gate' B is pushed in until 
 the water stands at the top of the end plank and 
 is on the point of overflowing. When this occurs, 
 the pressure or head is exactly 5 inches, and the 
 size of the orifice in square inches gives the equiva- 
 lent number of miner's inches flowing in the box. 
 
MEASURING MINER'S INCHES. 
 
 125 
 
 In the example shown, the gate is drawn open 
 43.5 inches, and as it is 2 inches high, the whole 
 flow is 87 miner's inches. 
 
 In case it is desired to measure out a certain 
 amount of water, the gate B can be set at this 
 
 FIG. 30. Flume for measuring miner's inches. 
 
 quantity, and a gate above, marked A, adjusted so 
 as to bring the height of the water in the measur- 
 ing box to the point where it nearly overflows the 
 end plank. In this way small quantities of water 
 can be divided with sufficient accuracy for ordinary 
 purposes. If, however, it is necessary to measure 
 greater quantities, and the orifice cannot be made 
 long enough to accommodate these, it is necessary 
 to make it higher, increasing it, say, from 2 inches 
 
126 IRRIGATION. 
 
 in height to 10; there will then flow through such 
 an orifice more than five times as much water for 
 a given width of opening. Thus, in attempting to 
 measure large quantities of water in this way, seri- 
 ous errors are introduced in favor of the large users 
 of water. 
 
 One of the chief difficulties in attempting to 
 measure a constant volume by this apparatus is 
 due to the fact that in many ditches and streams 
 there are occasional and rapid fluctuations of the 
 height of water. When the height increases, a 
 larger amount will be discharged from the orifice; 
 and when it falls, a less amount. To secure a con- 
 stant head or pressure a number of devices have 
 been made, one of the most interesting of which 
 's that invented by Mr. A. D. Foote. The meas- 
 uring box (Fig. 31) B is placed by the side of the 
 ditch marked A. The water in the ditch is checked 
 by the small gate D, and a part is forced to flow 
 through the gate E, raised for the purpose, filling 
 the box B ; the desired quantity escapes through 
 the aperture F, into the lateral G. Any excess 
 of water entering B spills back into the main ditch 
 at C, so that a nearly constant head can be main- 
 tained behind the orifice F. 
 
 The method of measuring small brooks or creeks 
 is illustrated by the accompanying figure (32). A 
 stout plank is placed across the stream, held in 
 position by stakes, and made tight by tamping c lay 
 on the up-stream side, so that water cannot pass 
 
MEASURING BOX. 
 
 127 
 
 around or under the obstruction. In the plank is 
 a slot of sufficient size and width to pass the ordi- 
 nary discharge of the stream. This slot is from 
 
 FIG. 31. Foote measuring box. 
 
 4 to 6 inches below the top of the plank, and is 
 closed by a gate or board sliding in front of the 
 slot, and held in position by a small cleat or projec- 
 tion passing through the slot. This gate is gradu- 
 ally closed until the water in the stream is about 
 
128 
 
 IRRIGATION. 
 
 to overflow the plank ; then the size of the orifice 
 gives the discharge in miner's inches, the exact 
 quantity being dependent upon the head of water, 
 or height above the top of the slot, and its relative 
 proportions. 
 
 The standard miner's inch, taking the arid region 
 as a whole, may be considered as the flow through 
 
 Fid. 32. Method of measuring miner's inches in ditch. 
 
 an orifice I inch square with a head or pressure 
 above the top of the orifice of 6 inches. The 
 actual quantity is dependent also upon the thick- 
 ness of the plank or plate in which the orifice is 
 made, and the character of the edges, whether 
 sharp or square. It has been estimated, however, 
 that the average value of a miner's inch of this 
 character is 1.5 cubic feet per minute, or .025 sec- 
 
VALUE OF MINER'S INCH. 129 
 
 ond-f oot, in other words, -fa of a second-foot. In 
 different counties in California it has been found 
 in use to range from .020 to nearly .030 second- 
 foot. In Montana a method of measurement in 
 customary use was through an orifice I inch deep 
 with a head of 3^ inches above the top. This has 
 been estimated to furnish .021 second-foot. 
 
 The state of California by statute has prescribed 
 that the miner's inch shall be a fiftieth part of a 
 second-foot, and Arizona by court decision has set- 
 tled upon a fortieth part. In Colorado it has been 
 stated that 38.4 miner's inches made a second-foot, 
 but this figure has been based on a single deter- 
 mination. It is sufficiently exact to state that in 
 this state 40 miner's inches equal a second-foot. 
 
 After trying many devices, the engineers and 
 canal superintendents have, as a rule, usually 
 adopted some form of open flume or weir, such as 
 that described on page 99 in connection with 
 the discussion of river measurements. These are 
 least likely to be obstructed by floating sticks 
 or weeds, and are most easily kept in good order. 
 The method of flume measurement consists in 
 measuring the width and depth of water in the 
 flume, and in ascertaining by floats or current 
 meters the velocity for different heights of water. 
 By so doing it is possible to construct a table show- 
 ing the approximate amount of water flowing in 
 the flume when it is I inch in depth, 2 inches, 
 3 inches, and so on up to the full capacity of 
 
130 IRRIGATION. 
 
 the flume. This method of estimation of discharge 
 is known as rating the flume. When a rating table 
 has once been made, it is usually assumed that the 
 relation between height and quantity of water re- 
 mains fairly constant. 
 
 For flume measurement either one of the struc- 
 tures needed to conduct the water across some 
 depression is used, or short sections of the flume, 
 at least sixteen feet in length, are set in the 
 canal at some designated point especially for the 
 purpose of making the measurement. The floor is 
 smoothly laid and the sides are made either vertical 
 or flaring, the width of the bottom of the flume 
 being the same as that of the ditch both above 
 and below, the cross-section of the flume being as 
 nearly as possible similar to that of the ditch. A 
 scale is permanently marked on the side of the 
 flume, so as to give the depth of water at a 
 glance. The construction of the flume should be 
 such as to avoid all cross-currents or disturbance 
 of the water, the object being to make a portion of 
 the canal in such manner that the sides and bot- 
 tom will be smooth and permanent. 
 
 To insure greater accuracy than that obtained 
 in the ordinary flumes, various forms of weirs are 
 used, these generally having complete contraction 
 at the sides and bottom, as shown by the accom- 
 panying diagrams (Figs. 33, 34, and 35). In the 
 first of these (Fig. 33) a rectangular weir is shown, 
 the width of the opening being such as to contract 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE XVII. 
 
 A. FLUME ON ROCKY HILLSIDE. 
 
 
 
 B- FLUME ACROSS EARTH IN A SIDEHILL CUT. 
 
RECTANGULAR WEIR. 131 
 
 the stream on both sides and at the bottom, the 
 distance AB from the bottom of the flume or 
 ditch to the crest of the weir being at least twice 
 that of the height H of the water passing over 
 the crest. With this form of weir it is possible 
 
 FIG. 33. Rectangular weir. 
 
 to compute the discharge by use of the simple 
 formula prepared by Mr. James B. Francis, from 
 results of elaborate experiments carried on through 
 many years in the canal built for water power at 
 Lowell, Massachusetts. The discharge in cubic 
 feet per second is 3.33 times the length in feet into 
 the height in feet when the latter quantity has 
 been cubed, or multiplied by itself twice in succes- 
 
132 
 
 IRRIGATION. 
 
 sion, and the square root of the cube been taken. 
 Or in other words, the quantity equals 3^ times 
 the length into the three-half power of the height. 
 In this statement the length taken is what is known 
 as the effective length, and not the actual meas- 
 urement, the measured crest being reduced by 
 one-tenth of the depth of the water // for each 
 end contraction. 
 
 1 
 
 I'll',. 34. Trapezoidal or Cippoletti weir. 
 
 In order to obviate the necessity of making cor- 
 rections for the end contractions of a weir, an 
 Italian engineer, Cesare Cippoletti, devised a trape- 
 zoidal weir, or one with sloping edges, as shown in 
 Fig. 34. The effective length in this case corre- 
 sponds to the actual length of the crest of the 
 weir, thus obviating the necessity of making an 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE XVIII. 
 
 
TRAPEZOIDAL WEIR. 
 
 133 
 
 allowance in the computation for the end con- 
 traction. 
 
 Weirs of this kind have been placed in irrigation 
 ditches, and the height of water noted from time 
 to time by means of the gage set back from the 
 crest. It is possible at each reading of the height 
 
 FIG. 35 Trapezoidal weir with self-recording device. 
 
 of water to obtain by computation, or by a table 
 constructed for the purpose, the amount flowing 
 at that moment. As this quantity fluctuates, it is 
 desirable to have some form of self-recording gage, 
 so that the changes which have taken place can be 
 known. An arrangement of this kind is shown in 
 Fig- 35 where a trapezoidal or Cippoletti weir has 
 
134 IRRIGATION. 
 
 been placed at the end of a short flume and the 
 small recording device arranged on the side of the 
 flume. As the water rises or falls, a float attached 
 to a pencil moves up or down, making a mark on 
 a piece of paper placed upon a cylinder or dial and 
 driven by clockwork. The irregular line traced 
 by the pencil gives a complete record of the height 
 of the water, and from this the corresponding 
 quantities can be computed. 
 
 FLUMES AND WOODEN PIPES. 
 
 If the ground through which the ditch or canal 
 is constructed were everywhere a gentle slope with 
 well-rounded curves, it would be a comparatively 
 easy matter to dig the necessary channel ; but 
 there are often small ravines coming into the main 
 stream from each side, bringing water drained 
 from the highland surrounding the valley. Some 
 of these side channels are very deep and have steep 
 sides, so that the ditch cannot be run around them 
 or continued up one side and down the other. It 
 often happens also that the water of these side 
 channels is utilized by farmers, and must be kept 
 separate from that in the ditch under considera- 
 tion. Even if the water of the side drainage could 
 otherwise be taken into the ditch, it is usually in- 
 expedient to do so, because local storms often send 
 down these channels great quantities of wau-r, 
 carrying sand, gravel, and boulders, and these 
 deposited in the ditch would fill it up. 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE XIX. 
 
 SEMICIRCULAR WOODEN FLUME. 
 
FLUMES. 
 
 135 
 
 In the construction of nearly every conduit of this 
 character it becomes necessary to take water across 
 a depression. This is generally done by means of a 
 flume, or long box, usually rectangular in section. 
 This is supported by a frame or trestle of timber, 
 the lower part of 
 which rests upon 
 the ground. The 
 vertical elevation 
 of such a device 
 is shown in the 
 accompanying fig- 
 ure (36), which 
 gives the general 
 form of the trestle 
 with its cross-brac- 
 ing, also of the 
 flume, which is 
 shown with the 
 water filling it 
 nearly to the top. 
 
 Such flumes are 
 often used across 
 rocky ground 
 where it is im- 
 practicable to dig a ditch. This is particularly 
 the case near the head, where the water is often 
 taken out from the river through a narrow, steep- 
 walled canyon. Here the foundation for a flume 
 is prepared along the rocky cliffs, supports being 
 
 FIG. 36. Vertical elevation of trestle and 
 flume. 
 
136 IRRIGATION. 
 
 devised to suit the inequalities of the ground. 
 Plate XVII, A, shows one of these flumes built 
 along a rocky hillside. 
 
 In some cases, instead of a rectangular, box-like 
 flume, a V-shaped section, shown in Fig. 48, on 
 page 184, is built, economizing lumber and obtaining 
 a greater velocity. Such flumes have been con- 
 structed mainly by lumber companies for trans- 
 porting cordwood, railroad ties, planks, and boards 
 from the mountains down to the lower lands, the 
 water being used to some extent in irrigation. A 
 better and more expensive type of flume is that 
 having a semicircular section, such as shown in 
 the accompanying view (PL XIX). These flumes 
 are built of narrow planks or staves laid side by 
 side, and held in place by iron bands run around 
 under the flume and fastened by nuts and threads, 
 by which the bands can be drawn up and the 
 staves brought together, making a tight joint. 
 
 In crossing very deep depressions it is necessary 
 to have a correspondingly high trestle, in order to 
 carry the flume across on grade. Such high tres- 
 tles are not only expensive, but are liable to de- 
 struction by storms, and in place of them have 
 been built what are known as inverted siphons or 
 wooden stave pipes. These pipes are built in a 
 manner somewhat similar to the semicircular flume, 
 being made of narrow plank carefully planed to a 
 given dimension and held in place by circular iron 
 bands or hoops. The ends of these hoops are 
 
PLATE XX. 
 
 PIPE UNDER 160-FOOT HEAD, SANTA ANA CANAL, CALIFORNIA. 
 
 B- OLD FLUME AND REDWOOD PIPE REPLACING IT, REDLANDS 
 CANAL, CALIFORNIA. 
 
INVERTED SIPHONS. 
 
 137 
 
 brought together by means of suitable screws, by 
 which the hoops can be made smaller, drawing in 
 the staves and compressing the joints. On the 
 
 Elevation. 
 
 Plan. 
 
 Cross -Section. 
 
 FIG. 37. Siphon passage for canal. 
 
 accompanying illustration (PL XX, A) one of these 
 wooden pipes is shown supported on a low trestle, 
 the ends of the iron bands appearing as projections 
 
138 IRRIGATION. 
 
 regularly arranged around the pipe. On PL XX, B, 
 is shown an old wooden flume of the ordinary type, 
 and in the foreground a redwood stave pipe 
 replacing it. A similar wooden pipe is shown on 
 PI. LI 1 1, and an open semicircular flume on PL 
 XXII, A. 
 
 Inverted siphons, whether of wood or masonry, 
 are used to carry a canal under a side channel in- 
 stead of over it. Figure 37 shows a masonry struc- 
 ture built beneath the bed of a torrential stream. 
 In the upper part of the figure is a longitudinal 
 section, the course of the water in the stream chan- 
 nel being shown by the arrows. In the middle of 
 the figure is the plan showing a dividing wall for 
 supporting the masonry roof of the inverted siphon. 
 At the bottom of the figure is a cross-section of 
 the central part of the structure, showing the siphon 
 passing under the stream through the two channels 
 formed by the dividing wall. 
 
 TUNNELS. 
 
 Where the ground is so irregular that it is im- 
 practicable to build flumes, recourse must be had to 
 tunnels. These are usually short, cutting through 
 rocky spurs. An excellent example of work of this 
 character is that along Bear River in Utah, near the 
 head of the canal taking water from the canyon 
 below Cache Valley, shown on PL LV. The 
 rocky walls are so steep that it has been found 
 necessary to excavate a canal partly in the walls 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE XXI. 
 
 A. TUNNEL ON TURLOCK CANAL, CALIFORNIA. 
 
 B. TUNNEL IN EARTH ON CROCKER-HUFFMAN CANAL. 
 
 CALIFORNIA. 
 
TUNNELS. 139 
 
 and partly piercing projecting portions, making 
 a substantial masonry structure. 
 
 Similar methods have been employed on the 
 Turlock Canal in California, where a series of short 
 tunnels alternate with open side-hill cutting as 
 shown on PI. XXI, A. Farther along the line of 
 the canal it is sometimes necessary to make an 
 underground passage to avoid a deep cut. Such 
 a tunnel is illustrated at B on the same plate, this 
 being on the Crocker-Huffman Canal, which takes 
 water from Merced River, California. This skirts 
 the base of the foothills on the south side of the 
 river, and reaches the upland above the town of 
 Merced. 
 
 These tunnels, when built through solid rock, do 
 not require lining, but in many situations they must 
 be supported by masonry or substantial brickwork, 
 although in a few instances temporary wooden sup- 
 ports are preferred. In order to increase the ve- 
 locity through the tunnel and thus reduce its area 
 for a given volume of flow, a smooth concrete lin- 
 ing is usually provided for the bottom and sides. 
 
 LINING OF CANALS. 
 
 In portions of the United States where frosts do 
 not occur to any considerable extent and where 
 water has greatest value, experience has shown 
 that it is desirable to line the ditches and canals 
 with concrete or cement, thus reducing loss by per- 
 colation and making the channel so smooth that 
 
140 
 
 IRRIGATION. 
 
 the water moves rapidly even on slight grades. 
 Often it is possible to trim the banks of the 
 ditches to a uniform surface, and this is found to 
 be sufficiently firm to serve as a foundation upon 
 which to put a layer of cement mixed with sand 
 and having a thickness of from | of an inch to i.] 
 inches. Where the bed and banks are not firm, it 
 
 t's' 
 
 i 
 
 f ft 
 
 I I 
 
 Fin. 38. Section of cement-lined ditch with stop gate. 
 
 is necessary to pave or revet them with small stone, 
 and then place upon this a coat of concrete made 
 of small gravel and sand. The economy of water 
 resulting from this careful construction has been 
 found to be sufficiently large to justify a consider- 
 able outlay. The accompanying figure (38) shows 
 a portion of a ditch lined with small stone covered 
 with cement, and in this a stop gate for the purpose 
 of regulating the flow. This gate is hung at the 
 
CEMENT LINING OF DITCHES. 141 
 
 points marked a, and can be swung up out of the 
 way when not needed to check the water and raise 
 it so that it will flow out into lateral distributing 
 ditches or furrows. 
 
 The accompanying illustration (PL XXII, B) also 
 gives a view of a portion of the Santa Ana Canal 
 in Southern California as completed, with a lining 
 of boulders roughly broken into shape and laid in 
 cement mortar. The walls were first built against 
 the sloping sides of the excavation, which was made 
 in hard clay and natural cement gravel. These 
 side slopes were generally 2 feet vertical to i hori- 
 zontal. The bottom or invert was paved and the 
 chinks were filled with coarse sand and spalls, with 
 a layer of mortar roughly bedded on top. On this 
 was laid the cement-plaster lining. The walls were 
 laid with considerable care, giving a rough surface. 
 They were from 16 to 20 inches thick on the bottom 
 and from 8 to 10 inches thick on the top. In the 
 view the width of the finished section is 12.5 feet 
 on top and 7.5 feet deep at the centre. 
 
 EROSION AND SEDIMENTATION IN CANALS. 
 
 Since the greater part of the water used in ir- 
 rigation must for economy be conducted by gravity, 
 it is necessary to consider carefully the slopes to 
 be given the conduits. This is especially true 
 where a broad valley is to be irrigated from a 
 stream whose upper course is only a few feet 
 above the general level of the land. If the grade 
 
142 IRRIGATION. 
 
 is steep, it will either be necessary to lengthen the 
 canal or to take water only to the lower land, leav- 
 ing the higher portions of the valley dry. If, on 
 the other hand, a very gentle grade is given, the 
 water will flow slowly, and a very wide canal must 
 be built to carry the necessary volume. 
 
 Equally important as the consideration of the 
 relative height of the source of the water and 
 the land to be irrigated, if not more so, are the 
 effects of the slope of the canal upon the velocity 
 of the water and the consequent cutting or filling 
 of its channel. With steep grade the water moves 
 with such rapidity as to pick up and carry along 
 fine particles, and with increasing velocity larger 
 and larger grains of sand or pebbles are moved, 
 eroding the channel and carrying the loose mate- 
 rial to points where it may be a source of annoy- 
 ance or injury. The power of the stream to cut 
 its bottom and sides increases very rapidly with 
 higher velocities. Experiments indicate that by 
 doubling the velocity of the stream its power to 
 carry is not merely doubled but is increased sixty- 
 four times ; thus a very slight change in the rate 
 at which water flows makes a very great difference 
 in its behavior as regards carrying or depositing 
 loose materials. 
 
 When, because of its great velocity, water has 
 taken up and is carrying silt, sand, or gravel, and 
 the velocity is reduced in any way, the heavier 
 particles are immediately dropped. A torrential 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE XXII. 
 
 A. SEMICIRCULAR FLUME IN SANTA ANA CANAL, CALIFORNIA. 
 
 B. CEMENT LINING OF SANTA ANA CANAL. CALIFORNIA. 
 
SEDIMENTATION. 143 
 
 stream, entering a pond or reservoir, deposits at 
 once the boulders or gravel, then the sand, this 
 being dropped a little farther on, and finally the 
 clay or silt in the broader, stiller portions. A 
 similar condition occurs in a ditch or a canal. 
 Water from the river is sometimes muddy, espe- 
 cially in times of flood. On entering the canal, 
 if the velocity is reduced at any point, some of 
 this material will settle, forming a deposit along 
 the sides or bottom. In this way the enlarged 
 portions of the canal, such as a little embayment 
 along its sides, will be gradually filled with sand 
 or mud, the tendency being for a stream of uni- 
 form grade and volume to fill in the depressions 
 or nooks along its course and to wear away pro- 
 jecting points or obstructions. 
 
 If, for a given volume of water, the cross-sec- 
 tion of a portion of a canal is too large, the velocity 
 will be checked and sediment deposited, reducing 
 the size of the channel until this reduced area 
 reacts by causing a slight increase in the velocity 
 of the water. In other words, the flowing water 
 tends to enlarge obstructions and to fill up and 
 reduce the channels which are too capacious for 
 its volume. Such a result is seen in the accom- 
 panying figure (39), where the broken lines show 
 the original slope of the ground, and also the form 
 of the canal. The flowing stream has gradually 
 deposited mud and sand on each side, as shown 
 by the dotted portions of the drawing, diminishing 
 
144 IRRIGATION. 
 
 the area of the cross-section to a point where the 
 water is forced to maintain its velocity and con- 
 tinue to carry the sediment. 
 
 " -^/***7' 
 
 "''' 
 
 FIG. 39. Cross-section of canal partly filled with sediment. 
 
 Some rivers, such as the Rio Grande, transport 
 so large a volume of earth that the canals and 
 ditches leading from the stream are quickly filled, 
 and it is necessary to clean out the mud at short 
 intervals. The view, PI. XIII, B, shows one of 
 these ditches with the mud piled high on each 
 side, the result of the annual cleaning of the ditch. 
 The cost of removing the sediment is often a 
 large item in the operating expenses. For clean- 
 ing very large canals and for enlarging them, 
 dredges have been used similar to that shown 
 on PI. XIV. These float along the canal as the 
 material is dug out from the bottom and sides. 
 By means of such a device a canal can be cleaned 
 while in use, otherwise it is necessary to shut the 
 water off and allow the bottom to become suffi- 
 ciently dry for horses and men to work in it. 
 
 If, on the other hand, the grade of a canal is 
 so steep as to erode the sides and bottom, some 
 method must be taken to prevent this, for damage 
 results in several ways. The erosion of the bot- 
 
EXCESSIVE GRADES. 145 
 
 torn gradually reduces the level of the water in the 
 ditch, and the material carried along is finally de- 
 posited at some place where it may choke the 
 ditches or cover fertile land. The removal of 
 fine material leaves the bed open and porous, 
 the water escaping by percolation. The losses in 
 this direction are prevented where the conditions 
 are such that a small amount of silt is deposited 
 and remains, filling or cementing the minute open- 
 ings through which water would otherwise escape. 
 The difficulties resulting from excessive grade of 
 a canal are remedied by building what are known 
 as "drops," two of these being shown on PL 
 XXIII. They consist of suitable arrangements 
 for the water to fall over low dams or weirs upon 
 solid rock, or into a deep pool, where the force 
 of the water will be expended without injury to the 
 canal. 
 
 For very small ditches a great slope can be 
 used, since the volume of water is not sufficient to 
 move the large particles of sand and gravel; for 
 example, on the farm lateral, carrying i or 2 sec- 
 ond-feet, a fall of 50 feet or more to the mile may 
 not be excessive, the velocity being retarded by 
 the relatively great friction. On the other ex- 
 treme, a large irrigation canal carrying 1000 sec- 
 ond-feet may be in danger of injury if a grade of 
 much over 6 inches to the mile is given it. 
 
 As a general rule it may be said that conduits 
 of this character built in common earth should be 
 
 L 
 
146 IRRIGATION. 
 
 so proportioned as to have an average velocity of 
 a little less than 3 feet per second, or 2 miles per 
 hour, when carrying their full capacity. It is nec- 
 essary, therefore, to take into consideration the 
 amount of water to be carried, and from this de- 
 duce the size and shape of the cross-section of the 
 canal or ditch, in order to obtain its velocity. 
 
 Many of the older irrigation works laid out by 
 crude devices, such as a large triangle and plumb- 
 line, have been given an excessive grade through 
 fear on the part of the builders of getting too little 
 fall. Some of these are as much as 50 feet to 
 the mile, giving a velocity of the water of 5 feet 
 per second, washing the bed of the channel and 
 leaving only a mass of cobbles. The seepage 
 through this material, even if the water is flowing 
 rapidly, has been known in one instance to be over 
 20 per cent of the total flow in a course of four 
 miles. 
 
 Where the grade of a ditch is so small that the 
 water is flowing very gently, the conditions are 
 sometimes favorable to the growth of aquatic 
 weeds or grasses. Under the bright sunlight the 
 water is warmed, and the development of these 
 plants sometimes reaches such an extent as to 
 completely fill the ditch. The water must then 
 be turned out and the plants cut and thrown out 
 upon the bank. Sometimes, where it is not pos- 
 sible to shut off the water, the weeds are raked 
 out, or even mowed under water. In any case a 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE XXIII. 
 
 A. DROP IN AN ARIZONA CANAL. 
 
 B. CHECK WEIR AND DROP. 
 
AQUATIC PLANTS. 147 
 
 considerable amount of time and labor must be 
 given to keeping these gently flowing streams free 
 from obstruction. For this reason it is desirable 
 to give ditches such a fall that they will keep 
 themselves clean and yet will not erode their bot- 
 toms. This is a difficult matter to estimate, since 
 the velocity of the water varies greatly at different 
 stages, and the soils encountered by the ditch may 
 range from gravels to the finest clays or silts. 
 
 In very muddy waters many of the aquatic 
 plants do not develop, so that there is frequently 
 an advantage in this respect, in addition to the 
 value of turbid waters in fertilizing the fields. If 
 the silt can be retained in suspension, not dropped 
 in the ditch to fill it up, and be carried out to the 
 fields of the farmer, the fine material left here on 
 the surface may have considerable value in enrich- 
 ing the soil. The muddy waters frequently carry 
 a considerable amount of organic matter and nitro- 
 gen in form available for plant use. It has been 
 estimated, from chemical analysis, that the mud 
 deposited on irrigated lands of Salt River Valley, 
 Arizona, is equivalent in richness to fertilizers 
 valued at $8 per acre. That is to say, if the irri- 
 gators of this valley were forced to purchase and 
 apply to their farms commercial fertilizer of equal 
 strength, it would cost $8 per acre. As compared 
 with clear water obtained from artesian wells, the 
 muddy water possesses certain advantages. On the 
 other hand, it frequently carries with it noxious 
 
148 IRRIGATION. 
 
 seeds, and in extreme conditions may injure young 
 vegetation by covering the leaves with slimy mud. 
 
 The greater part of the silt brought down by 
 the rivers and carried out in the ditches occurs in 
 times of flood, when there is ample supply of water, 
 and when, by running the ditches full and at high 
 velocity, the material can be carried through to 
 the fields. Later in the year the waters usually 
 become clear, unless the upper catchment basins 
 have been denuded of their grasses and shubbery 
 by overgrazing. In some localities the great 
 bands of sheep, as shown on PL VI, 7>, have so 
 completely eaten up the vegetation, and the ground 
 has been so thoroughly pulverized by the small, 
 sharp feet of the sheep, that every local rain brings 
 down great quantities of soil, filling the ditches 
 and keeping the water muddy. 
 
 The losses of water in canals through seepage 
 and evaporation are frequently very great and 
 have amounted to over one half the quantity 
 received. The evaporation losses may be reduced 
 slightly by increasing the velocity of the water, 
 and thus shortening the time in transit. Seepage 
 can be largely prevented, as above noted, by a 
 cement lining, or by the deposition of the fine silt, 
 which, when not in excess, is thus of great use and 
 value. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 RESERVOIRS. 
 
 WHEREVER lakes, ponds, or large marshes occur 
 on the head waters or along the course of a stream, 
 fluctuations of the volume are to a large extent 
 prevented. After a heavy rain the water, seeking 
 the drainage lines, tends to flow off rapidly, but 
 first fills the ponds; these overflow gradually, in- 
 creasing the volume of the river, so that, instead 
 of passing off as a violent flood of a few hours' 
 duration, the storm results in the gradually in- 
 creasing flow of a large volume of water in the 
 river through days or even weeks. 
 
 The natural regulation of the flow can be fur- 
 ther improved by placing obstructions at the out- 
 lets of these ponds, in order to hold the water 
 when not needed in the river below. This has 
 been done to a considerable extent for water- 
 power development and for mining purposes. 
 Natural lakes are, however, comparatively rare on 
 the head waters of most streams useful in irriga- 
 tion. Among the high mountains, especially 
 under the peaks from which glaciers have issued, 
 there are some ponds whose outlets can be closed 
 
 149 
 
150 IRRIGATION. 
 
 at small expense ; but the water coming from 
 these is almost insignificant in comparison with 
 that which occurs lower down. 
 
 In the course of a river issuing from mountains, 
 there are occasionally found broad valleys from 
 which the water escapes through narrow canyons. 
 These have resulted from the erosion of soft rocks, 
 or more often from the disturbance of the drainage 
 due to the uplifting of a part of the earth's 
 crust, or by the outpouring of lava, or the forma- 
 tion of basaltic dykes. 
 
 It is apparent that, by closing the outlets of 
 some of these valleys, the processes of nature can 
 be imitated in regulating the flow of the streams. 
 The flood waters can be held behind the artificial 
 barrier, such as that shown on PL XXIV, and let 
 out through gates whenever needed for power or 
 for watering agricultural lands. At first sight it 
 appears to be an easy matter to accomplish this, 
 and throughout the arid region there are reported 
 to be innumerable localities suitable for water stor- 
 age. An examination of these, however, leads to 
 many disappointments, as there must be a combi- 
 nation of several features to insure the practica- 
 bility of reservoir construction. 
 
 REQUIREMENTS FOR WATER STORAGE. 
 
 The requirements for successful water storage 
 on any considerable scale are : an abundance of 
 water to be stored, capacity in which to hold this, 
 
WATER STORAGE. 151 
 
 favorable situation for a dam, and suitable material 
 for its construction, and also reasonable cost of 
 labor, material, and land, if any is purchased for 
 right of way or flooding. 
 
 The amount of water to be stored should in all 
 cases be ascertained in advance by careful meas- 
 urements made through a number of seasons at the 
 point where the water is to be held. Disappoint- 
 ment and financial loss have resulted from assum- 
 ing that there will undoubtedly be plenty of water, 
 or by taking the statements of the " oldest inhabit- 
 ants " to this effect. It is impossible to judge by 
 the eye as to the volume of a flood. One which is 
 particularly destructive and impressive in its appar- 
 ent magnitude may, upon careful measurement, be 
 found to have discharged an amount far less than 
 anticipated. The intensity of the flood, or rapidity 
 with which it moves, often gives an exaggerated 
 idea of its volume. 
 
 Many serious blunders have been made because 
 of lack of definite information concerning the water 
 supply. Persons dwelling along the bank of a 
 stream often entertain absurd notions concerning 
 the quantity flowing at ordinary or high stages. 
 They have no means of forming a correct concep- 
 tion of volume, and will confidently assert that 
 there is enough water to irrigate a million acres, 
 when, as a matter of fact, there may be sufficient 
 for only ten thousand. The investor, and even the 
 engineer visiting the locality, may become infected 
 
152 IRRIGATION. 
 
 with this optimistic spirit, and consider useless any 
 further delay or expenditure to ascertain the fluctua- 
 tions of the stream. Being impatient to begin work, 
 they will take the statements of the people, and 
 base their plans upon these. 
 
 In a well-known instance of the construction of 
 a large storage dam which was under consideration 
 for ten years or more, no measurements of volume 
 of water were made, but when the constructing en- 
 gineers were employed they were assured that the 
 stream at that time was at a low stage. It was 
 then carrying 2000 second-feet As a matter of 
 fact, it was really in moderate flood, and the low- 
 water flow, six months earlier or later, was less 
 than one-tenth of this quantity. The structure was 
 planned and built without further delay, as the 
 engineers did not consider that they had any 
 duties beyond putting up the desired structure ; 
 but when finished, disappointment and loss of in- 
 vestment resulted, it being then found that there 
 was not enough water. 
 
 The actual capacity of a proposed reservoir site 
 is also often found to be disappointing upon care- 
 ful survey. In going into the mountains where 
 the slopes are steep, the eye is misled as to slight 
 inclinations of surface. Valleys which seem to be 
 flat are often found, when a levelling instrument is 
 used, to be decidedly inclined, and instead of a 
 dam 100 feet high backing up the water three 
 miles, as at first estimated, it is not unusual to 
 
RESERVOIR CAPACITY. 
 
 153 
 
 discover that the 
 water will be ponded 
 for a distance of 
 only one mile. In 
 short, many locali- 
 ties which upon the 
 first search are 
 thought to be desir- 
 able are la- 
 ter found 
 to have less 
 capacity 
 than antic- 
 ipated. It is essential, there- 
 fore, to follow the preliminary 
 examination by mapping each 
 proposed reservoir site. 
 
 The accompanying draw- 
 ing (Fig. 40) shows in re- 
 duced form a map of this 
 character. The Land Office 
 lines are shown by the rec- 
 tangles, each of these indicat- 
 ing forty acres. Four of 
 these make a quarter-section. 
 The centre of each whole 
 section is indicated by the 
 symbols, Sec. 4, Sec. 5, etc. 
 The dam site is in the lower 
 right-hand corner of the draw- 
 
 FIG. 40. Map of a reservoir. 
 
154 IRRIGATION. 
 
 ing, where the contour lines come closely together, 
 indicating a steep, narrow outlet. The first or 
 lowest contour shows the location of all points 
 10 feet above the stream at the dam site. The 
 next contour, marked 20 feet, gives points 20 
 feet above the bottom, or which form the shore 
 when the reservoir is filled to a depth of 20 feet. 
 The highest contour is 75 feet, and indicates the 
 outline of the reservoir when filled to this depth. 
 Where the contours run together the banks are 
 steep, and where they are far apart the slope is 
 gentle. From a map of this character it is possi- 
 ble to ascertain the area and capacity of the reser- 
 voir for all depths. 
 
 If there is plenty of water, and a place in which 
 to hold it, the next question is the feasibility of 
 building a dam. Every consideration demands 
 that this structure should be made absolutely safe, 
 and therefore the most substantial masonry is 
 usually recommended. This must be founded 
 upon bed rock and extended at each side into the 
 solid walls of the canyon or gorge. 
 
 Where a river escapes from a valley through a 
 narrow rocky cut, it might be and frequently is 
 assumed that the water would keep this gorge 
 washed clean and flow over bed rock, but this is 
 rarely the case. At present, in the arid regions, 
 the bottoms of nearly all the canyons are filled to 
 a considerable depth with loose material. In the 
 earlier ages the rivers, probably having more 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE XXIV. 
 
FOUNDATIONS OF DAMS. 155 
 
 water, cut down into solid rock, and later, receiving 
 a less supply, became overloaded with gravel and 
 boulders during flood time, and have left these 
 scattered all along the course, even in the narrow- 
 est places. This deposit of gravel and boulders, 
 some of them weighing tons, usually has a thick- 
 ness of from 20 to 100 feet or more. The founda- 
 tion of a masonry dam must extend beneath all 
 of this loose material, and the greater part of the 
 expense is often incurred on that portion of the 
 structure which is out of sight beneath the surface. 
 
 The clearing out of the debris in order to place 
 the foundation upon bed rock offers many difficul- 
 ties, since the stream must be passed over or 
 around the work, and the latter kept sufficiently 
 dry for the quarrying and stone-laying to proceed. 
 With a depth of 50 feet or more, the cost of con- 
 trolling the water, especially if floods occur, may 
 become so great as to be prohibitory to the enter- 
 prise. The bed rock itself may be weak or partly 
 disintegrated, and all of this loose or seamy mate- 
 rial must be taken out to insure a perfectly water- 
 tight joint. 
 
 In carrying up the masonry structure from the 
 bottom, a trench is cut into the side walls as far as 
 open fissures or cracks extend, and care taken to 
 make such a perfect joint between the dam and 
 the rock that no leaks may occur. A small amount 
 of water working its way under or around the dam 
 will sooner or later wear out or dissolve a large 
 
156 IRRIGATION. 
 
 hole and weaken the structure, if it does not de- 
 stroy it. 
 
 Besides these fundamental requirements there 
 are others, such as cost of cement, which is largely 
 governed by the distance it must be hauled from 
 the main line of railroad, facilities for obtaining 
 labor, and the value of the land or other property 
 taken for the reservoir and dam site. All of these 
 items must be carefully considered in connection 
 with the value of the water when stored. This 
 latter item is dependent upon the kind of crops to 
 be raised and similar considerations. When all of 
 these matters have been taken into account, out 
 of a dozen reservoir sites considered, there is usu- 
 ally only one or two which can be recommended 
 for construction. 
 
 KEEPING RESERVOIRS CLEAN. 
 
 There is still another item which must be recog- 
 nized in some parts of the country, and this is the 
 cost of removing silt from the reservoir. The 
 floods bring down great quantities of material 
 washed from the hills, rolling down boulders, 
 gravel, sand, and clay, all of which may be caught 
 in the reservoir. The boulders and gravel do not 
 travel far at a time, and are usually soon deposited ; 
 but sand and especially fine clayey particles are 
 often carried out into the reservoir, tending to fill 
 it. Some of this material will remain in suspen- 
 sion and be drawn off, some can be washed out 
 
SILT IN RESERVOIRS. 157 
 
 through or over the dam, while the remainder 
 must be removed by hydraulic dredges or similar 
 devices. The necessity for cleaning out a storage 
 reservoir has not yet been demonstrated by actual 
 filling of any in the United States, but this is a 
 contingency worthy of consideration. 
 
 The difficulties which may arise from the ac- 
 cumulation of sediment in a reservoir have been a 
 source of needless alarm to persons who have given 
 slight attention to the matter. The work of remov- 
 ing silt has been exaggerated by persons who, for 
 one reason or another, wish to bring about delay 
 in the beginning of construction of storage works 
 by the government. There is no question that in 
 some cases the accumulation of silt will become a 
 source of annoyance and expense, but not an insu- 
 perable obstacle. The condition is somewhat analo- 
 gous to that in railroad construction. It might be 
 argued in advance that a railroad could not possi- 
 bly be operated more than ten years, because at 
 the end of that time all of the wooden ties upon 
 which the rails are laid would be rotten and unsafe, 
 and the rails must be all taken up and relaid, with 
 great expense and delay. Experience, however, 
 has shown that, although railroad ties do decay, 
 they can be replaced without disturbing traffic. 
 In the same way it can be shown that the silt ac- 
 cumulating in a reservoir can be removed from 
 time to time. 
 
 Most of the reservoirs in which silt is liable to 
 
158 IRRIGATION. 
 
 accumulate are so situated that water is drawn 
 from some point near the bottom, so that much of 
 the silt, especially that near the dam, will be drawn 
 out when water is taken for irrigation. The finer 
 silt in the water in a large reservoir is kept in sus- 
 pension almost indefinitely by wave motion and 
 currents, the lighter particles floating for weeks, 
 and even months. That portion of the sediment 
 which has settled on the bottom is very easily dis- 
 turbed ; and when water is being drawn out of the 
 reservoir, a stirring of the bottom by a dredge or 
 other device will cause much of the material to 
 rise and be carried off. 
 
 As the water in a reservoir is drawn down, ex- 
 posing the mud banks, it is practicable to bring 
 the incoming stream at the upper end around the 
 top contour of the reservoir in suitably constructed 
 ditches, and then turn the water down, washing 
 out the mud banks either by the stream flowing 
 across them or by confining the water in pipes 
 and cutting out the accumulation of debris by 
 hydraulic giants similar to those used in placer 
 mining or in hydraulic construction, as shown on 
 Pis. XXVIII and XXIX. An enormous amount 
 of the light dirt can thus be moved at very small 
 cost and run out through the lower gates of the 
 reservoir. 
 
 Another way proposed for keeping reservoirs 
 clean is by means of floating dredges, particularly 
 those which pump up the mud by suction and 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE XXV. 
 
 
 A. LAGR. 
 
 .ETED. 
 
 B LAGRANGE DAM. WITH FLOOD PASSING OVER CREST AND 
 SPILLWAYS. 
 
CLEANING RESERVOIRS. 159 
 
 deliver it into pipes conveying it to the shore. 
 Such dredges can be operated by electric power 
 generated by a small portion of the water drawn 
 from the reservoir for use in irrigation. By such 
 means, adapted to the local conditions, it is prac- 
 ticable to keep a reservoir clean just as other 
 public works are kept in order. All great struc- 
 tures, whether for river and harbor improvement 
 or for other purposes, require a certain amount of 
 attention, and the fact that continual and intelli- 
 gent care is needed for storage reservoirs cannot 
 be used as an argument against their success. 
 
 MASONRY DAMS. 
 
 The oldest and most substantial structures for 
 holding water are those built of masonry. The 
 form of a dam of this character is shown in the 
 accompanying figure (41), which is typical of a con- 
 siderable number of works in the United States 
 and in Europe. This is a section of the masonry 
 dam in Tuolumne River, a short distance above La 
 Grange, California. The dimensions are indicated, 
 the thickness near the botton being 84 feet and the 
 height nearly 120 feet. The stones composing 
 the dam have been carefully set in cement, and 
 those on the outer face have been cut to fit one an- 
 other. A general view of this dam with the water 
 pouring over it is shown on PI. XXV. A plan is 
 also given in Fig. 42, the direction of the water 
 being indicated by the arrow. 
 
i6o 
 
 IRRIGATION. 
 
 On the right is the head of the Modesto Canal. 
 The excess water entering the canal is allowed to 
 escape over a long concrete spillway wall. Beyond 
 this are waste gates, and then the regulator, which 
 
 Extreme. &W 
 
 FlG. 41. Section of masonry dam at La Grange, California. 
 
 permits the desired quantity to enter the canal. 
 On the left is indicated the position of the Turlock 
 Canal, which comes out from a tunnel, the size of 
 this regulating the amount which can enter the 
 canal. 
 
MASONRY DAMS. 
 
 161 
 
 Structures of this kind, when well built, may be 
 considered absolutely safe. There are, however, a 
 number of precautions to be taken, which, if neg- 
 
 Fie. 42. Plan of dam at La Grange, California. 
 
 M 
 
162 IRRIGATION. 
 
 lected, may be fatal, as shown by a few accidents 
 which have occurred. The most notable of these 
 in recent times is the failure of the Austin Dam 
 in Texas, views of which are shown on PL XXVI. 
 The upper picture is of the dam, looking across 
 Colorado River toward the power house above the 
 city of Austin. The lower view is from the oppo- 
 site direction and shows the fragments of the dam 
 immediately after its failure during the flood of 
 April 7, 1900. At that time water to the depth 
 of 1 1 feet was pouring over the top. Apparently 
 a section of about 500 feet in length slid forward. 
 This has been attributed to various causes, but 
 the general explanation is, that beneath the dam 
 was a layer of soft rock into which water pen- 
 etrated during the flood, tending to float the dam, 
 and weakened its strength to such an extent 
 that it slid forward upon the yielding surface. 
 This dam was located at a point of disturbance of 
 the bedded limestone, and in the vicinity of what 
 is known by geologists as a fault or zone of frac- 
 ture, so that leaks or so-called springs appeared 
 below the dam at one end, these being doubtless 
 due to water finding its way into the shattered 
 rocks and out at the first point of escape. 
 
 ROCK-FILLED DAMS. 
 
 Besides the masonry dams carefully laid by 
 hand, a number of rock structures have been built 
 in which the attempt has been made to lessen 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE XXVI. 
 
 A. DAM AT AUSTIN, TEXAS; LOOKING TOWARD POWER HOUSE. 
 
 B. PORTIONS OF AUSTIN DAM IMMEDIATELY AFTER FAILURE. 
 
ROCK-FILLED DAMS. 163 
 
 the expense by throwing in the stone, letting 
 them take such position as they will, not filling the 
 interstices with cement. These are known as rock- 
 filled dams. The upper face must be made water- 
 tight by an impervious wall of masonry, wood, or 
 metal. The pile of rock behind this face serves 
 to hold it in place and prevent it from being washed 
 away. It is necessary to provide such structures 
 with ample wasteways, so that the waters will not 
 overflow the top and wash out the loose rock, 
 weakening the structure. This has happened in 
 the case of the Walnut Grove Dam in Arizona, 
 where a sudden severe storm or cloudburst over- 
 topped the structure, washed out the loose rock 
 which held up the impervious face, and allowed 
 the entire volume in the reservoir to burst out, 
 overwhelming the settlements below. 
 
 When a person is standing on the side of a deep 
 canyon, the thought occurs : Why not throw down 
 a part of the walls of the canyon by means of 
 enormous blasts, and allow the material to choke 
 up the bottom of the gorge, and thus pond the 
 water back and overflow the valley above ? This 
 experiment has been tried, and great quantities 
 of rock have been thrown into a stream channel 
 by titanic explosions of dynamite. The difficulty 
 encountered, however, has been that the water 
 quickly finds a way through this mass of loose 
 material, and cannot be held for a sufficient length 
 of time to repay the cost of outlay. 
 
164 IRRIGATION. 
 
 It is necessary to provide some form of impervi- 
 ous wall in the loose rock, or a tight cover at its 
 upper face. To construct this after the material is 
 in place is exceedingly difficult, since the accumu- 
 lated rock tends to hold back the water and inter- 
 fere with the construction of the retaining wall.. 
 
 In southern California several dams have been 
 successfully constructed by a modification of this 
 method, these being at localities where the flowing 
 water has not been sufficient in quantity to inter- 
 fere with the work. Chief among these are the 
 Morena Lower Otay dams, easterly from the 
 city of San Diego. After the heavy explosions, 
 the ground immediately above the rock heap was 
 cleaned away to bed rock and a concrete base pre- 
 pared for the insertion of a steel plate. This plate 
 was continued upward across the narrow canyon, 
 being protected on each side by a thin layer of as- 
 phaltum and a thickness of concrete against this. 
 On both sides of the plate was placed the loose 
 rock (PL XXVII, A\ this being lifted and deposited 
 in position by means of derricks and overhead 
 cables. The completed structure consists of a 
 substantial pile of rock, the impervious steel plate 
 preventing leakage. 
 
 As indicated by the preceding statements, the 
 most desirable structures for holding water are those 
 built of substantial masonry. It occasionally hap- 
 pens, however, that dams of this kind cannot be 
 built for lack of suitable material conveniently 
 
STEEL-CORE AND TIMBER DAMS. 165 
 
 located, and other forms of structure must be 
 considered. For this purpose earth, timber, iron, 
 and steel are sometimes employed. Steel has 
 been used through the interior of a dam, as just 
 noted, and also for the entire structure, strength 
 being given, not by the weight of rock, but by a 
 system of bracing similar to that employed in ships 
 and great buildings. There is no difficulty as to 
 the original strength, but doubt has arisen in the 
 minds of many engineers as to the permanence of 
 the work, because of the possible effects of rust 
 or other forms of deterioration. 
 
 Timber dams are widely used, especially for lum- 
 bering operations and for mill purposes. These 
 have been built in great numbers upon rivers flow- 
 ing from forested regions, where timber is plentiful. 
 They are usually of relatively low height, and con- 
 sist of logs framed to form cribs, these being filled 
 with large stones and thus held in place. The 
 upper face of these dams is covered with a sheath- 
 ing of planks, making the dams nearly water-tight. 
 
 Timber or log structures of this kind are used to 
 a small extent in the arid region, but they are tem- 
 porary expedients, resorted to with the idea of 
 replacing them by better works as soon as the 
 irrigators acquire the means with which to make 
 a more substantial dam. As used for this purpose, 
 they are for the most part at the outlets of small 
 natural lakes, partly closing these and raising the 
 water at the time of the spring floods. These 
 
166 IRRIGATION. 
 
 timber dams are designed to accomplish the de- 
 sired end temporarily at the least possible cost. 
 A view of one of these -temporary dams is given 
 on PL XXVII, />. 
 
 EARTH DAMS. 
 
 Earth is largely used for holding water in locali- 
 ties such as those upon the edge of the Great Plains, 
 where there are broad basins or shallow depressions 
 into which water can be taken from local floods. 
 It is usually necessary to provide a very long and 
 relatively low bank to increase the storage capacity 
 of these basins, as in this situation there is rarely 
 any rock or timber. Earth must, therefore, be 
 used, carefully compacted and piled up in such 
 quantities that the water cannot seep through. 
 
 Percolation through an earth bank is prevented 
 by carefully preparing the foundations, to secure a 
 perfect union between the underlying earth and 
 the material placed upon it. All loose soil and 
 vegetal matter must be removed from the foun- 
 dation of the earth bank, and along the centre a 
 deep trench dug. This trench is then filled with 
 clay, carefully worked into place. This is designed 
 to cut off the water which otherwise might seep 
 beneath the foundations. The clay or puddled wall 
 is continued upward through the centre of the dam, 
 forming an impervious sheet, which prevents any 
 leaks from extending through to the lower side. 
 The preparation of this puddled wall requires great- 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE XXVII. 
 
 A. LOWER OTAY DAM, CALIFORNIA, SHOWING METHOD OF PRO- 
 TECTING STEEL PLATES. 
 
 B. CONSTRUCTION OF TIMBER DAM AT BLUE LAKES, CALIFORNIA. 
 
EARTH DAMS. 167 
 
 est care and attention, as upon it depends largely 
 the safety of the structure. A leak once started 
 through an earth dam may enlarge rapidly, the 
 flowing water eating away the loose material with 
 increasing rapidity. 
 
 Ample provision must be made to prevent the 
 possibility of the water overtopping the bank at 
 any point, as this is easily eroded and would be 
 washed away in a few hours. To do this, a broad 
 wasteway is usually cut across a portion of the 
 natural rim of the basin, this being several feet 
 lower than the top of the artificial bank. By pro- 
 viding a broad place of escape across hard, undis- 
 turbed material, a sudden flood can be released 
 before it overtops the embankment. 
 
 Outlets for such reservoirs are sometimes pro- 
 vided at the lowest point in the dam, especial care 
 being taken to make this point of weakness as 
 strong as possible. It has been found preferable 
 in some instances to tunnel through some other 
 part of the basin rather than to run the risk of 
 leakage around or along an outlet built in the arti- 
 ficial bank itself. 
 
 Earth reservoirs of large capacity have been 
 built in this way, and also innumerable small ponds 
 or tanks for stock water or for irrigating gardens 
 and orchards. These tanks are made from 100 to 
 500 feet in width, and are frequently filled with 
 water by means of one or more windmills, as 
 described on page 268. They are frequently made 
 
1 68 IRRIGATION. 
 
 on the surface of the ground by scraping the earth 
 from the outside, depositing this carefully in lay- 
 ers, and wetting and rolling, or trampling, it firmly 
 into place. The banks thus built have a slope on 
 
 FIG. 43. Portion of earth reservoir showing outlet. 
 
 each side of at least I \ or 2 feet horizontal to I ver- 
 tical. The layers of dirt are so placed as to be lower 
 in the centre of the wall, the finer material being, 
 if possible, kept here as each layer is put into place 
 or still better, a puddled wall of clay is put through 
 the centre of the dirt bank. 
 
 These tanks may be either circular or rectan- 
 gular in outline. An outlet is usually provided at 
 the lowest point by inserting a substantial masonry 
 or tile drain with gate, or a stout wooden box, care 
 being taken to compact the earth around the out- 
 let. 
 
 Frequently when a small reservoir of this kind 
 has been completed, it leaks so rapidly that the 
 water disappears before it can be used. It is then 
 necessary to puddle the bottom with fine earth or 
 clay, sometimes straw and stable manure being 
 used. Cattle, horses, sheep, or goats are turned 
 into the reservoir, and are fed there or kept moving 
 
SiMALL EARTH RESERVOIRS. 
 
 169 
 
 around, trampling the muddy bottom until it has 
 been completely worked over. In this way it is 
 soon rendered water-tight, especially if fine silt or 
 muddy water is kept in the reservoir for some time. 
 
 ^?S^ 
 FIG. 44. Portion of earth reservoir showing inlet. 
 
 The illustrations, Figs. 45, 49, and 50, show 
 easily constructed devices for an outlet and gate 
 for one of these small reservoirs. It is usual to 
 construct this outlet of boards or plank, in the form 
 of a long box from 8 to 18 inches in width and 
 height. For permanence it is preferable to use a 
 
 FIG. 45. Section of reservoir bank showing outlet. 
 
 pipe of metal or cement, but the cheaper wooden 
 outlet will suffice for a number of years. Around 
 this outlet the clay and fine earth is very carefully 
 packed to prevent leaks. On the upper end of 
 the outlet is placed some form of gate or a simple 
 
I/O IRRIGATION. 
 
 hinged cover, as shown in Fig. 45, with a 
 handle reaching above the water to a point con- 
 venient of access. 
 
 The top of these reservoir banks is usually made 
 at least 2 feet in width. If, therefore, the bank is 
 to be 5 feet high, the slopes on each side should 
 extend out at least /| feet, making the width of the 
 bank at the bottom 17 feet. Earth for building 
 the wall should not, as a rule, be taken from inside 
 the reservoir, as this disturbs the natural surface 
 and tends to increase the leaks. 
 
 The banks of reservoirs made of earth must be 
 protected from washing by the waves, by being 
 covered either with sod in the case of small tanks 
 or ponds on a farm, as shown in PI. XLIII, or 
 with a heavy, well-laid revetment of stone for 
 larger works. An efficient form of protection is 
 made by roughly weaving willow twigs into a mat 
 held in place by stone or earth. In course of time 
 the willows take root and hold the bank from 
 erosion. 
 
 HYDRAULIC DAMS. 
 
 An ingenious method of constructing earth dams 
 for reservoirs has been practised in the West, the 
 method being suggested by the operations of the 
 miners for placer gold. Small particles of this 
 precious metal have been found scattered through 
 gravels which formerly were a portion of ancient 
 stream channels. To obtain these small flakes or 
 larger nuggets the gravel is washed, the heavy 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE XXVIII. 
 
 A. BUILDING DAM BY HYDRAULIC PROCESS AT SANTA FE, NEW 
 MEXICO, SHOWING HYDRAULIC GIANT IN USE. 
 
 .DING DAM BY HYDRAULIC PROCESS AT SANTA FE. NEW 
 MEXICO, SHOWING OUTLET PIPE. 
 
HYDRAULIC DAMS. I/I 
 
 particles settling, and the gold being caught in 
 blankets or seized upon by mercury suitably held 
 in tiny pockets beneath the moving stream of water 
 carrying the sand and gravel. To bring the gravel 
 to the point where the gold can be obtained it has 
 been customary to arrange devices by which a 
 column of water under heavy pressure can be 
 directed against the bank or deposit where the 
 gold is supposed to exist. By means of ditches, 
 flumes, or other conduits, water is brought from 
 some mountain stream and led out to a point where 
 it can be conducted by a pipe downhill, finally ter- 
 minating in a nozzle, forming part of what is known 
 as a " giant." The stream directed by the giant 
 strikes with tremendous force, as shown on Pis. 
 XXVIII, A, and XXIX, cutting its way into hills 
 of sand, clay, and small boulders, tearing these out 
 and throwing them aside, the waste water washing 
 them away and assorting the material according to 
 its size and weight. 
 
 In placer mining the debris thus resulting was 
 formerly allowed to accumulate in the stream chan- 
 nels, and, being washed down by floods, was piled 
 up in the lower valleys, filling the beds of the 
 streams, interfering with navigation, and causing 
 the rivers to overflow their banks, carrying mud, 
 sand, and often stones far out over fertile land 
 and ruining thousands of farms. Because of the 
 destruction thus wrought, this form of mining 
 has been prohibited by law, except in localities 
 
1/2 IRRIGATION. 
 
 where the debris can be impounded and kept away 
 from the rivers. 
 
 The amount of material transported in this way 
 is very great, and it occurred to engineers that 
 this method might be put to other purposes. Ac- 
 cordingly, instead of turning the debris loose to 
 follow the stream channels, it has been carefully 
 conducted to the designated spot, and the accumu- 
 lation there so arranged that a symmetrical pile 
 will be formed of any desired shape. For example, 
 if an earth dam is to be built, the material rolled 
 along by the water is carried in suitable flumes to 
 the selected spot. On leaving the flume the small 
 boulders and coarse gravel are at once deposited ; 
 the sand flows on farther, and the fine mud is 
 carried in suspension for considerable distances. 
 It is thus possible to deposit the coarse gravel on 
 the outer slope of the dam, and, by raising the 
 sides, cause the finer material to be laid down in 
 the centre of the dam, thus making a uniform 
 gradation in coarseness from a central impervious 
 wall of clay out to the heavy coating of gravel on 
 the upper and lower side of the dam. The sym- 
 metrical form can be easily preserved by shifting 
 the point of outlet, and thus a structure is made 
 of the exact shape called for by the plans. The 
 material, being deposited under water, is thoroughly 
 compacted, and there is less danger of settlement 
 or of porous layers being formed than in the case 
 of dirt placed by carts or scrapers. 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE XXIX. 
 
 EXCAVATING DEEP CUT FOR CANAL BY HYDRAULIC PROCESS- 
 
HYDRAULIC DAMS. 173 
 
 The speed and small cost at which material can 
 thus be moved are extraordinary, the actual expense 
 being stated to be from four to eight cents or more 
 per cubic yard, according to conditions or the ease 
 of obtaining the necessary proportion of clay, sand, 
 and gravel. A number of dams have been con- 
 structed in this way, the most notable being in 
 California and in Texas. In a few instances, par- 
 ticularly on the Canadian Pacific and Northern 
 Pacific railway, large cuts have been made through 
 hills of gravel and clay, the material being washed 
 out and deposited to form embankments. 
 
 Plate XXVIII, A, illustrates the process of 
 breaking up the soil above and near a dam which 
 was begun near Santa Fe, New Mexico. The 
 stream from the hydraulic giant, after tearing out 
 the gravel, sand, and clay, washes these into pipes, 
 the lower of which is shown on the same plate at B. 
 Here the material is deposited to form the dam. 
 On the next illustration (PL XXIX) are shown 
 two streams making a cut through a ridge, this 
 being on the line of the Turlock Canal in Cali- 
 fornia. The cost of the excavation was 3 1 cents 
 per cubic yard, and this was reduced by the value 
 of the gold found, amounting to 4 cents per yard. 
 
 STORED WATERS. 
 
 The control of water which has been held in 
 reservoirs is, by custom and law, governed by regu- 
 lations different from those governing water taken 
 
1/4 IRRIGATION. 
 
 directly from a flowing stream. It is considered 
 that the water thus held for a specific tract belongs 
 to the person or association owning the reservoir, 
 and is subject to the control of the owners. It is 
 not, strictly speaking, property, but the persons 
 owning the reservoir become owners of the water 
 only when it is segregated from the waters belong- 
 ing to the public and held for use on land, to which 
 the right to the use of the water attaches. Its com- 
 plete utilization is, moreover, to a large extent 
 dependent upon the situation of the reservoir with 
 respect to the lands to be irrigated. 
 
 Most reservoirs can be considered as belonging 
 to one or the other of two classes : those situated 
 near the head of the stream, and those lower down 
 upon the plains. The head-water reservoirs receive 
 their supply directly from melting snow or rain, 
 being for the most part located upon the upper 
 tributaries. Water from them must be taken back 
 into the natural channel, and, mingling with the 
 stream, flow downward for many miles, passing 
 the heads of various ditches, until it reaches the 
 canal for which it is destined. 
 
 The other class of reservoirs are those among 
 the foothills or out on the plains where depres- 
 sions have been found suitable for holding water 
 in the vicinity of the irrigable farms. The supply 
 is taken to these by means of large feeder canals 
 heading on the river and receiving the flood flow 
 or the surplus at times when not needed for direct 
 
STORED WATERS. 1/5 
 
 irrigation. From these low-lying reservoirs water 
 is conducted to the fields without mingling with 
 other water in a natural channel. 
 
 It is apparent that the control of these two 
 classes of works offers a wide difference in theory 
 and in practice. In the case of the high-level res- 
 ervoirs, the problem after the water is stored is to 
 get it safely to the land. With the low-level res- 
 ervoirs, on the contrary, the chief difficulty is to 
 bring water into the reservoir. After it is there, 
 it may be considered as removed from interference. 
 
 As a rule, reservoirs are not built until after the 
 natural flow of a stream has been entirely appro- 
 priated arid more land brought under irrigation 
 than can be supplied. Then comes a time when 
 water must be had and steps are taken to supply 
 the deficiency. If suitable sites are found on the 
 head waters, dams are built and water is held for 
 the benefit of the lands under a particular ditch, or 
 belonging to an association of farmers. When the 
 dry season of the year occurs, a quantity of water 
 is allowed to flow from the reservoir into the nat- 
 ural channel. If this channel were a closed pipe 
 with all outlets guarded, the same amount of water 
 could be taken out below that is turned in above ; 
 but, owing to evaporation and other causes, there 
 may be considerable losses along the stream, and 
 allowance must be made for these. 
 
 A further complication is that at this time of 
 year most of the ditches along the stream are 
 
1/6 IRRIGATION. 
 
 short of water. Some of them claim the entire flow 
 of the stream at the point of diversion, and leave 
 their head gates open to catch occasional floods. 
 There is no way to distinguish the water which comes 
 from the reservoir from that of a local rainstorm, 
 and by accident, if not by design, much of this may 
 be taken at one point or another. Even if a ditch 
 has claim only to a certain volume of flow or a 
 certain portion of the stream, there is always oppor- 
 tunity for dispute as to the quantitative relation 
 which the stored water bears to the natural flow. 
 A condition frequently arises under which the 
 ditches heading highest on the river % obtain by 
 chance more than their share of the natural flow 
 during the time when the water is coming from 
 the reservoir. The owners below endeavor to 
 take out the amount to which they are entitled, and 
 controversy at once arises whether the water at any 
 given point is stored water or the natural flow. 
 Unless every head gate is watched, there is a 
 tendency for the water from the reservoir to dis- 
 appear at one point or another. If belonging to 
 a ditch low on the river, very little of it comes 
 down. If, on the other hand, the owners succeed 
 in obtaining as high as 80 or 90 per cent of the 
 quantity turned out of the reservoir, their success 
 is usually due to the most strenuous exertions, and 
 is accompanied by the belief on the part of other 
 ditch owners that they have somehow been robbed 
 of what is due them. 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE XXX. 
 
 SKYLINE CANAL, DIVERTING WATER ACROSS THE MOUNTAINS. 
 
DISTRIBUTION OF STORED WATERS. 177 
 
 Because of the controversies involved, and the 
 practical difficulties of distributing waters stored in 
 the upper part of the catchment basin of a river 
 system, it is believed by many that such storage 
 should be permitted only for the benefit of all irri- 
 gators, and not for any particular owner or group 
 of farmers. Natural reservoir sites should be 
 dedicated to public use and the water held in them 
 employed in maintaining the flow of the stream 
 during the low season, being taken out in accord- 
 ance with local customs or equities. Only in this 
 way can the largest benefits result from works of 
 this character. 
 
 The supply for low-lying reservoirs is taken 
 from the natural streams by canals, which in one 
 sense compete with others along the river. These 
 canals may be employed during the irrigating 
 season to take water directly to the fields, and 
 when other ditches are closed they receive the 
 waste water and take it to the reservoirs, where it 
 is held over until times of need. In early spring, 
 also, they often carry water both to the reservoir 
 and to the fields when there is ample for both pur- 
 poses. Priorities to use of water for irrigation 
 and for storage are the cause of frequent disputes, 
 due to the gradually increasing demand for water 
 for direct irrigation, and the resulting encroach- 
 ments upon the quantities which previously have 
 been available for storage. 
 
 The available water supply along a stream may, 
 
1/8 IRRIGATION. 
 
 in some localities, be increased not only by stor- 
 age, but also by bringing, around or through a 
 divide, the head-water streams which flow in other 
 directions. For example, on the east side of the 
 Rocky Mountains, in Colorado, all of the water is 
 needed for irrigation. On the west side the 
 streams are more than sufficient to supply the 
 land in the narrow valleys. In a number of cases 
 ditches have been taken from some stream flowing 
 westerly, and these have been carried around or 
 by tunnels through rocky spurs, dropping water 
 finally on the east side of the range and thus 
 increasing the flow. Occasionally this has been 
 done to the detriment of irrigators lower down the 
 stream thus diverted, but, as a rule, works of this 
 character have been highly beneficial. One of 
 these ditches winding around the mountain sum- 
 mits is shown on the accompanying plate (XXX). 
 This is known as the Sky Line ditch, built at an 
 altitude of 10,000 feet, which takes water from one 
 of the upper tributaries of the Laramie River and 
 diverts it to Cache la Poudre Valley, Colorado. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 METHODS OF IRRIGATION. 
 
 THE devices and structures described on pre- 
 ceding pages are for the purpose of bringing 
 water to the highest point of the field of the 
 farmer, so that he will be able to conduct this by 
 easy channels to the plants requiring moisture. The 
 methods of doing this are diverse, depending upon 
 the climate, soil, and crop, and especially upon 
 the skill and experience of the irrigator. In this 
 respect there has been little scientific information 
 available. While methods of conserving and con- 
 ducting water have been improved under the stimu- 
 lus of modern invention, the application of water 
 to the soil has been left to experience gained 
 largely by accident and through failure. There is 
 great need of long-continued systematic study and 
 acquisition of knowledge concerning the actual 
 effect which the water has upon the soil and upon 
 the plants. We can see the ultimate result, but 
 have only a vague conception of the steps by 
 which this result is produced. 
 
 Most of the farmers practising irrigation in the 
 United States use quantities of water far in excess 
 
 179 
 
180 IRRIGATION. 
 
 of those theoretically demanded or actually benefi- 
 cial to the crops. This is in line with the general 
 prodigality of pioneer life, and with the habits of 
 shiftlessness so easily acquired where an abundant 
 supply of water can be had. It is so much easier 
 to open the ditches and let the water flow freely 
 than it is to guard and guide each tiny rill, that 
 for economy of time and labor, if not from actual 
 indolence, the irrigator is apt to let the water go 
 its own way. 
 
 It is sometimes stated that irrigation is a lazy 
 man's way of cultivation. The reverse is the case 
 wherever the best results are obtained. Irrigation, 
 properly conducted, means intensive farming and 
 application of water with great care, followed by 
 thorough cultivation of the moistened soil. 
 
 Different plants require different amounts of 
 water. Some are satisfied with a very little. 
 Others require a great deal, and cannot do without 
 it. Still others are relatively indifferent as to 
 whether much or little water is applied ; they have 
 the habit of adjusting themselves to circumstances. 
 Each crop therefore has different needs, and the 
 practice of irrigation must vary accordingly. 
 
 It is not merely the character of the plant which 
 has to be considered, but also the quality of the 
 soil. Certain soils receive and transmit water with 
 great rapidity, such, for example, as sand and 
 gravel. Others, like clay, take water slowly and hold 
 it with great tenacity. Thus the manner and time 
 
NEED OF MOISTURE. 181 
 
 of irrigating certain plants will vary according to 
 the ability of the soil to hold and supply water as 
 needed. If the moisture escapes rapidly, as from 
 sand, the plant after a few days is not able to re- 
 ceive enough and begins to droop. On the other 
 hand, if the soil is very compact and the water is 
 held from escaping, the soil may become water- 
 logged, air cannot penetrate the interstices, and 
 the plant suffers from drowning. 
 
 There is still another factor in the production 
 of crops which must be considered besides sun- 
 shine, soil, and water. This is the low order 
 of vegetal life known as nitrifying organisms. 
 These, in the presence of air and moisture, manu- 
 facture food for the plant and are its servants in 
 preparing material upon which it thrives. A cer- 
 tain amount of water is needed for these nitrifying 
 organisms, but, on the other hand, too much water 
 stagnates and destroys them. Thus it is that 
 there is a very delicate adjustment to be preserved 
 in respect to the amount of moisture in order to 
 produce the best results. These conditions the 
 successful irrigator learns by experiment and fail- 
 ure, and unconsciously follows certain rules which 
 he is usually unable to put into words. 
 
 There has been very little progress in the prac- 
 tice of irrigation from the methods of ancient 
 times. This is due largely to the fact that the 
 men who are now bringing new lands under ditch 
 have for the most part received their training as 
 
182 IRRIGATION. 
 
 farmers in humid regions, and find it difficult to un- 
 learn many of the facts which they regard as fun- 
 damental, and to reverse the habits of half a 
 lifetime. They hesitate to adopt the methods of 
 the Indians and Mexicans, despising these as 
 crude or childish. Nevertheless, these primitive 
 peoples have, through the experience of genera- 
 tions, acquired certain ways which are worthy of 
 study, particularly in the direction of using the 
 smallest possible amount of water in oases on 
 the desert. When they have plenty of water, the 
 Mexicans use it wastef ully ; but where the amount 
 is extremely limited, some of them, particularly 
 the agricultural Indians of the Southwest, have 
 acquired the art of utilizing every drop. Even the 
 drippings from the family water jar are arranged 
 to fall upon a growing plant, .and the moist spots 
 are carefully guarded for the growing of corn or 
 beans. 
 
 The water having been brought to the field, the 
 farmer must first, in order to apply it successfully, 
 build small laterals or distributing ditches to direct 
 it toward the portions of his land where the plants 
 are being cultivated. For this purpose he ploughs 
 out a ditch or turns up two small parallel banks 
 of dirt, keeping the bottom of the ditch as near 
 the level of the ground as possible, in order that 
 water may flow out when the banks are cut. A 
 section of a small field ditch is shown in the ac- 
 companying figure (46), the sides being formed by 
 
DISTRIBUTING DITCHES. 183 
 
 earth taken largely from outside the ditch in order 
 not to lower its bottom. 
 
 FIG. 46. Section of small distributing ditch. 
 
 It is frequently necessary to carry one of these 
 small laterals directly across a low portion of the 
 field, and for this purpose earth is banked up and 
 the two sides are raised slightly, making an ele- 
 vated ditch, as shown in Fig. 47. These are 
 usually constructed with plough and scraper, the 
 earth being carefully packed by trampling, in order 
 to prevent settling when the water is turned in. 
 
 FlG. 47. Section of small raised ditch. 
 
 Occasionally the depression to be crossed is 
 quite deep, or is a ravine receiving storm waters, 
 which by the construction of the raised ditch 
 would be dammed back, and, accumulating, might 
 wash away the obstruction. To reduce the cost, 
 or to permit the passage of storm waters, small 
 flumes are built similar to those used on the main 
 
1 84 
 
 IRRIGATION. 
 
 ditches and canals. The accompanying figure (48) 
 gives sections and elevation of some of the flumes 
 
 FIG. 48. Sections and elevation of small flumes. 
 
 used on farm laterals. The section on the left 
 shows a V-shaped flume, built for economy of lum- 
 ber; the rectangular form is, however, more gen- 
 erally employed. 
 
 Water is taken from the main ditch into these 
 farm laterals, and from one lateral into another, by 
 
 FIG. 49. Box for taking water from main ditch. 
 
 means of small gates or boxes. The crude 
 method is sometimes employed of simply cutting 
 the bank of a ditch by means of a shovel, and 
 
DISTRIBUTING BOXES. 185 
 
 when sufficient water has been taken the hole is 
 filled again. Unless this is carefully done, how- 
 ever, there is liability of leaks, and the water may 
 wash out a large hole before it can be checked. 
 A simple form of gate or box is shown in Fig. 
 49. This is built of boards or plank, and has a 
 small sliding gate or shutter at the upper end. 
 These boxes should be bedded in clay carefully 
 packed to prevent leakage. 
 
 The details of the construction of a gate for one 
 of these lateral ditches or for a small earth reser- 
 voir are shown in Fig. 50, which gives the di- 
 mensions of the material used. The sliding faces, 
 where the gate is brought in contact with its bear- 
 ings, must be made smooth in order to be as 
 nearly water-tight as possible. Frequently leather 
 or rubber facing is used, in order to insure a more 
 perfect fit. In these illustrations only the more 
 simple devices are shown, those which are usually 
 constructed by the irrigator. More complicated 
 or machine-made gates and boxes may be pur- 
 chased from manufacturers, but these are only 
 employed after irrigation has developed beyond 
 its early stages. It is the home-made, somewhat 
 crude, devices which are used in conquering the 
 desert. 
 
 FLOODING IN CHECKS. 
 
 The simplest way to apply water to the soil is 
 that imitated from the operations of nature when 
 
1 86 
 
 IRRIGATION. 
 
 a river overflows its banks. Water is spread over 
 the surface, and after this has drained away, plant 
 life starts into luxuriant growth. In a similar 
 
 FIG. 50. Details of construction of box for distributing water. 
 
 manner, the irrigator may turn the water from a 
 ditch over a level field and completely submerge 
 it. Perfectly level fields are, however, compara- 
 tively rare, and the next step is to build a low 
 
FLOODING IN CHECKS. 
 
 I8 7 
 
 ridge around two or three sides of a slightly slop- 
 ing field, so that water, when turned into it, is 
 ponded. These low banks are commonly known 
 as levees or checks. In construction they are 
 generally laid out at right angles, dividing the 
 land into a number of compartments, as shown 
 on PI. XXXI, A, each usually lying at an elevation 
 which differs slightly from that of the others. 
 Water is turned from the ditch into the highest 
 
 -^?fc=SS 
 
 ,,^^2=:^^^ 
 
 ^^^^saa^S 
 
 ^ 
 
 FlG. 51. Portion of field divided by rectangular levees. 
 
 of these compartments, and when the ground is 
 flooded the bank of the lower side is cut and the 
 water passes into the next field, and so on until 
 each in turn is watered. 
 
 This flooding in rectangular checks is practised 
 most largely by the Mexicans living along the Rio 
 Grande in New Mexico and in adjacent portions 
 of the Southwest. These farmers follow the exam- 
 ple of their ancestors and subdivide the land into 
 little rectangles, often not more than a rod or two 
 
188 
 
 IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLAN 
 
 mwm 
 
 |*MliWiluli!iillili|iiil^ 1 
 
 ~~~~ "Si-iriiHiiii!iiii:i!i|,. 1 |'!iii':!niiLi. . "-F*? 1 
 
 long on each side. The banks are thrown up with 
 spade or shovel, and the ground between the banks 
 is tilled with a heavy spade or mattock. The 
 
 grain when ripe is 
 reaped by hand, 
 and, in short, in 
 all of their opera- 
 tions the greatest 
 imaginable labor 
 is expended. Wa- 
 ter, when had in 
 abundance, is 
 turned into these 
 checks, and the 
 quantities used 
 are often ex- 
 tremely large. 
 
 The accom- 
 panying figure 
 (52) gives a plan 
 of two rectangu- 
 lar fields con- 
 nected by a gate 
 set in the levee, 
 so that water can 
 
 FIG. 5a . -Application of water b t j from 
 
 by the block system. 
 
 one field into the 
 
 other without cutting the banks. This represents 
 a field in southern Arizona, the sides being from 
 20 to 60 feet in length, and the ridges 10 inches 
 
 Cross Sect/on on a - 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE XXXI. 
 
 A. FIELD PREPARED IN RECTANGULAR CHECKS. 
 
 B. IRRIGATION BY CHECKS IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA. 
 
RECTANGULAR CHECKS. 189 
 
 in height. Alfalfa and other forage crops are 
 grown in such fields. 
 
 Many of the early settlers in the Southwest imi- 
 tated the Mexicans, or employed them as laborers, 
 building checks upon the same general plan, but 
 usually enclosing more ground. Fields of from 
 one acre to twenty acres or more in area have been 
 levelled and surrounded by low levees, from i to 
 2 feet in height and 5 to 10 feet in width. These 
 are made relatively wide at the bottom, in order 
 that the slopes may be gentle, so that mowing 
 machines can be driven over them. 
 
 Figure 53 illustrates a modification of this 
 method used in New Mexico. Water is let into 
 the first check-bed from the lateral ditch by means 
 of a box or gate, or by making an opening in the 
 bank with a large hoe. When the first bed is 
 covered, the lower side of the border is opened, 
 and so on until each has been flooded. In prac- 
 tice a number of these beds are irrigated simul- 
 taneously, water being let into the rectangles 
 numbered I, 5, 9, and 13 simultaneously, and then 
 into the beds below them. 
 
 Another method of procedure with these beds 
 is to let the water flow through the upper until the 
 lowest is covered to a depth of about 3 inches, 
 then obstruct the opening to this bed and permit 
 the water to accumulate in the next square above, 
 and so on, filling each in succession from the low- 
 est to the highest and allowing the water to soak 
 
190 
 
 IRRIGATION. 
 
 away. It is claimed that by following this course 
 the land receives water more uniformly. 
 
 For crops such as tomatoes, sweet potatoes, 
 and chili one of the most important foods of 
 
 Lateral 
 
 FIG. 53. Flooding in rectangular checks. 
 
 ,! 
 
 the Mexicans and for similar plants raised in 
 ridges, a modification is introduced, as shown in 
 squares 2, 3, and 4. Ridges are made in the beds 
 
RIDGES IN CHECKS. 
 
 IQI 
 
 in such a form that the water is compelled to flow 
 around and along these until the bed is filled 
 nearly to the top of the ridges; then it is let into 
 
 Main D/fch 
 
 FIG. 54. Plan of irrigated garden divided into compartments or checks. 
 
 the next bed and the operation is repeated. Chi- 
 nese gardeners also follow this plan. 
 
 Instead of turning the water from one bed into 
 
192 IRRIGATION. 
 
 another, it is sometimes customary to provide 
 lateral ditches in such form that the water can 
 flow into each compartment without passing through 
 the other, as illustrated in Fig. 54. In this way 
 washing of the soil is prevented, and the amount 
 can be regulated with great care for each variety 
 of crop. 
 
 On land nearly level, but with small inequalities, 
 it has been customary to smooth these off by plough 
 and scraper, or by dragging a heavy iron beam 
 across the field, pulling the hummocks into the 
 hollows. The cost of levelling is usually very great, 
 and it is only for the most valuable crops and or- 
 chards that this is done. Where the undulations 
 are of such an extent that they cannot be removed 
 by this method, it is necessary, in order to practise 
 check flooding, to adjust the shape of the banks 
 or levees to suit these conditions. Instead of mak- 
 ing them rectangular, the levees are built along the 
 slopes to fit the contour of the surface. The ac- 
 companying figure (5 5) shows how these levees are 
 built along a side-hill slope, and PI. XXXI, B, illus- 
 trates a portion of one of these on irregular ground. 
 
 The canal brings water to the upper side of the 
 field and follows along on a gentle grade. Below 
 this, at a distance such that a bank a foot or two 
 in height will pond the water back to the side of 
 the canal, a ridge is built. The distance of this 
 ridge from the canal will depend, of course, upon 
 the slope of the ground ; if very gentle, the bank 
 
CHECKS ON SLOPING LAND. 
 
 193 
 
 or levee can be 100 feet or more away, while with 
 steeper slopes it must be nearer. A series of such 
 check levees follow, in their course approximately 
 
 C/VSS SfCT/Oft 
 
 FlG. 55. Checks on sloping land. 
 
 paralleling that of the canal, and make a number 
 of strips, each successively lower, as shown by the 
 section from a to b. Water is let into these strips 
 by means of small distributary ditches, as shown 
 in the illustration. 
 
 WATERING BY FURROWS. 
 
 The system of flooding in checks, although origi- 
 nally practised to considerable extent in the South'- 
 
194 IRRIGATION. 
 
 west, has gradually been given up, owing to the 
 expense of levelling and leveeing the ground. With 
 experience and acquired skill the irrigator has be- 
 come able to apply water with economy without 
 resorting to such expensive means. This is particu- 
 larly true in the application of water to crops which 
 are cultivated in furrows, as, for example, corn and 
 potatoes. The furrows are ploughed in such a direc- 
 tion that a little stream will flow freely down them 
 without washing away the soil. 
 
 Water is taken from the main canal, which fol- 
 lows approximately the contour of the surface, into 
 the distributing ditches, which may be parallel with 
 the canal or diverge from it. If the land is nearly 
 flat, the furrows can be run directly away from the 
 distributing ditch from the higher to the lower side 
 of the field. If, however, as shown in the accom- 
 panying figure (56), the slopes are steep, the furrows 
 must be ploughed diagonally to the slope, so as to 
 reduce the velocity of the little rills. 
 
 Water is turned into a half dozen or more of 
 these furrows, and makes its way gradually toward 
 the lower end. As soon as it has reached this 
 point, the stream is cut off and turned into another 
 set of furrows, and so on until all have been filled. 
 The slope given the furrows determines to a certain 
 extent the amount of water received by the soil. If 
 the fall is very gentle the water moves slowly and 
 a large portion sinks in while the furrow is being 
 filled ; if steep, the water quickly passes to the 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE XXXII. 
 
 A. CANVAS DAM IN TEMPORARY DITCH. 
 
 ING ALFALFA FIELD. 
 
FURROW IRRIGATION. 
 
 195 
 
 lower end and the ground does not have time to 
 absorb as much. 
 
 When the entire field has been watered and the 
 surface has become sufficiently dry for cultivation, 
 
 FIG. 56. Application of water by furrows. 
 
 the furrows are usually ploughed out and a thin layer 
 of the top soil is stirred to make an open porous cov- 
 ering or mulch, preventing excessive evaporation 
 and allowing the air to enter the ground. Without 
 such cultivation a hard crust may be formed, which, 
 although retarding circulation and apparently im- 
 pervious, yet permits continual evaporation. The 
 loosening of this crust breaks the capillary connec- 
 tion with the moisture beneath, and thus lessens the 
 loss of water. 
 
 The fields of small grain, after sowing, are usually 
 rolled with a device known as a marker. This con- 
 sists of a heavy roller upon which are projections 
 
196 
 
 IRRIGATION. 
 
 so arranged as to make small parallel furrows. 
 These are rolled in the direction of the desired 
 slope, so that the water can flow down the marks 
 through the grain, as it would in furrows through a 
 corn field. The rapidly growing grain shades the 
 surface, and prevents the formation of crust, render- 
 ing subsequent cultivation unnecessary even if it 
 were practicable. Instead of a roller various de- 
 vices are used to make these small furrows, the 
 object being to provide channels for evenly distrib- 
 uting the water. 
 
 The ditches are ploughed through the fields and 
 water is forced out of them either by putting in 
 temporary obstructions of dirt, boards, or sheet 
 metal or by a small canvas dam. This latter con- 
 
 FlG. 57. Water turned from furrow by canvas dam. 
 
 sists of a piece of stout cloth, one edge of which is 
 tacked to a stick long enough to extend across the 
 lateral ditch or furrow. The canvas, falling into 
 the furrow, fits the sides and bottoms, and is held 
 in place by a clod of dirt thrown upon it. Water 
 
TAPPOONS. 
 
 197 
 
 meeting the obstruction still further forces the can- 
 vas down, making a fairly tight dam, against which 
 it accumulates and overflows into the field, as shown 
 by Fig. 57. After sufficient water has been turned 
 out at this point, the canvas dam (Fig. 58) is pulled 
 up and carried farther down the ditch, where it is 
 again placed in it and another section of the field is 
 irrigated. This method is illustrated in PL XXXII. 
 
 FIG. 58. Canvas dam. 
 
 A drawing of a canvas dam is shown in Fig. 58. 
 There are also given (in Figs. 59 and 60) illustra- 
 tions of different forms of simple devices for con- 
 trolling the water flowing in furrows and small 
 ditches, known as tappoons, a word in common use 
 in the Southwest, but not generally employed out- 
 side of southern California and Arizona. In Fig. 
 59 are shown two forms of metal tappoons, these 
 having an oval or rounded outline in order to fit 
 into the furrows. The sheet of metal is pressed 
 down into the soft soil, obstructing the flow. The 
 tappoon is sometimes strengthened by means of a 
 central rib or pin, which projects below, as shown in 
 
I 9 8 
 
 IRRIGATION. 
 
 the left-hand drawing, and prevents the tappoon 
 from being washed out. 
 
 FIG. 59. Metal tappoons. 
 
 These tappoons sometimes consist merely of a 
 board of sufficient width to extend across the 
 furrow. In case it is desired to 
 let a certain amount of water 
 pass this point, one or more 
 holes are bored in the tappoon, 
 these being closed by a plug 
 when not in use. 
 
 FIG. 60. Wooden 
 tappoon provided 
 with outlets. 
 
 FIG. 61. Metal tappoon with measuring 
 gate. 
 
 A more elaborate device of this character is 
 shown in Fig. 61, being a small portable metal 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE XXXIII. 
 
WILD FLOODING. 199 
 
 dam or tappoon, with a rectangular opening for 
 measuring roughly a certain quantity of water. 
 This can be provided with a sliding door or gate, 
 permitting the passage of a stream of water of a 
 given number of square inches. If the pressure is 
 maintained at from 4 to 6 inches above the centre 
 of the opening, the delivery can be computed in 
 miner's inches. 
 
 WILD FLOODING. 
 
 With care it may be possible to dispense with 
 checks or furrows and to apply water with con- 
 siderable uniformity. For grass land, clover, al- 
 falfa, and similar forage plants it is not feasible to 
 provide furrows, and water must be applied by 
 what is usually known as " wild flooding." That 
 is to say, it is led to the upper part of the field and 
 there turned loose in such a way as to cover the 
 surface with a thin layer. Much care is required 
 to do this, far more than when checks or furrows 
 have been made. To get the water to the right 
 places it is usual to provide through the fields 
 shallow depressions which serve to guide the 
 water. From these it spreads out in thin sheets. 
 The system is illustrated by accompanying dia- 
 grams, in which the attempt is made to exhibit the 
 distributing laterals through the fields and the 
 course taken by the water in coming from these. 
 
 In Fig. 62 the broken lines are contours, or 
 points of equal elevation. The supply ditch is 
 
2OO 
 
 IRRIGATION. 
 
 seen following along one of these, with gradually 
 descending grade. From this are laterals or tem- 
 porary ditches following down the leading ridges. 
 On each side of these temporary ditches are 
 slight elevations of the nature of check levees, 
 
 ""'"/////, 
 
 FIG. 62. Plan of wild flooding. 
 
 which tend to throw the water outward along the 
 contours. Spreading along above these, the water 
 gradually overflows and finds its way down the 
 slope in a sheet or numerous rills, as indicated by 
 the irregular lines. 
 
 In order to thoroughly wet the field, the irrigator 
 
UNDULATING LANDS. 
 
 201 
 
 takes advantage of all the smaller ridges or in- 
 equalities, running the water out upon these, and 
 not allowing it to escape into the depressions until 
 it has thoroughly wet the surface. Not all the 
 water will soak into the ground, and the excess 
 
 FIG. 63. Plan of distributing water on rolling lands. 
 
 which collects in the depressions is again con- 
 ducted out along contours to the next lower 
 series of ridges. The general theory of applying 
 water is shown by Fig. 63, where the temporary 
 ditch is subdivided to flow around the head of a 
 slight depression. The direction of the arrows 
 
202 
 
 IRRIGATION. 
 
 shows the way in which the streams of water are 
 supposed to be distributed, gradually vanishing into 
 the grass land or cultivated field. A portion of 
 the stream reappears in the depressions, as in- 
 dicated by the line and arrows in the centre of 
 the drawing. This stream, when it attains consid- 
 erable size, is gradually conducted out and used on 
 lower portions of the field. 
 
 ORCHARDS AND VINEYARDS. 
 
 In the localities where the best orchards and 
 vineyards are located, usually water is in greatest 
 
 FIG. 64. Box for distributing water in an orchard. 
 
 demand, and extraordinary care must be taken to 
 secure economy in its use. The necessary supply 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE XXXIV. 
 
 FURROW IRRIGATION Ol 
 
 B. FURROW IRRIGATION OF ORCHARD. 
 
ORCHARDS AND VINEYARDS. 
 
 203 
 
 is conducted, often by cement-lined ditches and by 
 wooden flumes, as near as possible to the trees and 
 vines, and is then turned out into furrows between 
 the trees as shown on PL XXXIII. One of these 
 boxes or flumes is shown in the drawing (Fig. 64). 
 The water, issuing from small apertures in the side 
 of a wooden box, falls into the furrows and is 
 immediately conducted to the vicinity of the trees. 
 
 FIG. 65. Outlet from side of small flume. 
 
 The accompanying illustration (Fig. 65) shows 
 the outlet from the side of one of these small 
 flumes or distributing boxes. These small gates 
 are placed at intervals of from 3 to 5 feet or more, 
 and a number of them are opened at a time, each 
 delivering water into a furrow. These furrows 
 having received a sufficient quantity, the small 
 gates are closed and another set opened. 
 
 Some irrigators still adhere to the method of irri- 
 
204 
 
 IRRIGATION. 
 
 gating trees in small pools or basins, although this 
 is not regarded as desirable because of the ten- 
 dency of the roots under these conditions to de- 
 velop near the surface. It is claimed, however, 
 that water can be more economically used in this 
 way. The following figure (66), made from a pho- 
 tograph taken in an orchard near Los Angeles, 
 
 
 . -- - .- 
 
 Vic,. 66. Orchard irrigation by pools. 
 
 California, shows the lower end of a system of 
 small basins into which an orchard is divided. 
 
 The soil on the side-hills is often excellent in 
 quality for the production of fruits, and the ele- 
 vated portions of a valley are frequently freer 
 from frosts than the bottom lands. For this rea- 
 son orchards have been set out on sloping lands, 
 and methods of irrigation have been adapted to 
 the ground. The next figure (67) shows one 
 
SIDE-HILL WATERING. 
 
 205 
 
 of the ways in which a small stream of water is 
 conducted down the slope. If allowed to flow 
 freely this would wash for itself a deep channel. 
 It is therefore confined in a small wooden flume, 
 dropping vertically at short intervals. Along the 
 horizontal portions of the flume small outlets are 
 arranged, and water is taken from these into fur- 
 rows leading along the contour of the ground. 
 
 FlG. 67. Irrigation on slope with stepped flume. 
 
 Care is usually taken that the water shall not 
 actually touch the tree trunks ; it is kept far 
 enough away to wet the ground within the radius 
 of the roots, to encourage these to spread out- 
 wardly as far as possible. After the water has 
 traversed the furrows through the orchard until it 
 has reached the far end, the supply is cut off, and 
 the ground is tilled as soon as the surface dries 
 sufficiently. 
 
206 IRRIGATION. 
 
 On PI. XXXIV are given two views, the upper 
 one, A, being of furrow irrigation of vines, and the 
 lower, B, of similar methods of irrigating a young 
 orchard. In both of these views water is shown 
 as applied lavishly, especially in the lower, where 
 the soil is apparently being washed away. Such 
 use of water is possible only where large amounts 
 are to be had, although even where there are small 
 quantities it is sometimes economical to store this 
 in small tanks or reservoirs and run out a large 
 volume at once, in order to give the ground a 
 thorough wetting ; by so doing the water can be 
 distributed more uniformly to all parts of the or- 
 chard. The course of the water is being directed 
 by the irrigators, who by means of long-handled 
 shovels keep the furrows open or close them by 
 throwing in clods of earth, constant attention being 
 given to the course of the water, so that it will not 
 accumulate in depressions. 
 
 The next view, PL XXXV, shows a young or- 
 chard for which a distributing system, designed 
 for permanence and economy of water, has been 
 constructed. The distributing ditch is of cement 
 and is provided with a series of drops or small falls 
 and gates by which the water can be raised and 
 forced to flow out through small apertures in the 
 sides. The character of the cultivation which fol- 
 lows the application of water is shown by a view 
 of a more mature orchard, PI. XXXVI. 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE XXXV. 
 
 
USE OF TILES. 207 
 
 SUBIRRIGATION. 
 
 In order to reach still greater economy, attempts 
 have been made to conduct the water beneath the 
 surface immediately to the roots of the trees, thus 
 preventing waste by evaporation from the surface 
 of the ground. Various devices have been tried, 
 but few of these have been successful, owing to the 
 fact that the roots of the trees rapidly seek out 
 the source of water and develop there, entering 
 the openings from which the water issues, or sur- 
 rounding the pipe by a dense network. Porous 
 clay tiling has been laid through orchards, and also 
 iron pipes perforated so as to furnish a supply of 
 water along their length. A machine for mak- 
 ing cement pipe in place has also been invented 
 and successfully used. Small trenches are dug 
 through the orchard between the trees, and the 
 pipe-making machine deposits the material in the 
 trench, which is filled as soon as the cement is 
 set. Water is thus distributed underground where 
 needed. 
 
 In a number of orchards where the subsurface 
 irrigation has been unsuccessful because of the 
 roots stopping up minute openings beneath the 
 surface, the system has been reconstructed and 
 water brought to the surface at or near each tree 
 by means of small hydrants, shown in Fig. 68. 
 Vertical pipes are placed at short intervals, leading 
 to the level of the ground, and in these are small 
 
208 
 
 IRRIGATION. 
 
 iron gates or shutters so arranged that the flow 
 can be cut off in the buried pipe. Pushing down 
 one of these gates, the water rises and overflows 
 the surface until a sufficient amount has been 
 obtained. This gate is then raised and the next 
 is pushed down, and so on until water has been 
 caused to overflow at each point in succession 
 down the slope of the ground. 
 
 FIG. 68. Pipes and hydrants for distributing water in an orchard. 
 
 For annual or root crops subirrigation has been 
 successfully practised by the use of the small 
 perforated pipes, which allow a small amount of 
 water to escape at short intervals. These pipes 
 are laid 12 inches or more beneath the surface, and 
 are connected with lines of tile leading from the 
 reservoir or source of supply. As the crops are 
 removed each year and the ground cultivated, the 
 roots do not have an opportunity of entering and 
 stopping the pipes. 
 
SUBIRRIGATION SYSTEM. 
 
 209 
 
 340 FT. LONG 
 
 3 in. 
 
 3 inch farm drain tile without socket 
 
 The accompanying illustration (Fig. 69) is a 
 plan of one of the small systems of subirrigation 
 devised and successfully used by a Kansas farmer, 
 and is given as being typical of a number of de- 
 vices of this kind. The 3-inch tiles are laid 15 
 inches below the 
 surface and 10 
 feet apart. The 
 joints are closed 
 with cement, 
 with the excep- 
 tion of about an 
 inch on the un- 
 der side of the 
 tiles, a small 
 amount of water 
 escaping at this 
 point. In the 
 construction 2\ 
 acres were laid 
 and cemented in 
 ten days. Water 
 is supplied to the 
 
 tiling at the rate of about 20 gallons per minute. 
 The grade is such that the tiling acts as a drain if 
 at any time too much water is received from 
 rainfall. The success of such an undertaking 
 depends largely upon the character of the sub- 
 soil, as well as of the soil itself. If the subsoil is 
 extremely porous, the water may sink away with- 
 
 FiG. 69. Plan of subirrigating system. 
 
210 IRRIGATION. 
 
 out reaching the surface. Where the structure 
 is such that the water is transmitted horizontally, 
 these systems of subirrigation have been used to 
 great advantage. 
 
 A common mistake made in constructing these 
 subirrigation systems has consisted in giving the 
 pipes an inclination so great that the water runs 
 immediately to the lower end, and does not sat- 
 urate the ground uniformly. The pipes should 
 be laid nearly horizontal. Sometimes the pipes 
 have been buried too deep in a clayey subsoil and 
 the water would not spread laterally until the 
 pipes were raised nearer the surface. 
 
 For the purpose of subirrigating, tile is preferred, 
 as being permanent, but other material has been 
 used, such, for example, as 
 galvanized sheet iron, this 
 being laid with an open seam 
 at the bottom, as shown in 
 Fig. 70. The opening is 
 made smaller than indicated 
 by the drawing, so that the 
 water will not escape with 
 too great rapidity. In a 
 
 number f i-*"ces the 
 increased yield of a single 
 crop has more than repaid the cost of a sub- 
 irrigation system. Where the conditions are favor- 
 able the economy resulting in distribution of water 
 in this way is very great. There is no loss by 
 
NATURAL SUBIRRIGATION. 211 
 
 direct evaporation or by wetting soil at a distance 
 from the growing plants. 
 
 The term " subirrigation " is occasionally applied 
 to conditions occurring in nature such that water 
 percolates freely beneath the surface of the ground 
 for considerable distances in a sheet sufficiently 
 near the surface to supply the need of crops. The 
 ground is not actually saturated, but sufficient mois- 
 ture is transmitted to nourish the plants without 
 drowning or waterlogging the soil. These sub- 
 irrigated areas, so-called, are often located in broad 
 valleys along a stream from which the water finds 
 its way outward beneath the surface. They are 
 also occasionally found upon gentle side slopes, the 
 moisture coming from some stream or canyon and 
 tending to form springs near the edge of the valley. 
 
 Where the subsoil has a texture such that it 
 transmits water freely, the building of irrigation 
 ditches may subirrigate large tracts of country 
 without rendering them marshy. Such conditions 
 are found, for example, in the vicinity of St. Anthony, 
 Idaho, where certain farms obtain an ample supply 
 of water from ditches a half mile or more away, 
 without the necessity of distributing small streams 
 over the surface. Also in the vicinity of Fresno, 
 California, vineyards are maintained in good con- 
 dition," although water has not been visibly applied 
 for many years. The closing of the ditches would, 
 however, result in gradual drying up of the ground, 
 and the farmers benefited by subirrigation must 
 
212 IRRIGATION. 
 
 of necessity pay their share of the cost of main- 
 taining the ditches, although they do not receive 
 water directly. 
 
 This process of subirrigation gradually merges 
 into swampy conditions, and it occasionally happens 
 that the lower part of a subirrigated field must be 
 drained to remove the excess of water. This can 
 be done either by gravity ditches or by pumping 
 devices, sometimes the water in the ditches being 
 utilized to actuate water wheels, each in turn oper- 
 ating suitable machinery for taking the excess from 
 the low points. Where electric power can be had 
 at small cost, pumps have been erected to bring 
 the excess water from underground and make it 
 available for the irrigation of fields otherwise dry. 
 In portions of the San Joaquin valley of California, 
 where electric transmission lines have been con- 
 structed leading from the water power stations in 
 the canyons, small centrifugal pumps are thus util- 
 ized, the motor being on the upper end of the 
 shaft carrying the pump. Lands can thus be 
 drained and water provided for use elsewhere. 
 Even in localities where the water is 20 or 30 feet 
 or more beneath the surface, it has been pumped 
 by electric power at a cost far less than is paid for 
 the ordinary gravity supply. 
 
 AMOUNT OF WATER APPLIED. 
 
 The amount of water required for raising crops 
 varies according to soil and other conditions, as 
 
WATER NEEDED FOR AN ACRE. 213 
 
 noted on a preceding page. The plant itself needs 
 a certain minimum supply in order to receive and 
 assimilate its food and to keep up transpiration. 
 A far larger quantity is required to saturate the 
 surrounding soil to such a degree that the vital- 
 izing processes can continue. The soil is con- 
 stantly losing water by evaporation and by seepage, 
 so that the amount which the plant takes from 
 it is relatively small. Nevertheless, the moisture 
 must be maintained within narrow limits in order 
 to produce the most favorable conditions of plant 
 growth. 
 
 Experiments have been made to determine 
 exactly how much water is needed in order to 
 keep the soil in proper condition for plants of dif- 
 ferent character. Among the most important 
 investigations are those by Professor F. H. King 
 of Madison, Wisconsin, who has found by direct 
 measurement that from 300 to 500 pounds of water 
 are required for each pound of dry matter pro- 
 duced. In other words, for each ton of hay raised 
 upon an acre 300 to 500 tons of water must be 
 furnished either by rainfall or by artificial means. 
 
 Water covering an acre one inch in depth 
 weighs about 113 tons, and to produce one ton of 
 hay the depth of water required is approximately 
 from 3 to 5 inches. It is necessary to furnish at 
 least this amount, and sometimes several times as 
 much, in order to produce a crop. The actual 
 amount used in producing 5 tons of barley hay 
 
214 IRRIGATION. 
 
 to the acre has been about 20 inches in depth. 
 Much depends upon the permeability of the soil, 
 and its ability to hold water. 
 
 The quantity of water used in irrigation is usu- 
 ally stated in one of two ways either (i) in terms 
 of depth of water on the surface, or (2) in quan- 
 tities of flowing water through the irrigating sea- 
 son. The first method is preferable, since it is 
 susceptible of more definite consideration, and is 
 also more convenient for comparison with figures 
 for rainfall, which are given in inches of depth. In 
 the humid regions rainfall is usually from 3 to 4 
 inches per month during the crop season. In the 
 arid region, where the sunlight is more continuous 
 and the evaporation greater, there should be, for 
 the ordinary crops at least, enough water during 
 the growing season to cover the ground from 4 to 
 6 inches in depth each month. Carefully tilled 
 orchards have been maintained on far less. In 
 Arizona, where the crop season is longest, being 
 practically continuous throughout the year, twice 
 as much water is needed as in Montana, where the 
 crop season is short and the evaporation is less. 
 
 The second method of stating the quantities 
 necessary for irrigation is of convenience when 
 considering a stream upon which there is no stor- 
 age. It is frequently estimated that one cubic foot 
 per second, or second-foot, flowing through an irri- 
 gating season of 90 days, will irrigate 100 acres. 
 One second-foot will cover an acre nearly 2 feet 
 
WETTING NEW LANDS. 215 
 
 deep during 24 hours, and in 90 days it will cover 
 1 80 acres i foot in depth, or 100 acres to a depth 
 of 1.8 feet, or 21.6 inches. This is equivalent to 
 a depth of water of a little over 7 inches per 
 month. In several of the states laws or regula- 
 tions have been made to the effect that in appor- 
 tioning water not less than 66| acres shall be 
 allowed to the second-foot of continuous flow. 
 This is extremely liberal, and permits extravagant 
 use of water. 
 
 When the ground is first irrigated enormous 
 quantities of water must sometimes be used in 
 order to saturate the subsoil. It has frequently 
 happened that, during the first year or two, a quan- 
 tity of water which would cover the ground to a 
 depth of 10 to 20 feet has been turned upon the 
 surface. Frequently for several years an amount 
 equal to a depth of 5 feet or more per annum is 
 thus employed. Gradually, however, the dry soil 
 is filled, and, as stated in another place, the water 
 table is raised nearer the surface, less and less 
 water being needed. 
 
 The farmers, being accustomed to the use of 
 large quantities of water, often find it exceedingly 
 difficult to get along with less, and continue to use 
 excessive amounts, often to their own disadvantage. 
 They are actuated in part by the consideration that, 
 having paid for the use of the water, they are 
 entitled to a certain quantity, and fear that if they 
 do not take all of this their claim to it may be dis- 
 
216 IRRIGATION. 
 
 puted. Some of them actually waste water to 
 their own detriment from the mistaken belief that 
 in so doing they are establishing a perpetual right 
 to certain quantities. 
 
 With the gradual development of the country and 
 the bringing of more and more land under ditches, 
 the need for water increases, and equity demands 
 that no irrigator shall take more than he can put 
 to beneficial use. Flowing water must be consid- 
 ered as a common fund, subject to beneficial use by 
 individuals according to orderly rules, each man 
 taking only the amount he can employ to advan- 
 tage. Under any other theory full development 
 of arid regions is impossible. 
 
 It is instructive in this connection to know what 
 is the least amount of water which has been used 
 with success. To learn this, it is necessary to go 
 to Southern California, where, as stated on previous 
 pages, the supply of water is least, relative to the 
 demand made upon it, and the economy is corre- 
 spondingly greatest. Successive years of deficient 
 rainfall in California, from 1897 to 1900, while 
 working many hardships, served to prove that with 
 careful cultivation crops, orchards, and vineyards 
 could be maintained on a very small amount of 
 water. In some cases an amount not exceeding 
 six inches in depth of irrigation water was applied 
 during the year, this being conducted directly to 
 the plants, and the ground kept carefully tilled 
 and free from weeds. 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE XXXVI. 
 
DROUGHT CONDITIONS. 2I/ 
 
 During these times of drought some fruits, as, 
 for example, grapes, apples, olives, peaches, and 
 apricots, were raised without irrigation, but a most 
 thorough cultivation, as shown on PI. XXXVI, was 
 practised. Some fruit growers insist that, in the 
 case of grapes, for example, the quality is better 
 when raised without artificially applying water, 
 although the quantity is less. It has been stated 
 that in raisin-making there is less contrast than 
 might be expected between the irrigated and non- 
 irrigated vineyards, for although the yield of grapes 
 raised by watering is far heavier, yet after drying 
 the difference is not so marked. Wheat and barley, 
 also, according to some farmers, make a better hay 
 when cultivated dry, but the weight is less. Shade 
 trees, such, for example, as the eucalyptus or Aus- 
 tralian blue-gum, the catalpa, mulberry, and acacia, 
 grow without water artificially applied, but do not 
 reach the extraordinary development that they do 
 when near irrigating ditches. It is almost useless 
 to attempt to raise the citrus fruits without plenty 
 of water. 
 
 The quantity of water necessary to irrigate an 
 acre, as estimated by various water companies in 
 Southern California, ranges from I miner's inch to 
 5 acres to I miner's inch to 10 acres, the miner's 
 inch in this connection being defined as a quantity 
 equalling 12,960 gallons in 24 hours, or almost 
 exactly 0.02 second-foot, this being the amount 
 which has been delivered under a 4-inch head, 
 
218 IRRIGATION. 
 
 measured from the centre of the opening. Under 
 this assumption I second-foot should irrigate from 
 250 to 500 acres. This is on the basis of delivering 
 the water in pipes or cemented channels in the im- 
 mediate vicinity of the trees or vines to be irrigated. 
 
 If it is assumed that I miner's inch is allowed 
 for 10 acres, or I second-foot for 500 acres, this 
 quantity of water flowing from May to October, 
 inclusive, will cover the ground to a depth of a 
 little over -f$ of a foot, or 8.8 inches, a quantity 
 which, with the care and cultivation usually em- 
 ployed, has been found to be sufficient for some 
 orchards. Mr. W. Irving, Chief Engineer of the 
 Gage Canal, Riverside, California, states that for 
 the year ending September 30, 1899, water ranging 
 in depth from 1.78 to 2.48 feet was used in addi- 
 tion to the rainfall of 0.47 foot. This was less 
 than the usual quantity, economy being enforced 
 by shortage of supply. 
 
 The method of applying water governs to a 
 large extent the amount used. In the case of 
 alfalfa, flooding is usually practised ; with small 
 grains in most parts of the West the water is run 
 in furrows ; while in the case of orchards the water 
 is sometimes applied directly to each tree. In 
 this case a little earth basin, about 6 feet or more 
 across and 6 inches deep, is formed around each 
 tree and partially filled with water as shown in 
 Fig. 66. The better way, however, is that of run- 
 ning water in furrows, four or five of these being 
 
ANNUAL CHARGES. 219 
 
 ploughed between each two rows of trees. The 
 water is applied very slowly, several days being 
 spent in watering 5 acres, and when dry the ground 
 is thoroughly cultivated. 
 
 The annual charges for water by the acre in 
 Southern California, where this economy of water 
 is practised, have been as low as $3, and from this 
 rising to $6 or more per acre. In the case of 
 the San Diego Flume Company it is stated that 
 water was sold for $600 per miner's inch, with an 
 annual charge or rental of $60, i miner's inch be- 
 ing considered sufficient for from 10 to 20 acres. 
 The annual charge for water taking the arid region 
 as a whole has averaged by states from 50 cents 
 to $2.00 per acre, or $1.25 per acre for the entire 
 country. 
 
 The conditions in Southern California, while they 
 may be considered as exceptional, yet indicate the 
 limiting or ideal conditions of economical use of 
 water. For good farming in other parts of the 
 arid region, 12 inches of water in depth during 
 the crop season should be sufficient, except in the 
 case of alfalfa and other forms of forage which are 
 cut a number of times, when at least from 4 to 6 
 inches should usually be given to a cutting. As 
 previously stated, the character of the soil, the 
 temperature, and the wind movement introduce so 
 many conditions that broad statements of this kind 
 are merely suggestive, and not to be followed as 
 rules. 
 
220 IRRIGATION. 
 
 Irrigation is usually carried on during the day- 
 time, and it is unusual for water to be applied dur- 
 ing the night, other than to arrange the head 
 gates and allow the water to flow to certain por- 
 tions of the field. In times of scarcity, however, 
 when water can be had only at certain hours, night 
 irrigation must be carried on, and the water care- 
 fully applied, with as much skill as possible in the 
 darkness. Night irrigation, although possessing 
 disadvantages, has many advocates. The air being 
 cooler, excessive evaporation is checked, there is 
 less loss and consequently more economy in use, 
 and the plants are not so suddenly chilled as during 
 the heat of the day when cold water is run upon 
 the fields ; and the proportional amount of water 
 received during the night is often greater than 
 during the daytime, and the charge or cost is 
 correspondingly less ; so that, for economy in vari- 
 ous directions, night irrigation is sometimes pre- 
 ferred. 
 
 ARRANGEMENT OF IRRIGATED FARM. 
 
 The accompanying drawing (Fig. 71) gives the 
 general arrangement of a farm under irrigation. 
 The main ditch is shown in the upper right-hand 
 corner, this being the highest portion of the land. 
 In this angle is the garden, the root crops being 
 shown as cultivated in furrows. Near this is the 
 orchard, so laid out that the water flows along the 
 trees set on contours, this portion of the land being 
 
FIG. 71. Plan of an irrigated farm. 
 
222 IRRIGATION. 
 
 on a slight side-hill. Farther down another part 
 of the orchard is more nearly level, and the trees 
 are arranged in straight lines. Adjacent to the 
 orchard is a crop of corn, which is irrigated in 
 rows. 
 
 Running irregularly through the farm below the 
 orchard is a distributing lateral connected with the 
 main ditch, but receiving also any excess water 
 from the higher land. From this distributing lat- 
 eral water is taken out at short intervals into the 
 alfalfa and wheat, both of which are irrigated by 
 flooding. Below this land in turn is shown another 
 lateral in the lower left-hand corner of the drawing, 
 this receiving any excess water and carrying it to 
 other fields. 
 
 As a result of continued irrigation, the ground 
 water in the vicinity of the farm is gradually 
 raised, and soon after irrigation has been intro- 
 duced the amount needed annually decreases 
 rapidly by reason of the gradual saturation of the 
 subsoil. This is shown diagrammatically in the 
 accompanying figure, which gives a plan of another 
 farm and a section showing the condition of the 
 ground. In the plan, Fig. 72, is shown a main 
 canal flowing diagonally across from left to right. 
 Lateral ditches are taken out of the main ditch and 
 carried along two sides of the farm, this being 
 possible because of the slope, indicated by the con- 
 tours. From these lateral ditches on the two sides, 
 distributing ditches flow inward toward the main 
 

 .'! .' -Ground Water October to De 
 
 
 '. . Ground Water befo"e'lrriaaiion Commencedf1S70) .- " 
 
 FIG. 72. Rise of ground water following irrigation. 
 
224 IRRIGATION. 
 
 canal, following in a general way along the contours. 
 One of these ditches forks to embrace a depression, 
 so that water can be carried toward this from both 
 sides. Consequent upon irrigation being carried 
 on continuously, the ground water, which previ- 
 ously was from 15 to 18 feet beneath the surface, 
 has been raised to within 6 or 8 feet of the surface, 
 as shown by wells. During the irrigating season 
 the water is brought still nearer the surface, as 
 indicated in Fig. 72. 
 
 In a case of excessive use of water and see- 
 page from higher lands, this gradual rise may be- 
 come destructive by waterlogging soil or forming 
 marshes. The most serious dangers from this 
 cause are the liability of producing disease in 
 plant roots if permanently submerged, and of 
 bringing alkaline salts to the surface. This matter 
 is further discussed on pages 76 and 281. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 UNDERGROUND WATERS. 
 
 IN the preceding pages consideration has been 
 given mainly to the water which flows on the sur- 
 face of the earth, in the form of creeks or rivers, 
 or stands without apparent motion in ponds. It 
 is important, however, not to neglect the waters 
 which, although out of sight, are circulating be- 
 neath the surface, and which, in the aggregate, 
 play an important part in the reclamation of arid 
 land as well as in various industries. In the humid 
 region the ground is usually saturated with water 
 nearly to the roots of the trees. In the arid region, 
 however, the plane of saturation, or water table, 
 as it is termed, may be at great depth. Water 
 applied to the surface tends to sink to the lowest 
 possible level, but may be prevented from so 
 doing by an impervious layer. Beneath the irri- 
 gated fields there sometimes exists a thickness of 
 several hundred feet of dry rocks, but, as a rule, 
 these are in time filled with water, and an under- 
 ground circulation is set up comparable to that 
 existing in humid countries. 
 Q 225 
 
226 IRRIGATION. 
 
 RETURN WATERS. 
 
 In the process of irrigation, a portion of the 
 water applied to the fields evaporates. Another 
 portion is taken up by the plants and escapes to 
 the air through the leaves ; this is the part that 
 has done the work for which water was obtained 
 and applied. Another portion sinks into the 
 ground and gradually passes out of the reach of 
 the plants by percolating downward or outward 
 from the fields ; this portion is practically lost to 
 the irrigator, and represents a certain amount of 
 wasted material. It is sometimes impracticable 
 to guard against this waste ; but, as a rule, it may 
 be said that water escaping over or beneath the 
 surface indicates poor management. 
 
 The water percolating beneath the surface is 
 not only itself, for the time being, lost, but it is 
 likely to carry with it in solution valuable earthy 
 salts or plant food, washing out and reducing the 
 richness of the soil. Sometimes this washing is 
 of value, as when the soil contains an excess of 
 soluble alkali, and it is desired to get rid of the 
 injurious superabundance. 
 
 This underground water gradually travels by 
 percolation or seepage along the path of least 
 resistance, filling up the voids and gradually 
 accumulating until it has raised the level of the 
 water plane to the point of overflow. It seeks the 
 lowest points, these being usually along the drain- 
 
RETURN WATERS. 22/ 
 
 age lines of the valley. Here the water again 
 comes to the surface, after a lapse of weeks or 
 months, forming wet places or springs, and aug- 
 menting the flow of a stream. Thus it happens 
 that some of the water taken out in a canal during 
 the time of spring floods from a point higher up 
 on a river may reappear in late summer at a lower 
 point along the river, after having travelled under- 
 ground a distance of several miles. This seepage 
 or return water, if not heavily charged with alkali, 
 may have especial value, as discussed on page 76. 
 At this late season of the year the streams are 
 naturally at their lowest point and water is in 
 greatest demand. 
 
 The accompanying diagram (Fig. 73) shows the 
 conditions which were found during a season in 
 Ogden Valley, Utah. The space from left to 
 right represents the time from July 5 to August 
 30, 1894. The distance vertically indicates the 
 quantity of water. The dotted lines show the 
 amount of water used in irrigation ; this gradually 
 diminishes from about 150 second-feet on the 5th 
 of July to 44 second-feet at the end of August. 
 The inflow coming into the head of the valley is 
 shown by the light line, being about 165 second- 
 feet on July 5, and decreasing to a little less than 
 75 second-feet. The amount used for irrigation 
 deducted from the inflow should apparently give 
 the outflow from the valley. On the contrary, 
 however, the latter, as shown by the heavy line, 
 
228 
 
 IRRIGATION. 
 
 was, almost without exception, greater than the 
 amount coming into the valley, notwithstanding 
 that most of the inflow was diverted upon the 
 fields. 
 
 JULY. 
 
 AUGUST. 
 
 10 15 20 25 
 
 10 15 20 25 
 
 S 
 
 C/5 100 
 Z 
 
 a 
 
 /nf/ow 
 
 FIG. 73. Diagram illustrating inflow and outflow of Ogden Valley, 
 Utah. 
 
 From the inspection of this diagram it is appar- 
 ent that the outflow of the valley was increased by 
 the seepage or water applied to the fields during 
 earlier months. As the inflow and the amount of 
 water used in irrigation diminished, the outflow 
 steadily increased. 
 
 Because of this large amount of return or see- 
 page water, there may exist the anomalous condi- 
 
UNDERFLOW. 229 
 
 tion of a tight dam across a river, taking out all 
 of the stream, and a few miles below the dam 
 pools of water beginning to occur, while farther 
 down these pools overflow and imperceptibly a 
 stream of considerable size appears in the channel, 
 this again being taken out by another tight dam, 
 and so on for a number of times in succession. 
 
 The amount of land irrigable along an extensive 
 river system is thus slowly increased, since the 
 water used in early spring in higher valleys may 
 gradually reappear below and furnish water for 
 fields which otherwise would be dry. Thus when 
 the limit of irrigation has apparently been reached, 
 there ts found to be still a little more water, the 
 irrigable area widening slowly with the gradual 
 development of irrigation and larger use of water 
 higher on the stream. This irregularity of the 
 rivers, increasing without visible cause, has been 
 noted on page 73. 
 
 UNDERFLOW. 
 
 Water beneath the surface, generally recognized 
 as occurring in all regions of abundant rainfall, 
 has attracted especial attention when found in arid 
 or semiarid regions, because of the striking con- 
 trast with surface conditions. In view of the dry- 
 ness of the climate and the apparently impervious 
 condition of the sod cover, it did not seem possible, 
 when first noted, that this water could come from 
 local rainfall. For several years preceding and 
 
230 IRRIGATION. 
 
 succeeding 1890 attention was drawn to the fact 
 that upon portions of the Great Plains, where the 
 climate is very dry, there are beneath the surface 
 considerable bodies of water-bearing sands and 
 gravels. These are mainly in the broad valleys 
 occupied by intermittent streams. The mistaken 
 assumption was made that this water must have 
 come from the Rocky Mountain region, and is 
 travelling in a broad sheet with continuous flow 
 toward the southeast. The average fall of the 
 plains is not far from 7 feet to the mile, and it was 
 asserted that in consequence of this slope the water 
 was steadily moving as a vast underground river 
 from the mountains toward the Mississippi. ' 
 
 Assuming that an underflow of this character 
 existed, it was argued that if a channel were cut 
 into the ground, following up a valley having a 
 slope of 7 feet to the mile, but with a rise of only 
 i foot in a mile, at the end of the first mile the 
 ditch would be 6 feet below the surface, and in 10 
 miles it would be 60 feet beneath the surface. On 
 this slope the water would readily run out of the 
 drain, and thus the underflow would be intercepted 
 and brought to the surface. Many thousand 
 dollars were spent in attempting to construct such 
 underflow ditches, but none of these have been 
 successful. 
 
 Nature has already trenched the plains with 
 drainage lines of this character, but none of them 
 deliver any considerable amount of water. It is 
 
GREAT PLAINS UNDERFLOW. 231 
 
 true that there are occasional springs in the sides 
 or bottoms of these gullies or coulees, but the resist- 
 ance to the flow underground is so great that the 
 water does not percolate freely toward outlets of 
 this character. The plane of saturation, or water 
 table, follows to a certain extent the undulations of 
 the ground, and is not maintained horizontal, as 
 would be the case if the water stood in an open 
 lake or pond. 
 
 To illustrate this point we may assume that a 
 pond is filled with gravel and sand. The surface 
 of the water at first is perfectly horizontal from 
 one side to the other. Before the gravel is placed 
 in the pond the water can be drawn down and will 
 maintain this level surface, except for an infinitely 
 small slope dependent upon the rapidity with which 
 the water is drawn out. After the gravel is thrown 
 in and the outlet is opened, water will rush out, 
 but, owing to the restricting influence of friction, 
 the surface of the water within the gravel will no 
 longer be level, but will assume a decided slope 
 toward the outlet. In course of time this slope 
 will decrease and tend to approach the horizontal, 
 but if a small amount of water is added gradually 
 at the upper edge and an equal amount is running 
 out at the lower point, there will be permanently 
 maintained a sloping water surface within the 
 gravel. 
 
 The so-called underflow of the plains consists of 
 the small amount of water which enters the ground 
 
232 IRRIGATION. 
 
 from occasional local rains and which progresses 
 toward lower points at the rate of a few feet a year. 
 Some of this water gradually escapes into the 
 natural ravines, or occasionally bursts forth as a 
 spring ; but the plane of saturation of the pervious 
 rocks is not horizontal ; it follows often the slopes of 
 the surface of the ground, and sometimes is inclined 
 at a high angle. The digging of a trench into this 
 saturated layer introduces a change in the slope of 
 the water surface, making it dip toward the new 
 outlet. The total amount obtained as a continuous 
 flow rarely repays the cost of the work. 
 
 There are, however, localities where underflow 
 works are successful, and it is because of the 
 excellent results attained here that men have 
 argued that such undertakings can profitably be 
 entered upon elsewhere. But the conditions which 
 make it possible to obtain water from under ground 
 are radically different from those existing upon the 
 Great Plains. There the gravel beds or other 
 pervious strata are widespread, and are not usually 
 bounded by well-defined walls. When, however, 
 gravels and boulders are found filling the bottoms 
 of canyons, as in Fig. 74, it is possible that water 
 may be moving through these with a definite 
 course and velocity. 
 
 Such conditions are found throughout the moun- 
 tainous portion of the arid regions. The streams 
 which flow through canyons or narrow gorges have, 
 as a rule, filled up their beds. In ancient times the 
 
CANYON UNDERFLOW. 233 
 
 streams cut their way downward into the solid 
 rock to a depth considerably below the present 
 stream channels. In modern geologic times these 
 ancient channels have become filled to a depth of 
 10 feet, 20 feet, or even 100 feet or more. The 
 material usually consists of large boulders, with 
 occasional beds of gravel, sand, or even clay, left 
 in protected nooks. 
 
 If this mass of material partly filling the can- 
 yons is dry, and a heavy rain occurs above, the 
 water from the storm will flow down, saturating 
 the surface, and gradually penetrating the lower 
 layers until the spaces between the pebbles are 
 filled. If the stream continues to flow for several 
 hours, a considerable part of its volume may be 
 taken in by the gravel, and the water may entirely 
 disappear in the course of a mile or two, leaving 
 the surface dry. A creek cannot continue to flow 
 undiminished over a boulder bed until the latter is 
 completely saturated with water. A little considera- 
 tion shows that if water is withdrawn from the per- 
 vious material beneath the surface of a stream, it 
 must be replenished, and that the surface discharge 
 is reduced by the same amount. 
 
 The water saturating the gravels tends to move 
 downward and forward under the influence of 
 gravity, but its rate of flow, being diminished by 
 friction and by adhesion to the surfaces of the 
 grains, is far less than that of the water on the 
 surface. While the latter may be travelling two 
 
234 IRRIGATION. 
 
 or three miles in an hour, the moisture under- 
 ground, even in coarse gravels, probably does not 
 pass over this distance in a week or a month. The 
 rate of flow has not been determined, but a few 
 experiments, made in different parts of the coun- 
 try, show that this rate is, under ordinary circum- 
 stances, extremely slow. 
 
 FIG. 74. Dam across a rocky canyon, cutting off the underflow. 
 
 The accompanying illustration (Fig. 74) is in- 
 tended to show how the underflow in narrow can- 
 yons has been utilized. An impervious dam, the 
 top of which is shown in the figure as being above 
 the surface, is built to bed rock, and the joints at 
 the bottom and sides are made water-tight. Thus 
 all of the water percolating down the gravel and 
 boulder-filled channel, meeting this obstruction, is 
 
UNDERFLOW DAM. 235 
 
 retained, and, accumulating, may appear upon the 
 surface. A pipe through this dam will draw off 
 the water, but to receive the largest supply it 
 must be placed near the bottom of the dam and 
 not near the surface, as shown in the drawing. 
 By means of such a submerged dam, small quanti- 
 ties of water are obtained. Where the channel is, 
 however, of indefinite width, such dams are not 
 practicable, since the percolating water will usually 
 find its way around them. 
 
 The underflow in narrow or restricted channels, 
 such as have been described above, has great im- 
 portance in the development of irrigation and as a 
 source of municipal supply. Many controversies 
 have arisen concerning the relation which this 
 bears to the surface stream. Some persons have 
 contended that the taking of water by means of 
 tunnels or other works built far beneath the sur- 
 face does not perceptibly diminish the visible flow, 
 claiming that the two streams are entirely distinct, 
 being separated by impervious layers, or by a 
 retardation of flow which behaves as an imper- 
 vious layer. 
 
 One of the most interesting cases recently de- 
 cided, bearing upon the character and ownership 
 of the underflow, is that of the Los Angeles River 
 of Southern California. The stream to which this 
 name is applied appears upon the surface near the 
 lower end of San Fernando Valley. The visible 
 water gradually increases in volume as the valley 
 
236 IRRIGATION. 
 
 narrows, and in the gorge or canyon by which the 
 stream makes its exit toward the ocean it attains 
 a considerable and fairly constant volume. The 
 river, as shown on PI. XXXVII, A, appears to 
 come from marshy ground, and might be said to 
 have its origin here, but this water must have 
 come primarily from the rainfall ; and since the 
 valley is relatively small, the amount which falls 
 upon it would not be sufficient to maintain the 
 river. 
 
 Throughout San Fernando Valley are many 
 wells, some of them in gravel capable of yielding 
 large quantities of water. Among the most im- 
 portant of these works for obtaining underground 
 water are those of a company which purchased a 
 large tract, tunnelled beneath the surface, and con- 
 structed infiltration galleries from which large and 
 valuable amounts of water were obtained. The 
 city of Los Angeles, owning the water in the 
 river, claimed that this large development work, 
 while a mile or more from the visible stream, was 
 in effect taking water out of the river, and brought 
 suit to restrain this unlawful diversion. 
 
 The water company claimed that under the com- 
 mon law they had an unquestionable right to take 
 all of the water found beneath the surface of 
 the land which they owned, since this water flows 
 or percolates underground in undefined channels. 
 It was, therefore, incumbent upon the city to 
 demonstrate that the water in San Fernando Val- 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE XXX VI I. 
 
 A. WEIR MEASUREMENTS OF LOS ANGELES RIVER IN SAN 
 FERNANDO VALLEY. CALIFORNIA. 
 
 B. RESULTS OF 
 
 CALIFORNIA. 
 
 IERN 
 
LOS ANGELES RIVER. 237 
 
 ley does move beneath the surface in defined chan- 
 nels, and that these feed the Los Angeles River as 
 would be done by ordinary surface streams. 
 
 To make the situation clear, it will be necessary 
 to explain the conditions a little more at length. 
 To the north and east of San Fernando Valley is a 
 large tributary watershed, coming from which are 
 several streams, the most important of these being 
 Big and Little Tejunga and Pacoima creeks. The 
 mountains at the head waters of these streams are 
 high and receive a considerable rainfall. A por- 
 tion of this flows in the streams and continues 
 downward to the edge of the San Fernando Val- 
 ley, where it gradually disappears in the gravel 
 and boulder channels or washes which extend out 
 across the valley toward the points where Los 
 Angeles River rises. These washes are usually 
 dry on the surface, except in the rainy season, and 
 thus the creeks named are not visibly connected 
 with Los Angeles River. 
 
 It is claimed on behalf of the city of Los 
 Angeles that the water progresses gradually be- 
 neath the surface along these washes, finally 
 reappearing in the river to maintain the continu- 
 ous discharge. The rival company's works were 
 placed within these washes, and the assertion was 
 made that, even though the water percolating 
 through these gravels might ultimately reach the 
 river, yet, since this did not flow in known and well- 
 defined channels, there was no cause for action. 
 
238 IRRIGATION. 
 
 The court decided that the water travelling be- 
 neath the surface was a part of the Los Angeles 
 River, and that these washes, well marked on the 
 surface of the ground, indicated the presence of 
 well-defined channels beneath the surface, these 
 indications being confirmed by testimony based 
 upon the depth of the water in wells and test 
 pits. This was further supported by the analogy in 
 the case of a pond filled with boulders. The San 
 Fernando Valley might be regarded as a natural 
 basin into which streams flowed from the hills, and 
 out of which water was discharged at the lower 
 end. The gradual filling of this pond with debris 
 from the mountains would not completely displace 
 the water, but it would continue to travel beneath 
 the surface toward points of least resistance. 
 
 If the water at the outlet is all owned or appro- 
 priated, it would not be proper to permit diversions 
 from the pond, even though this were filled with 
 gravel in such a way as to obscure and break up 
 the course of flow. It was held that " It makes no 
 difference whether the onward flow is upon or 
 below the surface, provided it is in a known and 
 defined direction and in known and defined chan- 
 nels. The washes of the Tejungas and of the 
 Pacoima are clearly cut and well defined from 
 these streams to the Los Angeles River. In sea- 
 sons of heavy rainfall these streams sometimes cut 
 new surface channels through the sand, but for a 
 long time they have maintained such channels 
 
LOS ANGELES RIVER. 239 
 
 through substantially the same territory." " It 
 is this subsurface flow that supports and sustains 
 the flow of the Los Angeles River, and any 
 diversion from it ... amounts eventually to an 
 equivalent abstraction of the same quantity directly 
 from the river." 
 
 The fact that the testimony presented in this 
 case has established the existence of well-defined 
 channels underground should not be taken as 
 implying that similar channels can be found 
 wherever water occurs in considerable quantities 
 beneath the surface. The topographic and geo- 
 logic conditions must be thoroughly studied in 
 order to discriminate between conditions where 
 such channels do exist and those where the water 
 is merely seeping or progressing slowly from point 
 to point in broad, irregular deposits of gravel. In 
 the latter it is usually impossible to demonstrate 
 that there are any well-defined limits, since the 
 gravels shade off into sands or clay, each mass 
 of pervious material being perhaps isolated from 
 all others, or connected by overlapping layers. 
 
 The effect of a well, or collecting gallery, in such 
 a broad mass of gravel is not like that of similar 
 works in a narrow channel with definite walls as 
 shown in Fig. 74, since in the latter case all of the 
 water travelling through the narrow channel may 
 be within the sphere of influence of the well or 
 tunnel, and may be abstracted. On the other 
 hand, in the broad deposit the well may receive 
 
240 IRRIGATION. 
 
 water only from the immediate vicinity, the plane 
 of saturation being depressed around the well, 
 forming a conical slope toward the point from 
 which water is pumped. Only the water within 
 a relatively small distance from the well is thus 
 reached, and the great body of water percolating 
 through the broad gravelly layer is not affected. 
 
 To sum up and make more clear the difference 
 which exists in behavior between different classes 
 of underflow, it is desirable to present a mental 
 picture of three conditions : First, an open body of 
 water, such as a small pond. Water pumped any- 
 where from this immediately lowers the whole sur- 
 face. The pond can be filled with large boulders 
 and the same effect takes place. In the second 
 condition the spaces between the boulders are 
 filled with fine sand. Now water pumped from 
 one side of the pond does not immediately lower 
 the surface, and, if the material is sufficiently fine, 
 a well sunk in it may be pumped almost dry with- 
 out lowering the water around the edges of the 
 pond, the slope of saturation extending from the 
 bottom of the well steeply upward in all directions. 
 There is a slow movement from all parts of the 
 pond toward the well, but this may be so slow that 
 very little water can be had. This is the case of 
 percolation. The third condition obtains when 
 fine sand fills the interstices of the boulders in the 
 pond except along a narrow path or channel lead- 
 ing across the pond to the well. When the pump 
 
ORDINARY WELLS. 241 
 
 is used the water will flow with considerable 
 rapidity along this narrow boulder-filled path free 
 from sand. This is, in effect, an underground 
 stream with a definite channel which can be ascer- 
 tained by test pits or boring. In this channel the 
 behavior of the water is decidedly different from 
 that of the other water which is slowly seeping in 
 the surrounding, less pervious mass. 
 
 Like most other natural phenomena, the condi- 
 tions which distinguish movement of water by 
 seepage and by actual flow underground merge 
 into each other, so that, while it is possible to say 
 that here is an underground flow and there is 
 merely an undefined seepage, yet the determina- 
 tion of the boundary line between the two is a 
 matter of judgment. As yet no rule has been laid 
 down, but the experiments and the decision of the 
 court in the Los Angeles case have gone a long 
 way toward clearing up this complicated subject. 
 
 ORDINARY WELLS. 
 
 Almost everywhere, even in the arid region, 
 water can be had by digging wells at points near 
 stream channels or along the foothills. Out in the 
 broad valleys it may be necessary to go to a depth 
 of from 100 to 300 feet or more before reaching 
 moisture. Dug wells are the most common means 
 of obtaining small amounts of water. Where the 
 supply is ample, various devices for bringing the 
 water to the surface have been employed, particu- 
 
 K 
 
242 IRRIGATION. 
 
 larly windmills, as described on page 265. The 
 quantity of water is dependent upon certain geo- 
 logic conditions, the sands and gravel usually be- 
 ing saturated and delivering water freely to any 
 cavity in them. 
 
 In digging a well it is the custom to make the 
 hole only large enough to permit one man to work 
 in it. The soil penetrated must usually be held 
 in place, masonry or brickwork being generally 
 employed for this purpose, and occasionally wood. 
 The latter, however, is liable to decay rapidly, 
 impregnating the water and allowing the ground 
 to cave in and fill the well. The hole is continued 
 downward until water is struck, and then fre- 
 quently the work ceases because of the difficulty of 
 digging further. 
 
 To obtain a sufficient supply for irrigation, it is 
 very important not to stop digging the well when 
 the top of the water-bearing sands or gravel is 
 reached, but to continue down into these. Some- 
 times this can be done by driving perforated pipe 
 in the bottom of the well, thus penetrating layers 
 of still coarser material and adding greatly to the 
 capacity of the well. Sometimes these lower 
 water horizons are under greater pressure than the 
 gravels first struck, and water may rise through 
 the pipe in the well up to and above the level of 
 the bottom. 
 
 It is very important to provide a free passage 
 for the water from the material in which it occurs. 
 
WELL DIGGING. 243 
 
 This is sometimes done by driving galleries or 
 tunnels from the bottom of the well out beneath 
 the surface far enough to intersect coarser de- 
 posits, such as may have been laid down in ancient 
 stream channels. These collecting galleries serve 
 to bring small quantities of water toward a centre, 
 where they can be had by pumping. 
 
 Work of this character is hardly practicable for 
 ordinary farm or domestic supply, but has been 
 successfully undertaken by towns and small cities 
 in the West. With the development of population 
 and the increase of the value of water, it is proba- 
 ble that investments of this character may be 
 profitable for some forms of irrigation. 
 
 Water obtained mainly for irrigation is occa- 
 sionally employed for other purposes, especially 
 for household uses and for domestic animals. It 
 is thus often important to protect it from pollution, 
 particularly when obtained from shallow wells. It 
 has long been recognized that the prevalence of 
 typhoid and similar diseases in the country can 
 often be traced to well waters contaminated by 
 waste material from houses or stables. The same 
 pervious layers of sand and gravel which drink in 
 the rain water and deliver it to the well, also 
 eagerly receive the drainage from outhouses and 
 stables, and convey this also to the lowest point, 
 where it may be pumped. It is, therefore, of the 
 greatest importance to guard the purity of the 
 water supply, first by locating wells at a suitable 
 
244 
 
 IRRIGATION. 
 
 distance from possible points of pollution, and 
 next by constructing suitable lining or curbing to 
 prevent surface drainage from being washed in. 
 An efficient form of well curbing, shutting out sur- 
 face drainage, is 
 shown in Fig. 75. 
 Impure water 
 has been known 
 to penetrate 
 through gravel 
 to a distance of 
 several hundred 
 feet. In this 
 course some of 
 the injurious or- 
 ganic matter may- 
 be destroyed or 
 consumed, but it 
 is not safe to de- 
 pend upon this 
 action to any 
 considerable ex- 
 tent. A simple 
 test can often 
 be applied by putting brine or crude petroleum at 
 a point where waste material is deposited, and 
 noting whether this affects the water in the well. 
 For example, at a country home where typhoid 
 fever occurred, it was believed that the well water 
 was wholly undented ; but on pouring a barrel of 
 
 FIG. 75. Ordinary well curbing and windlass. 
 
WELL CASING. 
 
 245 
 
 crude oil into a cesspool 200 feet or more away 
 from the well, within twenty-four hours the water 
 in the well had become so impregnated with the 
 oil that it could not be used. The water from the 
 cesspool had undoubtedly been filtered in its long 
 passage through sand and gravel, but had probably 
 brought with it some harmful organic life. 
 
 When water is obtained from deeply buried 
 gravels, the casing or lining of the well should be 
 made perfectly water-tight from the top of the 
 
 FIG. 76. Diagram illustrating evils of insuffi- 
 cient casing. 
 
 water-bearing beds to a point slightly above the 
 surface of the ground, in order to prevent contami- 
 nation. In Fig. 76 is shown a somewhat com- 
 mon mistake in well-making. The owner first dug 
 a well and secured a small supply of surface water. 
 This not being sufficient, he put down a tube or 
 
246 IRRIGATION. 
 
 casing to an impervious bed, and in this drilled a 
 hole until he reached a porous, water-bearing hori- 
 zon. The water, being held down by the imper- 
 vious cover, rose in the opening made, and filled 
 the bottom of the well. In dry times a large part 
 of the supply went to saturate the unconsolidated 
 surface material in which the old well was dug, 
 and in wet seasons the percolating rain water and 
 surface washing mingled with the purer deep 
 waters. For economy of water and for preserv- 
 ing the supply undefiled, the casing should have 
 continued, as above stated, from the water-bearing 
 bed to the surface. 
 
 ARTESIAN WELLS. 
 
 A great part of the water which occurs under- 
 ground is found to be percolating slowly through 
 the rocks and soils. When these are penetrated 
 by a well, the water collects in this and assumes a 
 level which represents the plane of saturation of 
 the ground. Occasionally it happens that the per- 
 vious material, as sand or gravel, is overlain by an 
 impervious bed, as shown in Fig. 76, and in a 
 well dug through the latter into the gravel the 
 water will rise to a height equal to the line of satu- 
 ration in the surrounding country. 
 
 If the beds of alternating clay and gravel are 
 inclined, or tilted by earth movement, water will fol- 
 low down under the clay or impervious shale, gradu- 
 ally acquiring greater and greater pressure. The 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE XXXVIII. 
 
 A. ARTESIAN WELL IN ARIZONA. 
 
 B. ARTESIAN WELL IN KANSAS. 
 
ARTESIAN WELLS. 
 
 247 
 
 impervious roof holds the water down until pierced 
 by a well. The term " artesian " is applied to wells 
 in which the water actually overflows the surface 
 of the ground, as shown on PI. XXXVIII. There 
 is no commonly accepted designation to cover the 
 case of wells in which the water rises but does not 
 overflow, this being characteristic to a greater or 
 less extent of nearly all artificial openings in the 
 ground. The term " negative " artesian wells has 
 sometimes been applied in this connection, but in 
 its original sense it was used to cover the condi- 
 tion where water is held up by an impervious layer, 
 and when the latter is penetrated the water flows 
 downward to a lower level of permeable rock. 
 Several swampy areas in southern Georgia have 
 thus been drained by boring deep holes in the 
 lower portions. The surface water has escaped 
 down these holes to unknown depths. 
 
 The accompanying figure (77) illustrates one of 
 the conditions of artesian structure. One side of a 
 basin is represented, the porous beds of sand or 
 
 . 77. Section of one side of an artesian basin. 
 
 clay marked A outcropping as a rolling upland; 
 below and above this are impervious beds marked 
 R and C. 
 
 The next figure illustrates the conditions where 
 the coarse material A has not been curved in a 
 
248 IRRIGATION. 
 
 basin, but is sloping in one direction, such as might 
 occur where sand and gravel have been deposited on 
 a sloping sea-coast and after subsidence have been 
 covered with clay. The pervious bed A receives 
 water from rainfall on its exposed edges. It slopes 
 
 FIG. 78. Section illustrating the thinning out of a porous water- 
 bearing bed, A, enclosed between impervious beds, /^and C, thus furnish- 
 ing the necessary conditions for an artesian well, D. 
 
 gently inward and, lying on the impervious layer 
 B, is covered by the clay or shale C. A well at D 
 penetrating these will overflow, and if the pipe 
 were continued upward would rise to the level of 
 the line CF t this being the plane of saturation of 
 the area which receives the water from rainfall. 
 
 Artesian conditions occur in nearly every state, 
 but they do not extend over any considerable por- 
 tion of the country, except on the Great Plains and 
 in the valley of California. Wherever they do 
 occur the water has considerable value on account 
 of the convenience incident to its rising above the 
 surface. In some places, as in the James River 
 Valley of South Dakota, the pressure is 100 pounds 
 or more to the square inch, throwing the water to 
 considerable heights and enabling the wells to be 
 used as sources of power. For this purpose a 
 small stream is directed against an impulse \vlu-el, 
 or connection is made with a reciprocating water 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE XXXIX. 
 
 OUTFIT FOR DRILLING DEEP ARTESIAN WELLS- 
 
POWER FROM ARTESIAN FLOW. 249 
 
 engine, as at Aberdeen, South Dakota, where the 
 sewage of the city is pumped automatically by 
 machinery of this character. The city supply is 
 obtained from two or three deep wells, the pressure 
 being sufficient to throw streams through fire hose 
 over the highest buildings, and, as just noted, the 
 surplus water is disposed of by the force from still 
 another well directed into suitable engines. 
 
 PL XXXIX shows the derrick and the most 
 conspicuous portion of the machinery for drilling 
 a deep or artesian well. The skeleton tower or 
 derrick is 72 feet high, being sufficiently tall to 
 support, from a pulley at the top, the long slender 
 steel drilling tools which are suspended from a 
 stout cable. With the arrangement shown, wells 
 1000 to 3000 feet in depth are drilled. 
 
 Occasionally the water from these deep wells is 
 saline or brackish, and thus has little value, unless 
 the brine is so strong as to be useful in the manu- 
 facture of salt. Water slightly saline to the taste 
 can be used in irrigation if care is taken in cultiva- 
 tion to prevent the accumulation of earthy salts. 
 
 By the thorough study of the geologic structure 
 and of the condition of the rocks as regards per- 
 meability and slope, it is possible to prepare maps 
 showing the underground condition with reference 
 to flowing wells, and to outline the areas where 
 water will rise to or above the surface, and also to 
 indicate the depth of the water-bearing rocks. 
 Such maps have been prepared for a small portion 
 
250 IRRIGATION. 
 
 of the country. By means of them the farmer or 
 citizen can ascertain whether it is probable that 
 water can be had, the depth, and the character of 
 the rocks to be penetrated, thus making it possible 
 for him to estimate the expense of obtaining water 
 in this way. 
 
 The amount of water to be had from deep wells 
 is governed largely by the diameter of the well, 
 
 FlG. 79. Geologic section from the Black Hills east across South 
 Dakota (western half). 
 
 but more by the structure and thickness of the 
 water-bearing rocks and the head or pressure under 
 which the water occurs. From relatively dense 
 rocks a slight head or pressure of water will force 
 only a feeble stream, but from thick layers of open 
 gravel or sand-rock large volumes are delivered, 
 the quantity being limited by the size of the pipe 
 of the well. This is usually from 2 to nearly 6 
 inches in diameter, the ordinary wells averaging 
 
GEOLOGIC STRUCTURE. 251 
 
 about 4 inches. It is not to be supposed, however, 
 that by increasing the diameter a correspondingly 
 large amount of water will be obtained. It fre- 
 quently occurs that a 4-inch pipe will deliver all 
 of the water that can reach this point, and enlarg- 
 ing the diameter of the well to 4 feet will not 
 increase the flow. 
 
 The source of the water coming to artesian wells 
 may be at a distance of several miles or several hun- 
 dred miles. The large amount obtainable in eastern 
 South Dakota probably has travelled underground 
 from the eastern front of the Rocky Mountains or 
 from the Black Hills, distances of from 200 to 400 
 
 FIG. 80. Geologic section from the Black Hills east across South 
 Dakota (eastern half). 
 
 miles. Figures 79 and 80 give a geologic section 
 from the Black Hills east across South Dakota, 
 showing the relations of the water-bearing Dakota 
 sandstone to the overlying impervious shales and to 
 the artesian wells in eastern South Dakota receiv- 
 ing their supply from the sandstone. A view of 
 one of these wells is shown in PL XL. This is 
 at Woonsocket, South Dakota, a 3-inch stream 
 being thrown to a height of 97 feet. 
 
252 IRRIGATION. 
 
 The area of rock thus saturated may aggregate 
 many hundred square miles, and the volume stored 
 underground is thus very large. On the other 
 hand, an artesian basin may be small, the rocks 
 outcropping in the near vicinity of the well and 
 receiving only a small supply from the annual rain- 
 fall. One or two wells drilled into a small basin 
 do not perceptibly diminish the pressure or the 
 flow ; but as the number is increased the stored 
 water is drawn upon more rapidly than it can be 
 replenished, and the pressure greatly diminishes, 
 until the wells no longer flow unless some of them 
 are stopped. A condition of this kind has occurred 
 in the artesian basin in the vicinity of Denver, 
 Colorado. All of the wells within or near the city 
 have ceased flowing, and water is obtained from 
 them by pumping. Out in the country, in a more 
 remote portion of the basin, some of the wells still 
 flow. This general diminution of pressure has not 
 been noticed in the larger artesian basins, such as 
 those in the San Joaquin Valley of California, the 
 Moxee Valley of Washington, the James River 
 Valley of South Dakota, and the San Luis Valley 
 of Colorado. 
 
 Some artesian wells have decreased or stopped 
 flowing, not from lack of water, but because of 
 mechanical defects in their construction. Fine 
 sand has accumulated, stopping up the well, or 
 the tubing or casing has rusted away, permitting 
 the water to escape into pervious rocks below 
 
WELL AT WOONSOCKET, SOUTH DAKOTA, THROWING A 3-INCH 
 STREAM TO A HEIGHT OF 97 FEET. 
 
INJURY TO ARTESIAN WELLS. 253 
 
 ground. In some localities where wells were 
 abandoned because the water did not rise to the 
 surface or the flow was unsatisfactory the casings 
 of the wells have been drawn for use elsewhere. 
 The water has continued to rise from the bottom 
 of the well and to escape into the higher porous 
 strata, permitting a continual outflow from the 
 artesian water-bearing rocks. Several artesian 
 basins have been greatly weakened or even 
 destroyed by such treatment. In the construc- 
 tion of artesian wells it is highly important to 
 provide suitable casing to prevent the wells leaking 
 into the dry rocks, and, in short, every precaution 
 should be taken to prevent waste of water or 
 destruction of other wells through careless man- 
 agement of one or two. 
 
 The amount of water delivered by an artesian 
 well varies from a few gallons a minute to as high 
 as 5 cubic feet per second or even more. Wells 
 flowing i cubic foot per second have great value 
 in irrigation, as by storing this water 100 or 160 
 acres can be watered. The advantages of water 
 obtained in this way are very great, as the owner 
 of the well is independent and can use his water 
 when and where he wishes, while the irrigator de- 
 pending upon a ditch system cannot. Artesian 
 well water is also free from seeds of weeds and is 
 usually somewhat warmer than the ground ; thus 
 it does not chill the plants, as is sometimes the 
 case with water from mountain streams. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 PUMPING WATER. 
 
 IT has previously been stated that the greater 
 portion of water used in irrigation is diverted by 
 gravity from flowing streams. While this is true 
 as regards bulk of water, as regards value it may 
 be said that some of the most important sources 
 of supply are utilized through pumping. In an- 
 cient times, especially in Egypt and India, where 
 labor had little value and the conditions for divert- 
 
 FIG. 81. The doon, or tilting trough. 
 
 ing water by gravity were not favorable, pumping 
 by hand or by animal power was largely practised. 
 
 254 
 
HAND PUMPING. 
 
 255 
 
 The accompanying illustration shows a crude de- 
 vice, a tilting trough known as a doon. This is 
 pivoted near its centre, and is counterbalanced by 
 rock in such way that one end of the doon can 
 be pressed into the water, the weight of the rock 
 then lifting this end, elevating it sufficiently to 
 throw the water into a ditch. 
 
 PUMPING BY HAND OR ANIMAL POWER. 
 
 Another view (Fig. 82) is of a series of well- 
 sweeps, or shadoofs, as still used in Egypt, this 
 
 7 
 
 FIG. 82. Series of shadoofs as used in Egypt. 
 
 device being also employed in modified forms in 
 many countries. By means of it water is raised 
 
256 
 
 IRRIGATION. 
 
 from 5 to 10 feet or more. As shown in the view, 
 a series of shadoofs are arranged, to avoid greater 
 lifts, the water being raised first to one level and 
 then to the next, and so on until the top of the 
 bank is reached. With these well-sweeps the 
 workman uses his weight to depress the bucket 
 into the water, whence it is lifted largely by the 
 counterweight, the bucket being swung over and 
 emptied, when it reaches the proper level. 
 
 FIG. 83. A mot, operated by oxen. 
 
 Animal power is used in many forms, either in 
 directly pulling up a bucket or skin full of water, 
 as shown in Fig. 83, or in operating some form of 
 pump. The device shown is known as a mot, and 
 consists of a rope passing over a pulley and down 
 into a well, to the lower end there being attached 
 a receptacle for the water. The animals, walking 
 away from the well, usually down an incline, draw 
 
PUMPING BY ANIMALS. 257 
 
 the bucket to the top, where it is emptied. The 
 animals then walk backward to the well and repeat 
 the operation. 
 
 In modern times these devices have been im- 
 proved upon, although some of them are still 
 utilized in crude form by pioneers in the arid 
 region. The well-sweep has in general been re- 
 placed by the windlass, which raises water in a 
 
 FIG. 84. Horse-power for lifting water. 
 
 bucket, as shown in Fig. 75. With ordinary farm 
 wells of this kind irrigation is impracticable, other 
 than the watering of a few trees or plats of vege- 
 tables ; but the beginnings of irrigation on many a 
 farm in the subhumid region may be traced to 
 successful experiments with water raised in this 
 laborious manner. 
 
2 5 8 
 
 IRRIGATION. 
 
 The next step in pumping water under pioneer 
 conditions has frequently been the utilization 
 of horse-power. The accompanying figure (84) 
 shows a simple device, by which a horse walk- 
 ing in a circle causes a series of buckets to be 
 lifted from the well, drawing up water sufficient 
 for several acres. The possibility of irrigation in 
 this way is limited largely by the depth to water 
 and the number of animals available. 
 
 USE OF WATER-WHEELS. 
 
 The force of flowing water has been frequently 
 employed to bring water up to the level of the 
 irrigable land. The bucket wheel has been util- 
 ized from the earliest historical times to the pres- 
 
 FlG. 85. Current wheel lifting water. 
 
WATER-WHEELS. 259 
 
 ent. This consists of a paddle-wheel with a series 
 of buckets arranged around the rim in such form 
 that when the wheel revolves by the force of the 
 current, the buckets are filled, raised to the top, 
 and emptied into a trough, which conducts the 
 water into the irrigating ditches. Wheels of this 
 kind are to be seen along most of the swift-flowing 
 rivers of the West, as shown in PL XLI, some of 
 them being as much as 30 feet in diameter. 
 
 Where there is sufficient fall in a stream to 
 develop water-power, this can be used by means 
 of various standard forms of water-wheels, such 
 as the turbine, these in turn operating pumping 
 engines. Such devices are employed occasionally 
 to obviate the necessity of building expensive lines 
 of canal, the power of a stream being used to 
 pump the water to the top of a high bank, which 
 otherwise could be surmounted only by many 
 miles of canal, with costly flumes and tunnels. 
 
 With small amounts of water descending pre- 
 cipitously and giving a head of several hundred 
 feet, various forms of impulse water-wheel, as 
 shown by Fig. 86, have been employed. This 
 device develops great power for a small amount 
 of water, and can be used to actuate various forms 
 of pump to bring water, either from underground or 
 from surface sources, up to the land which it is 
 desired to moisten. 
 
 The increase of irrigated areas in many parts of 
 the United States is being brought about by the 
 
260 IRRIGATION. 
 
 facilities for pumping afforded by the development 
 of water-powers and the transmission of the energy 
 by electrical means. The regulation of the stream 
 by storage reservoirs for the purpose of supplying 
 water to the fields frequently creates conditions 
 favorable for producing power for operating water- 
 
 FlG. 86. Impulse water-wheel. 
 
 wheels of one kind or another. These points are, 
 however, usually remote from centres of popula- 
 tion and possible markets for the power, and the 
 works built here would be valueless were it not for 
 electrical transmission. There is an awakening of 
 agricultural and industrial activity following each 
 improvement in electrical transmission. 
 
 Up to about 1890 there was a rapid decrease in 
 the relative importance of water-powers in the 
 United States ; but this has been checked by the 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE XLI. 
 
 CURRENT WHEELS LIFTING WATER. 
 
IMPULSE WATER-WHEEL. 261 
 
 practical application of methods of conveying the 
 power by wire, some of these being on a large 
 scale. In this respect the West has led in certain 
 features, largely because of the great expense of 
 fuel there and the fact that development has not 
 been hampered by vested rights to the use of the 
 rivers. Throughout the East, in New England 
 especially, water-powers have been utilized to a 
 notable extent, and the vested rights which have 
 resulted have served to retard changes or improve- 
 ments. The costly structures and machinery al- 
 ready erected have not been adaptable to new 
 requirements, and often it has been found cheaper 
 to abandon important powers rather than incur the 
 expense of extinguishing various claims and re- 
 modelling existing factories. 
 
 The advantages of water-power over other 
 sources of energy are, however, so decided that it 
 is apparent that, with improved methods of opera- 
 tion, important falls or rapids will soon be utilized. 
 As a rule it is cheaper than steam-power, for the 
 water costs nothing and the expense of mainten- 
 ance of hydraulic machinery and of superinten- 
 dence is small. The annual cost of power consists 
 almost entirely of interest charges on the original 
 investment. 
 
 In the United States there are many large rivers 
 and innumerable small creeks descending with 
 rapid fall from the mountains in regions where 
 fuel is expensive. There water-power must always 
 
262 IRRIGATION. 
 
 have great importance in industrial development. 
 By combining the power transmitted from a num- 
 ber of small streams distributed over one or more 
 counties, it is possible to bring together at the sea- 
 board or at centres of population an amount of 
 power comparable to that had from some of the 
 great rivers. 
 
 Jn past decades water-power has been employed 
 only in the immediate neighborhood of a natural 
 fall ; and where distributed to different manufactur- 
 ing establishments, this has been rendered possible 
 by dividing the water and allowing it to flow to 
 the various water-wheels located in the factory 
 buildings. This has necessitated the crowding of 
 the buildings together, or a large expenditure for 
 conveying the water to a considerable distance. 
 In New England the permanent works for procur- 
 ing and dividing this water have been among 
 the most expensive in the world, and corporations 
 have been formed for the purpose of controlling a 
 large river and furnishing the water to manufac- 
 turing establishments, instead of generating power 
 and then selling it. 
 
 An example of this system of dividing water is 
 on the Merrimac River at Lowell and Lawrence, 
 Massachusetts. At the latter place the Essex 
 Company has built an expensive masonry dam, 
 giving a fall of 28 feet and obtaining 10,000 horse- 
 power during working hours. This dam is 900 
 feet long and 32 feet in height, the cost being esti- 
 
WATER-POWER. 263 
 
 mated as $250,000. From each end of this canals 
 extend down-stream and mills are located along 
 these canals between them and the river. The 
 canal on the north side is a trifle over a mile in 
 length and 100 feet in width at the upper end, and 
 cost approximately the same amount as the dam. 
 The canal on the south side is about 2000 feet long 
 and 60 feet wide, and cost about $150,000. Water 
 is leased or sold to the mills at a certain fixed rate, 
 the Essex Company maintaining the dam and 
 canals and delivering the water at the penstocks 
 of the mills, from which it flows through the 
 wheels and is discharged back into the river. The 
 condition here is typical of that at many other 
 points in New England, and illustrates the form of 
 development where water is distributed to many 
 manufacturing establishments. 
 
 In marked contrast to the above conditions are 
 those growing out of the ability to divide the 
 power and transmit it electrically to places distant 
 100 miles or more. Here it is no longer necessary 
 to crowd the manuf acturingestablishments together, 
 but they may be scattered widely over the country, 
 at points where material and labor can be had to 
 best advantage. The power of the falling water 
 can be transformed into electrical energy in a single 
 establishment, from which wires radiate in all 
 directions ; or if the water-power is diffused in a 
 number of small streams, each of little importance 
 alone, several plants can be erected and the power 
 
264 IRRIGATION. 
 
 concentrated by lines leading to one large factory. 
 This facility for transmitting power has revolution- 
 ized many industries, and attention is now given to 
 small water-powers which in times past have been 
 neglected or abandoned as useless. 
 
 A third step in progress is made where many 
 sources of power are brought together into one 
 system, and this branches out to localities where 
 power is needed. Each water-power becomes a 
 feeder to a main trunk line, and this line divides 
 to numerous establishments. Such is the condition 
 in Southern California, where a number of generat- 
 ing stations have been erected in various canyons, 
 and the electric wires, converging toward Los 
 Angeles, make possible numerous industries in 
 the vicinity of the city and drive many small 
 irrigating pumps. The arrangement is carried to 
 an extent such that a manufacturing establishment, 
 like a cement mill, may take power during the day- 
 time, when it is in least demand for light, and later 
 return an equivalent by turning in the energy 
 developed by its steam engines. 
 
 All of these economies resulting from the 
 utilization of forces otherwise lost have interest in 
 a consideration of the extent to which the arid 
 lands can be redeemed by irrigation, as they are 
 part of the general system of turning to beneficial 
 use the resources now going to waste. Cheap 
 power means ability to pump water, and water 
 supply in turn makes possible an extension of 
 
PUMPING BY WIND POWER. 265 
 
 irrigation, and this is the principal step toward 
 more homes and a settled population. 
 
 WINDMILLS. 
 
 The most important and widely distributed source 
 of power for pumping water is wind. Over the 
 broad valleys and plains of the arid region the wind 
 blows without ceasing for days and weeks, carry- 
 ing away the dry leaves, and even at times sweep- 
 ing up the loose soil. In many localities there are, 
 at depths of 20 to 50 feet or more beneath the sur- 
 face, pervious beds of sand or gravel filled with 
 waters by the infiltration of rainfall or by percola- 
 tion from stream channels. 
 
 It is a comparatively simple and inexpensive 
 operation to sink a well into this water and erect 
 a windmill, attaching this to a suitable pump. The 
 machinery, once provided, is operated day and night 
 by the ever present wind, bringing to the surface a 
 small but continuous supply of water. This small 
 stream, if turned out on the soil, would flow a short 
 distance and then disappear into the thirsty ground, 
 so that irrigation directly from a windmill is usually 
 impracticable. 
 
 To overcome this difficulty it has been found 
 necessary to provide small storage reservoirs or 
 tanks, built of earth, wood, or iron, to hold the 
 water until it has accumulated to a volume suffi- 
 cient to permit a stream of considerable size being 
 taken out for irrigation. Such a stream flowing 
 
266 IRRIGATION. 
 
 rapidly over the surface will extend to a distance 
 and cover an area which would seem impossible 
 with the small flow delivered by the pump. 
 
 The windmills employed in irrigation are of all 
 kinds, from the highest type of the machinist's 
 art down to the crude home-made devices. The 
 latter are not to be despised, as many of them are 
 highly effective, and at least they have enabled 
 settlers to procure a small amount of water and 
 to obtain a foothold upon the soil, by which ulti- 
 mately they may be able to obtain funds to pro- 
 cure better implements. 
 
 The accompanying PL XLII shows a number 
 of these home-made devices, some of them being 
 in the form of turbine wheels, and others, known 
 as the "Jumbo," consisting of horizontal paddle- 
 wheels so arranged that the wind sweeping over 
 the top of the structure strikes the exposed sails 
 and causes the wheel to revolve. On each end of 
 the axis of this wheel are attached the pump rods, 
 which move up and down as the wheel revolves. 
 
 Such home-made mills are, of course, of low 
 efficiency as regards the proportion of power 
 utilized. But since the force of the wind is prac- 
 tically limitless, the mechanical efficiency of the 
 device is of little consequence, provided it does 
 the work required. The material for these mills 
 costs from $5 to $20. They are easily repaired 
 and will serve for many years. Such machines 
 are, of course, not comparable, as far as workman- 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE XLII. 
 
 )F HOME-MADE WINDMILLS. 
 
 B. BATTLE-AXE TYPE OF HOME-MADE WINDMILLS. 
 
HOME-MADE WINDMILLS. 267 
 
 ship is concerned, with those made by manufac- 
 turers of implements ; but the cheapness of the 
 device has enabled many a settler, discouraged in 
 the attempt to farm without irrigation, to obtain a 
 water supply and successfully raise a vegetable 
 garden sufficient to support his family, and also 
 to put up a small amount of forage for his cattle. 
 
 In building these mills pieces of old mowing 
 machines or reapers have been used for axles, 
 bearings, and connections. The sails have been 
 made of pieces of dry-goods boxes and old lumber 
 around the farm, and the whole machinery stiff- 
 ened and held in place by bale wire or other waste 
 material found in quantities around the houses of 
 men who have attempted to make a living upon 
 the plains. Thousands of settlers have pushed 
 westward from the humid into the subhumid por- 
 tions bordering the arid region, and in years of 
 abundant rainfall have been able to raise one or 
 two crops. With the changing cycles of moisture, 
 these regions becoming dry, the pioneers have lost 
 their crops year after year, and have been com- 
 pelled by starvation either to leave the country or 
 to change their methods of farming. Under these 
 circumstances, discouraged, without capital, some 
 of the more ingenious and persistent settlers have 
 been able to dig wells, build windmills, and irrigate 
 a small patch of ground, and, gradually adapting 
 their methods to the climate, have improved upon 
 their conditions and made comfortable and perma- 
 
268 
 
 IRRIGATION. 
 
 nent homes. The crude windmill has then given 
 way to the shop-made mill, PL XLIII, with its 
 neater appearance and greater efficiency. The 
 contrasting conditions have been illustrated on 
 Pis. I, II, and III. 
 
 The accompanying figure (87) shows two of 
 these mills placed on opposite sides of a small 
 earth reservoir, into which water is being pumped 
 
 FIG. 87. \V 
 
 pumping into earth reservoir. 
 
 for irrigation. Sometimes as many as half a dozen 
 mills are placed around a tank of this kind, a 
 number of small mills being found better than 
 one or two large ones. When the diameter of 
 the wheel is increased much above 10 or 12 feet, 
 the strength is considerably diminished and liabil- 
 ity to injury during storm is greatly increased. 
 Small, rapid-running mills, 8 to 12 feet in diameter, 
 have, therefore, been found most economical. If one 
 is injured, the others will usually continue pumping. 
 
LIMITATIONS OF WINDMILLS. 269 
 
 The disadvantage of windmills, as a class, is that 
 most of them are constructed to operate only in 
 moderate winds. The very lightest breezes often 
 pass by without starting the wheel in motion. As 
 the strength of the wind increases, the wheel 
 begins to revolve, reaching greater and greater 
 efficiency until the velocity is about 8 or 10 miles 
 an hour. At greater speeds the mills are usually 
 so constructed that they begin to turn out of the 
 wind in order to protect themselves, and thus the 
 efficiency begins to drop off rapidly as the wind 
 becomes more and more powerful. When it 
 approaches a gale the mill stops completely, and 
 thus, at the time when with sufficiently strong 
 construction the greatest amount of water could 
 be pumped, the machine is standing idle. 
 
 One of the important inventions yet to be made 
 is a simple, strong windmill which will continue 
 in operation throughout a heavy wind. Many 
 mechanicians have tried their hand at something 
 of this kind, but have not yet succeeded in pro- 
 ducing a commercial article. The suggestion has 
 been made that pumping by wind may reach its 
 highest efficiency through the use of compressed 
 air, the windmill operating some form of simple 
 air compressor, from which a pipe will lead down 
 into a well, and through it water be forced out by 
 means of what is known as an air lift. If such a 
 device is practicable the windmills can be located 
 on the highest point of the farm, and the com- 
 
2/0 IRRIGATION. 
 
 pressed air be carried down to the lower-lying 
 wells. 
 
 PUMPING BY STEAM AND GASOLENE. 
 
 Where the conditions are favorable, water is 
 raised for irrigation by ordinary steam pumps or 
 by machinery actuated by gas, gasolene, or hot-air 
 engines. In the vicinity of cities and towns hav- 
 ing waterworks, lawns and small gardens are thus 
 irrigated by hydrant water, the area of each being 
 small, but the aggregate amounting to many tho.u- 
 sand acres. 
 
 Steam pumps have been installed for irrigation 
 by some market gardeners and by farmers who 
 have engines for threshing and other farm uses. 
 Various forms of centrifugal pumps are generally 
 employed, these being connected by means of 
 a belt to the ordinary engines. Water is thus 
 raised usually not to exceed 20 feet in height. 
 
 Gasolene engines are being largely employed 
 where coal and wood for fuel are expensive, and 
 where the depth to water is not very great, say 
 from 15 to 30 feet. The forms of machinery are 
 very diverse, and there are on the market a con- 
 siderable number of engines, pumps, and mechan- 
 ical devices, many of which have been successfully 
 used, while others are still in experimental stages. 
 
 The cost of pumping water by engines driven 
 by steam, or by similar machinery, differs with the 
 cost of fuel, the amount of labor involved, and the 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE XLIII. 
 
 WINDMILL PUMPING INTO SOD-LINED RESERVOIR. 
 
STEAM AND GASOLINE PUMPS. 
 
 depreciation of the plant. It is, as a rule, con- 
 siderably higher than the amount yearly paid for 
 the maintenance of canals and ditches in the arid 
 region, or the amount paid annually to a canal 
 company for delivering water. It is rarely below 
 $2 per acre irrigated, and, from this as a minimum, 
 may rise to $5 or even $10 an acre. This method 
 of obtaining water will not be profitably employed 
 for general crops, except those, such as rice, where 
 the conditions are such that the industry is impos- 
 sible without resorting to this means of obtaining 
 water. 
 
 In humid and subhumid regions pumping plants 
 are at present more widely used than canals taking 
 water from rivers, because they can be erected by 
 an individual upon his own land without any com- 
 plications as regards riparian rights or control of 
 the waters. Being compact and under cover, the 
 machinery can be kept from deterioration and in 
 readiness for use in times of emergency, supple- 
 menting the deficient rainfall. Where windmills 
 have been utilized and it has been found by experi- 
 ence that the wind is unreliable, the irrigators fre- 
 quently resort to gasolene engines to keep the 
 pumps running during calm days. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF IRRIGATION. 
 
 THE advantages of irrigation and the benefits 
 resulting are to be inferred from what has been 
 given in the preceding pages. In brief, it may be 
 said that these consist in the ability to supply 
 water at the right time and in proper quantities to 
 the growing plants, resulting in the largest and 
 best development of these and facilitating a close 
 tilling of the soil, a rapid succession of crops 
 where the temperature is favorable, intensive farm- 
 ing, and a dense rural population, with all of the 
 accompanying benefits of rapid communication, 
 modern improvements, and social intercourse. As 
 one of the advantages also may be enumerated the 
 ability to put to use, by sewage irrigation, the waste 
 matter from organic life, bringing together and 
 making of value the sandy places and the sub- 
 stances which otherwise become nuisances. 
 
 There is no gain without some small loss, and it 
 must be recognized that there are some disadvan- 
 tages connected with irrigation. Labor and vigi- 
 lance are necessitated in applying water to the 
 fields. The proper supply may not be available 
 
 272 
 
DISADVANTAGES. 273 
 
 when needed. Marshy conditions may result from 
 excessive use of water by neighbors or from una- 
 voidable causes, and, worse than all, the artificial 
 application of water to the soil may bring to the 
 surface such a quantity of earthy salts, known as 
 alkali, that the land, otherwise fertile, is ruined. 
 In humid climates also, after a heavy or clayey 
 soil has been irrigated, a sudden shower may occur, 
 drenching the fields and injuring the crops. Under 
 proper conditions, however, such as those realized 
 in parts of the country where water is intelligently 
 applied to the soil and the tilling is thoroughly 
 done, the most remunerative and beneficial returns 
 are had from the irrigated lands. 
 
 If, for any cause, the proper amount of water 
 cannot be had and applied as needed, irrigation 
 fails of being complete, and disasters ensue detri- 
 mental to the further spread of this method of 
 agriculture. Incomplete irrigation, like an unfin- 
 ished building or any other project stopped half- 
 way, is always discouraging. In so far, therefore, 
 as irrigation may be chronically liable to lack of 
 completeness through a deficient water supply, it 
 becomes disappointing. 
 
 A serious source of annoyance is that occasion- 
 ally experienced by scarcity of water. While 
 many of the irrigators enjoy a perennially abun- 
 dant supply, there are others in nearly every com- 
 munity whose farming operations are rendered 
 precarious because in one year or another they 
 
274 IRRIGATION. 
 
 suffer from a shortage of water. The disaster 
 resulting depends largely upon the character of 
 the crops planted ; some kinds may be able to sur- 
 vive the drought and yield a small return, while 
 others may be a total loss. 
 
 The higher the development of an industry, the 
 greater the opportunities for failure and the wider 
 becomes the effect of disaster. Irrigation may be 
 considered as the highest type of agriculture, and, 
 under favorable circumstances, largest results may 
 be expected ; but, as in every other highly special- 
 ized industry, not every man makes a success. 
 
 If one hundred men should be placed upon new 
 land in a humid climate, and the same number on 
 irrigated farms in the arid region, it is probable 
 that at the end of five years there would be a 
 greater proportion of successful farmers among 
 those on the land depending upon rainfall. As 
 time went on, however, and the art of irrigation 
 became better understood, the returns from the 
 irrigated lands would far outstrip those from the 
 humid. With ability to apply water to the dry 
 fields at the right time, the regularity of the crop 
 is insured, and farming operations can be con- 
 ducted with a certainty unknown in humid climates. 
 
 Small farms are characteristic of successful irri- 
 gation development. Throughout Utah, for exam- 
 ple, the average size of an irrigated area is less 
 than thirty acres. By means of this, a family is 
 supported in comfort and thi-iv is a gradual in- 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE XLIV. 
 
ADVANTAGES. 275 
 
 crease in wealth. The advantages of ownership 
 in small tracts can be seen at a glance in the well- 
 tilled fields and the general appearance of subur- 
 ban activity and prosperity. There is none of the 
 loneliness and isolation, so depressing where 
 farmers' families live a mile from one another and 
 rarely see any one except a few acquaintances and 
 have little means of keeping in touch with the 
 activities of the outside world. The cultivation of 
 small tracts also necessitates more or less diversi- 
 fied farming : fruit trees and vines are raised, and 
 when one crop is removed another may be planted 
 if the season is not too severe. A few cattle and 
 sheep are kept upon the neighboring open range, 
 and there is continued occupation throughout the 
 year for all able-bodied members of the family in 
 caring for the fruits, the gardens, or the animals. 
 This is in marked contrast to the great wheat farms, 
 where the work is concentrated during a few 
 months and the prosperity of the family is de- 
 pendent upon a single crop. There is developed 
 in the irrigated regions a better class of citizens, 
 with broader experience and wider interests. 
 
 SEWAGE IRRIGATION. 
 
 Irrigation affords not only a method of stimulat- 
 ing plant development, but it has been found to be 
 advantageous in both humid and arid climates in 
 furnishing a means of disposal of various waste 
 products resulting from human and animal activi- 
 
2/6 IRRIGATION. 
 
 ties, making these of use instead of allowing them 
 to become sources of annoyance. One of the 
 most convenient ways of getting rid of deleterious 
 substances has been to throw them into running 
 water, or to use flowing water as a means of con- 
 venience for taking away organic matter which 
 otherwise, by accumulation and decay, would be 
 injurious to health. From the earliest times creeks 
 and rivers have been regarded as the natural 
 means of deliverance from nuisances. With the 
 introduction of waterworks and systems of sewer- 
 age, we have, in effect, diverted the streams to our 
 doors and made them carry away our refuse. 
 
 At the same time these streams, or portions of 
 them, serve as sources of water supply, and it not 
 infrequently happens that a river which is in effect 
 an open sewer for a considerable population is 
 used at lower points to furnish drinking water. 
 This condition, when plainly stated, is highly 
 repugnant, but nevertheless exists throughout the 
 United States. The city of Washington, for exam- 
 ple, has for many years taken water directly from 
 the Potomac River, which receives near its head 
 waters the drainage from coal mines, the refuse 
 from manufactories, and along its course the sew- 
 age from towns and cities of considerable size. 
 Although a large portion of the organic matter in 
 the water may be destroyed by sunlight and expo- 
 sure to the air, yet, with the known great vitality 
 of the lower forms of life, it is highly probable 
 
USE OF SEWAGE. 277 
 
 that the germs or bacilli of typhoid and related 
 filth diseases travel for many days without com- 
 plete destruction. 
 
 The existence of this condition has led to careful 
 study of the question whether a better disposal of 
 sewage cannot be made. Although sources of 
 annoyance and even danger to public health, yet 
 these waste products have some value as fertilizers. 
 If, instead of defiling the rivers, the sewage can be 
 put upon agricultural land, two objects will be 
 accomplished the preservation of the purity of 
 rivers, and the consequent great gain to health 
 and to various industries dependent upon pure 
 water, and the increase in fertility of sterile soil. 
 
 The conditions in Europe in regard to pollution 
 of streams have become far worse than in the 
 United States, because of the greater density of 
 population. Elaborate experiments have been 
 made to demonstrate the practicability of using 
 sewage in the irrigation of farming land ; and in 
 the vicinity of Paris, Berlin, and a number of other 
 cities large tracts are being cultivated by its use. 
 The chief difficulty arises from the fact that there 
 is a certain amount of sewage to be disposed of, 
 summer and winter, in the crop season and out of 
 it, and this quantity is often greatest during storms 
 or at times when plants do not need additional 
 moisture. It is, therefore, necessary to provide 
 large areas of land, and to regulate the application 
 of water to these more with reference to getting 
 
2/8 IRRIGATION. 
 
 rid of the sewage than with thought of the actual 
 need of the plants. 
 
 In the handling of a large quantity of water a 
 very pervious or sandy soil has been found best, 
 since this will take up a large amount of sewage 
 and retain the organic matter where the roots of 
 the plants can reach it, acting to a certain de- 
 gree as a filter, and delivering clear and harmless 
 water to the drains beneath the surface. The 
 plants, during the season of growth, utilize the 
 organic matter, and by the aid of the nitrifying 
 organisms convert it into food for animals or 
 change it to innoxious substances. 
 
 The accompanying illustration (PI. XLV) gives 
 a view of a field of young corn being irrigated by 
 sewage at Plainfield, New Jersey. The sewage is 
 seen standing in furrows between the rows. The 
 water soaks away rapidly, and after the ground 
 has become partly -dry more sewage is let in, this 
 being repeated as rapidly as possible without 
 injury to the growing plants. In this way a rank 
 growth is obtained. On PI. XLVI, A, is shown a 
 view of the sewage-disposal works at Phoenix, 
 Arizona. Here the waste water from the city is 
 carried to a tract of low, sandy ground, portions 
 of which are rented to Chinese gardeners, who pro- 
 duce wonderful crops. 
 
 The view on the same plate, B, is of a similarly 
 irrigated farm in England, being situated, as shown 
 by the picture, in a densely populated region. If 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE XLV. 
 
SEWAGE FARMS. 279 
 
 properly conducted, there should be no odor from 
 such a farm, and its existence need not be a cause 
 of offence. If neglected, however, or improperly 
 managed, the sewage may become extremely un- 
 pleasant. 
 
 Sewage irrigation has been found profitable 
 on sandy soils, even in humid climates, where 
 the rain furnishes ordinarily an ample supply of 
 water for plants. The increased yield due to the 
 constant moistening of the soil and the addition of 
 fertilizing material more than repays the additional 
 labor and expense of applying the sewage. In the 
 arid regions, where water has greatest value, it 
 would seem self-evident that sewage irrigation 
 must ultimately be carried on to such an extent 
 that none of this material will be wasted. 
 
 This method of disposing of sewage may be 
 considered as a form of slow, intermittent filtration, 
 in which the top of the filter is used for growing 
 crops. After each watering the ground should be 
 cultivated, in order to stir the sewage into the soil 
 and bring the organic matter in contact with parti- 
 cles of earth. The frequent wetting of the ground, 
 followed by thorough cultivation and the sinking 
 away of the water, allowing the air to enter, favors 
 the growth of the nitrifying organisms which con- 
 vert the waste matter into plant food, this being 
 taken away by the crops as rapidly as it can be 
 utilized. There exists in some localities a strong 
 prejudice against the use of vegetables grown by 
 
280 
 
 IRRIGATION. 
 
 sewage irrigation. Experience has shown, how- 
 ever, that with proper care in applying the sewage, 
 to keep it away from immediate contact with the 
 plants, and in washing the vegetables when used 
 in cooking, there is no more danger to health than 
 is likely to occur in the use of ordinary fertilizers, 
 such as stable manure. In fact, the precautions 
 
 ^/"V/ *'.:* M' ,?-';' .-i ,//'><' k ^Z^NJI"* "^ 4lv |l V '* 
 
 \ak. ^**l> AM. .M, j,l. .,,- ..j '.., ji,^**^ 1 *^^'. *\f- I 4 -4<.. 
 
 Fid. 88. Channels and gates for sewage irrigation. 
 
 which naturally follow the use of sewage insure a 
 more careful handling of the product than is cus- 
 tomary in ordinary market-gardening operations. 
 
 The methods of controlling and applying the 
 sewage are similar to those employed in the use 
 of ditch water. The accompanying drawing (Fig. 
 88) shows a portion of a field through which per- 
 manent channels have been constructed. These 
 are made of concrete and provided with iron gates, 
 
ALKALI. 28l 
 
 making it possible to wash out the conduits and 
 clean them whenever necessary. 
 
 ALKALI. 
 
 Among the chief disadvantages which are con- 
 nected with the practice of irrigation is the accu- 
 mulation of alkali, or earthy salts, which under 
 some conditions may ultimately ruin the cultivated 
 fields. In most cases the injurious accumulation 
 of alkali can be prevented ; in others the circum- 
 stances are such that destruction seems inevitable. 
 It has been noted on pages 224 and 227 that the 
 excessive use of water upon the fields promotes 
 seepage and movement of waters underground. 
 These ultimately appear upon the surface in the 
 lowest spots, where they may form marshes upon 
 lands which a few years previously were dry and 
 may have been highly cultivated. 
 
 The formation of marshy ground can often be 
 prevented by suitable drains, so that in many parts 
 of the country drainage must follow irrigation, and 
 the two become parts of one general system for 
 controlling moisture. The drain from one field 
 often serves as an irrigating ditch for another. 
 In the early days, before drains were built, it was 
 asserted that malarial conditions prevailed around 
 irrigated fields, and some alarm was expressed over 
 the supposed increase of fevers or other diseases 
 attributed to irrigation. There probably is no 
 basis for such fear, and irrigated farms are consid- 
 
282 IRRIGATION. 
 
 ered as healthful as any part of the arid region, 
 the climate of which ranks among the most salu- 
 brious of all portions of the country. 
 
 The waters from seepage reaching the surface 
 may not be sufficient to produce marshy conditions, 
 but, being evaporated, leave on or near the surface 
 any salt which they may be carrying in solution. 
 Only the pure water can escape, and any matter 
 which was dissolved is necessarily left behind. 
 The most easily soluble natural salts are those of 
 sodium, the most familiar of these being sodium 
 chloride, the ordinary table salt, sodium carbonate, 
 commonly known as sal soda, or by the farmer 
 as black alkali, and sodium sulphate or Glauber's 
 salt. All of these, as well as salts of lime, mag- 
 nesia, potash, and various other compounds, are 
 likely to be present in small quantities in ordinary 
 soils, through the result of the decaying or break- 
 ing down of various rocks which compose the 
 crust of the earth. The water seeping through 
 these soils and rocks, dissolves minute quantities 
 of these salts and carries them in suspension until 
 evaporation takes place. 
 
 Before irrigation is introduced the soluble mate- 
 rial is found to be rather uniformly distributed 
 through the soil. When water is applied to the 
 surface in considerable quantities, this immediately 
 dissolves the salts to the depth to which the water 
 penetrates. When the supply is continuous, a part 
 of the water may escape beneath the surface by 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE XLVI. 
 
 A. SEWAGE IRRIGATION AT PHCENIX. ARIZONA. 
 
 B. SEWAGE IRRIGATION IN ENGLAND. 
 
INJURY BY ALKALI. 283 
 
 seepage and carry with it the salts in solution. 
 This seepage water, travelling slowly underground 
 for a distance perhaps of a mile or more, ultimately 
 finds its way to the surface, where it may enter a 
 stream and flow away, or may appear as moist 
 spots on valley lands. 
 
 Water evaporating from these moist spots leaves 
 behind the dissolved salts, and in course of months 
 or years these substances may accumulate until 
 they are visible to the eye as either a black stain or 
 a white glistening salt. Thus a fertile field which 
 is being cultivated year after year may become wet 
 by seepage, through the deve!6pment of irrigation 
 at higher points in the valley, and the yield per 
 acre rapidly increase, due to this supply of moist- 
 ure and to the enriching material brought by the 
 water. Soon, however, spots appear where the 
 crops do not thrive, and an examination shows 
 that the earthy salts, beneficial in small quantities, 
 have become injurious and destructive by con- 
 centration. 
 
 Part of the water applied to a field, after saturat- 
 ing the soil returns gradually to the surface, to be 
 evaporated, being drawn up by capillary attraction 
 or by the action of the roots of the plants. If 
 there is an impervious subsoil, nearly all of the 
 water will, in time, thus be drawn up. In its pas- 
 sage downward the water, as previously stated, 
 dissolves the soluble salts, and in its return to the 
 surface brings these with it and leaves them when 
 
284 IRRIGATION. 
 
 evaporation takes place. Thus, in the original 
 condition, the alkali may be distributed uniformly 
 through 10 or 20 feet in depth of soil, and not be 
 sufficiently great to be noticeable, so that with or- 
 dinary dry farming no difficulties are encountered ; 
 but when water is applied, the salts are brought 
 toward the surface by the action just described, and 
 are concentrated within a few inches of the top, 
 where, if not removed, they prevent the develop- 
 ment of the plants. There are some soils, as in 
 Southern California, where an excavation, such as 
 a cellar, will show on its walls the bright, glisten- 
 ing alkali. Here orchards have been successfully 
 cultivated, but the artificial application of water 
 would immediately kill these by bringing the alkali 
 to the surface. Such conditions are extreme, but 
 illustrate the necessity of taking certain precautions. 
 The accumulation of alkali can be frequently 
 prevented by draining, the seepage water carrying 
 away the salts into the streams when an ample 
 amount of water has been applied to the surface. 
 The alkali can thus be washed out by producing a 
 rapid movement of the water away from the field, 
 either on the surface or through the soil into drains. 
 The mere flooding without washing away of the 
 salts is not effective. It has been pointed out that 
 where the chief difficulty arises from small quanti- 
 ties of black alkali or sodium carbonate, this can 
 be neutralized in part by the application of land 
 plaster, or gypsum. This, consisting of sulphate 
 
WASHING OUT ALKALI. 285 
 
 of lime, changes the sodium carbonate into the 
 less harmful sodium sulphate and makes the lands 
 tillable. 
 
 There is always likelihood of a considerable 
 amount of alkali in the soils of arid regions, since 
 these have not been washed through countless 
 centuries by copious rains, such as occur in the 
 humid regions. More difficulty is experienced 
 with clayey soils than with sandy, as the water 
 passes rapidly through the latter, washing out the 
 alkali, and the roots of the crops are more widely 
 spread. Open, sandy soils do not become injured 
 by alkali, except under extreme conditions. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 IRRIGATION LAW. 
 
 AT the outset the layman, in looking up matters 
 of law relating to the use of water in irrigation, 
 is impressed with the apparent confusion and 
 contradictions he finds between the theory, the 
 practice, and the decisions of courts. There are, 
 however, certain underlying broad principles which 
 can be recognized, and in spite of the superficial 
 confusion and apparent lack of agreement among 
 judges deciding definite cases, these principles are, 
 on the whole, being adhered to and given applica- 
 tion in the majority of cases which arise. 
 
 Irrigation jurisprudence in our country is a 
 relatively new subject when compared with other 
 N branches of the law, the decisions concerning which 
 have come down through centuries of English and 
 American judicature. It is also to a certain extent 
 revolutionary in its tendencies, since many opinions 
 concerning flowing waters which have been sus- 
 tained by generations of lawyers must be modified 
 to suit the conditions in the arid West. Neverthe- 
 less, the principles of equity and the methods of 
 procedure are sufficiently elastic to take cognizance 
 
 286 
 
IRRIGATION LAW. 287 
 
 of the altered conditions, and, following the needs 
 of the people, gradually swing into line with them. 
 This, of course, must be done by degrees, and some 
 criticism is provoked by the slowness with which 
 some judges grasp the basic principles and the 
 imperative requirements of the arid region, result- 
 ing from its peculiar physical condition. These 
 men are notably conservative ; some of them, com- 
 ing from humid sections, fail to realize at first the 
 true situation, and occasionally their decisions seem 
 to run counter to the underlying principles. Remedy 
 has been sought in some states by elaborate legis- 
 lation and codes of water law, but this has often 
 served rather to complicate and delay matters than 
 to expedite the best solution of the difficulties. A 
 legislative act may, in the minds of its framers, fit 
 the peculiar situation, and yet be unsuited to a still 
 wider circle of interests, or to localities where dif- 
 ferent conditions exist. Many experiments in this 
 line have been made, but none of them are wholly 
 satisfactory. 
 
 A great deal is said about the endless litigation 
 pertaining to water rights. It is true that in many 
 communities where irrigation is still in what may 
 be termed its formative or speculative stage, contro- 
 versies arise ; but in settled communities, where the 
 artificial application of water has been carried on 
 for many years and has been the means of creat- 
 ing homes and large property interests, as, for 
 example, in Southern California, these matters 
 
288 IRRIGATION. 
 
 have been settled to a large extent, and litiga- 
 tion concerning water rights cannot be considered 
 as more frequent than that relating to land titles 
 or to any other of the important transactions of 
 daily life. 
 
 One of the principles which is being firmly estab- 
 lished by court decisions is that pertaining to the 
 original ownership of water by the people, as a 
 common stock to be drawn from by individuals 
 through rights which they acquire or hold by 
 actual beneficial use, subject to public control 
 under the police power or as a public use. All 
 claims to water are, under this principle, limited to 
 actual and beneficial use. The common stock of 
 water is limited in quantity, and until all of it is 
 put to beneficial use, persons desiring to thus em- 
 ploy portions of it are at liberty to do so, provided 
 they do not interfere with the rights of others. 
 Whenever this use is abandoned, the water re- 
 turns to the common stock, to supply the needs of 
 others. The fundamental principle is that bene- 
 ficial use is not only the foundation and basis of 
 the right, but likewise the measure and the limit 
 thereof. 
 
 One of the most striking differences between the 
 law governing the use of water in the arid region 
 and that governing its use in humid regions grows 
 out of the diametrically opposite way in which the 
 streams, whether above or under the ground, are 
 regarded by the lawmakers of the two sections. 
 
RIPARIAN RIGHTS. 289 
 
 The common law of the United States, brought 
 from England, has for its object the preservation 
 of the natural streams in their channels without 
 diminution or disturbance. Each owner of land 
 bordering upon a stream or through which a brook 
 flows is protected against any change in the course 
 or behavior of the stream, except from natural 
 causes ; and he in turn is prohibited from bring- 
 ing about any modification which may affect other 
 landowners below or above. This requirement, 
 useful where water is not needed for irrigation, is 
 directly contrary to the vital necessities of the arid 
 region. It is impossible for agriculture to exist there 
 unless water is taken from the streams. The first 
 step toward settlement of the dry land, one taken 
 even before houses are built, is the diversion of 
 water from the streams. Not only is water thus 
 carried upon adjacent valley lands, but it may be 
 conveyed across natural divides, and the excess al- 
 lowed to flow into an entirely different system of 
 drainage. 
 
 The law of riparian rights must apparently be 
 set aside at the very outset because of the neces- 
 sities of occupation and settlement. In reality, 
 however, it may be considered, not as being abso- 
 lutely repealed, but as modified to suit the differ- 
 ence in climate. In the state of California, where 
 both humid and arid conditions prevail, riparian 
 rights have from the first been recognized, but the 
 decisions of the courts have finally interpreted these 
 
290 IRRIGATION. 
 
 to mean that riparian proprietors are entitled to cer- 
 tain privileges only to the extent to which these have 
 been utilized. That is to say, a landowner cannot 
 enjoin a diversion of the water on the stream above 
 him unless it interferes with some beneficial use by 
 him of the water ; if, however, he was using the 
 stream to water a hundred cattle, and for nothing 
 else, he could compel sufficient water for these 
 cattle to be allowed to flow in the stream, but the 
 remaining water, which may be a hundred or a 
 thousand times the needs of his cattle, can be 
 taken out for the irrigation of dry lands, provided 
 no other beneficial use by lower proprietors is inter- 
 fered with. In other words, riparian rights can be 
 enforced only for the protection of the beneficial 
 use to which the water has been put by the riparian 
 owner. Although, as a naked legal right, the right 
 of the riparian owner to the undiminished flow of 
 the stream may be conceded, yet, when it comes to 
 the remedy for its infringement, he practically has 
 none, unless he can show, as a basis for his appli- 
 cation for an injunction, that there is an interference 
 with some beneficial use of the water by him. The 
 basis of a riparian owner's right, like the right of 
 an appropriator, is thus resolved back to the same 
 principle that of beneficial use. 
 
 This view of the right to take or appropriate the 
 unused flowing water involves the consideration of 
 the ownership of streams. There can be no ques- 
 tion as to who owns the land through or along 
 
OWNERSHIP OF WATER. 291 
 
 which a stream flows. Individuals or corporations 
 may unquestionably own the lands and the ditches 
 or structures conveying water, but the actual body 
 or corpus of the flowing water itself cannot, from 
 its very nature, be classed as property which is 
 capable of ownership by a person. It is held that 
 in the arid region, where the land originally be- 
 longed to the United States, and where portions 
 have been disposed of, the unused waters both 
 above and under the government lands still belong 
 to the government as part and parcel of the land. 
 
 Under federal statutes and state laws the use of 
 the water is guaranteed to certain individuals to the 
 extent to which they put it to beneficial use, and 
 usually in the order in which they have thus em- 
 ployed the water. In theory, at least, the man who 
 first irrigated 10 acres should continue indefinitely 
 to have enough water for his 10 acres, while the 
 man who next irrigated 20 acres can have sufficient 
 water for his area only when it is apparent that the 
 first man can also have his share ; and so on, each 
 person receiving an amount of water sufficient for 
 the needs of his cultivated tract in the order in 
 which this was put under irrigation (see p. 79). 
 
 This is known as the law of priorities. In 
 theory it is extremely simple and just, but in 
 practice it may be very complex, and its opera- 
 tions apparently unfair. For example, after a 
 country has been settled for a generation or more, 
 there does not seem to be any good reason why a 
 
292 IRRIGATION. 
 
 certain individual, who perhaps may be the poor- 
 est farmer of the community, should always have 
 ample water simply because the man from whom 
 he purchased or inherited his farm happened to 
 take out and apply water a few days or months 
 before his neighbors did. 
 
 A strict determination of priorities also leads 
 to waste of water, as the earliest settlers may 
 have been located at considerable intervals along 
 a stream, 10 or even 50 miles apart, and on the 
 lower, poorer lands, and so situated that water can 
 be taken to them in small quantities only at great 
 expense and loss of volume. As the country de- 
 velops, and every drop of water is needed, the 
 equities seem to demand that the priorities which 
 at first were fair and just should give way to the 
 largest and best use of the flowing streams. Ten 
 men should not be deprived of the use of the life- 
 giving fluid to satisfy the claims of a single indi- 
 vidual. If water were a property in the sense of 
 land, this consideration could not arise ; but if it 
 is something which belongs to the public, to be 
 enjoyed by the greatest number, the course of 
 events must bring about a gradual readjustment 
 by a series of compromises or exchanges, such as 
 has eventuated in the Cache la Poudre Valley of 
 Colorado and in other parts of the arid region. 
 
 Instead of distributing water strictly according 
 to priority of time, there has arisen in certain 
 localities a system known as prorating water, or 
 
PRIORITY OF APPROPRIATION. 293 
 
 dividing it proportionally to the amount available. 
 This may be considered as the opposite extreme 
 or alternative of the exercise of prior rights. In 
 the simplest form this is practised by farmers liv- 
 ing along a ditch which they have built in common 
 and have enlarged from time to time. Each man 
 shares in the water in proportion to the amount of 
 labor he has put upon the construction, this being 
 based presumably upon the area of land which he 
 intends to irrigate. No consideration is given to 
 the fact that one man near the head of the ditch 
 irrigated certain tracts before other farmers, who may 
 be at the lower end or upon an extension, commenced 
 to irrigate theirs. In times of scarcity the first 
 user of the water receives the same proportion of 
 his usual share as his associates, who may be later 
 comers, receive of their shares. Along extensive 
 canal systems the strict application of priorities 
 must occasionally give way in times of scarcity to 
 a proportional division of water. 
 
 Even in localities where theoretically water is 
 divided according to priority of appropriation, 
 there is practised a considerable amount of pro- 
 rating. It is impossible in a community to de- 
 prive a third or a quarter of the people of water, 
 and compel their crops to be destroyed, in order to 
 give the full appropriation to a favored few. Pri- 
 orities are also, for administrative purposes, occa- 
 sionally lumped, particularly in Utah, where a group 
 of farmers who irrigated before 1870 share equally, 
 
294 IRRIGATION. 
 
 while those who irrigated from 1870 to 1880 are 
 considered as holding secondary claims, and share 
 in common, dividing what is left after the priorities 
 are supplied, and so on, a general priority of right 
 by groups of irrigators being recognized, and 
 within these groups water being distributed pro- 
 portionally. 
 
 There is a tendency, as the country develops, to 
 abandon the strict observance of priorities, and 
 ultimately, when all of the land has been brought 
 under irrigation, to prorate the water. This is 
 essential to the utilization of the available supply 
 by the greatest possible number. Experience has 
 shown that in the economical management of any 
 large irrigation system water must be apportioned 
 to the different laterals with respect to physical 
 conditions and needs rather than to the strict con- 
 struction of the priorities of the various irrigators. 
 In the same way the apportionment of water from 
 the rivers, to accomplish the most good, must ulti- 
 mately be along natural lines rather than be based 
 upon arbitrary systems resulting from the accidents 
 of location of the first settlers. 
 
 It has been held by able advocates that the 
 right to the use of the water becomes inseparably 
 appurtenant to the land upon which it is used, so 
 that if the land should be washed away by the 
 shifting of a river in flood, the right to the use of 
 the water would be extinguished. On the other 
 hand, it has been held that the right to the use of 
 
WATER APPURTENANT TO LAND. 295 
 
 the water vests in the person who puts it to bene- 
 ficial use, and becomes appurtenant, but not insep- 
 arably appurtenant, to the land irrigated. In this 
 case, the owner of the land would have the right, 
 if the rights of the other persons were not affected 
 thereby, to change the use from one piece of land 
 to another ; but the right itself could only be held 
 as appurtenant to some piece of land in other 
 words, there would not be a floating water right 
 owned separate and apart from any land. The 
 practice and the current of judicial decision 
 throughout the arid region seem to be more in 
 accordance with the latter view. A man irrigates 
 a certain tract, and acquires the right to the con- 
 tinued use of a definite quantity of water for that 
 purpose; a portion of this land may become 
 swampy by seepage or injured by alkali, or he 
 may purchase additional adjacent land or a farm 
 lying farther down the canal, where the soil is 
 better. Few people would dispute his right to use 
 the water upon this contiguous or neighboring 
 land, and he would continue his farming opera- 
 tions undisturbed, provided that in so doing he 
 did not interfere with the rights of others. He 
 might even arrange to receive his water through 
 another ditch, and a considerable number of his 
 neighbors might join with him. If, however, by 
 so doing, the enjoyment of other persons in their 
 vested rights should be injuriously affected, they 
 would have the right to prevent such changes. 
 
296 IRRIGATION. 
 
 When we consider, however, not the right of the 
 individual irrigator, but that of a canal company, 
 the question becomes more complicated, and it 
 may be necessary to distinguish between rights to 
 divert water, rights to carry it, and rights to fur- 
 nish water to users and charge therefor; these 
 being distinct from the right to have the use of 
 the water for actual irrigation upon the land. 
 These various rights or privileges which lead up 
 to the controlling factor, that of actually using 
 the water, have not been clearly distinguished, 
 but for convenience of discussion each may be 
 considered as being separate. 
 
 These several rights of diverting, carrying, and 
 supplying water to users are usually considered to 
 be enjoyed by a canal company as a public agency 
 in the nature of a carrier. There is no actual 
 ownership of the water in the same sense that the 
 canal and regulating works are owned; but while 
 the water is in the canal, the company may be 
 said to stand in the relation of a trustee, convey- 
 ing the water to the persons who have the eventual 
 right to put it to beneficial use. The company, if 
 it owns land, may also have the right to the use of 
 the water, but only to the extent to which the 
 water can be put to beneficial use. 
 
 The rate charged for carrying the water is in 
 several states fixed by the county commissioners. 
 The manner in which the water is conveyed to the 
 places of use, as well as the point of diversion, may 
 
RIGHTS OF DIVERSION. 297 
 
 be changed, when by so doing injury to other in- 
 terests are not involved. 
 
 Canal companies, as appropriators, are allowed 
 to divert water from the streams, and are given 
 reasonable time in which to begin the work, 
 after posting the notice of appropriation; and 
 irrigators who may wish to use the water are 
 also allowed a reasonable time in which to com- 
 plete the act of appropriation by applying water 
 in the cultivation of the soil. No definite rule has 
 been established as to what constitutes this reason- 
 able time, though the usual legal rules concerning 
 due diligence are generally applied. It has been 
 held that when the water is thus used the right 
 under the appropriation relates back to the time 
 when the notice was posted, or to the time when 
 water was diverted from the stream by the canal. 
 The public records of these matters, which in some 
 states are required to be kept by the county offi- 
 cials, are often extremely defective as regards the 
 various claims and times of appropriation, the facts 
 being usually established, if at all, by testimony 
 taken in disputed cases. 
 
 In one state, Wyoming, rights to use water can- 
 not be obtained until application has been made, 
 and the state engineer has ascertained whether 
 there is unappropriated water. The conditions in 
 this state are unusually favorable to such a system 
 of control, as the altitude of the state is high, limit- 
 ing farming operations, the water supply is large, 
 
298 IRRIGATION. 
 
 and the ditch systems are relatively simple. The 
 attempt to introduce a similar system in other 
 states has not as yet been successful, and there 
 appears to be a fear on the part of irrigators that 
 their existing rights may be jeopardized and further 
 developments prevented by the exercise of a con- 
 trol beyond that of the ordinary course of law. 
 
 The belief is widespread that it is preferable to 
 allow developments to proceed under existing laws 
 and customs, modifying these from time to time 
 in detail as may be necessary, rather than to 
 attempt by legislation to bring about ideal condi- 
 tions, whose success depends largely upon an ideal 
 administration. Although controversies arise, it is 
 recognized that the present is a transition period, 
 and that the communities which have been let 
 alone to work out their own methods of apportion- 
 ing water have, as a rule, succeeded better than 
 those in states where radical legislation has been 
 attempted. 
 
CHAPTER XL 
 
 STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE ARID REGIONS. 
 
 EACH portion of the arid region possesses cer- 
 tain peculiarities of topography, climate, water 
 supply, and cultural conditions. In discussing 
 these it is convenient to consider them by political 
 divisions, since the latter are easily recognized by 
 name. Each state and territory is so large that 
 it embraces usually a number of distinct climatic 
 conditions, but in a brief review these may be 
 classed together. For convenience the states and 
 territories are here taken up in alphabetical order ; 
 they are : Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, 
 Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Utah, 
 Washington, and Wyoming. 
 
 The following table gives the extent of irrigation 
 at the beginning and end of the decade 1890-1900, 
 and shows the gradual increase of this method of 
 tilling the soil. The location of the irrigated areas 
 is shown in Fig. 14, p. 54, together with the 
 irrigable lands. The possible water supply is 
 given in the last column of the table on p. 55 
 in millions of acres. There is water enough for 
 over 60,000,000 acres if fully conserved by reser- 
 
 299 
 
300 
 
 IRRIGATION. 
 
 voirs or developed by wells, tunnels, and diversion 
 canals. 
 
 AREA IRRIGATED. 
 
 STATE OR TERRITORY. 
 
 1890. 
 
 l'.)00. 
 
 
 A cres. 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Arizona 
 
 70,000 
 
 190,000 
 
 California 
 
 I,2OO,OOO 
 
 I,5OO,OOO 
 
 Colorado 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 I,4OO,OOO 
 
 Idaho 
 
 230,000 
 
 600,000 
 
 Montana 
 
 380,000 
 
 I,OOO,OOO 
 
 Nevada 
 
 240,000 
 
 5IO,OOO 
 
 New Mexico .... 
 
 95,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 Oregon 
 
 180,000 
 
 4OO,OOO 
 
 Utah 
 
 300,000 
 
 650,000 
 
 Washington . . . . 
 
 100,000 
 
 1 5O,OOO 
 
 Wyoming ..... 
 
 250,000 
 
 600,000 
 
 Subhumid 
 
 70,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 Total 
 
 4,115,000 
 
 7,3OO,OOO 
 
 
 
 
 The total area of these states has been given 
 on p. 6. A comparison of this with the acreage 
 irrigated shows that the land cultivated in this 
 manner forms less than i per cent of the total 
 extent of most of these states. It is not to be 
 supposed that the whole of the arid region is irri- 
 gable, but it is highly probable that the area cm 
 ultimately be increased until ten times as much 
 land has been brought under cultivation. The 
 size of these states is so great that it is impossible 
 to form a clear conception of their extent without 
 making comparisons with other political divisions 
 
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302 IRRIGATION. 
 
 in the United States and with some of the coun- 
 tries of the Old World. A single county in one 
 of these Western states or territories may be 
 larger than one of the older states of the Atlantic 
 seaboard. To bring out this comparison Fig. 89 
 has been prepared, showing the outlines of the 
 states. Across these have been lettered the 
 names of several foreign countries whose area is 
 very nearly equal to that of one or more of the 
 states. For example, Spain has about the same 
 extent as Utah and Nevada. Italy is approxi- 
 mately equal in area to Arizona, or to the Philip- 
 pine Islands. Various other interesting comparisons 
 are afforded in the East as well as in the West. 
 
 Similar comparisons are made on Fig. 90, which 
 shows only the western portion of the United 
 States, and with a little different combination 
 of foreign countries. In particular, the states 
 Oregon and Washington are seen to be equivalent 
 to Great Britain, Ireland, Denmark, and Switzer- 
 land. Having in mind the great difference in 
 population, we cannot fail to be impressed with 
 the opportunities for increase of population and 
 industries, especially as the resources of these 
 Western states are of great extent and have hardly 
 yet been exploited. There is apparently no reason 
 why our Western states should not, in the distant 
 future, be capable of furnishing homes and profit- 
 able occupation for as large a population as some 
 of the countries whose names are placed across 
 
COMPARISON OF AREAS. 
 
 303 
 
 them. The ultimate realization of such conditions 
 rests, however, largely upon the treatment which 
 
 FIG. 90. Western United States compared with foreign countries. 
 
 in the near future shall be accorded to the water 
 resources, especially in the way of guarding these 
 from speculative monopoly. 
 
304 IRRIGATION. 
 
 ARIZONA. 
 
 This territory, not yet admitted as a state, em- 
 braces 112,920 square miles, or 72,268,800 acres, 
 in the driest and hottest part of the United States. 
 Its population in 1900 was 122,931, nearly equal 
 to that of the states of Nevada and Wyoming 
 combined. The average for the whole territory is 
 about one person to the square mile. In area the 
 territory is a little larger than Italy, which has a pop- 
 ulation of 33,000,000, and a little smaller than the 
 United Kingdom of Great Britain, with 41,000,000 
 people. The principal part of the population is 
 in the Salt River Valley, in the vicinity of Phoenix, 
 the capital city. The land here, as well as in many 
 other parts of the territory, is extremely fertile, and 
 lacks only an adequate water supply. 
 
 Increase of population and industry is limited 
 directly by the possibilities of water storage. 
 More land has already been brought under ditch 
 and partly cultivated than can be supplied with 
 water in ordinary years. Great tracts of country 
 can, however, be utilized for home-making when 
 the waters which now run to waste are carefully 
 held for time of need. 
 
 Not only is the necessity for water storage 
 greater in Arizona than in any other part of the 
 United States, but the opportunities for construct- 
 ing reservoirs on a large scale seem to be best 
 there. There are in the territory a considerable 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE XLVII. 
 
ARIZONA. 305 
 
 number of valleys whose position and form offer 
 unusual facilities for holding the occasional floods. 
 
 Considering the territory as a whole, there are 
 two distinct provinces, separated by a line of cliffs 
 or mesas extending diagonally from northwest to 
 southeast. Above, or north of, this line the coun- 
 try may be pictured as a plateau having an eleva- 
 tion of approximately 6000 feet, much of it covered 
 with pine forests. The surface is undulating, and 
 mountain masses rise from it. The rivers have cut 
 enormous canyons in this plateau, the Grand Can- 
 yon of the Colorado being one of the most stupen- 
 dous gorges in the world. 
 
 The smaller tributaries of the Colorado flow in 
 narrow gorges 1000 feet or more in depth, and the 
 small streams which occupy the bottoms of these 
 cannot be taken out to irrigate the upland. Agri- 
 culture without the artificial application of water 
 is carried on to a small extent, especially on the 
 higher plateaus, and some irrigation is practised 
 wherever sufficient ground can be found along the 
 mountain streams. The northern part of the ter- 
 ritory cannot be considered as having large oppor- 
 tunities for the creation of homes when compared 
 with the southern part. 
 
 From the south front of the great escarpment 
 or mesa a number of streams flow southerly, 
 joining to form Salt River and its large tributary, 
 the Verde. These unite and flow westerly through 
 a broad valley, entering Gila River, which con- 
 
306 IRRIGATION. 
 
 tinues southwesterly across the territory into Col- 
 orado River. The valley of Salt River on the 
 south merges imperceptibly into the broad desert 
 traversed by the Gila and reaching beyond the 
 Mexican border. There are millions of acres of 
 good land in this area, but only a small portion can 
 ever be supplied with water, even after all the 
 possible reservoirs have been built and artesian 
 wells constructed. Since the maximum possible 
 supply falls far short of the needs of all the land, 
 the remainder must always be barren, unless some 
 desert-loving plants valuable to man be discovered 
 and introduced. 
 
 A short distance below the junction of the Salt 
 and Verde a number of canals, heading on one 
 side or the other of the stream, take out all of the 
 ordinary flow and carry it to the lands in the vicin- 
 ity of Phoenix. The altitude here is about 1000 
 feet, and the climatic conditions are such that 
 oranges and other citrus fruits thrive, and in some 
 localities dates have been successfully introduced. 
 The principal forage crop is alfalfa, of which from 
 five to seven cuttings a year are made if ample 
 water is available. This enables the farmers to 
 produce a large amount of hay from a relatively 
 small acreage. With other products there are usu- 
 ally two crops each year, and sometimes more, the 
 ground being immediately cultivated and planted 
 after each harvest. Thus, with continuous warmth 
 and sunshine and with the necessary water, in- 
 
ARIZONA. 307 
 
 tensive farming is practised, and it is estimated 
 that a family of five persons can be well supported 
 upon twenty acres, or even less, if covered with 
 producing orchards. 
 
 Only a small portion of the good land is in 
 actual use, the amount appearing almost insignifi- 
 cant on a map of the territory. This can be 
 greatly increased by water storage, and in a less 
 degree by deep or artesian wells. Around the 
 Salt River Valley, on both the north and the east, 
 among the mountains, are a number of storage 
 sites, the most notable of these being at the junc- 
 tion of Tonto Creek and Salt River. Careful sur- 
 veys of several of these localities have been made, 
 plans prepared, and cost and benefits estimated. 
 These investigations should be extended to include 
 every possible locality. 
 
 South of the Salt River is the Upper Gila, a 
 stream somewhat smaller, or furnishing a less 
 amount of water. Along its course in the eastern 
 part of the territory are several broad valleys, the 
 most noteworthy being in the vicinity of Solomon- 
 ville. Here, as in many other parts of the terri- 
 tory, Mormon pioneers have taken out ditches and 
 brought large tracts of land under cultivation. 
 Farther down, canals have been taken out to cover 
 land southeasterly from Phoenix, in the vicinity of 
 the town of Florence, and the supply here has been 
 decidedly diminished by the diversions at points 
 above. 
 
308 IRRIGATION. 
 
 Still farther west, and down-stream from Flor- 
 ence, near the junction of Salt River, is a large 
 tract of desert land intersected by small, steep 
 mountains which seem to rise out of the nearly 
 level floor. This is the Gila River Indian Reser- 
 vation, set aside for the Pima, Papago, and Mari- 
 copa Indians. These people have always been 
 tillers of the soil, having practised irrigation long 
 before the advent of the whites. Like most agri- 
 cultural natives, they have been peaceable and 
 friendly, and have even assisted immigrants in 
 defending themselves from attack by the savage 
 Apaches who dwell in the mountains near the 
 head waters of the stream. 
 
 With the gradual diversion of the waters of 
 Gila River in the vicinity of Florence, and particu- 
 larly in the Solomonville Valley, the quantity in the 
 river has been diminished, until for several years in 
 succession there has not been a sufficient amount 
 for the Indians. They have been forced to depend 
 upon chance support, and, induced by hunger, to 
 steal the cattle of their white neighbors. Their 
 children have been sent to school and educated, 
 but, on returning to their homes, find nothing to 
 do, as farming cannot be practised without a water 
 supply. To prevent actual starvation, the govern- 
 ment has appropriated money for feeding these 
 Indians, and while going to great expense in 
 education, is at the same time pauperizing the 
 people. 
 
ARIZONA. 309 
 
 To enable these Indians to again become self- 
 supporting, it is essential that they be provided 
 with an ample water supply. Many investigations 
 have been made, and it has been found that there 
 are a number of places on the Gila River where 
 reservoirs of large size can be built. It is not prac- 
 ticable, however, to construct small reservoirs, as 
 these would be quickly filled with silt, and the ex- 
 pense of building dams for them would be nearly 
 as great as that of structures for reservoirs of the 
 largest possible capacity. 
 
 The best place found upon the Gila River is near 
 San Carlos, on the White Mountain Indian Reser- 
 vation, occupied by the Apaches. Here can be 
 built a reservoir sufficient to supply the needs of 
 the Indians and to reclaim at least 100,000 acres 
 of government land. This land, if thrown open to 
 homestead entry, subject to payment for the water, 
 would doubtless be taken up immediately, and the 
 government reimbursed for its outlay. 
 
 There are a number of smaller streams in the 
 southern part of the territory, each of which is now 
 utilized to its full capacity when at ordinary stages. 
 The floods of these streams could be stored and 
 used upon tracts of government land, thus provid- 
 ing opportunities for many additional farms. The 
 violence of some of these deluges is illustrated by 
 PI. VIII, giving a view of the bridge across Salt 
 River, which was partly destroyed by a rush of 
 water that carried out practically all of the dams 
 
310 IRRIGATION. 
 
 and head gates along its course. This is excep- 
 tional ; but it is possible to provide storage to hold 
 the ordinary floods on many of the streams and 
 reduce the violence of the extraordinary ones. 
 
 There is probably no place in the United States, 
 except possibly in Southern California, where the 
 marvellous results accomplished by irrigation are 
 more conspicuous than in Arizona, particularly in 
 the Salt River Valley in the vicinity of Phoenix. 
 Here, on the broad desert valley, bare of vegeta- 
 tion except for an occasional dry, dusty group of 
 thorny plants, the venturesome pioneer took out 
 small ditches, many of these following the ancient, 
 almost obliterated, lines of the canals of the prehis- 
 toric agricultural Indians, the ruins of whose towns 
 dot the plains. Under the brilliant and intense 
 sunlight, the moistened soil yielded bountifully, and 
 the small ditches were rapidly enlarged and canals 
 built to cover more and more ground. 
 
 The dry climate, especially of the winter season, 
 is found to be advantageous to human beings as 
 well as to plants, and renewed vitality has been 
 given to many an invalid from the cold and stormy 
 North. The success attained with oranges and 
 other citrus fruits, as well as with grapes, prunes, 
 plums, and various fruits needing the warm climate, 
 has led to a rapid widening of the area devoted to 
 vineyards (PI. XLVII) and orchards, these revenue- 
 producing vines and trees being supplemented by 
 luxuriant growth of palms, rose bushes, and innu- 
 
tRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE XLVIII. 
 
ARIZONA. 311 
 
 merable varieties of ornamental and flowering 
 shrubs. The delicate house plants, tenderly cared 
 for in the North, here develop to wonderful size 
 and variety, being hardly recognizable in the sturdy, 
 treelike forms which threaten to bury the suburban 
 houses in a perfect jungle of flowering branches 
 and creepers, all the result of watering the dusty 
 plains. 
 
 The fruits of the Salt River Valley are not 
 brought into immediate competition with those of 
 Southern California, as it is possible to put them 
 upon the market at an earlier date, and a certain 
 advantage is given in a shorter haul toward the 
 Atlantic and Gulf states, this being an important 
 item in the handling of the fresh fruits. Great 
 quantities are thus shipped out; but the prin- 
 cipal dependence is placed upon dried fruits (PL 
 XLVIII) and upon alfalfa, which is used in fatten- 
 ing cattle that range throughout the year upon the 
 mountains adjacent to the Salt River Valley and 
 upon the plateaus of the northern part of the state. 
 
 The development of irrigation and the enlarge- 
 ment of the cultivated area is continuing up to the 
 limit of the water supply, and many canals have 
 been built or are projected to cover areas for which 
 in ordinary seasons there is not sufficient water. 
 In order to bring about economy, some of the 
 ditches and canals have been consolidated, reduc- 
 ing the losses by seepage and evaporation. This 
 is the first step in the evolution of a system of con- 
 
312 IRRIGATION. 
 
 trol which must ultimately be worked out to suit 
 the conditions in each locality. 
 
 The next and most important step in growth is 
 the construction of reservoirs wherever practicable, 
 since there is need for all of the water which can 
 possibly be held. The erratic floods are too valu- 
 able to be allowed to run to waste, destroying 
 property along their course. With increase of 
 population and introduction of improved varieties 
 and new species of fruits, the value of the products 
 per acre must steadily rise to a point where the 
 construction of even the most expensive reservoirs 
 now projected will more than justify the outlay. 
 
 CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Excepting Texas, California is the largest state 
 in the Union, having an area of 155,980 square 
 miles, or a little over three-fourths that of France 
 or Germany. It includes almost every variety 
 of topography and climate, from elevated mountain 
 masses with perpetual snow down to fertile and 
 well-watered fields and to the barren, torrid deserts 
 300 feet below sea level. The most notable feature 
 is the great central valley of the state, drained in 
 its northern part by the Sacramento River and in 
 the southern end by the San Joaquin River. These 
 rivers, flowing toward each other from opposite 
 directions, finally merge, their united waters being 
 poured westward through the Golden Gate into the 
 Pacific. On the east of this great valley are the 
 
CALIFORNIA. 313 
 
 lofty, snow-capped mountains known as the Sierra 
 Nevada, from which come many streams tributary 
 to the great rivers just mentioned. West of the 
 great valley, and between it and the ocean, are the 
 irregular groups of mountains which make up 
 the Coast Range. Among these are long, narrow 
 valleys. To the north of San Francisco Bay 
 these mountains are for the most part humid and 
 well-forested, but to the south they are dry and 
 support only a scanty vegetation. 
 
 The southern part of California is a region dif- 
 fering both in topography and in climate, and has 
 such distinctive features and interests that there 
 has resulted an occasionally expressed desire on 
 the part of the people to become an independent 
 state. The southern prolongation of the Sierra 
 Nevada, curving around the head of the San Joa- 
 quin Valley, forms a barrier between Southern 
 California and the remainder of the state. The 
 railroad crosses over what is known as Tehachapi 
 Pass. Below this is the Mohave Desert, which 
 extends easterly and southerly to the Colorado 
 River. A lofty range of mountains borders this 
 desert on the west and cuts it off from the ocean. 
 At the southern and western base of these moun- 
 tains are several valleys opening toward the ocean, 
 or extending to it, and having a climate such that 
 citrus fruits of the best quality, nuts, and various 
 semitropical plants are successfully raised. A 
 dense population has gathered here in the cities 
 
314 
 
 IRRIGATION. 
 
 of Los Angeles, San Bernardino, Riverside, San 
 Diego, and in many towns, and the well-distributed, 
 though small, water supply has enabled a develop- 
 
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 NE\ATVORK^ 
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 OHIO ./I HARRJSBURG 
 
 KY 
 
 V S ,S-:- : '' RICHMOND^ (fyfi 
 
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 TCNH._ r X^ r " 
 
 x '" ^ N ' C> RALEIGH 
 
 ir-S 
 
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 GiA N '" i; * 
 
 /:. 
 
 HARLE5TON 
 
 FIG. 91. California compared with the Atlantic states lying in the 
 same latitude. 
 
 ment of irrigation in the rural districts surpassing 
 that found elsewhere in the United States. 
 
 The vast extent of California, with its surpris- 
 
CALIFORNIA. 
 
 315 
 
 ing differences in climate, must be borne in mind 
 when discussing the resources of the state and 
 
 BILBAi 
 
 VALLADOLJD 
 
 MADRID 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 SARAGOSSA 
 
 40 
 
 o x 
 
 ]iSasj franc/ sco 
 .MALAGA 
 
 GIBRALTAR 
 
 'Kv- 
 
 MOROCCO 
 F R 
 
 , \ 
 
 %. 
 
 ALGEF1A 
 
 MOROCCO 
 
 FIG. 92. California compared with Old World countries lying in the 
 same latitude. 
 
 the dependence of these upon irrigation. In the 
 southern portion in particular all development and 
 land values rest directly upon the ability to obtain 
 
316 IRRIGATION. 
 
 a water supply, while in the northern portion dry 
 farming is generally successful and irrigation has 
 value mainly as insuring a better crop or a higher- 
 priced class of products. To obtain a more real- 
 istic conception of the extent of the state, Figs. 
 91 and 92 are given, these showing in outline the 
 state of California as placed on a map of the 
 Alantic coast states of this country, and on a simi- 
 lar map of Spain and northern Africa. In both 
 of these sketches California is shown in its true 
 position relative to distance from the equator, but 
 in Fig. 91 it is reversed, or turned over, so that 
 its coast line will coincide nearly with that of the 
 Atlantic coast. 
 
 By reference to Fig. 91 it is seen that Cali- 
 fornia extends from the latitude of northern Penn- 
 sylvania down to that of South Carolina and 
 northern Georgia. San Francisco corresponds in 
 position fairly well with Norfolk, Virginia, and 
 San Diego with Charleston, South Carolina. It 
 is interesting to note that in each of the portions 
 of states included within the dotted outline of Cali- 
 fornia, there is now a population nearly equal to, 
 or exceeding, that of the entire state of California, 
 which is, in round numbers, 1,500,000. New Jer- 
 sey and North Carolina have each nearly 2,000,000 
 inhabitants. Maryland, with the District of Colum- 
 bia, has a population almost identical with that of 
 California, and .eastern Pennsylvania far exceeds 
 either of these. With the natural resources of 
 
CALIFORNIA. 317 
 
 California so far exceeding those of the eastern 
 Gulf states, it seems incredible that such great 
 inequalities of population continue indefinitely. 
 When a comparison is made of California with 
 the Old World, as in Fig. 92, the striking differ- 
 ence in population is again brought out. Portugal 
 has over 5,000,000 inhabitants, Algeria has nearly 
 as many, and Spain has over 18,000,000. 
 
 The methods of irrigation and the habits of the 
 irrigators are as diverse as the great extent of the 
 state and the variety. of climatic and topographic 
 conditions would imply. In the more humid por- 
 tions of the north, irrigation is not practised or is 
 regarded as something exceptional or of doubtful 
 utility. In the centre of the state, where the large 
 rivers pour their floods from the Sierra Nevada out 
 into the dry valley, great canals have been built 
 and water is lavishly used. South of Tehachapi, 
 where the rivers are comparatively small and 
 population is dense, there is the most complete con- 
 servation of scanty supplies, and irrigation is re- 
 garded as the highest triumph of the agricultural 
 art. Great dams have been built, such as the 
 Sweetwater, Otay, Hemet, and Bear Valley, for 
 storing floods, and expensive cement-lined ditches 
 and wooden flumes have been constructed for tak- 
 ing the precious fluid to the fields with the least 
 possible loss. 
 
 Among the foothills on the eastern side of the 
 Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys gold was early 
 
3l8 IRRIGATION. 
 
 discovered in placers, and these were worked by 
 means of water taken out by innumerable flumes 
 and ditches. With the decline of this business, 
 due largely to the so-called anti-debris law, many of 
 these ditches were used to irrigate little sidehill 
 farms, and it was found that valuable fruits could be 
 raised, particularly oranges, on the lower hill slopes. 
 Thus many of the structures originally made for 
 mining have been repaired and gradually enlarged 
 for purposes of irrigation. 
 
 The greater part of the valley of California, in 
 spite of the small rainfall, has been used for grow- 
 ing wheat. This has been successfully cultivated 
 even upon the adjoining foothills. The large 
 wheat farms cultivated without irrigation are, how- 
 ever, being gradually encroached upon by orchards 
 and by alfalfa fields, as water has been brought 
 out from the mountains. The tendency is to sub- 
 divide the great holdings of the Sacramento and 
 San Joaquin valleys. The application of water 
 makes possible the creation of a considerable num- 
 ber of small irrigated farms in place of one dry 
 farm devoted to raising grains. This results in a 
 decided increase in population, since a family can 
 find support upon 40, or even 20, acres of land 
 planted in orchards and vineyards, while ten or 
 even a hundred times this area may be devoted to 
 a single wheat farm. 
 
 Irrigation construction in California has pro- 
 ceeded with relative slowness during recent years, 
 
CALIFORNIA. 319 
 
 partly because of the effect of the operations of 
 what is known as the "district law," passed in 
 1887, allowing the creation of irrigation districts 
 in some respects similar to municipal organizations, 
 but having a single object ; namely, that of deliver- 
 ing water in sufficient quantities for the utilization 
 of the lands embraced within their borders. One 
 of the principal features of this law has been the 
 authority conferred to bond the district, and to 
 dispose of these bonds for the purchase or con- 
 struction of irrigation works. Without entering 
 into details, it is sufficient to say that over forty 
 irrigation districts were formed and bond issues 
 authorized to the extent of millions of dollars. 
 Through lack of sufficient safeguards the districts 
 received comparatively little benefit from the dis- 
 posal of these bonds and the property holders 
 awoke to find themselves struggling under heavy 
 debts, with little or no improvement as regards 
 water supply. Many of the bonds issued are com- 
 paratively worthless, and discredit has been cast 
 upon reclamation methods of this character. 
 
 The way in which the canals lead out from the 
 principal rivers in the San Joaquin Valley is illus- 
 trated in Fig. 93, which shows the canal system 
 from Kern River, California. The dotted lines are 
 contours and show points of equal elevation, the 
 lowest being 300 feet above sea level. The 
 higher canals are taken out as nearly as pos- 
 sible along these contours, in order to cover 
 
320 
 
 IRRIGATION. 
 
 the most ground. Other canals lower down 
 the river follow down the slopes, the resulting 
 
 r* 
 
 Fl<;. 93. -Canal system from Krin River, California. 
 
 arrangement being fan-shaped, fitting the topog- 
 raphy. Water is usually had in abundance from 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE XLIX. 
 
 A. IRRIGATION OF VINEYARD IN SAN JOAQUiN VALLEY, 
 CALIFORNIA. 
 
 IRRIGATION OF ORCHARD IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, 
 CALIFORNIA. 
 
CALIFORNIA. 321 
 
 these canals, and is somewhat lavishly employed, 
 as illustrated on PL XLIX, giving views of the 
 irrigation of an orchard and of a vineyard. For 
 alfalfa, with its three to five cuttings during the 
 summer, even more water is employed than in the 
 orchards, in order to wet the ground thoroughly 
 after the removal of each crop. With the gradual 
 increase of orchards and the extension of land 
 under intensive farming, less amounts of water are 
 being wasted. 
 
 In striking contrast to this lavish use of water 
 is the economy practised in Southern California, 
 where the little rills from tunnels driven into the 
 hills or from wells are carefully guarded and 
 carried into pipes, to be distributed underground 
 or brought to the surface near each garden plant 
 or orchard tree, as described on p. 207, under 
 the head of subirrigation. The economies prac- 
 tised in the southern part of the state must 
 ultimately be employed even in the great valley 
 with its large water supply, for this, although 
 impressive to the eye, is far short of the needs of 
 all the good land which can be irrigated. 
 
 The drought of recent years has borne particu- 
 larly hard upon the irrigators of Southern California, 
 where the supply of water was already limited, and 
 many enterprises for obtaining water have been 
 undertaken which otherwise would not have been 
 considered. Almost innumerable wells have 
 been sunk hi the country about the vicinity of San 
 
322 IRRIGATION. 
 
 Bernardino, and from there to Los Angeles, these 
 being located on the slopes of debris coming from 
 the canyons, and also in and adjacent to the stream 
 channels. Some of these wells have yielded large 
 amounts of water, and in a few localities artesian 
 conditions have been found, resulting in a very 
 valuable contribution to the wealth of this part of 
 the state. 
 
 Not only have ordinary vertical wells been con- 
 structed, but what may be considered horizontal 
 wells have been dug, with the idea of intercepting 
 small amounts of water which may be progressing 
 slowly beneath the surface. These consist of 
 tunnels run on a slightly rising grade into the 
 gravel slopes, or even into the rocky walls of the 
 valley or canyons. Sometimes these tunnels, after 
 penetrating the solid rock, turn and go beneath the 
 bed of a stream, in the hope of finding in the deep 
 deposit of boulders and cobblestones some water 
 which can be diverted. As a result of this under- 
 cutting, several controversies have arisen, persons 
 using the surface flow claiming that diversions 
 from the pervious material, even though lying far 
 beneath the surface, are in effect an unlawful 
 taking away of the flow. It is argued that the 
 stream cannot continue on the surface unless the 
 underground passages are completely filled with 
 water, and that by draining these an equivalent 
 amount is sooner or later taken from above. This 
 matter is of importance not only in California, but 
 
CALIFORNIA. 323 
 
 elsewhere, and has been a point at issue in an im- 
 portant lawsuit over waters of Los Angeles River, 
 as noted on page 235. 
 
 The results attained by this complete conserva- 
 tion of the water supply of the southern part of 
 the state, and the utilization of comparatively in- 
 significant sources as well as those of considerable 
 size, are shown in the wonderful increase of culti- 
 vated area and the high degree of perfection reached 
 in the care and management of orchards and vine- 
 yards. The visitor to Southern California finds it 
 almost impossible to conceive that the tracts now 
 covered by trees and vines were only a few years 
 ago a bare and apparently sandy waste, not fit even 
 for grazing except after an unusual rain. He is 
 further incredulous when told that the homes of 
 comfort, and even of luxury, surrounded by palms 
 and almost covered with flowering shrubs, have 
 been paid for by the products of these small 
 orchards, and that families are making a living 
 and getting ahead in the world by the cultivation 
 of fifteen, or ten, or even fewer, acres of land which 
 before the introduction of water can hardly be said 
 to have had any value. 
 
 Cities such as Riverside, Redlands, and Anaheim, 
 and innumerable towns, with their thickly settled 
 suburbs stretching out along the lines of canals or 
 supply pipes, are not only monuments to the energy 
 and perseverance of the men who founded them, 
 but also living testimonials of the value of water 
 
324 IRRIGATION. 
 
 conservation. The system of supply, now grown 
 to large proportions, may properly be classed with 
 the wonders of the world. Surface streams have 
 been controlled and underground waters brought 
 to the surface, creating a volume of water whose 
 value, measured by the results produced, runs up 
 into millions of dollars. 
 
 One of the greatest matters of surprise has been 
 the success attained during the trying season of 
 drought which culminated in 1899 an d 1900. There 
 had been for a decade less than the normal pre- 
 cipitation, and for two years the rainfall had not 
 reached one-half the average for the region ; but, 
 in spite of misgivings, the water supply, especially 
 that from underground sources, did not diminish 
 as would have been expected, and the numerous 
 wells and the tunnels driven into the hills did not 
 appear to be affected by the scarcity of precipita- 
 tion. The extra care due to the realization of the 
 need of economy resulted, not only in saving the 
 fruits and crops, but in some instances the yield 
 was actually increased over that of seasons when 
 the water supply was abundant. It is probable 
 that there is still to be had a large amount of water 
 from underground, and that by the use of cheap 
 power, such as that obtained by electrical transmis- 
 sion or by burning the crude petroleum produced 
 in large quantities in California, great volumes of 
 water may be pumped to the surface for raising 
 high-grade fruits. 
 
CALIFORNIA. 325 
 
 Not only has the underground supply not shown 
 any notable diminution from the drain put upon it, 
 but the seepage or percolating water in some of 
 the springs or cienegas has actually increased. 
 This is especially the case on San Gabriel, Los 
 Angeles, and Santa Ana rivers. This latter river, 
 rising in the mountains, flows upon the upper edge 
 of San Bernardino Valley, the water being all 
 taken out for irrigation or disappearing into gravel 
 washes. At the lower end of the valley, where the 
 outlet is through a narrow, rocky pass, water re- 
 appears upon the surface and a perennial stream 
 is formed, as shown on PL IX, A. This stream, 
 instead of becoming dry, as might have been ex- 
 pected from the increased use of water in San 
 Bernardino Valley, has actually grown larger, and 
 from the flow of about 25 or 40 second-feet of ten 
 years ago it has risen to two or three times that 
 amount. This is probably due to the results of 
 more complete irrigation of the valley, the gradual 
 saturation of the subsoils, and the progress of the 
 water slowly by seepage from the fields where ap- 
 plied months or even years before down toward the 
 outlet of the valley, again forming the river. 
 
 This careful conservation and complete devel- 
 opment of surface and underground waters, and the 
 conveyance and distribution of these in expensive 
 conduits, as shown in PI. L, have necessitated 
 heavy expenditures and the annual payment of 
 sums which seem very large when compared with 
 
326 IRRIGATION. 
 
 the cost of water elsewhere, as for example in the 
 San Joaquin Valley. Under the Fresno Canal, 
 which diverts water from King River, a water 
 right, or privilege of purchase, is worth about $40 
 per acre. The annual charge for water is only 65 
 cents per acre. This is very cheap even for this 
 valley. In this locality the water plane has risen 
 to within 10 to 15 feet of the surface, and very lit- 
 tle additional water is needed for irrigation. 
 
 In contrast to these conditions are those in South- 
 ern California. For example, under the Anaheim 
 Union Water Company, in Orange County, water 
 is sold at $4.80 per acre-foot and is considered 
 cheap, but the company is reported to lose money 
 each year and to make up the loss by an assess- 
 ment on the water-using shareholders. 
 
 At Corona, or South Riverside, in Riverside 
 County, the charge in 1900 was $15 per acre-foot 
 of water. Owing to the drought, there was but 
 one-half the usual amount of water delivered dur- 
 ing the year. This supply is largely from a pump- 
 ing system, and the charge for the year 1900 was 
 above the average, owing to improvements that 
 were made during the season. 
 
 Under numerous pumping plants near Azusa, in 
 Los Angeles County, water has been sold for irri- 
 gation during the years 1898 to 1900 at from 
 " 3 to 5 cents per hour-inch"; this is at the rate of 
 $18 to $30 per acre-foot. At Azusa the cost is $5 
 per acre irrigated from the Azusa Canal, which 
 
I/RRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE L. 
 
CALIFORNIA. 327 
 
 diverts water from the San Gabriel River. At 
 Ontario $10 per acre is charged each year. 
 
 At Hollywood, a suburb of Los Angeles, a 
 charge of 10 cents per 1000 gallons is made for 
 water, or $32.31 per acre-foot. The land is used 
 for growing lemons, but the water rate is too high 
 to permit of large commercial success. 
 
 The annual charge for the irrigation of citrus 
 lands in Southern California varies from $5 to $30 
 per acre, and will probably not average far from 
 $10 per acre irrigated, the supply being usually 12 
 inches in depth of irrigation water. In addition 
 there is about 15 inches of winter rain. The citrus 
 fruits in general need twice the water required by 
 the deciduous fruits, and alfalfa usually has more 
 than that used by either. Under the Gage canal 
 system at Riverside, where citrus fruits are grown 
 almost exclusively, and where the soil is somewhat 
 porous, derived largely from granitic debris, with 
 a good slope and with a rainfall of 6 inches in the 
 winter, there was applied during 1900 about 2.2 
 feet in depth of water. This was an average for 
 the entire system, and irrigation was practised 
 every month in the year, owing to winter drought. 
 Other estimates for this canal are given on page 
 218. 
 
 In Redlands the duty of water is usually con- 
 sidered as 12 inches in depth for citrus fruits, 
 applied during the six months, May to October in- 
 clusive, the normal winter rainfall being 16 inches. 
 
328 IRRIGATION. 
 
 Under the Sweetwater system, in San Diego County, 
 1402 acre-feet of water served 3800 acres of citrus 
 fruits from May to November, 1899, during a 
 drought. Deducting for domestic consumption of 
 water, this leaves .28 foot in depth applied. The 
 trees survived and a crop was gathered, but this is 
 regarded as an extreme case. 
 
 The importance of the fruit industry to Southern 
 California may be judged from the statement that 
 in 1899 the shipments of oranges aggregated nearly 
 10,000 car loads, valued at $7,000,000. The assess- 
 ors report for the seven southern counties over 
 2,000,000 bearing trees, and over half as many 
 non-bearing. The principal orange-growing locality 
 is Riverside, which produced a third of all these 
 oranges, and next Redlands and the Azusa Valley, 
 each producing about 10 per cent of the entire 
 output. The orange crop in the seven counties 
 was produced from about 48,000 acres, or 75 square 
 miles, of which about 40 square miles contained 
 bearing trees. The first cost of the land, including 
 the planting and care of orchards, has been esti- 
 mated to be $25,000,000. The profits of the 
 grower have been found to be 12 per cent. The 
 orange land with water, but without trees, is esti- 
 mated to be worth from $250 to $300 per acre, 
 while with bearing trees the price ranges from a 
 thousand dollars per acre up to double that amount 
 for groves with fine location, navel trees, and first- 
 class water rights. 
 
COLORADO. 329 
 
 COLORADO. 
 
 Among the irrigating states Colorado stands 
 next to California in the amount of land watered. 
 The crops raised are decidedly different, in both 
 character and vakie, owing to the colder climate, 
 which prevents raising the citrus or semi-tropi- 
 cal fruits for which Arizona and California have 
 become celebrated. Large quantities of forage 
 and the coarser staples are produced. Various 
 portions of the state have acquired a more than 
 local reputation for the production of excellent 
 vegetables and deciduous fruits. For example, 
 Rocky Ford, on the Arkansas River, is known 
 throughout the country for its watermelons, and 
 especially for cantaloupes. Greeley and vicinity 
 have set a standard for potatoes, while Grand 
 Junction has attracted attention by its peaches. 
 Although equally good results are claimed for 
 other rural communities, the reputation acquired 
 by these localities testifies to the excellence at- 
 tained. 
 
 Colorado has 103,645 square miles of land sur- 
 face, a little less than the combined area of the six 
 Xc\v England states and New York. Its popula- 
 tion in 1900 was 539,700, or less than a twentieth of 
 the population of these seven states, but its natural 
 resources are in many respects incomparably 
 greater. The state includes a considerable part of 
 the Rocky Mountain region, noted for the valuable 
 
330 IRRIGATION. 
 
 deposits of precious metals and minerals. It ex- 
 tends on the east out over a portion of the high 
 plains which rise from an altitude of about 3000 to 
 5000 feet or more at the foothills. These broad 
 plains furnish excellent grazing in ordinary years, 
 and occasionally a crop of cereals can be produced 
 by careful cultivation, if favored by the occurrence 
 of fortunate rains. Dry farming has been at- 
 tempted at various points along the eastern boun- 
 dary, and is carried on with a fair degree of success 
 on the high divide which lies north and northeast 
 of Colorado Springs. As a rule, however, it may 
 be stated that irrigation is essential for success 
 throughout the state. 
 
 The plains are traversed by two rivers, which 
 receive their main supply from the Rocky Moun- 
 tains : the South Platte, flowing toward the north- 
 eastern corner of the state, and the Arkansas, 
 farther south and flowing easterly. Large canals 
 and many ditches divert water upon the valley 
 lands and adjacent plains, so that, during the sum- 
 mer at least, the beds of both rivers are dry long 
 before reaching the state line. 
 
 The high plains, rising gradually toward the west, 
 are suddenly intercepted, nearly half of the dis- 
 tance across the state, by the foothills of the 
 Rocky Mountains and by the main ranges, which 
 rise to lofty snow-covered peaks 13,000 feet and 
 more in height. From the front range westward 
 the entire state consists of mountains and broad 
 
COLORADO. 331 
 
 plateaus with relatively few valleys. Among the 
 mountains, at elevations of 7000 feet, are a number 
 of basinlike areas dotted with trees and known as 
 parks. Here natural grasses abound, and by dis- 
 tributing water from the small streams over the 
 surface large quantities of forage can be had. 
 
 The streams which flow westward from the 
 main divide unite finally to form the Grand River 
 or empty into Green River. These join to make 
 the Colorado River of the West. The water sup- 
 ply is large, but the valleys are narrow, and as a 
 rule there is more water than is needed for the 
 agricultural land, so that storage here is of second- 
 ary importance. The principal problem is to 
 lift the water to the benches or mesas along the 
 streams, or to divert it by means of canals heading 
 in the canyons, or by tunnels cut through inter- 
 cepting rocky spurs. 
 
 In the southern part of the state, at an altitude 
 of over 7000 feet, is the broad San Luis Valley, 
 through which flows the Rio Grande on its way 
 south into New Mexico. In spite of the altitude, 
 and consequent cool climate, agriculture by irri- 
 gation is successfully practised for the production 
 of cereals and for the growing of alfalfa and other 
 forage plants. 
 
 The largest irrigated areas in Colorado are along 
 the Platte and Arkansas rivers, and here the prin- 
 cipal problem is that of increasing the summer 
 supply by a thorough system of water storage. 
 
332 IRRIGATION. 
 
 The canals and ditches already built, taking water 
 to land partly under cultivation, could probably 
 utilize to advantage all of the water which can be 
 conserved. The owners of these irrigation works 
 have been gradually enlarging them, building pri- 
 vate reservoirs, and adjusting among themselves a 
 system of apportioning the water, so that the scanty 
 supply may be divided in accordance with priori- 
 ties and with various equities. 
 
 One of the principal tributaries of the South 
 Platte is Cache la Poudre River, which supplies the 
 farms in the vicinity of Greeley, a view of one of 
 which is shown on PL LI. The summer flow of 
 this stream has been increased by the diversion 
 of the waters of Laramie River (p. 178), and also 
 by the building of a number of reservoirs, both in 
 the mountains and out on the plains. A compli- 
 cated system of transfers of water has been in- 
 augurated, by which the claims of one set of men 
 are temporarily transferred to another, the natu- 
 ral flow of the stream being traded for an equiv- 
 alent amount of stored water, and the reverse, so 
 as to utilize reservoirs which lie at different alti- 
 tudes and to enable the storage of water which 
 otherwise could not be economically handled. Out 
 of these apparent complications there is being 
 gradually evolved a system of local water control, 
 embracing the entire stream, and tending to do 
 away with the rigid observance of priorities of right 
 in favor of the largest and best use of the water. 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE LI. 
 
COLORADO. 333 
 
 The gradual evolution and adjustment of water 
 rights on the Cache la Poudre and along the Ar- 
 kansas is to a certain extent typical of the prog- 
 ress in other localities, where some of the lower 
 canals have prior rights over those higher up- 
 stream. The latter are located in such a position 
 that they can more readily take the water as it 
 comes from the mountains, and it has been exceed- 
 ingly difficult to keep the head gates of these up- 
 per canals closed in times of scarcity in order to 
 force down the proper amount to ditches below. 
 To assist in adjusting the various difficulties, asso- 
 ciations have been formed and various agreements 
 entered into. One of the chief obstacles to full 
 development of the water resources lies in the fact 
 that water storage has been begun on the head 
 waters, not for the benefit of all concerned, but for 
 one or two canals, thus introducing irritating com- 
 plications, and uncertainty as to which portion of 
 the water is stored and which is the natural flow. 
 The importance of public ownership and control 
 of natural reservoir sites has been mentioned on 
 page 177. 
 
 IDAHO. 
 
 This state has a land area of 84,290 square 
 miles, being slightly larger than the state of Kan- 
 sas and a third greater than the whole of New Eng- 
 land. The population in 1890 was 161,772, thus 
 averaging about two to the square mile, as com- 
 pared with a density of from 20 to 50 persons to 
 
334 IRRIGATION. 
 
 the square mile in the Eastern states. The greater 
 part of this population is in the valleys along 
 Boise, Payette, and Weiser rivers and on the 
 head waters of Snake River, and also in the mining 
 towns scattered through the mountains. 
 
 The form of Idaho is peculiar. Toward the 
 north is a narrow prolongation, including the 
 mountainous area between the states of Mon- 
 tana and Washington. The broad southern end 
 includes the greater part of the valley of Snake 
 River and the tributary country. This is mainly 
 a broad, lava-covered plain, dry, dusty, and barren, 
 except for a dense growth of sage brush and 
 similar woody shrubs. The lava frequently ap- 
 pears on the surface, the rough, angular blocks 
 giving a forbidding appearance to the landscape. 
 A thin soil, often sandy, covers some of the lava, 
 but where watered this, like most of the soil of 
 the arid regions, has been found to be highly pro- 
 ductive. 
 
 The head waters of Snake River are in the vicin- 
 ity of the Yellowstone National Park. They flow 
 in a general southwesterly course, out upon the 
 lava-covered plains, bringing vast quantities of 
 sand and gravel. Over the deposits thus formed 
 the streams meander, rendering it possible to easily 
 divert the water for agricultural purposes. 
 
 Soon after leaving the mountains Snake River 
 begins to cut into the rocky surface, and with suc- 
 cessive rapids and falls, as shown on PL LI I, ./, 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE LI I. 
 
 B CONSTRUCTING A CANAL B 
 
IDAHO. 335 
 
 it works its way downward until it flows at a 
 depth of 1000 to 2000 feet or more beneath the 
 general level. Continuing in deep canyons, the 
 river crosses the southern end of Idaho and then 
 swings toward the north, the canyon walls giving 
 place to broad, undulating valleys where the Boise, 
 Payette, and Weiser rivers enter from Idaho and 
 the Owyhee and Malheur rivers come in from 
 Oregon. Here agriculture has been developed to 
 a larger extent than elsewhere in the state. Leav- 
 ing this open land, the river keeps northward, hav- 
 ing cut for itself deep, gloomy canyons separating 
 the Blue Mountains of Oregon from the charac- 
 teristically named Seven Devils region of Idaho. 
 
 North of the Snake River plain are the Salmon 
 River and other rugged mountains of the central 
 portion of the state. From these a number of 
 streams flow southerly toward Snake River, their 
 waters disappearing in the pervious lava, and 
 probably reappearing as springs in Snake River 
 Canyon. These springs are almost innumerable 
 and some of them have a volume of several hun- 
 dred cubic feet per second. Within the moun- 
 tains the valleys are narrow, and agriculture 
 is practised to a limited extent, mainly in the 
 vicinity of the mining camps of this rich mineral 
 region. 
 
 In the eastern end of the state, on the head waters 
 of Snake River, where the altitude ranges from 
 4000 to 5000 feet, the settlers, mostly Mormons, 
 
336 IRRIGATION. 
 
 have brought large tracts of land under cultivation. 
 The altitude here is such that greatest success is 
 had with alfalfa and similar forage crops and 
 with small grain. Fruits are being raised only to 
 a limited extent. Farther down the river, and 
 especially in the western part of the state, in the 
 vicinity of Boise, the capital city, and extending 
 out along Snake River, fruits are of consider- 
 able importance, orchards of large size being de- 
 voted to the production of prunes, plums, apples, 
 and pears, these being in addition to the ordinary 
 farm crops. The altitude here is from 2000 to 
 3000 feet, and the almost continuous sunshine of 
 summer is highly favorable to the production of 
 fine fruits. Large and expensive irrigation works 
 have been built below Boise, one of these being 
 illustrated in PI. LIII. 
 
 The flow of Snake River near the central por- 
 tion of its course in the state averages in summer 
 about 5000 second-feet, and ranges from a low- 
 water flow of a little less than 2000 second- feet 
 to ordinary floods of 50,000 second-feet. This 
 volume of water, tumbling over cliffs such as those 
 at Twin Falls, shown on PI. LI I, A, and Sho- 
 shone Falls, and shooting down the long rapids, 
 not only adds to the picturesque attractions of the 
 country, but at once suggests possibilities of the 
 development of enormous water-power. Part of 
 this has been made of use at American Falls near 
 Pocatello, and at a point southwesterly from Boise. 
 
GATION. 
 
 PLATE LIII : 
 "~l 
 
 WOODEN PIPE LINE ON PHYLLIS CANAL, IDAHO- 
 
IDAHO. 337 
 
 By developing this power to its full capacity it 
 will be possible to create many industries and to 
 pump water to elevations which cannot be covered 
 by existing canals. 
 
 The waters of Snake River are by no means 
 fully utilized for irrigation purposes, although a 
 considerable number of ditches have been con- 
 structed, taking the water from the river at short 
 intervals and covering land on both sides from 
 Yellowstone Park down to American Falls ; yet 
 these have not notably diminished the flow of the 
 stream, except at times of unusual drought. Below 
 American Falls there are apparently no opportu- 
 nities for taking out water, until points a short dis- 
 tance above Twin Falls are reached, and below 
 this locality again, water cannot be brought to the 
 adjacent upland until the valley widens out in the 
 extreme western part of the state. Even here it 
 has been found impracticable to divert water from 
 the main river, and the valley land has been irri- 
 gated wholly from tributary streams. 
 
 By the construction of large canals heading 
 above Twin Falls, and by the completion or en- 
 largement of other projects now under way, it is 
 probable that the summer flow of Snake River can 
 be wholly utilized and that storage on the head 
 waters may be necessary. Such complete develop- 
 ment will mean a large increase in the population 
 of the state, and will bring under cultivation many 
 hundred thousand acres of vacant public land. 
 
338 IRRIGATION. 
 
 The principal town in the northern part of the 
 state is Lewiston, situated at the point where 
 Clear water- River enters Snake River. Here the 
 valleys are very narrow, as shown on PI. LIV, 
 and are bounded in places by benches upon which 
 some water can be taken from tributary streams, 
 or to which a small quantity may be lifted by 
 pumping. Fruits are successfully raised in these 
 narrow valleys and on the higher lands wherever 
 water can be had. Dry farming is practised on 
 the rolling uplands (PI. LVI), wheat being the 
 principal crop. 
 
 MONTANA. 
 
 Montana is the third state in area, being ex- 
 ceeded in size only by Texas and California. Its 
 land surface of 145,310 square miles is nearly as 
 great as that of New England, New York, and 
 Pennsylvania combined. The population in 1900 
 was 243,329, or less than two per square mile. 
 This state is the most northerly of those lying 
 wholly within the arid region. In spite of the 
 general lack of moisture, there are a few areas 
 among the mountains where crops have been 
 raised by dry farming, but as a rule irrigation is 
 essential to successful agriculture. 
 
 The Great Plains, which extend across Kansas 
 and Nebraska and into eastern Colorado, sweep 
 northerly and westerly around the Black Hills and 
 Bighorn Mountains. Contrary to popular concep- 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE LIV. 
 
 CANYON OF SNAKE RIVER ABOVE LEWISTON, IDAHO. 
 
MONTANA. 339 
 
 tions, the altitude descends toward the north, the 
 country being lower in northern Montana than in- 
 eastern Colorado. This fact is emphasized because 
 of the commonly expressed opinion that water 
 might be diverted from Missouri River and car- 
 ried out southerly along the upper edge of the 
 Great Plains, furnishing an abundant supply for 
 this vast area. It is, however, impracticable to 
 divert the Missouri River to cover any consider- 
 able portion of these dry lands. 
 
 Montana, like Colorado, extends from the Great 
 Plains westerly across the Continental Divide, 
 fully two-thirds of the state consisting of rolling 
 lands and plateaus broken by occasional mountain 
 masses. Here the water supply is scanty, although 
 this part of the state is traversed by two large riv- 
 ers on the south by the Yellowstone, and on the 
 north by the Missouri, these uniting at the east- 
 ern border. The western third of the state is 
 mountainous and comparatively well-watered, these 
 high mountain masses furnishing perennial streams, 
 necessary to the utilization of the low-lying valleys 
 with fertile soil and genial climate. The great 
 problems of the development of Montana relate 
 to the possibilities of obtaining water for the vast 
 extent of great plains away from the mountains. 
 
 The ease with which water could be brought 
 upon land and the presence of a market at the 
 mines within the mountains have caused western 
 Montana to be the most thickly populated and 
 
340 IRRIGATION. 
 
 well-cultivated part of the state, while the great 
 eastern plain or prairie region, with its almost 
 boundless extent of rich soil and its great rivers, 
 the Missouri and Yellowstone, is almost unsettled. 
 
 The most important agricultural area is in Gal- 
 latin Valley, of which Bozeman is the principal 
 town. Here alfalfa and cereals are raised, barley 
 especially being of superior excellence and value. 
 East of this, and along the Yellowstone River, in 
 the vicinity of Billings and other towns, are numer- 
 ous areas under cultivation. Northerly from these 
 localities and extending across the state are various 
 points where irrigation has been introduced, espe- 
 cially in connection with stock raising, water being 
 taken principally from the smaller streams which 
 can be readily controlled. 
 
 Along Milk River, which flows from the north- 
 west into Missouri River, settlement has pro- 
 gressed rapidly and irrigation has been attempted, 
 but the supply of water is far below the demands. 
 To remedy this condition, surveys have been made 
 to ascertain the practicability of diverting the water 
 from Saint Mary River, which receives the drainage 
 of a part of the snow-clad Rocky Mountains, and 
 flows northerly into Canada, being separated from 
 Milk River by low gravel ridges of glacial origin. 
 It has been found possible to bring a large canal 
 through these ridges, restoring to its eastern course 
 the water which, until prevented by glacial deposits, 
 presumably flowed easterly across the plains. 
 
MONTANA. 341 
 
 Mining is the principal industry of the state, this 
 being confined to the mountains in the western 
 end. Next to this in importance is stock raising ; 
 the greater part of the state is devoted to this 
 business, the great herds of cattle fattening on the 
 open public land for the Eastern market. Irriga- 
 tion has been carried on largely as an adjunct to 
 the cattle business, in order to furnish hay for the 
 winter feed. Proper control of the free grazing is 
 one of the great problems now presented. 
 
 The importance of irrigation is steadily increas- 
 ing as settlers push in, and the open ranges are 
 being more and more crowded with cattle, horses, 
 and sheep. The resulting overgrazing necessitates 
 occasional feeding, especially in winter, and this in 
 turn calls for an increase of irrigated area, in order 
 that hay and particularly alfalfa may be produced. 
 The necessity of winter feeding and the greater 
 labor thus involved tend to reduce the large herds, 
 as noted on p. 40, and to increase the number of 
 small ranches, whose owners can give personal at- 
 tention to their cattle grazing on the surrounding 
 lands. 
 
 NEVADA. 
 
 Nevada, although of great extent, enjoys the 
 unenviable reputation of being, in population, the 
 smallest state in the Union, and of having decreased 
 rapidly in this respect. The number of persons in 
 1890, about 45,000, has in ten years diminished to 
 a little over 42,000, there being fewer people than 
 
342 IRRIGATION. 
 
 in Alaska or in any of the seven territories now 
 under the control of the United States. The 
 decrease in population has resulted mainly from 
 the lessened output of the mines and neglect to 
 make use of the agricultural possibilities. 
 
 The total land surface of the state is 109,740 
 square miles, almost exactly that of Italy, which 
 has a population 750 times as great. In 1900 
 there were irrigated 510,000 acres, most of this 
 being devoted to raising hay. A considerable 
 portion of this half-million acres is made up of 
 lands partly overflowed by the Humboldt and 
 other rivers, the flooding being assisted in a rela- 
 tively small degree by ditches and by dams placed 
 in the stream. In point of cost and value, such 
 irrigation is by no means comparable to that 
 practised in many other states, being little more 
 than an attempt at assisting nature in spreading 
 water over the surface during spring floods. 
 
 The state lies almost wholly within the Great 
 Basin, a region from which no streams escape to 
 the sea. The rivers, flowing from lofty mountains, 
 continue out upon broad valleys, and their waters 
 are finally lost in extensive marshes or open lakes, 
 the evaporation from the surface balancing the 
 inflow. In former geologic ages, when the rain- 
 fall was presumably greater, these valleys were 
 occupied by large bodies of fresh water, which 
 discharged probably toward the north, increasing 
 the flow of Columbia River. The Great Basin 
 
NEVADA. 343 
 
 extends easterly beyond the boundaries of Nevada 
 and includes a large part of the state of Utah. 
 
 On the western border of the state are the high 
 mountains, the Sierra Nevada, which are almost 
 wholly within the state of California, the boundary 
 line being drawn along the eastern slope below 
 the main summits. These mountains fend off the 
 moisture coming from the Pacific Ocean, and as 
 a result the state of Nevada is as a whole the 
 driest of all the arid states. High mountain masses 
 irregularly distributed over the Great Basin break 
 up the surface, and from these flow small streams, 
 the larger uniting to form the Humboldt River, 
 which crosses the northern end of the state from 
 east to west. The other important rivers are the 
 Truckee, Carson, and Walker, which flow westerly 
 from the Sierra Nevada. 
 
 Because of the extreme dryness of the country, 
 the sections numbered 16 and 36, which in other 
 states were devoted to educational purposes, have 
 been in the case of Nevada left in the hands of 
 the government, and in their stead a grant of 
 2,000,000 acres of public land has been made to 
 the state. Most of this has been selected by cattle 
 companies, lands being chosen in such a way as 
 to include nearly all of the springs and smaller 
 sources of water. Thus the cattlemen have been 
 enabled to control practically the entire agricultural 
 area through the ownership of the water, and settle- 
 ment has been retarded. 
 
344 IRRIGATION. 
 
 The problem of transportation has also been one 
 of fundamental importance to Nevada. There is 
 only one main line of railroad, the Central Pacific, 
 controlled by the Southern Pacific Company. The 
 managers of this line have in the past apparently 
 regarded the space between Utah and California 
 as a great unavoidable gap to be bridged, and the 
 development of population in this space has been 
 practically accidental as far as the railroad is con- 
 cerned. Few, if any, efforts have been made to 
 facilitate settlement, and local traffic rates have 
 been almost prohibitory. Thus it results that the 
 natural aridity, preventing dry farming, the aggres- 
 sions of the cattlemen, making settlement almost 
 perilous, and the unfavorable attitude of the rail- 
 road, adding to the cost of home building, have 
 deterred settlers and left the state to consist mainly 
 of the remnants of a mining population. 
 
 The Truckee, Carson, and Walker rivers, flow- 
 ing from the Sierra Nevada in California easterly 
 into the valleys of Nevada, furnish by far the 
 greater part of the water supply for the state. In 
 the relatively small area along these rivers, adja- 
 cent to the California boundary, are the principal 
 towns and most of the people. Scattered along 
 Humboldt River, crossing the northern end of the 
 state, are a number of small settlements, a few 
 outlying mining camps being found farther south. 
 Stock ranches for headquarters and supply places 
 for the sheep and cattlemen are located at remote 
 
NEVADA. 345 
 
 points near springs, or at the mouths of canyons 
 from which water issues upon valley land. Here 
 small areas are irrigated, mainly for winter forage. 
 
 The development of the state will be possible by 
 constructing reservoirs on the tributaries of Hum- 
 boldt River, and even on the main stream, and par- 
 ticularly on the head waters of the rivers flowing 
 from California. Interstate problems are involved 
 in the latter undertaking, but- surveys have demon- 
 strated that works can be built at feasible cost to 
 reclaim many thousand acres, making possible 
 homestead settlement on the lands now valueless. 
 The reservoir which has attracted the greatest 
 amount of public attention is Lake Tahoe, at the 
 head of Truckee River, and it has been shown that 
 by holding its waters back by means of a suitable 
 dam, water can be retained for the irrigation of 
 thousands of acres. 
 
 In addition to the reservoir sites occupied in 
 part by lakes and to which public attention has 
 been especially drawn, there are broad valleys in 
 which artesian water can possibly be had, and also 
 many localities scattered through the mountains 
 suitable for holding water. These are mainly 
 small valleys, in some cases formerly occupied by 
 glaciers, and later by lakes, which in course of 
 time have cut an outlet through the lower rims. 
 A comparatively small expenditure of labor and 
 capital will close the outlets, and by this means 
 bodies of water of considerable size can be held. 
 
346 IRRIGATION. 
 
 The rain and snow fall on these high mountains 
 aggregates from 30 to 40 inches or more annually, 
 this being sufficient to replenish the reservoirs if 
 constructed. 
 
 NEW MEXICO. 
 
 New Mexico, although well within the arid 
 region, presents many contrasts to Nevada. This 
 results largely from the difference in population, 
 and the way in which lands have been held and 
 agriculture has been practised. The population of 
 the state consists largely of Mexicans, and the cul- 
 tivation of the soil is almost wholly in their hands. 
 The territorial form of government still prevails, 
 although the population, 195,310 in 1900, surpasses 
 that of the states of Delaware, Idaho, Nevada, and 
 Wyoming. The territory is three times the size of 
 Ohio and has less than a twentieth of the popula- 
 tion. 
 
 The oldest irrigation works in the United States 
 are in this territory, having been built by the 
 Pueblo Indians or their Mexican neighbors. The 
 average size of an irrigated farm is small, the 
 lands under ditch having been subdivided among 
 the sons of the family instead of additional areas 
 being brought under cultivation. The farmers, 
 especially those of mixed Spanish and Indian de- 
 scent, have followed the customs of their fathers, 
 and show little energy or skill. The lands are 
 tilled in a most laborious fashion, largely by hand, 
 and the returns are small. 
 
NEW MEXICO. 347 
 
 The eastern part of the territory has been, until 
 recent times, the paradise of cattlemen and of out- 
 laws, many of whom have taken temporary service 
 in the retinue of one or another of the great cattle 
 kings, and have alternated the business of " round- 
 ing up" cattle with that of keeping out settlers 
 or evading the officers of the law. Within recent 
 times, however, much of the lawlessness has been 
 broken up, particularly since the introduction of 
 irrigation along Pecos River, the advent of farmers, 
 and the extension of railroads from the East and 
 the South. 
 
 The Rio Grande, rising in southern Colorado, 
 enters the territory from the north through deep 
 canyons. These widen in places, allowing room 
 for bottom lands, and again the walls die down, 
 forming low mesas. The proportion of open land 
 increases toward the south, and here are the prin- 
 cipal towns and agricultural communities. The 
 river itself tends to spread out over the bottom 
 lands, and the greater part of its water gradually 
 disappears by evaporation or by diversion into 
 ditches, so that in the lower part of its course, 
 above El Paso, Texas, the stream channel is fre- 
 quently dry. There are very few large canals, but 
 a great number of small community ditches supply 
 lands held by the Indians and Mexicans. The 
 origin of these ditches is lost even in local tradi- 
 tion, and it is probable that many of them were 
 in use before the advent of white men. The 
 
348 IRRIGATION. 
 
 waters of the river are extremely muddy, especially 
 after spring rains, and the sediment, carried in sus- 
 pension, fills the ditches, necessitating frequent 
 cleaning, especially of those having slight grade. 
 
 The development of the resources of New Mexico 
 rests largely upon the control of the Rio Grande. 
 On the head waters of this stream, in Colorado, are 
 a number of large canals, the capacity of these 
 being sufficient to take all of the river at that 
 point. The seepage and inflow from small streams 
 maintain the river at a moderate volume in northern 
 New Mexico, but practically no water penetrates to 
 the southern end of the territory during the irriga- 
 tion season. There are a number of open valleys 
 along the course of the Rio Grande and on its 
 principal tributaries, where by building large dams 
 great quantities of water can be held. Several of 
 these localities have been surveyed. 
 
 The principal storage project is that above 
 El Paso, where it has been proposed to construct 
 a great international dam to regulate the flow of 
 the Rio Grande where it forms the boundary 
 between the state of Texas and the republic of 
 Mexico. The periodical drying of the river and 
 the shifting which takes place during occasional 
 floods make the boundary a matter of great un- 
 certainty, and result in continual irritation between 
 the authorities on both sides. 
 
 There are few notable irrigation works along the 
 Rio Grande, the ditches for the most part being 
 
NEW MEXICO. 349 
 
 small and having temporary dams of brush and 
 stone. These are swept away in time of flood and 
 must be replaced after the spring freshets. The 
 ditches do not, as a rule, extend beyond the lower 
 land, and the terraces or mesas along the stream, 
 usually having better soil, are not as yet cultivated. 
 A considerable portion of the bottom land is alka- 
 line, and many small farms have been abandoned and 
 even towns deserted because of the accumulation 
 of earthy salts. Drainage is in many localities 
 almost as necessary as irrigation. 
 
 The typical Mexican farms consist of long, nar- 
 row strips extending from the foothills to the river 
 and crossed by a ditch. The peculiar shape of 
 these farms is due to the fact that, in dividing the 
 inheritance, it is customary to give each heir an 
 equal amount of the hill land and the frontage on 
 the ditch and river ; the result is that these tracts 
 may be from 25 to 300 yards in width on the stream 
 and a thousand or more yards long, extending up 
 the slope to the ditch or beyond it to the hills. 
 This causes much inconvenience in cultivating, and 
 is accompanied by lack of economy in irrigating. 
 
 The ditches, as a rule, are owned in common by 
 the farmers of each community, and one of the 
 irrigators is annually elected superintendent, or 
 majordomo. His business is to attend to all nec- 
 essary repairs, regulate the distribution of water, 
 largely according to his own judgment and experi- 
 ence, and in case of extensive work call upon all 
 
350 IRRIGATION. 
 
 of the farmers to contribute each his share of 
 labor. 
 
 The largest irrigation system is that on Pecos 
 River, in the southeastern part of the state, sup- 
 plying land in the vicinity of Carlsbad, formerly 
 known as Eddy. Here dams have been built 
 across Pecos River, forming reservoirs, the largest 
 of which is known as Lake McMillan. From the 
 latter a canal extends along the river, branching 
 to cover lands on both sides of the stream. 
 
 OREGON. 
 
 The western portion of Oregon, bordering on 
 the Pacific Ocean, is humid. The belt of well- 
 watered land extends easterly to the Cascade 
 Range, which forms a barrier to the progress of 
 the moist winds on their journey inland. About 
 two-thirds of the state is on the eastern or dry side 
 of the mountains, and in this portion irrigation is 
 necessary for most crops, although wheat, barley, 
 and rye are successfully cultivated by dry farming 
 on the uplands around the Blue Mountains and 
 near the Columbia River. 
 
 The country east of the Cascade Mountains may 
 be pictured as a series of broad plains and mesas, 
 covered with lava of various ages, from that out- 
 poured recently to the ancient flows whose surface 
 has largely changed into soil. This supports a 
 dense growth of sage brush, and also juniper near 
 the mountains, these being intermingled with for- 
 
OREGON. 351 
 
 age plants. The vegetation becomes sparse out 
 on the broad valleys, but nearly everywhere fur- 
 nishes good grazing. 
 
 The erupted material forming the plains is simi- 
 lar in many respects to the vast sheets of lava or 
 basalt covering the valleys of southern Idaho. 
 These lavas occur around the Blue Mountains, and 
 are apparently continuous from southern Idaho to 
 the Great Bend country of the Columbia in cen- 
 tral Washington. Volcanic cones rise from these 
 plains, and the general level is interrupted in 
 places by mountain masses whose lower portions 
 have apparently been buried by the outpouring of 
 fluid rocks. The altitude of this land is from 3000 
 to 4000 feet, the mountains rising to 8000 feet or 
 over. The most important of these are the Blue 
 Mountains, in the northeastern part of the state, 
 which consist largely of extremely steep, rugged 
 peaks, snow-capped for a considerable part of 
 the year. The foothills of these mountains, at 
 altitudes of from 5000 to 7000 feet and over, are 
 covered with timber, much of it being pine of con- 
 siderable value. From these highlands come the 
 streams important in irrigation development. 
 
 Water storage is highly essential for the growth 
 of agriculture in central Oregon. The streams are 
 small and intermittent in character. Reservoir 
 sites are known to exist on them, but none have 
 been surveyed. Crooked River, which receives 
 its supply from the Blue Mountains, is typical. It 
 
352 IRRIGATION. 
 
 has spring floods, which rapidly subside toward 
 summer, until the channel of the stream is nearly 
 dry. By building dams at a number of localities 
 along its course it is probable that the summer 
 flow can be increased to an extent sufficient to 
 irrigate many thousand acres. 
 
 Similar to this is Silvies River, which flows out 
 upon the northern edge of the Harney plain or 
 desert. Where this stream leaves the canyon it 
 has built a broad delta, through which the water 
 meanders in a number of channels. Much of the 
 ground is overflowed during the spring flood, and 
 considerable areas, originally marshy, have been 
 utilized as hay lands by slightly regulating the 
 flow of the stream and by annually cutting the 
 native grasses and weeds. The quality and quan- 
 tity of these are greatly improved by this regular 
 treatment. The area of valuable hay land has 
 been increased by check dams placed in the di- 
 verging channels, causing the floods to spread on 
 the low lands. The cultivation of more valuable 
 crops can be made feasible by enlarging the canals 
 from Silvies River, and especially by insuring 
 ample water for summer through the construction 
 of storage works. The same thing is true to a 
 greater or less degree of the various tributaries of 
 Malheur River and other streams issuing from the 
 Blue Mountains. 
 
 Where a sufficient supply cannot be had from 
 surface streams, it may be practicable to obtain 
 
OREGON. 353 
 
 water from underground, particularly from artesian 
 wells sunk in the broad desert valleys. The struc- 
 ture of some of these is known to be favorable to 
 the accumulation of water, and it is highly impor- 
 tant to make a thorough geologic examination, if 
 necessary by the drilling of one or two wells of 
 such depth as to penetrate the recent deposits and 
 definitely determine whether flowing water can be 
 had. By so doing maps can be prepared showing 
 the depth to the water-bearing horizon and the 
 probable height to which the water will rise. 
 This is true of the broad valleys of central Wash- 
 ington, as well as of the Harney and Malheur val- 
 leys of Oregon. The soil of these is very fertile, 
 and in many places the forage plants furnish good 
 grazing ; but the distance from springs or streams 
 is so great that cattle cannot graze except during 
 the winter season, when pools of water are occa- 
 sionally formed. If a supply could be had from 
 deep wells, the cattle and sheep industry would be 
 greatly benefited and it is possible that considera- 
 ble areas might be irrigated. With improved 
 transportation facilities there will be opportunities 
 for making many farms on the vacant land of 
 central Oregon. 
 
 UTAH. 
 
 This state, occupying the central portion of the 
 arid region, has led in the development of irriga- 
 tion by associations of farmers tilling small areas. 
 
 2 A 
 
354 IRRIGATION. 
 
 The average size of an irrigated farm is less than 
 in any other part of the country, and consequently 
 the number of persons supported per acre is great- 
 est. This has been due to the peculiar system of 
 organization growing out of Mormon practices. 
 The excellent results attained demonstrate the 
 practicability of industrious pioneers supporting 
 themselves and attaining prosperous homes on 
 small tracts. 
 
 The land surface of the state has an area of 
 82,190 square miles over ten times the size of 
 Massachusetts and the population in 1900 was 
 276,749, or one-tenth that of the latter state. The 
 principal part of the population is on the narrow 
 strip of land at the foot of the mountains east of 
 Great Salt Lake and of the smaller body of fresh 
 water, Utah Lake. Agriculture is dependent upon 
 irrigation, except in the case of wheat and barley, 
 which are raised by dry farming on some of the 
 higher bench lands. In localities where snow 
 covers the ground, it has been found possible, by 
 summer fallowing and by planting hardy varieties 
 of cereals in the fall, to obtain a good crop ; and 
 with skill gained by experience the area thus 
 planted is being extended. For alfalfa and other 
 forage plants, and for general farm crops, as well 
 as for orchards, irrigation is essential. 
 
 The water supply of the state is relatively well 
 distributed in a number of creeks and small rivers 
 issuing from the Wasatch Range. These moun 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE LV. 
 
 TUNNEL OF BEAR RIVER CANAL, UTAH. 
 
UTAH. 355 
 
 tains rise abruptly from broad valleys, and receive 
 upon the summits a considerable amount of rain 
 and snow. The streams have cut deep canyons, 
 and as they issue upon the plains their waters are 
 diverted by many canals and ditches. Nearly all 
 of these have been built by associations of farmers 
 living in small communities on the bench land near 
 the mouths of the canyons. There are very few 
 large structures built by capital obtained outside 
 the state, and, so far as can be ascertained, all 
 investments of this character have been financially 
 unsuccessful. On the other hand, the farmers, 
 uniting in associations and furnishing their own 
 labor and teams, have built works, some of them 
 of considerable magnitude, and through the use of 
 these have increased the value of their property to 
 such an extent as to make the investment highly 
 remunerative. It is to be noted, however, that it is 
 the owner and tiller of the soil who has become 
 prosperous, and not the owner of the irrigating 
 system. One of the largest works in the state is 
 the Bear River Canal, a portion of which is shown 
 on PL LV. 
 
 Growing out of the complete church organiza- 
 tion of the people have come methods of allotting 
 and distributing water which have proved sufficient 
 for most localities. Controversies occasionally 
 arise, but these are usually settled by what amounts 
 to a majority vote of those concerned. There is 
 an attempt made to divide water by priority of 
 
356 IRRIGATION. 
 
 time at which it was put to beneficial use, but the 
 strict regard to priorities has often been set aside 
 in favor of a more equitable distribution during 
 times of scarcity. In other words, priorities have 
 been disregarded in favor of needs of men owning 
 orchards which would be destroyed if water could 
 not be had, temporarily at least. There is also put 
 in practice a grouping of rights as described on 
 P- 293. 
 
 The Bear, Ogden, and Weber rivers are the prin- 
 cipal streams of the western part of the state, and 
 receive a considerable part of the drainage of the 
 Wasatch Mountains. The most notable river, 
 however, is the Jordan, which flows into Great 
 Salt Lake from the south, being the outlet of Utah 
 Lake. The latter body of water lies at an eleva- 
 tion considerably above Great Salt Lake, so much 
 so that its waters are taken out by canals covering 
 the valley lands and extending to the city of Salt 
 Lake. 
 
 Utah Lake receives from the east a number of 
 large streams, the most important of which is 
 Provo River. The ordinary flow of this and other 
 streams is fully utilized during the summer, and 
 extension of irrigation is dependent upon water 
 storage, for which there are a number of favorable 
 sites in the mountains. One of the most important 
 developments for the state is the complete regula- 
 tion of these head-water streams by the construc- 
 tion of impounding dams and the control of Utah 
 
UTAH. 357 
 
 Lake, by which its waters may he drained down to 
 a small extent and the lake made available to the 
 greatest possible capacity for lands in Salt Lake 
 Valley. 
 
 At about the centre of the state is Sevier River, 
 which flows from the high plateaus and mountains 
 of the southern part of the state northerly toward 
 Utah Lake, but, before reaching it, turns abruptly 
 to the west, its waters finally disappearing in a 
 marsh or sink, known as Sevier Lake. A number 
 of important towns and farming communities are 
 located in the valleys along this river, and the 
 water is as fully used as can be without storage. 
 Excellent opportunities exist for conserving water, 
 and on some of the tributary streams small reser- 
 voirs have already been built by the farmers. 
 
 The eastern side of the state is drained by Colo- 
 rado River and its tributaries, the largest of which 
 is the Green. Near the head waters these streams 
 are used to a small extent on the lands of the ele- 
 vated plateaus and of the small valleys intersecting 
 them, but the general character of this drainage is 
 typified by the Colorado, which flows in a deep, 
 narrow canyon without any bottom land. The 
 greater part of the water is thus lost to agriculture, 
 although it may be of industrial value in the future 
 as a source of power. If any of it is to be used 
 for irrigation, this can be accomplished only by 
 storage and diversion near the head waters, before 
 the streams have cut down into the solid rocks. 
 
358 IRRIGATION. 
 
 This river escapes to the Pacific Ocean through 
 the Gulf of California, but, with the exception of 
 this drainage area, the state of Utah lies wholly 
 within the Great Basin. 
 
 The western side of Utah consists of broad, arid 
 valleys interrupted by sharp mountain ranges, and 
 has the desert aspect which characterizes the Great 
 Basin. There is some timber upon the mountains, 
 and also grazing, but the valleys are, for the most 
 part, barren, supporting only a growth of sage 
 brush and similar plants. The difficulty of obtain- 
 ing water, even for cattle, has prevented the settle- 
 ment of this country, although prospectors and 
 miners have made temporary homes and camps, 
 some of them important. Artesian waters are 
 found in many parts of the state, especially in 
 the vicinity of Utah Lake and Great Salt Lake. 
 It is possible that deep wells can be successfully 
 sunk in some of the desert valleys. 
 
 WASHINGTON. 
 
 The western portion of the state of Washington, 
 especially in the region of Puget Sound, is noted 
 for its fogs and heavy rainfall. East of the Cas- 
 cade Range, however^ as in Oregon, the country 
 is extremely dry, except near the Canadian bor- 
 der and among the foothills adjacent to northern 
 Idaho. Throughout eastern Washington, on the 
 rolling uplands, and southerly across Columbia 
 River and around the flank of the Blue Mountains, 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE LVI. 
 
 
WASHINGTON. 359 
 
 is a country which, though possessing a distinctly 
 arid climate, has been found to be one of the best- 
 known areas for raising wheat. The soil, resulting 
 from the decay of basalts and lavas, is extremely 
 rich, and, although almost ashy in texture, has the 
 peculiar property of retaining and transmitting to 
 the plants a sufficient amount of water to insure 
 luxuriant growth. Broad wheat fields, shown on PL 
 LVI, extend in every direction as far as the eye 
 can reach, covering a land which has been con- 
 sidered worthless except for grazing. The water 
 supply is very scanty, barely sufficient for domestic 
 purposes. The rivers, like the Columbia and its 
 principal tributaries, flow in deep, narrow can- 
 yons, and although the volume of water is large, it 
 is impracticable to bring any of it to the tops of the 
 adjoining cliffs upon which the farms are located. 
 
 In the valleys immediately east of the Cascade 
 Mountains irrigation is practised, especially along 
 Yakima River, which receives the waters of the 
 melting snows on high mountains. It flows through 
 a number of valleys in succession, and many small 
 ditches divert water, also a few large canals, the 
 most important of which is known as the Sunnyside 
 Canal (PI. LVII, A), irrigating land below Yakima. 
 The principal crop produced, besides alfalfa and 
 fruits, is hops, the climate being found peculiarly 
 favorable for these. 
 
 Columbia River, which flows through the state 
 from Canada, and Snake River, its principal tribu- 
 
360 IRRIGATION. 
 
 tary, are in deep, narrow canyons through the 
 greater part of their courses. Along their banks 
 are many wheels designed to lift water by means 
 of buckets placed upon the rim, as shown on PI. 
 XLI. These make possible the cultivation of small 
 fruit farms on the narrow strip of land between the 
 river and the foot of the cliffs. These little farms, 
 being sheltered from the wind, and receiving sun- 
 shine and warmth, produce fruit of high quality, 
 such as peaches, pears, prunes, and other varieties 
 of plums. These are transported, mainly by water, 
 to the local markets at Portland and elsewhere. 
 
 The interior of Washington is in many respects 
 similar to that of Oregon, particularly in what is 
 known as the Great Bend country. Here the 
 streams are small, not having a mountainous catch- 
 ment area ; but it is believed that water conserva- 
 tion is practicable on some of the coulees, as well 
 as on the Palouse River, which flows from the 
 highlands in the eastern part of the state, and on 
 the Pataha, Wallawalla, and similar rivers coming 
 from the Blue Mountains, making possible the 
 reclamation of extensive areas of vacant land. 
 Artesian wells have been sunk in some of the val- 
 leys, particularly near Pullman, on the eastern side 
 of the state, and in the Moxee Valley, east of Yak- 
 ima River. Water-bearing gravels have been found 
 beneath or interbedded with the lava flows. An 
 ideal section of these artesian conditions is given 
 in Fig. 93, prepared by Professor Israel C. Russell. 
 
WASHINGTON. 
 
 The mountains in the background are intended 
 to represent the far side of a lava-floored valley. 
 Sands and gravels derived from the mountains 
 have been washed into the valley, and from time 
 to time flows of lava have taken place. A well 
 
 HORIZONTAL SCALE 
 
 2 MILES 
 
 VERTICAL SCALE: 
 
 IOOO 
 
 2000 FEET 
 
 FIG. 94. Ideal section of the border of the Columbia River lava ad- 
 jacent to the mountains. 
 
 drilled through these lava sheets, until a porous 
 water-charged bed is reached, will yield a surface 
 flow, provided the mouth of the well is below the 
 exposed portion of the pervious layer, and also 
 provided that there is an unbroken impervious bed 
 both above and below it, as described on page 248. 
 
 WYOMING. 
 
 This state, because of its high altitude, cool 
 climate, and broad, almost desert plains, is and 
 probably always will be devoted mainly to the 
 grazing industry. Mining is of considerable im- 
 portance, but agriculture is relatively unimportant. 
 
362 IRRIGATION. 
 
 The altitude of Cheyenne, the capital city, is a lit- 
 tle over 6000 feet. This is located on the edge 
 of the high plains, near the foot of the Laramie 
 Hills. From here the plains continue north- 
 ward between the Black Hills on the eastern edge 
 of the state and the Bighorn Mountains near the 
 centre of the northern part. There is a gradual 
 decline in altitude toward the north, the town of 
 Sheridan having an altitude of about 3700 feet. 
 Here agriculture by irrigation has been most 
 largely developed. In the Bighorn basin, west of 
 the mountains, the altitude is also relatively low, 
 5000 feet or less, and the water supply large, so 
 that opportunity for the increase of farms is good. 
 The area of the land surface of the state is 
 97,575 square miles, or 62,448,000 acres. The 
 population in 1900 was only 92,531, being a little 
 less than one per square mile. The average size 
 of the irrigated holdings is large, since most of 
 these consist of hay farms operated in connection 
 with cattle ranches. The cost of water is corre- 
 spondingly small, as developments have consisted 
 mainly of ditches for bringing water out upon 
 meadows. The water supply of the state, for an 
 arid region, is not only relatively large, but is well 
 distributed, the principal rivers being the North 
 Platte and its tributary, Sweetwater River, receiv- 
 ing the drainage of the southeastern part of the 
 state, Powder River, on the east side of the Hi- 
 horn Mountains, and the Bighorn, on the west side 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE LVII. 
 
 A. SUNNYSIDE CANAL. WASHINGTON. 
 
 B. FRUIT ORCHARD, YAKIMA VALLEY, WASHINGTON. 
 
WYOMING. 363 
 
 of the same range, also Green River in the south- 
 west corner. Some of these are of such size that 
 there is little probability that the waters will ever 
 be seriously diminished by irrigation ; but on the 
 east side of the Bighorn Range, in the vicinity of 
 Buffalo and Sheridan, there is already demand for 
 water storage. 
 
 One of the most important irrigation systems of 
 the state is that in the vicinity of Wheatland, north 
 of Cheyenne. Water is obtained by a tunnel through 
 the Laramie Range, being brought from Laramie 
 River to the east front of these mountains, where 
 it is distributed by a number of canals. The ordi- 
 nary flow of the river is increased by a storage 
 reservoir built above the mouth of the tunnel, and 
 the available supply is further regulated by storage 
 works in the vicinity of the irrigated land. 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 STATES OF THE SEMIARID REGION. 
 
 THE location of the semiarid region has been 
 shown in Fig. 2 (page 14), and a definition has 
 been given of the location of the area. There are 
 also in western Oregon and Washington narrow 
 belts which may be designated semiarid ; but the 
 transition between arid and humid conditions in 
 those states is so quickly made that these regions 
 are not generally recognized. 
 
 There has been no careful distinction made be- 
 tween the use of the words " semiarid " and " sub- 
 humid," and they are considered as practically 
 synonymous, since both are relative, the term 
 " semiarid " implying a little drier condition than 
 "subhumid." As shown on the map (Fig. 2), the 
 semiarid region extends in a broad belt across the 
 United States, in a general northerly and southerly 
 direction, and is included mainly within the states 
 of North Dakota and South Dakota, Nebraska, 
 Kansas, Texas, and the Territory of Oklahoma. 
 
 FLUCTUATIONS IN WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 The broad belt east of the arid region and form- 
 ing the debatable ground between it and the humid 
 
 364 
 
SEMIARID STATES. 365 
 
 lands of the Mississippi Valley presents conditions 
 so nearly uniform that it may be considered as a 
 geographic unit. No definite boundaries can be 
 assigned, because of the fact that for a number of 
 years in succession summer rains may be above 
 the average and the vegetation will be luxuriant, 
 so that in driving across this land it seems to be 
 a perfect flower garden and a paradise for cattle ; 
 while again the rainfall may be deficient year after 
 year, vegetation become parched and almost dis- 
 appear, and the traveller will apply to it the old 
 term, the " Great American Desert." Thus it has 
 happened that one or another of the early pioneers 
 has spoken in glowing terms of the fertility and 
 beauty of these high plains, and others with equal 
 sincerity have described the horrors of the long, 
 thirsty drives across the sterile wastes. 
 
 The alternations in the amount of moisture are 
 best marked by small, shallow lakes which some- 
 times dot the plains, especially toward the north. 
 After a cycle of wet years these are found scat- 
 tered here and there ; but they disappear again, 
 and leave no trace of their existence except by 
 muddy flats or stretches of hard-baked adobe. 
 Another way of describing the conditions is to 
 say that the arid conditions at times creep down 
 the slopes of the high plains and extend far east- 
 ward, and again retreat to the base of the Rocky 
 Mountains, swinging backward and forward with- 
 out any known rule or regularity. As the soil is 
 
366 IRRIGATION. 
 
 very fertile, there is constant temptation for the 
 settler to push westward from the humid East dur- 
 ing seasons of abundant rainfall, with the result 
 that after he has begun to make a home he is over- 
 taken by the reverse swing of climatic conditions, 
 and suffers from successive droughts. These usu- 
 ally force him to abandon his farm and improve- 
 ments, through continual loss of crops. 
 
 This peculiar condition of rich soil and fickle 
 rainfall is common to all regions of the globe 
 where great famines have occurred. The ex- 
 treme productiveness of the soil after a heavy rain 
 encourages an extension of agriculture and a gen- 
 eral lack of thrift, so that often when the crops do 
 fail population has increased rapidly and little pro- 
 vision has been made for meeting continued losses. 
 In the popular mind nearly every probable and im- 
 probable cause has been assigned for this change 
 of climatic conditions, and with limited range of 
 observation it has sometimes been assumed that 
 the rainfall is continuously increasing or diminish- 
 ing. By selecting periods of five or even ten years 
 it has been possible to support either theory. 
 
 It has been for the interest of speculators in 
 land and of transportation companies to adopt the 
 theory of gradual increase of available moisture 
 on the Great Plains, and the results attained from 
 about 1880 to 1886 seemed to support the conclu- 
 sions. It was asserted that the rainfall was increas- 
 ing as settlement advanced westward, or, in oilier 
 
RAIN-BELTERS. 367 
 
 words, that rain came with the breaking of the sod, 
 the building of railroads, telegraph lines, and other 
 works. The people who adopted this theory were 
 locally known as " rain-belters." They showed their 
 confidence in the theory by taking up land in 
 advance of permanent settlement, far out on 
 the plains, confidently believing that the rain-belt 
 would reach them before long. They were disap- 
 pointed, however, and as year after year rolled by 
 without perceptible increase in moisture, and with 
 continually recurring losses of crops, they became 
 discouraged or literally starved out. The homes of 
 some of the rain-belters are shown on Pis. I, III, 
 and LIX, A. 
 
 There has been a succession of waves of settle- 
 ment following years of unusual rainfall, and time 
 and again men have pushed forward, getting a 
 foothold and raising one or two crops, and then 
 dropping back. This is shown by the statistics of 
 population of western Kansas, the numbers rising 
 and falling through series of years. 
 
 One of the results of climatic oscillation in the 
 subhumid region, and of the ruin wrought by lack 
 of knowledge of the facts, was the speculation in 
 Western mortgages, which affected not merely the 
 plains region, but also citizens resident in all parts 
 of New England and the East. As the rain-belters 
 marched triumphantly westward, they found that 
 their movements were facilitated by companies 
 formed to place loans and take mortgages on real 
 
368 IRRIGATION. 
 
 estate. The profits of these loan agencies became 
 so great that large numbers of them were formed, 
 and competition for business became so keen that 
 ordinary prudence was thrown aside, and the settler 
 no longer sought for a person to make small ad- 
 vances of capital by which he could procure tools 
 and seeds. No sooner had he located than rival 
 agents hunted him up, to bid against one another 
 for the privilege of placing a mortgage upon his 
 farm. These mortgages, being for a few hundred 
 dollars, were then peddled out to small investors 
 throughout the country, being purchased by school- 
 teachers, clerks, and mechanics, who had laid up 
 a small amount of money and were seeking the 
 largest possible interest. 
 
 Although the crop from one of these farms 
 would, in a year of abundant rainfall, pay off the 
 mortgage, this was not done, because of the desire 
 of the settler to purchase more farm implements or 
 obtain additional land; and when a series of dry 
 years came and no crops were had season after 
 season, the landowner, appreciating that the mort- 
 gage and interest amounted to more than the farm 
 was worth, simply abandoned everything, and thus 
 whole counties were practically deserted ; about 
 the only inducement to maintain the county organi- 
 zation being the fees obtained by the officials in 
 connection with the mortgage business. This 
 business has continued because of the fact that 
 Eastern mortgagees, not knowing the true condi- 
 
MORTGAGES. 369 
 
 tions, have often foreclosed, or transferred their 
 interest, or continued to pay taxes in the vain 
 hope that the land may some time be worth what 
 has been loaned. 
 
 It should not be assumed that every one has left 
 the subhumid region ; on the contrary, among those 
 who have tried their fortunes there are some who 
 have clung with great tenacity, and who have been 
 able to adapt themselves and their methods of 
 farming to the conditions. They have introduced 
 irrigation, as shown on Pis. II. and IV., or have 
 practised tilling of the soil in such a way as to 
 conserve the moisture, and have usually been able 
 to cut and stack sufficient hay to maintain their 
 cattle throughout the short winter. The vacant 
 public lands and the abandoned holdings about 
 them have furnished ample grazing for small 
 herds, and by planting sorghum and hardy varie- 
 ties of small grains they have been sure of a fair 
 return for their labor. When the years of abun- 
 dant rainfall occurred, they have sometimes been 
 able to secure a large crop of wheat, or even corn, 
 whose value has reimbursed them for all of the 
 previous outlay. 
 
 These sturdy pioneers have sometimes displayed 
 great ingenuity in utilizing the resources about 
 them ; such, for example, as seen in the construc- 
 tion of homemade windmills, shown on PL XLII 
 and described on page 266. By means of these 
 mills water has been pumped to the surface and 
 
 2B 
 
3/0 IRRIGATION. 
 
 held in small reservoirs, or dams have been built 
 across ravines, impounding storm waters. The 
 experiments and success attained have shown that 
 it is possible for farmers of a high order of intelli- 
 gence and perseverance, not only to make a living, 
 but even to secure a competence, in this region 
 of uncertain rainfall. 
 
 Although it is now well known that the amount 
 of rainfall cannot be influenced by human agencies, 
 yet it is possible to greatly increase the available 
 supply for plant life by storing the water in the 
 soil through careful cultivation and by preventing 
 evaporation losses through planting wind breaks. 
 It is estimated that every foot of height of com- 
 pact trees protects I rod of ground; hence a Lom- 
 bardy poplar wind break of an average height of 
 60 feet, properly set out, has a beneficial influ- 
 ence extending practically 1000 feet to the lee- 
 ward. For these breaks poplars, cottonwoods, or 
 locusts are serviceable. By practising all these 
 economies, shutting off the wind as much as possi- 
 ble from the fields and using it for pumping water, 
 storing the scanty supply in reservoirs or in the 
 soil itself, the observing, careful farmer wins suc- 
 cess where others fail. 
 
 For convenience the boundary of the subhumid 
 or semiarid region has been placed on the east 
 at the 97th meridian and on the west at about the 
 roist. It is a region of extremely fertile soil, the 
 erratic rainfall being followed by rapid growth of 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE LV1II. 
 
 
 A. IRRIGATION IN SOUTH DAKOTA BY USE OF WATER FROM 
 AN ARTESIAN WELL. 
 
 B. STO 
 
 RING PLANT ON UPLAND. 
 
MISSOURI RIVER. 371 
 
 grasses and other plants valuable for forage. 
 The ground is almost everywhere covered with a 
 tough sod (PI. LXII), which thins out toward the 
 arid region, gradually breaking into small patches 
 and finally forming what is known as bunch grass, 
 each tuft being surrounded by bare soil. 
 
 The water supply of this region is for the most 
 part concentrated in a few rivers, from which irri- 
 gation canals can be taken. The principal excep- 
 tion to this is the Missouri River, which flows 
 across the northern end of the subhumid belt. 
 The fall of this stream is so slight that it is im- 
 practicable to divert water by gravity. Some of 
 it may be had by pumping, but the increase in 
 value of the bottom lands would not be sufficient 
 to justify the expense, as many of these are kept 
 moist by seepage. The bench lands, having in 
 general a better soil, cannot be reached by a canal 
 from the Missouri River. 
 
 Southward from the Missouri, in North Dakota, 
 the principal rivers are its tributaries in South 
 Dakota, also the Platte in Nebraska, the Repub- 
 lican, Smoky Hill, and Arkansas in Kansas, and 
 the Canadian in Texas and Oklahoma. The 
 Platte and Arkansas have cut their way entirely 
 across the subhumid region and receive the drain- 
 age from the Rocky Mountains. Some of this 
 water succeeds in finding its way from the moun- 
 tains to the Mississippi River, but during the 
 summer the entire supply is needed for lands 
 
3/2 IRRIGATION. 
 
 within the arid region, and for several hundred 
 miles these streams are nearly or quite dry. 
 Extensive irrigation systems have been built in 
 western Kansas, notably in the vicinity of Garden ; 
 but the chances of obtaining water are so pre- 
 carious that the owners of the canals have become 
 discouraged, and neglect to keep them in repair. 
 
 During the time of abundant rainfall irrigating 
 ditches in the subhumid region fall into disuse, and 
 the irrigator, for lack of practice, becomes indif- 
 ferent. As a result, when the rains no longer 
 come, and day after day passes without relief, 
 and attention is drawn to the necessity of irriga- 
 tion, it is usually found that, even if there is water 
 in the river, there are a number of repairs to be 
 made to the canals and the flumes are leaking or 
 defective ; and, in short, before water can be 
 brought to the field the crop has already been 
 greatly injured or destroyed. It is extremely difficult 
 for a community raising an occasional good crop 
 without irrigation to maintain the necessary works 
 and expend labor in repairs when there is no 
 immediate necessity for an outlay, and when opti- 
 mistic members of the community claim that the 
 rainfall is increasing and irrigation ditches are no 
 longer needed. 
 
 There is a strong opposition to letting the fact 
 be known that a certain region needs irrigation. 
 The short-sighted policy is practised of attempting 
 to conceal the deficiencies of climate from the 
 
ARTESIAN WELLS. 373 
 
 would-be purchasers or investors, and, instead of 
 regarding the possibilities of irrigation in the light 
 of an insurance to the crops, it is considered as a 
 burden to be avoided. This is due to the fact that 
 most of the newcomers in the semiarid region have 
 practised farming in humid localities, and, not 
 having had experience in irrigation, are afraid or 
 suspicious of any proposition necessitating the arti- 
 ficial application of water to the soil ; thus the 
 attempt is sometimes made to discourage any 
 movement in favor of irrigation construction, for 
 fear of frightening away the men who are seeking 
 homes. As the public becomes better enlightened 
 upon the subject, it will come to be generally 
 known and acknowledged that irrigation greatly 
 benefits a locality. 
 
 ARTESIAN AND DEEP WELLS. 
 
 The streams which cross the semiarid region 
 flow in a general easterly direction, and occupy 
 narrow valleys trenched in the plains. A traveller 
 driving across country in a northerly or southerly 
 direction finds a rapid alternation of plain and 
 ravine ; but if he is going east or west on the flat 
 uplands between the streams, the country will 
 appear to his eye as perfectly level, the narrow 
 valleys not being visible. Out on these broad ex- 
 panses, unscarred by running water, are the best 
 soils, surpassing even those of the bottom lands. 
 For these areas the problem of water supply is 
 
374 IRRIGATION. 
 
 serious, and it is often impossible to find any 
 feasible relief from drought. In many localities, 
 however, wells having a depth of from 100 to 300 
 feet, as shown on PI. LVIII, B, obtain an ample 
 supply, and in other places artesian conditions 
 have been found to exist, water flowing over the 
 surface in a quantity sufficient not only for stock, 
 but even for the irrigation of small farms, as 
 shown on PI. LVIII, A. 
 
 The principal developed artesian area is in the 
 James River Valley of South Dakota. Here are 
 a considerable number of wells ranging in depth 
 from 1 200 to 1 500 feet, some of them, as shown on 
 PL XL, discharging volumes of water of one cubic 
 foot per second, or even more, as described under 
 the head of Artesian Wells, p. 246. These receive 
 water from what is known as the Dakota sand- 
 stone, a thick rock, sometimes merging into shale, 
 but usually consisting of coarse, permeable sand- 
 stone. It outcrops around the Black Hills and 
 along the front of the Rocky Mountains, and 
 extends easterly under the plains at depths of 
 from 1000 to 2000 feet or more, as shown in Figs. 
 79 and 80 (p. 250), approaching the surface in 
 the eastern part of Kansas, Nebraska, and the 
 Dakotas. It outcrops along the Arkansas Valley 
 and appears on the surface near Coolidge in west- 
 ern Kansas. Wherever penetrated, it yields an 
 abundant supply of good water, although at a 
 few places it is reported that the water is con- 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE LIX. 
 
 A. SETTLER TRYING TO CULTIVATE WITHOUT IRRIGATION. 
 
 B. WATER FOR IRRIGATION PROVIDED BY WIND 
 
DAKOTA SANDSTONE. 375 
 
 taminated by salt, probably from some other 
 horizon. 
 
 The position and depth of the Dakota sandstone 
 have been mapped around its edges, but in the centre 
 of the plains region the depth beneath the surface 
 to the sandstone is unknown. It is highly desira- 
 ble to drill one or two deep wells, determining the 
 depth, character, and thickness of the Dakota 
 sandstone, and ascertaining whether it or other 
 sandstones contain water under sufficient press- 
 ure to rise to the general level of the country. 
 It is possible that, by the complete development of 
 artesian wells, the opportunities for making homes 
 can be greatly increased. 
 
 Wherever wells have been dug or drilled in this 
 area it is the custom to erect windmills, as shown 
 on PI. LIX, B. A great number of these have 
 been built, as the wind is blowing almost contin- 
 ually, with a force sufficient to operate ordinary 
 pumps. Many thousands of them are to be seen, 
 of all forms and sizes, from the clumsy, old-fash- 
 ioned Dutch mill shown on PL LXI and the odd 
 but effective homemade devices shown on PL XLII 
 to the light, rapid-running steel mill of latest im- 
 proved pattern shown on PL XLII I. An in- 
 definite extension and multiplication of these is 
 possible, as the power of the wind is practically 
 limitless, and it can usually be depended upon, al- 
 though sometimes failing at critical times. While 
 each pump will furnish water for only one or two 
 
3/6 IRRIGATION. 
 
 acres, by increasing the number of pumps, farms 
 of considerable size have been successfully tilled, 
 as described on pages 265 to 270. 
 
 NORTH DAKOTA AND SOUTH DAKOTA. 
 
 The Dakotas extend from the fertile Red River 
 Valley westerly across the Missouri River, the 
 climate gradually becoming more and more arid 
 until the Black Hills are reached. The country 
 east of the Missouri River, consisting of extensive 
 prairies and rolling uplands, is usually considered 
 capable of raising a crop each season, although 
 failure or diminished yield may occur at least one 
 year in five. Irrigation is not largely practised, 
 but it would be highly beneficial. The principal 
 crop produced is wheat, the extremely deep, rich 
 soil and level surface making possible the great 
 so-called " bonanza " farms, where the apparently 
 boundless ocean of waving grain extends in all 
 directions to the horizon. On these great farms, 
 where all the work is done by machinery, the cost 
 of producing the crop is extremely small, and it 
 is not considered possible or desirable to attempt 
 irrigation ; but on the small tracts, where diversi- 
 fied agriculture is practised and the long summer 
 droughts bear heavily upon the plants, it has been 
 found profitable to artificially apply water, particu- 
 larly in the James River Valley, where there are a 
 large number of artesian wells furnishing water to 
 farms, as shown on PI. LVIII, A. 
 
THE DAKOTAS. 377 
 
 West of the Missouri River the surface of the 
 country has been deeply eroded, the soft horizontal 
 beds being carved into the fantastic forms of the 
 Bad Lands. Some grazing is found among these, 
 and a little irrigation is practised at ranches along 
 the streams, especially near their head waters, where 
 they issue from the Black Hills. Here a consider- 
 able number of ditches have been taken out, and 
 agriculture has been successful because of the ex- 
 cellent markets afforded at the near-by mines. 
 
 NEBRASKA. 
 
 In this state irrigation is confined almost exclu- 
 sively to lands along the North Platte River, ex- 
 tending from the Wyoming line easterly to the 
 point where the south branch enters, forming the 
 main Platte River. Farther east the climate be- 
 comes relatively humid, and, although a few irriga- 
 tion systems have been constructed, the use of 
 water has not been general, owing to the fact that 
 in ordinary seasons crops are raised by dry farm- 
 ing. 
 
 The Platte and its principal tributaries are char- 
 acterized by broad, sandy channels, whence has 
 arisen the name. The view, PL LX, A, shows the 
 North Platte at low water, with streams meander- 
 ing across the sandy bottom in an interlacing 
 network. At high water the stream spreads out, 
 sometimes to great width, giving the appearance 
 of an enormous volume of water, as shown by 
 
3/8 IRRIGATION. 
 
 PL LX, B. It is extremely shallow, however, and 
 there is some foundation for the popular claim that 
 the Platte is a mile wide and too shallow for navi- 
 gation by a catfish. 
 
 There is almost always water in the North Platte 
 and in the Platte, although it is occasionally re- 
 ported that during droughts the channel is dry on 
 the surface, the water coming from the west grad- 
 ually disappearing in the broad stretch of sand and 
 gravel, and percolating onward beneath the surface. 
 The South Platte is usually dry during the summer 
 for a hundred miles or more in Colorado, and on 
 down to the junction of the channel with that of 
 the North Platte ; hence irrigation development 
 along this stream has been limited to the use of 
 flood waters during the early part of the year. 
 South of the Platte, in the valleys of the Republi- 
 can and other streams, and also in the northern 
 part of the state, small areas are cultivated success- 
 fully by irrigation, and this method of agriculture 
 is slowly extending as farmers become more skil- 
 ful and appreciate the advantage of security from 
 occasional crop failures. 
 
 A large part of the western end of Nebraska is 
 covered with hills of shifting sand, and although 
 the soil is extremely light and easily moved by the 
 strong winds, yet, where moistened in the hollows 
 between the hills, excellent crops have been pro- 
 duced. It is highly probable that the shifting of 
 these hills can be prevented by planting shrubs or 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE LX. 
 
 A. LOOKING DOWN NORTH PLATTE RIVER FROM THE 
 NEBRASKA-WYOMING LINE. 
 
 
 HEAD GATES OF FARMERS AND MERCHANTS IRRIGATION 
 COMPANY ON PLATTE RIVER, NEAR COZAD, NEBRASKA. 
 
NEBRASKA. 379 
 
 trees, and it has been proposed to cover this vast 
 region more or less completely with forests, mak- 
 ing the waste land valuable for the production of 
 timber and rendering possible the utilization of the 
 more level portions for farms. 
 
 KANSAS. 
 
 In this state the principal irrigated areas are 
 along the Arkansas River, where the conditions 
 are somewhat similar to those along the Platte. 
 The broad, shallow channel is dry for a part of the 
 year, but water is seeping beneath the surface of 
 the valley lands as well as under the stream bed. 
 The ditches, some of them built at large cost, can 
 receive water only in times of flood ; but by means 
 of windmills small areas are irrigated, not only in 
 the valleys, but even to a small extent on the adja- 
 cent upland plains. Artesian wells have been suc- 
 cessfully constructed at a number of localities, 
 notably at Meade in the southern part of the 
 state, one of the small wells being shown on PL 
 XXXVIII, B. 
 
 North of the Arkansas River and between it and 
 the Republican in Nebraska are a number of creeks 
 and rivers flowing eastward and receiving a supply of 
 water during the dry season from perennial streams 
 resulting from seepage, or, in other words, from 
 the underflow reaching the surface. The volume 
 of these is swelled in the early part of the year by 
 local rains, but, taking the year as a whole, the dis- 
 
380 IRRIGATION. 
 
 charge is wonderfully uniform, because of the slow, 
 gradual movement of the. water from underground 
 into the channels. Irrigation from these streams 
 has been introduced, but, as noted on preceding 
 pages, owing to the occasional success of crops 
 without irrigation, progress has been slow and halt- 
 ing. 
 
 OKLAHOMA AND TEXAS. 
 
 In the recently settled territory of Oklahoma 
 little has been accomplished, as the water" supply 
 in the western, arid end is limited and the 
 pioneers, coming from humid regions, have as a 
 rule not been familiar with the benefits of irriga- 
 tion and have tried to get along without artificially 
 applying water. This part of the territory, adja- 
 cent to Texas, is given up mainly to grazing, but 
 a few ditches have been constructed for bringing 
 water to alfalfa lands at the cattle ranches. 
 
 Throughout the great extent of high plains 
 included within what is known as the Panhandle 
 of Texas, irrigation is almost unknown. It is dis- 
 tinctly a cattle country, and water is regarded as 
 of value principally for the use of cattle. Wells 
 have been sunk on these high plains, and shallow 
 tanks or ponds constructed at intervals of a few 
 miles, to furnish convenient watering places, as 
 shown on PI. VII. The ranches are of enormous 
 extent, the land having been sold or disposed of 
 by the state of Texas in great tracts to cattlemen. 
 There is a slow but gradual tendency to subdivide 
 
TEXAS. 381 
 
 these great tracts and to increase what is known 
 as stock farming that is, the carrying on of 
 farming in connection with the ownership of small 
 herds, thus multiplying the number of resident 
 owners. Progress in this direction is extremely 
 slow, and it will probably be many years before 
 this vast tract of country will be subdivided so as to 
 support a population at all- commensurate with its 
 possibilities. 
 
 On the extreme west, Texas extends far into the 
 arid region, and on the border along the Rio 
 Grande irrigation has been practised by the Mexi- 
 cans living on both sides of the international boun- 
 dary. From the earliest historical times the small 
 communities have diverted water from the stream, 
 tilled gardens, and raised fruit sufficient for their 
 own needs. This condition of affairs has con- 
 tinued until the present time, some of the ancient 
 ditches having been enlarged, and in a few in- 
 stances, as at El Paso, large canals built to reclaim 
 land and provide opportunities for new settlers. 
 The flow of the Rio Grande is, however, extremely 
 erratic, and, owing doubtless to diversions in Colo- 
 rado and New Mexico, the channel of the river is 
 frequently dry for months at a time. 
 
 In the western central part of the state, as at 
 San Antonio and other towns settled by the Mexi- 
 cans, irrigation has always been practised by them, 
 and their example has been followed by their Eng- 
 lish-speaking neighbors, so that this method of 
 
382 IRRIGATION. 
 
 agriculture may be said to be widely, but not 
 largely, in vogue. In the extreme east the cultiva- 
 tion of rice in the low Gulf counties has recently 
 attained great importance through the flooding of 
 low lands, to which water is brought largely by 
 pumping. 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 PLATE LXI. 
 
 DUTCH WINDMILL AT LAWRENCE, KANSAS- 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 HUMID REGIONS. 
 
 EXPERIENCE has shown that irrigation is often 
 advantageous even in localities where the climate 
 is humid. If the rains came at regular intervals, 
 moistening the soil whenever it became dry, there 
 would be no need of the artificial application of 
 water ; but, unfortunately, it often happens that 
 the precipitation for a month takes place in one or 
 two large storms, which not only soak, but flood, 
 the ground and, washing away the rich surface 
 soil, may do more injury than good. The eastern 
 half of the United States has been aptly termed 
 the region of uncontrollable humidity, in contradis- 
 tinction to the arid region, where, through systems 
 of irrigation, the application of water to the soil 
 can be exactly controlled. 
 
 Some of the heavier soils retain moisture for 
 long periods, and the irregularities of rainfall do 
 not noticeably affect vegetation, although some- 
 what retarding its growth and development. On 
 sandy or pervious soils the alternations of wet 
 and dry produce marked changes, and a drought of 
 a few weeks' duration results in decided injury to 
 
 383 
 
384 IRRIGATION. 
 
 the crops. Thus it happens that in many parts of 
 the humid region small irrigating systems have 
 been built for occasional use. The investments in 
 these may be regarded in the light of an insurance 
 against the accidents of weather, which are so 
 injurious to the farmer. 
 
 The most common and widespread form of 
 irrigation is the ordinary practice of watering lawns 
 and gardens. In this sense irrigation is habitually 
 employed in every city and town throughout the 
 United States, although not usually recognized 
 under this name. There is no marked difference 
 between the irrigation of suburban grass plots and 
 gardens in the East, and that of large farms in the 
 arid region, other than in size and completeness of 
 the mechanical devices for conveying and distribut- 
 ing the water. 
 
 The almost universal practice of watering grass 
 plots and vegetables testifies to the great value of 
 the artificial application of water, even in the Eastern 
 and Southern states, and the same systematic 
 watering of orchards and fields would produce 
 similar benefits. It is simply a question of cost 
 relative to profits. In the arid region, where crops 
 cannot be raised without water, the cost of bring- 
 ing it to the fields has, by skill and experience, 
 been reduced to the lowest possible amount. In t lu i 
 humid region, where the necessity has been less, 
 invention and enterprise have not been stimulated 
 to the same degree, and, while all the facilities for 
 
HUMID REGIONS. 385 
 
 irrigation exist, it has not been generally introduced 
 on a large scale. 
 
 The practice of irrigation in arid regions has, to 
 a certain extent, unconsciously prejudiced farmers 
 in the humid regions against it, as they viewed it 
 as something consequent upon desert conditions. 
 It is, however, a method for improving the soil 
 comparable to the application of fertilizers. Large 
 expenses are incurred in purchasing enriching 
 material to be added to the soil, and care is taken 
 to save and apply barnyard manure to increase 
 the yield of crops. The same amount of energy 
 and expense devoted to the construction of irriga- 
 tion works would doubtless yield even larger 
 returns. Comparing irrigation also with drainage, 
 it is noted that no hesitation is felt by the farmers 
 of the humid East in digging ditches to remove 
 surplus water from fertile bottom lands, but the 
 reverse process, of bringing water to lands which 
 would be productive if sufficiently moist, is a matter 
 the importance of which has not been fully grasped 
 by the agriculturist. 
 
 Water, as stated on pages 4 and 1 80, is the most 
 important plant food, entering in great volume into 
 their tissues, and being the vehicle by which other 
 foods can be obtained in proper quantities. By 
 regulating the supply of this, plant growth can be 
 stimulated even in climates which seem moist, as 
 is illustrated everywhere by watering lawns and 
 kitchen gardens. 
 
 2C 
 
386 IRRIGATION. 
 
 The supposedly great expense of bringing water 
 to the fields has deterred many farmers from 
 attempting irrigation. A little consideration and 
 study, however, will show that farm ditches can 
 often be built in humid lands at far less expense 
 than in the arid region, because the water supply 
 from running streams is larger and more widely 
 distributed. The methods of constructing ditches 
 have been described on pages 102 to 148, and it 
 has been pointed out that irrigation systems on a 
 rather large scale have been built by farmers or 
 associations without employing any special engi- 
 neering assistance or requiring capital. The work 
 can be done by plough and scraper, aided by pick 
 and shovel ; and a man of ordinary skill in farm 
 work, one who can lay out a drain or set an orchard 
 in regular rows, can build an irrigating ditch. 
 
 The cost of irrigation in humid regions theoreti- 
 cally should be less than that in the West, owing 
 to more widely distributed sources of water supply. 
 As a rule it has been higher, because most of the 
 devices have been experimental in character, or 
 have been the result of the practice of what might 
 be called fancy farming, where irrigation has been 
 treated as a fad of the owner. The average first 
 cost of bringing water to the land in the West, as 
 ascertained by the 1890 census, was $8.15 per acre, 
 and the average annual cost of maintenance was 
 $ 1.07 per acre. The largest yearly expenditure is 
 in California, as noted on pages 219 and 326. In 
 
JATJON. 
 
 PLATE LXII. 
 
 A. CLEAN SWEEP OF THE PRAIRIE FIRE. 
 
 THE CARPET OF GRASS ON THE HIGH PLAI1 
 
HUMID REGIONS. 387 
 
 the state of Connecticut 56 farms, with a total area 
 under ditch of 471 acres, were reported as irrigated 
 in 1899. The cost of the ditches, pipes, pumps, 
 reservoirs, and other appliances for obtaining and 
 conveying water to these farms was estimated at 
 $16,113, an average of $34.21 per acre irrigated, 
 or about four times the cost in the arid region. 
 
 The value of various small fruits and market 
 garden crops in the vicinity of large cities is esti- 
 mated per acre as follows : For strawberries and 
 raspberries, from $200 to $400; asparagus, $100 to 
 $200; onions, $150 to $300, and correspondingly 
 with other vegetables. It is thus very easy for large 
 losses to result from a slight deficiency in moisture. 
 With water applied at the right time a crop may 
 be worth $400 per acre, while the adjacent field, 
 receiving a trifle less supply, yields only $100. The 
 difference would repay the cost of one of the most 
 expensive devices for obtaining a water supply. 
 
 The best results have often not been obtained 
 because of the fear of getting the ground too wet. 
 In the country of uncontrollable moisture, where 
 rains are apt to occur any day, yet may not fall for 
 weeks, there is always great uncertainty as to the 
 weather, a condition which the farmer in the arid 
 region is not required to meet. He knows that 
 there will be no rain and probably no notable 
 change in temperature for weeks. But in the 
 humid region the farmer, seeing clouds gather, 
 may conclude that, even if an irrigation system is 
 
388 IRRIGATION. 
 
 at hand, it will not be wise to turn water upon the 
 fields. He usually hesitates until too late to secure 
 the best results. If he does apply water, the land 
 may be no sooner thoroughly wet than a heavy 
 rain will occur, almost drowning out the plants. 
 As a rule, however, on open or sandy soil it is diffi- 
 cult to apply too much water, and when the ground 
 is thoroughly saturated after an irrigation the rain 
 will merely flow off the surface or sink into the 
 pervious soil. 
 
 Another obstacle to the development of irriga- 
 tion in the East has been the possible interference 
 with riparian rights. The laws of the humid East, 
 borrowed from England, jealously guard the flow- 
 ing waters, and as a rule confer extraordinary 
 privileges upon millowners and others who make 
 use of the stream for power. Any diversion of the 
 flowing water for municipal purposes has been usu- 
 ally the subject of long controversy, and attempts 
 to take out ditches for irrigation have often met 
 with opposition on the part of owners of mill 
 rights lower down the stream. It is therefore of 
 great importance to have accurate measurements 
 of the rivers in order to ascertain to what extent 
 the diversion of water may affect water-power be- 
 low, for it can probably be shown in many cases 
 that the increased seepage in times of low water 
 will compensate largely for the diversion of water, 
 and may be so great as to increase the low-water 
 discharge of late summer. 
 

 HUMID REGIONS. 389 
 
 Owing to the fear of exactions by riparian 
 owners, large irrigation systems have, as a rule, not 
 been attempted in the East, but development has 
 proceeded mainly along the line of using springs 
 or of pumping water by wind power, steam, or 
 gasolene engines. Devices of this kind are being 
 rapidly improved and adapted to local conditions, 
 the cost of procuring water being correspondingly 
 reduced, so that it has been demonstrated that for 
 five or ten acres a small pumping plant can be 
 operated advantageously, the increased productive- 
 ness of the soil occasionally repaying, even in one 
 season, all of the expense. This, of course, can be 
 true only of the finer grades of fruits, berries, and 
 market garden products. The pumping machines 
 which have proved most successful are those de- 
 signed for strength and simplicity, so as to require 
 as little attention as possible. 
 
 A careful examination of the climatic records of 
 almost any locality in the East shows that in each 
 year the artificial application of water is needed for 
 one crop or another. Sometimes the rains occur 
 at the right times and in proper quantities for the 
 success of orchards, but the fields suffer, or the 
 small fruits and berries may have a diminished 
 yield, while the gardens prosper. One or two 
 years out of five nearly every crop is reduced 
 through lack of moisture at a certain period of 
 growth, so that, where diversified farming is prac- 
 tised and cultivation is intensive, a machine ar- 
 
390 IRRIGATION. 
 
 ranged for providing water can be operated to 
 advantage for a portion of the farm at least. If, 
 however, only a single farm crop is raised, the 
 devices for procuring water are apt to fall into dis- 
 use, and by neglect become valueless when called 
 into service after standing idle for two or three 
 years. In short, irrigation is of greatest advan- 
 tage where a variety of farming operations are 
 practised. 
 
 It is not only the character of the crops which 
 must be considered in introducing irrigation in 
 humid climates, but also the quality of the soil. 
 In arid regions all ground requires artificial water- 
 ing. In humid regions, however, where irrigation 
 is needed more to regulate the time of application 
 than the quantity of water, the character of the soil 
 must be more carefully considered, since some 
 soils retain moisture for long periods. On such 
 soils crops may nourish during a moderate drought, 
 while on others the plants quickly wither unless 
 water is continually applied. There is also a great 
 difference in the quickness with which the soils 
 and the crops together seem to respond to the 
 application of water. With some vegetables, 
 deeply cultivated, there does not seem to be any 
 perceptible difference, while with others there is a 
 most marked change following the systematic prac- 
 tice of irrigation. 
 
 The extent of irrigation in humid regions is at- 
 tested by the numerous orchards and meadows 
 
HUMID REGIONS. 391 
 
 found by the census enumerators in nearly every 
 state East as well as West. Even in New England 
 there are small farms partly irrigated and partly 
 drained, the distributing system having been in use 
 for generations, and being regarded almost as the 
 natural condition of things. The benefits are 
 shown by the larger yield of hay and of fruit, 
 repaying the trouble and expense of occasionally 
 turning the water upon the ground. 
 
 Along the Atlantic coast from eastern New Jer- 
 sey to Georgia are many areas of sandy soil, excel- 
 lent for truck farming. Here early vegetables are 
 raised for the New York and other markets. To 
 force these to maturity and insure the largest yield, 
 it has been found necessary to provide water, this 
 being distributed usually through pipes from tanks, 
 and occasionally through open furrows. The Chi- 
 nese and Italian gardeners in the suburbs of New 
 York and other Eastern cities, following the meth- 
 ods of their brothers on the Pacific Coast, irrigate 
 successfully even in this humid region, and pro- 
 duce results which are envied by their native 
 neighbors. 
 
 Irrigation is also practised along the Gulf coast, 
 particularly in Louisiana and Texas, where the cul- 
 tivation of rice has been found to be exceedingly 
 profitable. Here water is obtained mainly by 
 pumping, and great improvements have been made 
 in machinery for this purpose. Water is also being 
 stored for the rice fields, as it has been found that, 
 
392 IRRIGATION. 
 
 by excessive pumping in times of drought, the salt 
 water from the Gulf has found its way inland up 
 the bayous. To prevent this, extensive reservoirs 
 have been constructed higher up on the rivers, in 
 order that the flow may be reenforced in times of 
 need. 
 
 Throughout the central Mississippi Valley, irri- 
 gation has been used to a less extent than along 
 the Atlantic border, as the farms are large and the 
 methods of cultivation are not so complete as in 
 localities where the soil is less productive under 
 natural conditions. Here, where nature has done 
 so much, man has attempted little. It is recog- 
 nized, however, that irrigation can be provided as 
 an insurance against crop loss. During the time 
 of a recent drought, when prayers were asked for 
 rain, one sensible preacher refused, upon the 
 ground that it was not proper to pray for rain 
 when the opportunities for irrigating the fields had 
 been systematically neglected. In other words, he 
 would not invoke supernatural agencies to repair 
 the consequences of man's shiftlessness. 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 IN summing up the whole matter of irrigation and 
 its present condition, nothing more concise and direct 
 can be given than a portion of President Roosevelt's 
 first message to Congress, delivered December 3, 
 1901. In it he made the following statements: 
 
 "In the arid region it is water, not land, which 
 measures production. The western half of the 
 United States would sustain a population greater 
 than that of our whole country to-day if the waters 
 that now run to waste were saved and used for irri- 
 gation. The forest and water problems are per- 
 haps the most vital internal questions of the United 
 States. 
 
 " The forests are natural reservoirs. By restrain- 
 ing the streams in flood and replenishing them in 
 drought they make possible the use of waters other- 
 wise wasted. They prevent the soil from washing, 
 and so protect the storage reservoirs from 'filling 
 up with silt. Forest conservation is therefore an 
 essential condition of water conservation. 
 
 "The forests alone cannot, however, fully regu- 
 late and conserve the waters of the arid region. 
 Great storage works are necessary to equalize the 
 
 393 
 
394 IRRIGATION. 
 
 flow of streams and to save the flood waters. 
 Their construction has been conclusively shown to 
 be an undertaking too vast for private effort. Nor 
 can it be best accomplished by the individual states 
 acting alone. Far-reaching interstate problems are 
 involved ; and the resources of single states would 
 often be inadequate. It is properly a national 
 function, at least in some of its features. It is as 
 right for the national government to make the 
 streams and rivers of the arid region useful by 
 engineering works for water storage as to make 
 useful the rivers and harbors of the humid region 
 by engineering works of another kind. The stor- 
 ing of the floods in reservoirs at the head waters of 
 our rivers is but an enlargement of our present 
 policy of river control, under which levees are 
 built on the lower reaches of the same streams. 
 
 " The government should construct and maintain 
 these reservoirs as it does other public works. 
 Where their purpose is to regulate the flow of 
 streams, the water should be turned freely into 
 the channels in the dry season to take the same 
 course under the same laws as the natural flow. 
 
 "The reclamation of the unsettled arid public 
 lands presents a different problem. Here it is not 
 enough to regulate the flow of streams. The object 
 of the government is to dispose of the land to set- 
 tlers who will build homes upon it. To accomplish 
 this object water must be brought within their 
 reach. 
 
PRESIDENTS MESSAGE. 395 
 
 " The pioneer settlers on the arid public domain 
 chose their homes along streams from which they 
 could themselves divert the water to reclaim their 
 holdings. Such opportunities are practically gone. 
 There remain, however, vast areas of public land 
 which can be made available for homestead settle- 
 ment, but only by reservoirs and main-line canals 
 impracticable for private enterprise. These irriga- 
 tion works should be built by the national govern- 
 ment. The lands reclaimed by them should be 
 reserved by the government for actual settlers, 
 and the cost of construction should, so far as .pos- 
 sible, be repaid by the land reclaimed. The dis- 
 tribution of the water, the division of the streams 
 among irrigators, should be left to the settlers 
 themselves, in conformity with state laws and with- 
 out interference with those laws or with vested 
 rights. The policy of the national government 
 should be to aid irrigation in the several states and 
 territories in such manner as will enable the people 
 in the local communities to help themselves, and 
 as will stimulate needed reforms in the state laws 
 and regulations governing irrigation. 
 
 "The reclamation and settlement of the arid 
 lands will enrich every portion of our country, 
 just as the settlement of the Ohio and Mississippi 
 valleys brought prosperity to the Atlantic states. 
 The increased demand for manufactured articles 
 will stimulate industrial production, while wider 
 home markets and the trade of Asia will consume 
 
3Q6 IRRIGATION. 
 
 the larger food supplies and effectually prevent 
 Western competition with Eastern agriculture. In- 
 deed, the products of irrigation will be consumed 
 chiefly in upbuilding local centres of mining and 
 other industries, which would otherwise not come 
 into existence at all. Our people as a whole will 
 profit, for successful home-making is but another 
 name for the upbuilding of the nation. 
 
 " The necessary foundation has already been laid 
 for the inauguration of the policy just described. 
 It would be unwise to begin by doing too much, 
 for a great deal will doubtless be learned, both as 
 to what can and what cannot be safely attempted, 
 by the early efforts, which must of necessity be 
 partly experimental in character. At the very 
 beginning the government should make clear, 
 beyond shadow of doubt, its intention to pursue 
 this policy on lines of the broadest public interest. 
 No reservoir or canal should ever be built to sat- 
 isfy selfish personal or local interests, but only in 
 accordance with the advice of trained experts, after 
 long investigation has shown the locality where all 
 the conditions combine to make the work most 
 needed and fraught with the greatest usefulness to 
 the community as a whole. There should be no 
 extravagance, and the believers in the need of irri- 
 gation will most benefit their cause by seeing to it 
 that it is free from the least taint of excessive or 
 reckless expenditure of the public moneys." 
 
 The Secretary of the Interior, Hon. Ethan Allen 
 
HITCHCOCK'S REPORT. 397 
 
 Hitchcock, in his report to the President, dated 
 November 21, 1901, also summed up the more 
 important features of this great national undertak- 
 ing, as follows: 
 
 "In my report for 1900 attention was called to 
 the importance of providing, through wise admin- 
 istration, for the creation of homes for millions of 
 people upon the arid but fertile public lands. This 
 matter is being given increased attention by the 
 public press and by writers upon the subject. 
 
 " Briefly stated, the results of the examination of 
 the extent to which arid lands can be reclaimed by 
 irrigation show that, while one-third of the United 
 States is still vacant, there are relatively few local- 
 ities where homes can now be made. This is not 
 because the soil is barren or infertile, but on ac- 
 count of the difficulty of securing an adequate 
 water supply. There is water to be had, but this 
 water is mainly in large rivers, from which it can 
 be taken only by great structures, or the supply 
 comes in sudden floods and cannot be utilized until 
 great reservoirs have been built. It is impossible 
 for a laboring man or an association of settlers to 
 build these great works. 
 
 " The pioneer coming to the arid region found 
 many small streams from which water could be 
 taken out upon agricultural land. He was able 
 through his own efforts to irrigate a small farm 
 and to make a home. These easily available 
 waters have been taken, and a man can no longer 
 
398 IRRIGATION. 
 
 secure a foothold, although there still remain 600,- 
 000,000 acres of vacant land. It is possible, by 
 water storage and by building diversion works 
 from great rivers, to bring water to points where 
 such men can utilize it and can enjoy opportunities 
 similar to those had by the earlier settlers. Unless 
 this is done much of the country must remain bar- 
 ren, and thousands of men and women eager to 
 become independent citizens must remain as wan- 
 derers or tenants of others. 
 
 " Enough work has been done by private capital 
 to demonstrate the fact that water conservation 
 and the diversion of large rivers is practicable, but, 
 like many other works of great public importance, 
 it cannot be made a source of profit. The works 
 of reclamation already constructed have, as a rule, 
 been unprofitable, and capitalists are no longer 
 seeking opportunities for reclaiming desert land 
 when the probabilities are against their receiving 
 an adequate compensation for the risk and labor 
 involved. 
 
 " The argument has been presented that if the 
 government will not make it possible to bring 
 water to these lands they should be turned over to 
 the states ; but the majority of citizens who have 
 studied the subject are opposed to such action, on 
 the ground that the vacant public lands are the 
 heritage of the people of the United States and 
 should be held for the creation of homes, and not 
 made a subject of speculation, as has almost inva- 
 
HITCHCOCK'S REPORT. 399 
 
 riably been the case with lands donated to the 
 states. The whole trend of enlightened public 
 sentiment is in favor of an expansion of industries 
 and commerce internally through wise action by 
 the national government rather than attempting 
 to get rid of the duties and opportunities of owner- 
 ship by giving away this valuable property. 
 
 " Two distinct conditions are to be clearly dis- 
 tinguished in the problem of water conservation 
 for the development of the West. On the one 
 hand, there are localities where the agricultural 
 land along the rivers has been brought under irri- 
 gation and there is a demand for water to an extent 
 far exceeding the supply, and where all of the 
 flood water, though stored, would not suffice to sat- 
 isfy the demands of the lands now partly tilled. 
 The other contrasting condition is where there 
 still remain vast bodies of public land for which 
 water can be provided by means of reservoirs or by 
 diversion from large rivers whose flow cannot be 
 used. Here the construction of works of reclama- 
 tion in no way affects lands now in private owner- 
 ship. Between these two extremes are all varieties 
 of intermediate conditions, but these may be arbi- 
 trarily classed \vith one or the other. 
 
 " In the first case reservoirs, if constructed, must 
 be treated in the same way in which other public 
 works having to do with rivers and harbors are 
 managed. The water conserved should be used to 
 increase the flow of the stream during the season 
 
400 IRRIGATION. 
 
 of drought, regulating the volume so that it can be 
 utilized to the best advantage, according to the 
 laws and customs prevailing in the locality. This 
 is comparable to the conditions where the outlet 
 of a harbor has been improved without reference 
 to the benefits to the owners of the docks around 
 the shores. 
 
 " Under the other condition, where there are un- 
 appropriated waters flowing to waste which can be 
 brought within reach of public land, it is possible 
 to make provisions such that the government can 
 be reimbursed for its expenditure. The lands to 
 be benefited by such works should be reserved for 
 homestead entry only in small tracts, each being 
 subject to the payment, before the title is finally 
 passed, of a sum equivalent to the cost of storing 
 or conserving the water, such payment to be made, 
 if desired, in instalments extending over a number 
 of years. 
 
 " Water should be brought to the point where 
 the settlers can, with their own labor or by cooper- 
 ation, construct ditches and laterals to reclaim the 
 desert land. The conditions in this case would be 
 comparable to opening a rich tract of land hitherto 
 reserved. The moment the government throws 
 down the desert barriers, or announces its purpose 
 of so doing by making possible the obtaining of 
 water, there will be an eager rush on the part of 
 home seekers. With the requirement of actual 
 settlement and cultivation, to be followed by the 
 
HITCHCOCK'S REPORT. 401 
 
 payment of the cost of storing water, the specula- 
 tive element will be eliminated, leaving the ground 
 free to bona fide settlers. 
 
 " It is safe to predict from the recent struggles 
 for homes upon the public domain that, if it should 
 be determined that the San Carlos dam, for ex- 
 ample, is to be built by the government, every 
 acre of vacant land to be supplied with water 
 would be immediately taken in small tracts by men 
 who would not only cultivate the ground when 
 water is had, but in the meantime would be avail- 
 able as laborers in the construction of the works, 
 and would ultimately refund to the government the 
 cost of the undertaking. In this manner thousands 
 of the best class of citizens in the country would 
 be permanently located in prosperous homes upon 
 what is now a desert waste. 
 
 " It has been estimated that the western half of 
 the United States would sustain a population as 
 great as that of the whole country at present, if the 
 waters now unutilized were saved and employed in 
 irrigating the ground. 
 
 " The first step in water conservation has been 
 taken by Congress in giving authority for setting 
 aside great areas of wooded land, largely for the 
 beneficial influence which they exert upon the 
 water supply. This should be followed by the con- 
 struction, within the forest reserves, and elsewhere 
 when practicable, of substantial dams impounding 
 flood and waste waters. 
 
 2D 
 
402 IRRIGATION. 
 
 " Underground waters may be had in some 
 localities where it is not practicable to irrigate the 
 surface by means of stored water. The conditions 
 favorable for artesian wells are believed to exist in 
 a number of desert areas, and it is probable that 
 important sources of supply can be had by artesian 
 wells. The division of hydrography has begun 
 the systematic study of some of these places, and 
 has prepared maps showing the depth beneath the 
 surface of the water-bearing rocks. Such maps 
 are invaluable in the development of the country. 
 These can be prepared for the edges of the artesian 
 basins, where the rocks are partly upturned, but 
 far out from the mountains it is necessary to sink 
 test wells. If these are properly located after 
 thorough study of all the surrounding conditions, 
 it may be possible to settle the question of artesian 
 supplies and definitely outline the underground 
 condition for hundreds of square miles of public 
 land. Only by obtaining such information can the 
 value of this land and the practicability of settle- 
 ment be made known. It is highly important, 
 therefore, that a few such deep wells be drilled by 
 the government upon desert land, for the purpose 
 of demonstrating the possibility of reclamation. 
 When it is proved that water can be had, even at 
 considerable depths, settlement will follow. 
 
 " There is no function within the power of the 
 government higher than that of making possible 
 the creation of prosperous homes. In his speech 
 
HITCHCOCK'S REPORT. 403 
 
 in Minneapolis, Mr. Roosevelt said : ' Through- 
 out our history the success of the home-maker has 
 been but another name for the upbuilding of the 
 nation.' The remaining public lands are the heri- 
 tage of the nation, and should be held for homes, 
 being reserved for actual settlers under the home- 
 stead act. The area to be taken by any one man 
 should be reduced so that when water has been 
 conserved by the government the homestead shall, 
 in certain parts of the country, be limited to 
 eighty or even forty acres. 
 
 " The investigations of the government experts 
 have shown that, for example, in Arizona, where 
 high-class fruits are cultivated, a family of five can 
 obtain a good living upon forty acres, or even 
 twenty. In the colder parts of the arid region, 
 where forage crops are largely raised, the area 
 may be made one hundred and sixty acres. 
 
 " The water for irrigation should be distributed 
 in conformity with the laws of the state and with- 
 out interference with any vested rights which have 
 already accrued. 
 
 " Where reservoirs or main-line canals are built 
 by the national government to furnish water for 
 the public lands, the administration should pro- 
 ceed in harmony with the state laws, as would be 
 the case with any other large landowner state 
 and nation cooperating to accomplish a result of 
 far-reaching benefit to both. 
 
 " The expansion of our interior trade and com- 
 
404 IRRIGATION. 
 
 merce, through the settlement of the arid lands 
 and the increase of population in the West, would 
 benefit every class and section of our country, in 
 the same way that the settlement of the Ohio and 
 Mississippi valleys has brought prosperity and 
 wealth to the states east of the Alleghanies. The 
 settlement of the vast arid region still farther to 
 the west would benefit the whole eastern half of 
 the United States by creating new home markets 
 for Eastern merchants, Southern cotton growers, 
 and all manufacturers. It would enormously in- 
 crease local traffic, and would tend to relieve the 
 congestion of our great centres of population, 
 creating opportunities which would go far to allay 
 social discontent. It would promote industrial 
 stability by giving to every man who wanted it a 
 home on the land. The rush for lands in Okla- 
 homa testifies that there are multitudes of our 
 people who will make great sacrifices to secure 
 such homes. 
 
 "There need be no fear of competition of West- 
 ern products with Eastern agriculture, since the 
 Asiatic markets now opened will absorb the sur- 
 plus of the Western farms. The character of 
 these is also such that the staple crops of the K;ist 
 cannot now go to the remote West, nor those of 
 the West come East, excepting in the case of semi- 
 tropic and dried fruits. 
 
 " The investigations which have been carried on 
 demonstrate that, looking at the matter from all 
 
HITCHCOCK'S REPORT. 405 
 
 sides, there is no one question now before tJie people 
 of the United States of greater importance than tJic 
 conservation of the water supply and the reclama- 
 tion of tJie arid lands of the West, and tJieir set- 
 tlement by men who will actually build homes and 
 create communities. The appreciation of this con- 
 dition is shown by the fact that both the great 
 political parties inserted in their platforms articles 
 calling attention to the necessity of national aid 
 for the creation of homes on the public domain. 
 
 "In view of the facts above noted it is impera- 
 tive to adopt at an early date a definite policy 
 leading to the best use of the vacant public lands. 
 It is recommended that construction be at once 
 begun upon certain property where the conditions 
 are known to be such that beneficial results will 
 follow." 
 
 The President and Secretary do not ask the 
 government to do something which might be better 
 clone by private enterprise. The latter has already 
 built irrigation works sufficient to utilize nearly the 
 whole available flow of the streams in the arid regions 
 during the irrigation season. Further progress in 
 irrigation can come only through the storage of 
 flood waters in reservoirs; and nearly all of this 
 work is absolutely impossible without government 
 aid. Remembering the great productiveness of 
 irrigated lands, and that farming with irrigation is 
 almost always intensive farming, the estimate that 
 these reclaimed lands will provide food and homes 
 
406 IRRIGATION. 
 
 for a population " greater than that of our whole 
 country to-day" does not seem extravagant. 
 
 In comparison with such a possible development 
 every other project or public work which the govern- 
 ment is asked to undertake seems indeed insignifi- 
 cant. The dead and profitless deserts need only 
 the magic touch of water to make arable lands that 
 will afford farms and homes for the surplus people of 
 our overcrowded Eastern cities, and for that end- 
 less procession of home-seekers filing through Castle 
 Garden. 
 
 The national government, the owner of these 
 arid lands, is the only power competent to carry 
 this mighty enterprise to a successful conclusion, 
 to divide the reclaimed lands into small farms for 
 actual settlers and home-builders only, and to pro- 
 vide water for the settlers at a price sufficient 
 merely to reimburse the cost of the work. 
 
 When the plans for irrigation suggested by 
 President Roosevelt and Secretary Hitchcock are 
 carried out, every section of this country will be 
 benefited. The East and Middle West will find in 
 that regenerated empire a market for machinery 
 and manufactured products of every description ; 
 the South will find ready sale for the fabrics of 
 her cotton looms; while the farmers of the reclaimed 
 regions will send the cereal products of their acres 
 across the Pacific to the swarming millions of the 
 Orient. Viewed from every standpoint, the national 
 irrigation movement is full of promise to the nation. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Aberdeen, So. Dak., artesian wells 
 
 of, 249. 
 Accuracy of weir measurements. 
 
 100. 
 
 Acre-foot, defined, 83. 
 Advantages of irrigation, 272-285. 
 Alfalfa, flooding of. 199. 
 Algeria, reference to, 317. 
 Alkali, 281-285. 
 Alkali along Rio Grande, 349. 
 Alkali, in seepage water, 227. 
 American Falls, Id., 337. 
 Amount of water applied, 212-220. 
 Anaheim, Cal., 323, 326. 
 Anti-debris law, 318. 
 Apache Indians, 308. 
 Appalachian region, rainfall of, 26. 
 Appropriation of water, 286-298. 
 Appurtenant water rights, 295. 
 Aquatic plants in canals, 148. 
 Arid regions, location of, 13. 
 Arid States and Territories, 299- 
 
 33- 
 Arizona Agricultural Experiment 
 
 Station, work of, 45. 
 Arizona, described, 304-312. 
 Arizona, methods of irrigation in, 
 
 188. 
 
 Arizona, miner's inch in, 129. 
 Arizona, use of water in, 21^. 
 Arkansas River, Col., 329-332. 
 Artesian conditions in Oregon, 
 
 351-353- 
 
 Artesian conditions in Utah, 358. 
 Artesian condition on Great Plains, 
 
 373-376. 
 
 Artesian wells, 246-253. 
 Artesian wells in Kansas, 379. 
 
 Artesian wells in Washington, 360- 
 
 361. 
 
 Asia, trade with, 395, 404. 
 Associations of irrigators, 107, 109. 
 Atlantic and Pacific land grant, 7. 
 Atlantic coast, rainfall on, 23. 
 Atmospheric movement, 16. 
 Austin, Tex., dam, failure of, 162. 
 Azusa, Cal., charge for water at, 
 
 326. 
 
 Bad Lands, So. Dak., 377. 
 Barley, water required by, 213. 
 Basin irrigation, 204, 219. 
 Battery for current meter, 89. 
 Bear River Canal, Utah, 355, 356. 
 Bear Valley Dam, 317. 
 Beowawe, Neb., rainfall at, 18. 
 Berlin, sewage irrigation, 277. 
 Bighorn Mountains, Wyo., 362, 363. 
 Billings, Mont., 340. 
 Bisulphate of mercury battery, 90. 
 Black alkali, 282. 
 Black Hills, So. Dak., 377. 
 Black Hills, Wyo., 362-363. 
 Block system of irrigation, 188. 
 Blue Mountains, Or., 335, 350-353. 
 Boats for stream measurement, 93. 
 Boise, Id., 336. 
 Boise, Id., rainfall at, 18. 
 Boise River, Id., 334-338. 
 Bonds to aid irrigation construc- 
 tion, 108. 
 
 Boxes for taking water, 184, 185. 
 Bozeman, Mont., 340. 
 Brush dams, 116, 117. 
 Buffalo, N.Y., rainfall at, 20. 
 I Bunch grass on the plains, 371. 
 
 407 
 
408 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Cable and car for measuring river, 
 
 93-95- 
 Cache la Pouche River, Col., 332, 
 
 333- 
 Cache la Poudre, water diverted to, 
 
 178. 
 Cache Valley, Utah, dry farming in, 
 
 Si- 
 California, artesian wells of, 248. 
 California, description of, 312-328. 
 California, dry farming in, 49. 
 California, miner's inch in, 129. 
 California, Southern, deserts of, 27. 
 California, Southern, use of water 
 
 in, 216-219. 
 California, summer droughts in, 
 
 21. 
 
 Canada, arid regions in, 14. 
 Canadian Pacific railway hydraulic 
 
 fills, 173. 
 
 Canvas dam, 196, 197. 
 Carlsbad, N. Mex., 350. 
 Carson River, Nev., 343-345. 
 Carson sink, deserts near, 56. 
 Cascade Range, Or., 350. 
 Cascade Range, rivers from, 61. 
 Cascade Range, Wash., 358, 359. 
 Casing of wells, 245. 
 Castle Garden, immigrants, 406. 
 Cattle grazing, 36-49. 
 Cement distributing ditch, 206. 
 Cement for dams, 156. 
 Cement lining of canals, 139-141. 
 Cement pipe irrigation, 207. 
 Central Pacific land grant, 7. 
 Checks for irrigating, 185-193. 
 Cheyenne, Wyo., 362, 363. 
 Cheyenne, Wyo., rainfall at, 18. 
 Chinese gardeners, 391. 
 Chinese gardeners, using irrigation, 
 
 191. 
 
 Cienegas, flow of water from, 325. 
 Cippoletti weir, 132-134. 
 Citrus land, Cal., charge for water, 
 
 S 2 ?. 
 Cleaning reservoirs, 156-159. 
 
 Climate is fixed, 26. 
 Climate not changing, 71. 
 Climate of West formerly humid, 
 
 70. 
 
 Coast range, lands near, 17. 
 Coast Range, rivers from, 61. 
 Colorado, eastern, dry farming in, 
 
 49. 
 
 Colorado, irrigation in, 329-333. 
 Colorado, miner's inch in, 129. 
 Colorado River, 331. 
 Colorado River, 305, 313. 
 Colorado River, deserts near, 27. 
 Colorado River, Col., deserts near, 
 
 56. 
 
 Colorado River, location of, 59, 61. 
 Colorado River, Tex., dam on, 162. 
 Colorado River, Utah, 357, 358. 
 Colorado Springs, Col., 330. 
 Colorado water laws, in. 
 Columbia River, location of, 60. 
 Columbia River, Wash., 359-360. 
 Common fund of water, 216. 
 Competition between East and 
 
 West, 396, 404. 
 
 Compressed air for pumping, 269. 
 Computations of stream flow, 82- 
 
 101. 
 Congress, action in water storage, 
 
 401. 
 
 Congress, land under control of, 6. 
 Connecticut, irrigation in, 387. 
 Constructing a ditch, 103-106. 
 Contour maps of reservoirs, 153, 
 
 *54- 
 
 Conveying stream waters, 102-148. 
 Coolidge, Kan., artesian conditions 
 
 at, 374- 
 Cordillera Mountain system, effect 
 
 on climate, 17. 
 Corona, Cal., charge for water at, 
 
 326. 
 
 Corporations for irrigation, 107. 
 Cost of irrigation, 386, 387. 
 Cottonwood Creek, Utah, weir on, 
 
 98. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 409 
 
 Crocker-Huffman Canal, Cal., tun- 
 nel on, 139. 
 
 Crooked River, Or., 351. 
 
 Cubic foot per second as a unit, 
 83, 84. 
 
 Cultivable areas, comparison with 
 cultivated, 52. 
 
 Cultivated lands, 49-56. 
 
 Curbing of wells, 244, 
 
 Current Meters, 89-97. 
 
 Dakota sandstone, 374-376. 
 Dams and head gates, 115-119. 
 Dams, earth, 166-170. 
 Dam, lor measuring water, 97-101. 
 Dams, hydraulic, 170-173. 
 Dams, masonry, 159-162. 
 Dams, rock-filled, 162-166. 
 Debris from placer mining, 172. 
 Denmark, comparison, of area of, 
 
 302. 
 
 Derrick for artesian wells, 249. 
 Deschutes River, Or., fluctuations 
 
 of, 63. 
 
 Desert lands, area by states, 55. 
 Deserts, extent of, 28. 
 Distributing ditches, 183. 
 Distributing water on rolling land, 
 
 201. 
 
 Distribution of flow, 108-115. 
 District law of California, 319. 
 Ditch construction, 103-106. 
 Ditches, distributing, 183. 
 Ditch-rider, 107. 
 Diversion of waters, 102-108. 
 Dividing stream waters, 102-148. 
 Dividing water proportionally, 121. 
 Drainage and irrigation, 385. 
 Drainage and irrigation, 212. 
 Drainage, importance of, 58. 
 Drops in canals, 145. 
 Drought in California, 321, 324. 
 Dry farming, 49-51. 
 Dry farming, independence of, 10. 
 Dutch windmill, 375. 
 Duty of water, 215. 
 
 Duty of water under Sweetwater 
 system, California, 328. 
 
 Earth dams, 166-170. 
 
 Earth reservoirs, for windmill irri- 
 gation, 268. 
 
 Economy in use of water in Cali- 
 fornia, 321. 
 
 Egypt, an arid country, 15. 
 
 Egypt, pumping in, 254, 255. 
 
 Electric current metres, 89-97. 
 
 Electric power used in pumping, 
 212. 
 
 El Paso, Tex., irrigation near, 381. 
 
 El Paso, Tex., Rio Grande at, 347, 
 348. 
 
 Embudo, X. Mex., Rio Grande at, 
 64-67. 
 
 England, sewage irrigation in, 278. 
 
 Erosion and sedimentation in ca- 
 nals, 141-148. 
 
 Essex Company, water-powers of, 
 263. 
 
 Europe, forests of, 15. 
 
 Europe, stream-pollution in, 277. 
 
 Evolution of water control, 112. 
 
 Evolution of water rights, 333. 
 
 Farm, arrangement under irriga- 
 tion, 220-224. 
 
 Fencing of public lands illegal, 48. 
 
 Fertilizing value of muddy waters, 
 148. 
 
 Floats, for measuring velocity of 
 water, 86-89. 
 
 Flooding for irrigation, 199-202. 
 
 Flooding in checks, 185-193. 
 
 Floods held in reservoirs, 149-178. 
 
 Florence, Ariz., irrigation near, 308. 
 
 Flowing wells, 246-253. 
 
 Fluctuations in water supply in 
 semiarid states, 364-373. 
 
 Fluctuations, periodic, of rivers, 62- 
 
 71- 
 
 Flume for measuring miner's inches, 
 125. 
 
4io 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Flume, measurements of flow in 
 95. 96. 
 
 Flumes, 106. 
 
 Flumes and wooden pipes, 134-138 
 
 Flumes, for farm use, 184. 
 
 Foote, A. D., measuring box, 126, 
 127. 
 
 Foreign countries compared in 
 area, 301-303. 
 
 Forest, area of, by states, 55. 
 
 Forest protection and sheep graz- 
 ing, 38. 
 
 Forest reservations, 7. 
 
 Forest reservations, map of, 34. 
 
 Forestry Bureau, work of, 35. 
 
 Forests and woodlands, map of, 32. 
 
 Forests, extent of, 29. 
 
 Forests influence water supply, 
 
 393. 394- 
 
 Forests of arid region, 27-36. 
 Fort Bidwell, Cal., rainfall at, 18. 
 Fort Ellis, Mont., rainfall at, 18. 
 Fort Stanton, N. Mex., rainfall at, 
 
 18. 
 Fort Wingate, N. Mex., annual 
 
 rainfall at, 22. 
 Foundations for dams, 155. 
 Francis, James B., weir formula, 
 
 131- 
 Fresno, California, subirrigation, 
 
 211. 
 
 Fresno Canal, Cal., 326. 
 Fruit industry in California, 328. 
 Fruit trees, amount of water for, 
 
 217. 
 Furrow irrigation, 193-199. 
 
 Gage Canal, Cal., 327. 
 Gage Canal, water used by, 218. 
 Gallatin Valley, Mont.. 340. 
 Gallon, defined, 83. 
 Galvanized iron pipe for subirriga- 
 tion, 212. 
 
 Garden irrigation, 384. 
 Garden, Kan., irrigation near, 372. 
 Gasolene for pumping, 270, 271. 
 
 Genessee River. N.Y., weir on, 98. 
 
 Geological Survey, hydrographic 
 work of, 80. 
 
 Geological Survey, mapping forest 
 reserves, 35. 
 
 Georgia, irrigation in, 391. 
 
 Georgia, negative artesian wells in, 
 247. 
 
 Georgia, reference to, 316. 
 
 Germany, comparison of area of, 
 301. 33- 
 
 Giant used in hydraulic work, 170. 
 
 Gila River, Ariz., 306-311. 
 
 Gila River, Ariz , fluctuations of, 63. 
 
 Gila River Indian reservation, irri- 
 gation of, 308. 
 
 Glacial lakes for reservoirs, 149. 
 
 Glauber's salt, 282. 
 
 Government should construct res- 
 ervoirs, 394. 
 
 Grade of canals, 141-148. 
 
 Grain, irrigation of, 195, 196. 
 
 Grand Junction, Col., 329. 
 
 Grand River, Col., 331. 
 
 Grazing land, area of, by states, 55. 
 
 Grazing land, extent of, 29. 
 
 Grazing lands, 36-49. 
 
 Grazing lands, map of, 39. 
 
 Grazing, large part of land valuable 
 only for, 82. 
 
 Grazing, the principal industry of 
 the arid regions, 29. 
 
 Great American Desert, 365. 
 
 Great Basin, Nev., 342. 
 
 Great Interior Basin, location of, 59. 
 
 Great Plains, Artesian conditions, 
 
 373-370- 
 
 Great Plains, artesian wells of, 248. 
 Great Plains, earth dams on, 166. 
 Great Plains, surveys adapted to, 
 
 10. 
 
 Great Plains, underflow of, 230-232. 
 Grrnt Salt Lake, deserts near, 27. 
 Great Salt Lake, Utah, 356-358. 
 < irc.it Salt Lake, Utah, deserts near, 
 
 56. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 411 
 
 Great Salt Lake, Utah, drainage to, 
 
 59- 
 
 Greeley, Col., 329. 
 Green River, Col., 331. 
 Green River, Utah, 357. 
 Green River, Wyo., 363. 
 Ground sluicing, 170-173. 
 Ground water, rise of, 222. 
 
 Hamey Valley, Or., 353. 
 
 Harrisburg, Pa., Susquehanna 
 River at, 67, 68. 
 
 Headgates, 115-119. 
 
 Hemet Dam, 317. 
 
 High Plains, climate of, 17. 
 
 Hitchcock, Ethan Allen, report by, 
 396-405. 
 
 Home-making, importance of, i. 
 
 Homestead law, purpose of, 7. 
 
 Humboldt River, Nev., 345. 
 
 Humboldt sink, desert near, 56. 
 
 Humid regions, irrigation in, 383- 
 392. 
 
 Humid regions, map of, 14. 
 
 Hydrant irrigation, 207-212. 
 
 Hydraulic dams, 170-173. 
 
 Hydraulic works for cleaning res- 
 ervoirs, 158, 159. 
 
 Hydrography, Division of, 80. 
 
 Idaho, irrigation in, 333-338. 
 Illinois, proportion of land culti- 
 vated, 52. 
 Improved land, area of, by states, 
 
 55- 
 
 Impulse wheels for pumping, 259, 
 260. 
 
 India, pumping in, 254. 
 
 Indian irrigation methods, 182. 
 
 Indian reservations, 7. 
 
 Indian reservations, location of, 
 33- 34- 
 
 Industrial depression, opportunities 
 during, 8. 
 
 Integration, method of measure- 
 ment, 96. 
 
 Interior, Secretary of, 396-405. 
 
 Iowa, proportion of land cultivated, 
 52- 
 
 Ireland, comparison of area of, 302. 
 
 Irrigable lands, map of, 54. 
 
 Irrigating season, water used dur- 
 ing, 214. 
 
 Irrigation district law of California, 
 
 3I9r 
 
 Irrigation, importance to citizen, 2. 
 Irrigation, importance to farmer, 2. 
 Irrigation methods, 179-224. 
 Irving, W., estimates of water used, 
 
 218. 
 
 Italian gardeners, 391. 
 Italian module, 122. 
 Italy, comparison of area of, 301- 
 
 303- 
 
 James River Valley, So. Dak., 374. 
 James River Valley, So. Dak., arte- 
 sian wells of, 248-252. 
 Johnson, Willard D., data from, 52. 
 Jordan River, Utah, 356. 
 Jumbo windmills, 266. 
 
 Kansas, irrigation in, 379-380. 
 Kansas subirrigation system, 209. 
 Kansas, waves of settlement in, 
 
 367. 
 
 Kansas, western, dry farming in, 49. 
 Kansas, western, in subhumid belt, 
 
 13- 
 
 Kern River, Cal., 319, 320. 
 King, F. H., experiments by, 213. 
 King River, Cal., 326. 
 
 La Grange, Cal., dam, 159-161. 
 Lake McMillan, N. Mex., 350. 
 Lake Tahoe, Nev., 345. 
 Land Office, guarding forest re- 
 serves, 35. 
 
 Land office lines on map, 153. 
 Lateral ditches, use of, 200, 222. 
 Lava plains of Or., 351-353. 
 Law of irrigation, 286-298. 
 
412 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Lawrence, Kan., rainfall at, 20-21. 
 
 Lawrence, Mass., water-power at, 
 262. 
 
 Least amount of water used, 216. 
 
 Levees for irrigating, 185-193. 
 
 Levelling a ditch line, 105, 106. 
 
 Levelling device, 106. 
 
 Levelling the ground, 192. 
 
 Lewiston, Id., 338. 
 
 Licenses for grazing, 44. 
 
 Lining of canals, 139-141. 
 
 Litigation over water rights, 287. 
 
 Los Angeles, Cal., 314. 
 
 Los Angeles, Cal., charge for water 
 near, 327. 
 
 Los Angeles, Cal., method of irriga- 
 tion near, 204. 
 
 Los Angeles, Cal., pumping at, 264. 
 
 Los Angeles, Cal., wells near, 322. 
 
 Los Angeles River, Cal., underflow 
 of, 235-241. 
 
 Los Angeles River, Cal., 325. 
 
 Louisiana, irrigation in, 391. 
 
 Lowell, Mass., experiments at, 131. 
 
 Lowell, Mass., water-power at, 262. 
 
 Lower Otay Dam, Cal., 164. 
 
 Madison, Wis., experiments at, 213. 
 Majordomo, or superintendent, 
 
 349- 
 
 Malarial conditions, 281. 
 Malheur River, Or., 352, 353. 
 Maricopa Indians, water for, 308. 
 Market for goods in West, 2. 
 Markets for products, 406. 
 Maryland, population of, 316. 
 Masonry dams, 159-162. 
 Massachusetts, proportion of land 
 
 cultivated, 52. 
 Meade artesian wells, 379. 
 Measuring devices or modules, 120- 
 
 134- 
 
 Mediterranean countries, arid, 15. 
 
 Merced River, Cal., canal from, 139. 
 
 Merrimac River, Mass., water- 
 power on, 262, 263. 
 
 Meters, for measuring velocity of 
 
 water, 89-97. 
 
 Methods of irrigation, 179-224. 
 Mexico, arid regions in, 14. 
 Mexican irrigation methods, 182, 
 
 187, 189. 
 Mexican methods in New Mexico, 
 
 346-349. 
 
 Milk River, Mont., 340. 
 Miner's inch defined, 122-130. 
 Miner's inch irrigates several acres, 
 
 217. 
 Minneapolis, Minnesota, Mr. 
 
 Roosevelt at, 403. 
 Mississippi River, large drainage 
 
 area, 57. 
 Mississippi River, upper, run-off of, 
 
 58. 
 
 Mississippi Valley, irrigation in, 
 Mississippi Valley, level land in, 
 
 10. 
 Mississippi Valley, land laws de- 
 
 sig"ned for, 9. 
 
 Mississippi Valley, plains of, 17. 
 Missouri River in Montana, 339- 
 
 34- 
 Missouri River in North Dakota, 
 
 371- 
 
 Missouri River, run-off of, 58. 
 Modesto Canal, Cal., 160, 161. 
 Modules, for measuring water, 120- 
 
 134- 
 
 Mohave Desert, 313. 
 Montana, irrigation in, 338-341. 
 Montana, miner's inch in, 129. 
 Montana, use of water in, 214. 
 Morena Dam, Cal., 164. 
 Mormons in Idaho, 335. 
 Mormons in Utah, 354-358. 
 Mortgages, speculation in 367- 
 
 369. 
 
 Mot, pumping water by, 256. 
 Moxee Valley, Wash., 360. 
 Moxee Valley, Wash., artesian wells 
 
 in, 252. 
 Muddy waters in canals, 141-148. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 413 
 
 Xt-braska, irrigation in, 377-379. 
 
 Nebraska, western, in subhumid 
 belt, 13. 
 
 Nevada, irrigation in, 341-346. 
 
 Nevada, lakes of, 59. 
 
 Nevada, proportion of land culti- 
 vated, 52. 
 
 New England, irrigation in, 391. 
 
 New England, rivers of, 69. 
 
 New Jersey, irrigation in, 391. 
 
 New Mexico, irrigation methods 
 in, 189. 
 
 New Mexico, irrigation in, 346-350. 
 
 New York, irrigation near, 391. 
 
 Night irrigation, 220. 
 
 Nitrifying organisms, 181. 
 
 North Dakota, irrigation in, 376. 
 
 North Dakota, in subhumid belt, 
 
 13- 
 
 Northern Pacific land grant, 7. 
 Northern Pacific railway hydraulic 
 
 nils, 173. 
 
 Ogden River, Utah, 356. 
 
 Ogden Valley, Utah, return waters 
 
 in. 227, 228. 
 
 Ohio River, run-off", 58, 59. 
 Ohio valley, level lands of, 10. 
 Oklahoma, irrigation in, 380. 
 Oklahoma, in subhumid belt, 13. 
 Ontario, Cal., charge for water at, 
 
 327- 
 
 Oranges in California, 328. 
 Orchard irrigation, 321. 
 Orchards and vineyards, irrigation 
 
 of, 202-206. 
 
 Oregon, dry farming in, 49. 
 Oregon, irrigation in, 350-353. 
 Oregon wagon-road grants, 7. 
 Orient, trade with, 406. 
 Otay Dam, 317. 
 Otay Dam, Cal., 164. 
 Outlet from flume, 203. 
 Outlets for dams, 167. 
 Outlets for small reservoirs, 169, 
 
 170. 
 
 Pacific, winds from, 16. 
 
 Pacoima Wash, Cal., underflow of 
 
 238. 
 
 Palouse River, Wash., 360. 
 Panhandle of Texas, 380. 
 Papago Indians, water economy 
 
 by. 45- 
 
 Papago Indians, water for, 308. 
 Paris, sewage irrigation, 277. 
 Pataha River. Wash., 360. 
 Payette River, Id., 324-328. 
 Pecos River, N. Mex., 347-350. 
 Pennsylvania, reference to, 316. 
 Percolation through dams, 166. 
 Periodic fluctuations of rivers, 62- 
 
 7i- 
 
 Permits for grazing, 48. 
 
 Petroleum for pumping, 324. 
 
 Philippine Islands, comparison of 
 area of, 301-303. 
 
 Phoenix, Ariz., iirigation near, 304, 
 307, 310- 
 
 Phoenix, Ariz., sewage irrigation, 
 278. 
 
 Pima Indians, water for, 308. 
 
 Pioneer conditions, 108. 
 
 Pioneer conditions of settlement, 9. 
 
 Pioneers, neglected best opportu- 
 nities, 75. 
 
 Pipe irrigation, 207-212. 
 
 Placer mining, 170-173. 
 
 Plainfield, N. J., irrigation, 278. 
 
 Plane of saturation, 225. 
 
 Plants, water required by, 4, 180. 
 
 Platte River, Neb., 377-379. 
 
 Pole floats, 89. 
 
 Pool irrigation, 204. 
 
 Portugal, population of, 317. 
 
 Precipitation, 16-27. 
 
 Prescott, Ariz., rainfall at, 20. 
 
 Priorities, law of, 291-293. 
 
 Priorities to use of stored waters, 
 177. 
 
 Priority of right, 109, 113. 
 
 Private capital in irrigation, 398. 
 
 Promontory, Utah, rainfall at, 18. 
 
4 i4 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Prosperity follows reclamation, 2. 
 Public land states, extent of, 28. 
 Public land, system of survey, 9. 
 Public land, utilized by irrigation , 2. 
 Public lands, extent of, I. 
 Public lands, location of, 5. 
 Public lands, reclamation of, i. 
 Puddled core of dams, 166. 
 Puddling the bottoms of reservoirs, 
 
 168. 
 Pueblo Indians in New Mexico, 
 
 346. 
 Puget Sound, excessive rainfall of, 
 
 26. 
 
 Pullman, Wash., 360. 
 Pumping by petroleum, 324. 
 Pumping in humid states, 389. 
 Pumping water, 254-271. 
 
 Quantity of water used in irrigation, 
 214. 
 
 Rain-belters, 367. 
 
 Rainfall increasing or diminishing, 
 
 366. 
 
 Rainfall, map of mean annual, 24. 
 Rainfall, mean monthly, 18. 
 Rainfall, not decreasing, 23. 
 Rainier National Park, location of, 
 
 33- 
 
 Raised ditches, 183. 
 Reclamation of public lands, i. 
 Rectangular weir, 131. 
 Redlands, Cal., 323, 327. 
 Register for weir, 134. 
 Regulation of water supply, no. 
 Regulators, 115-119. 
 Reserved areas, extent of, 6. 
 Reservoirs, 149-178. 
 Reservoirs should be built by 
 
 government, 394-405. 
 Reservoirs, units of capacity of, 83. 
 Return waters, 226-229. 
 Rice irrigation, 382, 391. 
 Rights to water, 286-298. 
 Rio Grande in Colorado, 331. 
 
 Rio Grande in New Mex., 347-349. 
 
 Rio Grande in Texas, 381. 
 
 Rio Grande, international charac- 
 ter of, 80. 
 
 Rio Grande, irrigation along, 187. 
 
 Rio Grande, N. Mex., fluctuations 
 of, 64-67. 
 
 Rio Grande, sediment from, 144. 
 
 Riparian rights, 289. 
 
 Riparian rights in East, 388, 389. 
 
 Riverside, Cal., 314. 
 
 Riverside, Cal., 323, 326. 
 
 Riverside, Cal., water used at, 218. 
 
 River systems of United States, 57. 
 
 Rivers, not diminishing in volume, 
 
 71- 
 
 Rock-filled dams, 162-166. 
 
 Rocky Mountain foothills, sub- 
 humid regions reaching, 13. 
 
 Rocky Ford, Col., 329. 
 
 Rocky Mountains, effect on cli- 
 mate, 17. 
 
 Rocky Mountain, waters diverted 
 across, 178. 
 
 Rocky Mountains, waters from, 60. 
 
 Rod floats, 89. 
 
 Roosevelt, Theodore, President's 
 message, 393-396. 
 
 Run-off, map of mean annual, 25. 
 
 Run-off, relation to rainfall, 27. 
 
 Russell, Prof. Israel C., work by, 
 360. 
 
 Sacramento River, 312. 
 Sacramento River, location of, 61. 
 Sacramento Valley, wheat fields of, 
 
 318. 
 Salt Lake, Utah, annual rainfall at, 
 
 22. 
 
 Salt River, Ariz., 305-311. 
 Salton Desert, waste land of, 27. 
 San Antonio, Tex., irrigation at, 
 
 381. 
 
 San Bernardino, Cal., 314. 
 San Bernardino, Cal., wells near, 
 
 322. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 415 
 
 San Bernardino Valley, Cal., water 
 supply of. 325. 
 
 San Carlos Dam, Ariz., 401. 
 
 San Carlos, Ariz., proposed reser- 
 voir near, 309. 
 
 Sund hills in Nebraska, 378. 
 
 Sandy soils free from alkali, 285. 
 
 San Diego, Cal., 314, 316. 
 
 San Diego, Cal., dams near, 164. 
 
 San Diego, Cal., rainfall at, 18. 
 
 San Diego Flume Company, Cal., 
 219. 
 
 San Fernando Valley, Cal., under- 
 flow of, 235-241. 
 
 San Francisco, Cal., rainfall of, 18. 
 20. 
 
 San Gabriel River, Cal., 325, 326. 
 
 San Joaquin River, 312. 
 
 San Joaquin River, location of, 
 61. 
 
 San Joaquin Valley, Cal., pumping 
 in, 212. 
 
 San Joaquin Valley, wheat fields 
 of, 318. 
 
 San Joaquin Valley canals, 319. 
 
 San Joaquin Valley, Cal., artesian 
 wells in, 252. 
 
 San Luis Valley, Col., artesian basin, 
 252. 
 
 San Luis Valley, Col., 331. 
 
 Santa Ana Canal, Cal., 141. 
 
 Santa Ana River, Cal., 325. 
 
 Santa Fe, N. Mex., rainfall at, 18, 
 22. 
 
 Santa Fe, N. Mex., hydraulic dam, 
 
 173- 
 
 Saturation of subsoil, 215. 
 Scarcity of water, 109. 
 Second, as unit of time, 82. 
 Second-foot of water irrigates 100 
 
 acres, 214. 
 
 Second-foot, denned, 83. 
 Sediment in reservoirs, 156-159. 
 Sedimentation in canals, 141-148. 
 Seepage, 72-79. 
 Seepage, rate of, 76. 
 
 Seepage in East, 388. 
 Seepage waters, 226-229. 
 Selection of land, denned, 9. 
 Semiarid region, states of, 364- 
 
 382. 
 
 Semiarid regions, map of, 14. 
 Sewage irrigation, 275-281. 
 Shadoofs, pumping by, 255. 
 Sheep causing silt, 148. 
 Sheep destroying the grazing lands, 
 
 43- 
 
 Sheep grazing, 36-49. 
 Sheridan, Wyo., 362. 
 Shoshone Falls, Id., 336. 
 Side-hill irrigation, 204, 205. 
 Sierra Nevada, 313. 
 Sierra Nevada, plains east of, 17. 
 Sierra Nevada, rivers from, 317. 
 Silt, accumulation of, 46. 
 Silt in canals, 141-148. 
 Silt in reservoirs, 156-159. 
 Silvies River, Or., 352. 
 Siphons, 136-138. 
 Sky Line ditch, Col., 178. 
 Small farms in California, 323. 
 Small farms of Utah, 274. 
 Snake River, Id., 324-328. 
 Snake River, Wash., 360. 
 Sod covering for reservoir banks, 
 
 170. 
 
 Sodium compounds in alkali, 282. 
 Solomonville, Ariz., 307. 
 Sorghum in dry regions, 369. 
 South Carolina, reference to, 316. 
 South Dakota, artesian wells of, 
 
 248-251. 
 South Dakota, irrigation in, 376, 
 
 377- 
 
 South Dakota, in subhumid belt, 13. 
 
 Southern Pacific Railroad in Ne- 
 vada, 344. 
 
 South Platte River, Col., 330-332. 
 
 Spain, comparison of area, 301-303, 
 
 315. 3 l6 - 
 
 Spain, map of, 315. 316. 
 State engineer, duties of, 297. 
 
416 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 State engineers, duties of, HI. 
 
 St. Anthony, Id., subirrigation at, 
 
 211. 
 
 Steam-power for pumping, 270, 271. 
 Steel core dams, 164. 
 St. Lawrence, drainage of, 57. 
 St. Mary River, Mont., diversion of, 
 
 340. 
 
 Storage of floods, 394. 
 Stored waters, 173-178. 
 Stream measurement, importance 
 
 of, 79-72. 
 Stream measurements, methods of, 
 
 82-101. 
 
 Subhumid or semiarid defined, 364. 
 Subirrigation, 207-212. 
 Submerged dam, 234. 
 Submerged float, 88. 
 Subsurface irrigation, 207-212. 
 Sunnyside Canal, Wash., 359. 
 Surface waters, 57-101. 
 Survey, system for, 9. 
 Suspended car for measuring 
 
 river, 93-95. 
 
 Susquehanna River, Pa., fluctua- 
 tions of, 67, 68. 
 Sweetwater Dam, 317. 
 Sweetwater River, Wyo., 362-363. 
 Sweetwater system, Cal., 219. 
 Sweetwater system, Cal. duty of 
 
 water, 328. 
 Switzerland, comparison of area of, 
 
 302. 
 
 Tag wire, 93, 94. 
 
 Tanks of earth, 166-170. 
 
 Tappoons, 197, 198. 
 
 Tehachapi Pass, 317. 
 
 Tehachapi Pass, 313. 
 
 Tejunga Wash, Cal., underflow of, 
 
 238. 
 
 Texas, extent of, 312. 
 Texas, irrigation in, 380-382 
 Texas, " pan handle," in subhumid 
 
 belt, 13. 
 Texas, rice irrigation, 391. 
 
 Tile used for irrigation, 210. 
 
 Timber dams, 165. 
 
 Titles to water, importance of, 12. 
 
 Tonto Basin, 307. 
 
 Topographic maps of forest re- 
 serves, 35. 
 
 Township, defined, 9. 
 
 Trapezoidal weir, 132-134. 
 
 Trees, amount of water for, 217. 
 
 Truckee River, Nev., 343-345. 
 
 Tucson, Ariz., overgrazing near, 
 44, 46. 
 
 Tunnels, 138-139. 
 
 Tunnels for obtaining water, 322. 
 
 Tuolumne River, La Grange dam 
 on, 159-161. 
 
 Turbim windmills, 266. 
 
 Turlock Canal, Cal., hydraulic cut 
 on, 173. 
 
 Turlock Canal, Cal., 160, 161. 
 
 Turlock Canal, Cal., tunnel on, 139. 
 
 Twin Falls, Id., 336, 337. 
 
 Typhoid, from well water, 243. 
 
 Underflow, 229-241. 
 
 Underflow dam, 234. 
 
 Underflow waters cut by tunnels, 
 322. 
 
 Underground waters, 225-253. 
 
 Underground waters to be de- 
 veloped, 402. 
 
 Union Pacific land grant, 7. 
 
 Unita Mountains, waters from, 60. 
 
 United States, map of arid regions 
 of, 14. 
 
 Units of measurement, 83, 84. 
 
 Utah, irrigation in, 353-358. 
 
 Utah Lake, Utah, 356-358. 
 
 Utah, priorities of right in, 293. 
 
 Utah, proportion of land cultivated, 
 
 52. 
 Utah, small farms of, 274. 
 
 Velocity in canals, 141-148. 
 Velocity, methods of measuring, 
 86-97. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 417 
 
 Verde River, Ariz., 305, 306. 
 Vineyard irrigation, 321. 
 Vineyards, irrigation of, 202-206. 
 
 Walker Lake, deserts near, 56. 
 
 Walker River, Nev., 343-345. 
 
 Wallawalla River, Wash., 360. 
 
 Wallawalla, Wash., rainfall at, 18. 
 
 Walnut Gun Dam, Ariz., failure of, 
 163. 
 
 Wasatch Mountains, Utah, 354. 
 
 Wasatch Mountains, waters from, 
 60. 
 
 Washington, city of, water supply, 
 276. 
 
 Washington, dry farming in, 49. 
 
 Washington, irrigation in, 358-361. 
 
 Washington, state of, excessive 
 rainfall of, 26. 
 
 Waste of water, 216. 
 
 Wasteway for dams, 167. 
 
 Watchman at canal head, 117. 
 
 Water as a plant food, 4, 180, 385. 
 
 Water, amount applied in irriga- 
 tion, 212-220. 
 
 Water boxes from ditches, 184, 186. 
 
 Watering by furrows, 193-199. 
 
 Water, its importance, 3. 
 
 Watermaster, 107, 114. 
 
 Water meters, 122. 
 
 Water power, data for, 80. 
 
 Water-power for pumping, 258- 
 265. 
 
 Water storage requirements, 150- 
 156. 
 
 Water supply, amount by states, 55. 
 
 Water supply governs values, 10. 
 
 Water supply, importance to de- 
 velopment, 81. 
 
 Water table, raising of, 215, 225. 
 
 Water, weight of, 213. 
 
 Water wheels as meters, 100, 10-1. 
 
 Water-wheel for pumping, 258-265. 
 
 Waters underground, 225-253. 
 Weather, changes of, 26. 
 Weather, defined, 16. 
 Weber River, Utah, 356. 
 Weeds in canals, 146-148. 
 Weirs, 97-101. 
 
 Weirs, for measurement, 122. 
 Weirs, various forms of, 130-134. 
 Weiser River, Id., 324-328. 
 Well irrigation, 209. 
 Wells in California, 321. 
 Wells, ordinary forms, 241-246. 
 Well-sweep, pumping by, 257. 
 Wheat in California, 318. 
 Wheat in North Dakota, 376. 
 Wheat in Utah, 354. 
 Wheat in Washington, 359. 
 Wheat, raised by dry farming, 49- 
 
 5i- 
 
 Wheatland, Wyo., 363. 
 Windbreaks on the plains, 370. 
 Windmills, 265-270. 
 Windmills on the plains, 369-370. 
 Windmills pumping into earth 
 
 tanks, 167. 
 
 Wooden pipes, 134-138. 
 Woodland, area of, by states, 55. 
 Woodland, extent of, 29. 
 Woonsocket, So. Dak., artesian 
 
 wells at, 251. 
 
 World, map of arid regions of, 15. 
 Wyoming, irrigation in, 361-363. 
 Wyoming water laws, in. 
 Wyoming, water rights in, 297. 
 
 Yakima River, Wash., 359-360. 
 Yellowstone National Park, loca- 
 tion of, 33. 
 
 Yellowstone River, Mont., 339-340 
 Yuma, Ariz., rainfall at, 18. 
 
 Zanja, defined, 107. 
 Zanjero, 107. 
 
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 JVtt 1 1978 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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