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 LIBRARY 
 
 UNIVERSITY Of 
 
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DAVID ZEISBERGER S 
 
 HISTORY OF THE NORTHERN 
 
 AMERICAN INDIANS 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 ARCHER BUTLER HULBERT 
 
 Professor of American History, Marietta College; 
 
 Editor Washington and the West, Washington s 
 
 Tour of Ohio, Crown Collection of 
 
 American Maps, etc. 
 
 AND 
 
 WILLIAM NATHANIEL SCHWARZE 
 
 Professor of Historical Theology, Moravian College 
 and Theological Seminary. 
 
 OHIO STATE ARCHAEOLOGICAL 
 AND HISTORICAL SOCIETY 
 
THE F. J. HEER PRINTINGfCO., 
 PRINTERS 
 
 Add l 
 
En 
 Z4 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 The History of the Northern American Indians herewith 
 made public by The Ohio State Archaeological and Historical 
 Society appeared originally in the regular Quarterly publications 
 of the Society for January and April, 1910. The unique in 
 terest and value presented in this manuscript of David Zeisberger 
 is such that the members of the Publication Committee of the 
 Society felt they could in no way better subserve the purpose 
 of the Society than by producing this historical material for its 
 patrons and the general public. Some two years ago the So 
 ciety learned of the vast and rich storehouse of original manu 
 scripts preserved by the Moravian Church at its national 
 headquarters in Bethlehem, Pa. Visits by members of the Ohio 
 Society to Bethlehem revealed the extent of the historical lore 
 there on deposit. Concerning the records preserved in the Mo 
 ravian Library at Bethlehem, an article by Prof. Hulbert appeared 
 in the QUARTERLY of The Ohio State Archaeological and His 
 torical Society for April, 1909, Volume XVIII, page 199. Much 
 of the material in this library consists of the journals, diaries 
 and records of the Moravian missionaries to the American In 
 dians, recounting their indefatigible and self-sacrificing labor 
 among the copper-colored savages of Pennsylvania, New York, 
 Ohio, Michigan, and even Canada. These recitals for thrilling 
 romance, religious devotion and incomparable privation are sec 
 ond only to the Relations of the Jesuit Fathers. 
 
 Perhaps the Ohio State Archaeological and Historical Society 
 never rendered a more valuable service, in its purpose to secure 
 and preserve original historical data, than it has rendered in 
 the present publication. The Zeisberger Indian History is more 
 than a contribution at first hand to early Ohio chronicles ; it 
 not only throws new light upon the character and customs of the 
 aborigines, but it imparts such an additional fund of knowledge 
 to the period in question that it gives in no slight degree a new 
 coloring to some phases of previously accepted history. 
 
 The Library authorities of the Moravian Church, at Beth- 
 
 i 
 
 616 
 
ii Ohio Arch, and Hist. Society Publications. 
 
 lehem, generously granted permission to the Ohio Society to 
 translate and publish, under agreed conditions, such portions of 
 the Moravian Archives as might be selected. For this ines 
 timable privilege the officials of the Ohio Society hereby express 
 their appreciation and gratitude. For the work of editing and 
 annotating the translations the services of Prof. Archer B. Hul- 
 bert were secured. How successfully he has accomplished his 
 task the notes following the text of the manuscript amply 
 testify. The Society is also most fortunate in securing the 
 services of the Rev. William Nathaniel Schwarze, Librarian of 
 the Moravian Archives and Professor in the Moravian Theo 
 logical Seminary, as the translator of the manuscripts selected 
 for publication. 
 
 E. O. RANDALL, 
 Secretary and Editor Ohio State Archaeological 
 
 and Historical Society. 
 April i, 1910. 
 
DAVID ZEISBERGER S HISTORY OF THE 
 NORTHERN AMERICAN INDIANS, 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The present volume reproduces the manuscript written in 
 German by the Moravian hero-missionary, The Reverend David 
 Zeisberger, at his mission home beside the Muskingum River, in 
 Ohio, in the years 1779 and 1780. 
 
 Though there is extant a most excellent biography of this 
 noble man, The Life and Times of David Zeisberger, by Bishop 
 Edmund De Schweinitz (Philadelphia, 1870), very little is popu 
 larly known of him. 
 
 In the center of the old Black Forest of America, near New 
 Philadelphia, Ohio, a half-forgotten Indian graveyard lies be 
 side the dusty country road. You may count here several score 
 of graves by the slight mounds of earth that were raised above 
 them a century or so ago. At one extremity of this plot of 
 ground an iron railing incloses another grave marked by a plain 
 marble slab. The grave is David Zeisberger s, Moravian Mis 
 sionary to Indians in New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, 
 and Canada for fifty active years, who was buried at this spot 
 at his dying request, that he might await the Resurrection among 
 his faithful Indians. His record is perhaps unequalled in point 
 of length of service by the record of any missionary in any land. 
 
 On a July night in 1726 a man and his wife fled from their 
 home in Austrian Moravia toward the mountains on the border 
 of Saxony, for conscience sake. They took with them nothing 
 save their five-year-old boy, who ran stumbling between them, 
 holding to their hands. The family of three remained in Saxony 
 ten years. Then the parents emigrated to America, leaving the 
 
2 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 son of fifteen years in Saxony to continue his education. But 
 within a year he, too, took passage for America, and joined his 
 parents in Georgia, just previous to their removal to Bethlehem, 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 The lad soon became interested in the study of the Dela 
 ware Indian language among the natives of that tribe living 
 along the Susquehanna, and at once showed proficiency. Ap 
 preciating his talent, the fathers of the Moravian Church deter 
 mined to send the young man to Europe, that in the best univer 
 sities he might secure his training. He went as far as New 
 York. There, just as his ship was to sail, he pleaded with tears 
 and on his knees to be allowed to return to the woods of Penn 
 sylvania and the school of the red men there. The words of the 
 wise were overcome by those of the youth, and an earnest soul, 
 as brave as it was earnest, was saved to a life of unparalleled 
 service and devotion. 
 
 On returning to Bethlehem, Zeisberger joined a class that 
 was studying the Iroquois tongue, the language of that powerful 
 nation which practically controlled, by tomahawk and threat, all 
 the territory between the colonies and the Mississippi. Soon 
 the looked-for opportunity of visiting the Iroquois land came, 
 and the young student (who had been enrolled in the class of 
 candidates as David Zeisburger, destinirter Heidenbote) was told 
 off to accompany the heroic Frederick Christian Post. This 
 was in the dark year 1745, only a few months previous to the 
 outbreak of the old French war. The youth was now in his 
 twenty-fourth year. 
 
 In February of the next year after these two men entered 
 the shadow of old New York, the report was circulated in New 
 York City that two spies had been captured among the Iro 
 quois, who were guilty of attempting to win that nation over to 
 the French. Such a charge at this time was the most serious 
 imaginable, for the contest for the friendship of the Iroquois 
 between the French on the St. Lawrence and the English on the 
 Atlantic had become of great importance. Upon that friendship, 
 and the support it guaranteed, seemed to hang the destiny of the 
 Continent. The rumor created endless consternation, and the 
 
North American Indians. 3 
 
 spies were hurried on to Governor Clinton. Their trial resulted 
 in imprisonment for six weeks, until the two were freed by an 
 ordinance passed by Parliament exempting the missionaries of 
 the Moravian Church from taking oath to the British Crown. 
 Such was Zeisberger s first experience. 
 
 Back to the Iroquois land journeyed the liberated prisoner, 
 and for ten doubtful years, until 1755, Zeisberger was engaged 
 in learning the languages of the various tribes of the Six Na 
 tions, and in active missionary service. His success was great. 
 Perhaps in all the history of this famous Indian Nation there 
 was no other man, with the exception of Sir William Johnson, 
 whom they trusted as much as they trusted David Zeisberger. 
 Cheated on the one hand by the Dutch of New York and robbed 
 on the other by the agents of the Dutch and the English, the 
 Iroquois became suspicious of all men ; and it is vastly more 
 than a friendly compliment to record that in his mission-house 
 at Onondaga, they placed the entire archives of their nation, 
 comprising possibly the most valuable collection of treaties and 
 letters from colonial governors ever made by an Indian nation 
 on this continent. But war now drove the missionary away, as 
 throughout his life war was ever to dash his fondest dreams and 
 ever to drive him back. 
 
 Between 1745 -and 1750 Zeisberger labored in New York, 
 at Shamokin in Pennsylvania and in the valley of Wyoming; 
 in 1750 he went to the Iroquois land with Cammerhoff ; he then 
 visited Europe but returned immediately and was a resident at 
 Onondaga until the old French war opened in 1755; he was at 
 Friedenshiitten in 1765 and 1766; in the year following 
 he crossed the mountains for the first time and met the 
 Delawares on the Allegheny River; in 1768 and 1769 he was 
 stationed in western Pennsylvania at Goschgoschiink, and at 
 Lawanakhannek in 1769 and 1770; in the latter year his work 
 carried him to the Beaver River ; a year later he advanced to 
 the Muskingum River in Ohio where the three well-known 
 Moravian mission stations were built, Gnadenhiitten, Lichtenau 
 and Schoenbriinn ; from now until 1781 he lived among the 
 Delawares, though visiting the savage Shawanese in the Scioto 
 
4 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 on at least one occasion; in 1781 his mission was broken up by 
 the British renegades and the missionary was driven with his 
 flock to Sandusky. Now, in 1781, begins the Diary of David 
 Zeisberger, edited by Eugene F. Bliss (Cincinnati, 1885) which 
 has been the only work published in English of Zeisberger s. 
 
 The record of Zeisberger s resolute faithfulness to the rem 
 nant of his church from this time onward is almost incredible. 
 Like a Moses he led them always, and first to a temporary home 
 Macomb County, Michigan. From there they were in four years 
 removed by the Chippewas. The forlorn pilgrims now set sail 
 in two sloops on Lake Erie ; they took refuge from a terrible 
 storm in the mouth of the Cuyahoga River. For a time they 
 rested at a temporary home in Independence Township, Cuya 
 hoga County, Ohio. Famine drove them in turn from here. Set 
 ting out on foot, Zeisberger led them next along the shore of 
 Lake Erie westward to the present site of Milan, Erie County, 
 Ohio. Here they resided until the outbreak of the savage Indian 
 War of 1791. To escape from this Zeisberger secured from the 
 British Government a tract of land twelve miles long and six 
 miles wide for the Moravian Indians beside the Grand River in 
 Canada. Here the pilgrims remained six years. But with the 
 close of the Indian War, it was possible for them to return to 
 their beloved home in the Tuscarawas Valley. The United 
 States had given to the Moravian Church two tracts of land 
 here, embracing the sites of the three towns formerly built, con 
 taining in all twelve thousand acres. 
 
 Back to the old home the patriarch Zeisberger brought his 
 little company in the year 1798. His first duty amid the scene 
 of the terrible Gnadenhiitten Massacre was not forgotten. With 
 a bowed head and heavy heart the old man and one assistant 
 gathered from beneath the dense mass of bush and vine, whither 
 the wild beasts had carried them, the bones of the ninety and 
 more sacrificed Christians, and over their present resting-place 
 one of the proudest of monuments now rises. For full ten 
 years more this hero labored in the shadow of the forests where 
 his happiest days had been spent, and only as the winter of 1808 
 
North American Indians. 5 
 
 came down upon the valley from the lakes did his great heart 
 cease beating and his spirit pass through the heavenly gates. 
 
 Zeisberger s eminent comrades, John Heckewelder and Ben 
 jamin Mortimer, thus speak of his character :* 
 
 "He was endowed with a good understanding and a sound judg 
 ment; a friend and benefactor to mankind, and justly beloved by all 
 who knew him, with perhaps the exception of those who are enemies 
 of the Gospel which he preached. His reticence was the result of the 
 peculiar circumstances of his life. He undertook many solitary journeys, 
 and, in the first half of his life, lived at places where there either was 
 no society, or such as was not congenial. Hence he withdrew within 
 himself, and lived in a close communion with his unseen but ever present 
 heavenly Friend. In all his views he was very thorough, not impulsive, 
 not suffering himself to be carried away by extraneous influences, not 
 giving an opinion until lie had come to a positive and settled conclusion 
 in his own mind. Experience invariably proved the correctness of his 
 judgment. To this the missionaries who served with him all bear witness. 
 Receiving, as it were, a glimpse of the future, through the deep thoughts 
 and silent prayers in which he engaged, he stood up, on most occasions, 
 full of confidence, and knew no fear. Amid distressing and perilous 
 circumstances, not only his fellow-missionaries, but the Indian converts, 
 invari ably looked to him ; and his courage, his undaunted readiness to 
 act, his comforting words cheered them all. He would never consent 
 to have his name put down on a salary-list, or become a hireling , as 
 he termed it ; saying, that although a salary might be both agreeable 
 and proper for some missionaries, yet in his case it would be the con 
 trary. He had devoted himself to the service of the Lord among the 
 heathen without any view of a reward, other than such as his Lord 
 and Master might deign to bestow upon him". 
 
 "Zeisberger was fully convinced that his vocation to preach the 
 Gospel to the Indians and spread the kingdom of God was of divine 
 origin, and therefore he sacrificed all vanities of the world, all conveni 
 ence, and whatever is highly esteemed among men, and took up the 
 mission of his life in strong faith, relying upon the blessing and aid of 
 that Lord whom he served, and with joyous courage, in the midst of 
 scorn and reproach, persecutions and menaces, hunger and perils, triumph 
 ing at last, in spite of every foe. His work was distinguished by perse 
 verance, faithfulness, zeal, and courage. Nothing afforded him more 
 satisfaction than the genuine conversion of those to whom he preached. 
 This was the highest goal of his ambition. If he could gain one soul, 
 and bring it to a saving knowledge of Christ, it was for him a more 
 precious gift than if he had come into possession of the whole world. 
 
 * De Schweinitz Life of Zeisberger. 
 
6 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 To describe the joy he experienced when an erring sheep returned to 
 the fold is impossible. In his ministry he neither forgot that he had 
 to contend with the prince of the power of the air, the spirit that 
 worketh in the children of disobedience , nor that God was on his side. 
 And, truly, he did overcome Satan, in an illustrious way, by the blood 
 of the Lamb, and by the word of his testimony; and loved not his life 
 unto the death. He was not only bold in God, fearless and full of 
 courage, but also lowly of heart, meek of spirit, never thinking highly 
 of himself. Selfishness was unknown to him. His heart poured out a 
 stream of love to his fellowmen. In spite of his constant journeys and 
 exposure, he never needlessly sacrified his health. His whole bearing 
 was extremely venerable. He was an affectionate husband ; a faithful 
 and ever-reliable friend. In a word, his character was upright, honest, 
 loving, and noble, as free from faults as can be expected of any man 
 this side of the grave". 
 
 The original manuscript comprising the present volume is 
 preserved in the Moravian Archives at Bethlehem, Pennsylvania ; 
 it has been followed literally by Professor Schwarze in making 
 the excellent translation. Though lacking many features of 
 careful composition, the original bears everywhere the evidences 
 of calm, straight-forward, well-founded narrative. Being a man 
 of singularly unselfish devotion and with great ability to focus 
 his energies upon efforts that made up his life-work, Zeisberger 
 applied himself to the study of Indian languages to such pur 
 pose that he mastered the Delaware language and the Onondaga 
 dialect of the Iroquois, the two most important languages of the 
 North American Indians, and was able to do much for their 
 development. He learned to know the Indians. He was not 
 troubled with any misleading or romantic notions about the 
 character and traits of these men of the woods. His knowledge 
 of the manners, customs, character, and country of the Indians 
 was perfected by his travels, study, observation, and uninter 
 rupted labors. 
 
 All this argues the credibility of his narrative. Indeed, 
 careful consideration will lead to the conclusion that as the story 
 is given simply without aspiration to rhetorical embellishment, 
 it is also clear and well-founded in its testimony. Zeisberger 
 always uses calm and deliberate language, whether treating of 
 the degradation and moral deformity of the savages, or of their 
 redeeming traits. He really loved the Indians, spent his life in 
 
North American Indians. 7 
 
 the effort to do them good, and he gives dispassionately and 
 honestly what he had abundant opportunity to learn of their 
 character, customs and country. 
 
 The name of this volume, History of the Indians," was 
 not given to the manuscript by its author, but, by the Bishop 
 De Schweinitz. Zeisberger, had he named it, would probably 
 have called it, "Notes on the History, Life, Manners, and Cus 
 toms of the Indians/ and the most casual reader will recognize 
 from the mode of presentation and the occasional repetitions that 
 the manuscript is in the form of notes. It has seemed best, how 
 ever, to reproduce it verbatim as written. The complete ana 
 lytical index will fully make up for irregularity in arrangement 
 and the lack of proper ordering of the material. 
 
 This manuscript, of upwards of eighty thousand words, was 
 evidently written for the Rev. Henry Loskiel to aid him in the 
 preparation of his most valuable History of the Mission of the 
 United Brethren among the Indians of North America, Deriv 
 ing his material from various sources, and writing inclusively of 
 all the American Indians, Loskiel made less use of Zeisberger s 
 manuscript than one would suppose, possibly incorporating, in one 
 form or another, one-third of this manuscript and giving very 
 slight recognition of the source of information. Moreover, writing 
 as one who had little first-hand knowledge of his subject, many 
 facts told by the venerable missionary of a certain Indian tribe 
 lost, under Loskiel s treatment, much of their value, especially, 
 when represented as though true of the typical American Indian. 
 The result is that these pages from Zeisberger s pen, in the opinion 
 of the editors, give the most reliable and accurate description in 
 existence of the Indians of New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio, 
 written by one intimately acquainted with them. Lacking the 
 polish and general literary excellence of his comrade John Hecke- 
 welder s History, the student perusing the two will surely agree 
 that for solid information given in simple straight-forward style, 
 the Zeisberger notes take first rank as a work of value. For 
 instance, Zeisberger was practically uninfluenced by the appall 
 ing superstitions of the savages : the shams and frauds of their 
 impotent sorcerers made but little impression on the rugged 
 sense of the faithful missionary ; so much so that one cannot 
 
8 David Zeisbergcr s History 
 
 read the few sentences which imply a deviation from this steady 
 attitude without grewsome sensations. 
 
 The antiquarian and archaeologist will find in this volume 
 interesting additional proof of the relationship of the so-called 
 "Moundbuilders" and the earlier Indians, the implication being 
 exceedingly strong that they were one and the same race ; the 
 reference to mounds, arrow-heads, stone hatchets, etc., etc., being 
 illuminating. 
 
 Mention should be made of Zeisberger s attitude toward the 
 Indian legends, especially that of Iroquois conquest of the Dela- 
 wares. It was only proper that this historian should include in 
 his narrative the legends which were told to him ; that he did 
 not examine them critically and pass upon their accuracy dogmat 
 ically is not, in the opinion of the editors, a discredit to him. Ban 
 ished as he voluntarily was from every access to reliable his 
 torical information, and overwhelmed with the great tasks he 
 patiently set himself to perform, it is impossible to conceive of 
 his even attempting to examine the myths that were told him by 
 the lips of his red skinned brethren. It would be only fair, then, 
 to the writer of this admirable work, for the reader mentally to 
 insert, as these legends are recounted, the words "It is said," 
 "they say," or "they believe," etc., for the spirit of the author 
 never warrants our believing that he received them without ques 
 tion. Zeisberger did not express himself in such a manner as to 
 warrant the unqualified statement, as we elsewhere note, made by 
 the careful Parkman, that he (Zeisberger) put faith in the story 
 of a deceptive conquest of the Delawares by the Iroquois. 
 
 For a considerable mass of new facts concerning the life 
 and character of the Indians in Pennsylvania, New York and 
 Ohio, of their treatment of each other, of the married relation 
 ship, of the treatment of children, of home life and of political 
 affairs, the student will look in vain outside of this Zeisberger 
 manuscript. Its author wrote from an experience covering 
 almost uninterruptedly the period from 1745 to 1778. The 
 story of his life during those years should be read in De 
 Schweinitz s excellent volume ; no clear understanding of Ohio s 
 history, especially in the Revolutionary period, is possible without 
 knowing this volume. It is proper to note here a significant fact : 
 
North American Indians. 9 
 
 Zeisberger s mature acquaintance with the redmen came in those 
 years just preceding and succeeding Pontiac s Rebellion; these 
 were the years of dissolution, the years when the influences of 
 civilization and the coming of the European completed the over 
 throw of the Indian, his family life, his state, his ancient code 
 of laws and social customs. In effect Pontiac said, "After me 
 the deluge ;" when the Revolutionary War came on, the redman 
 of the Middle West was as different, compared with his grand 
 father as we of the Twentieth Century differ from what our 
 great-grandfathers were. One of the most valuable features of 
 Zeisberger s History lies just here. Having intimately known 
 the Indian in transformation the Indian that, though taking 
 the musket and the axe and the blanket, was looking back won- 
 deringly at the bow and stone ax and the feather-and-hemp cover 
 ing he is continually giving us precious glimpses, as accurate 
 as they are rare, of the primeval redman. This series of facts 
 concerning these first Americans makes Zeisberger s manuscript 
 of more than ordinary value for his attitude is very largely that 
 of a man looking backward ; no other writer of his time main 
 tains such an attitude or has left us a record of equal minute 
 ness relating to the region covered. 
 
 On reading his manuscript one is inclined to believe thor 
 oughly in Zeisberger s proposition that no one could get at the 
 real facts concerning the inner life of the redmen unless engaged 
 in the work of converting them. 
 
 Lastly, yet of great importance, is the scientific information 
 contained in the manuscript. Through the able assistance of Dr. 
 Arthur Magnum Banta, of the Carnegie Station for Experi 
 mental Evolution, the full scientific value of Zeisberger s com 
 ment and description may be appreciated by the reader. From 
 the standpoint of the biologist, for instance, the manuscript seems 
 to be reliable and is extremely interesting. It shows intrinsic 
 evidence of being a reliable and careful account of the various 
 animals and plants which the author observed with interest and 
 about which he learned various facts as well as fancies from the 
 Indians. Zeisberger has stated nothing which he did not sup 
 pose to be true, and the few fanciful statements are easily recog 
 nized since they are such as would today be found in any lay- 
 
10 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 man s account of natural things about him. Written by a man 
 not a biologist the manuscript could not be other than an hon 
 est and in the main conservative account or it would show 
 inconsistencies which could not have been appreciated by its 
 author. No such inconsistencies appear. The chief scientific 
 interest in the manuscript arises from the fact that it depicts 
 conditions before the white settlers came into the Middle West, 
 and before the ax, the rifle and the steel trap had seriously inter 
 fered with primitive natural conditions such as had existed from 
 time immemorial. The changes in the animal and plant life since 
 the author wrote are, of course, most sweeping. The account 
 has its great interest and value because it is the only reliable 
 record of the fauna and flora of the region before such marked 
 changes occurred. 
 
 For the opinions expressed and views taken in the footnotes 
 of this volume, as well as errors therein, the writer is personally 
 responsible. 
 
 Zeisberger s published works include the Diary above men 
 tioned ; Essay of a Delaware Indian and English Spelling Book 
 for the use of the Schools of the Christian Indians on Mus- 
 kingum River (Philadelphia, 1776) ; A Collection of Hymns for 
 the use of the Christian Indians, of the Missions of the United 
 Brethren in North America (Philadelphia, 1803) 5 Sermons to 
 Children (Philadelphia, 1803) ; Avg. Gottl Spangenberg. Some 
 thing of Bodily Care for Children (Philadelphia, 1803) ; The 
 History of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ, by the Rev. Sam 
 uel Lieberkiihn, M. A. (Tr. by Zeisberger). The above are in 
 the Delaware language. Zeisberger s Verbal Biegungen der 
 Chippewayer [Delawaren] was published in Vater s Analekten 
 der Sprachkunde (Leipzig, 1821). 
 
 Zeisberger s manuscripts are numerous and include Deutsch 
 und Onondagaisches Worterbuch, Essay toward an Onondaga 
 Grammar, Onondagaische Grammatica (translated into English 
 by Peter S. Duponcear, LL. D., still in Mss.), A Grammar of the 
 Lenni-Lenape, or Delaware Indians (also translated by Dr. 
 Duponcear. in Mss.), A Dictionary in German and Delaware, 
 Delaware Glossary, Delaware Vocabulary, Phrases and Vocab 
 ularies in Delaware, Delaware Grammar, Harmony of the Cos- 
 
North American Indians. 11 
 
 pels in Delaivare, Hymns for the Christian Indian^ in Delaware, 
 Litany and Liturgies in Delaware, Zeisberger s own Mss. Hymn 
 Book in Delaware, Sermons by Zeisberger in Delaware, Seven 
 teen Sermons to Children, Church Litany in Delaware, Short 
 Biblical Narratives in Delaware, Vocabulary in Maqua and 
 Delaware. The last fourteen Mss. were collected by Edward 
 Everett and are preserved in the Harvard University Library ; 
 the remaining Zeisberger material is in the Moravian archives at 
 Bethlehem. Here, too, are preserved Zeisberger s diaries and 
 letters covering his long career on the frontier and possessing 
 very great historical value. These include the narration of his 
 arrest in New York, of his journeys with Cammerhoff, Mack 
 and Spangenberg, of his stay at Onondaga, 1755, his journals 
 of 1762-67, including his journal of the trip to the Cayuga town 
 in 1766 and to Goschgoschimg in 1767, the journal of his trip 
 to the Allegheny, 1767-8, and the diaries and letters covering 
 his whole Ohio, Michigan and Canadian experiences, 1771-1808. 
 It is expected to issue a collection of Zeisberger s unpublished 
 diaries, journals and letters as Volume Two of The Moravian 
 Records. 
 
 ARCHER BUTLER HULBERT. 
 
 Marietta College, Marietta, Ohio. 
 December 10, 1909. 
 
12 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 A HISTORY OF THE INDIANS. 
 
 The North American Indians are of middle size, well built, 
 straight, light-footed, well adapted for travel through the forest, 
 much of which is due to the fact that they do no heavy work, 
 but support themselves by the chase. 1 Their color is brown, but 
 of different shades. Some are light brown, hardly to be distin 
 guished from a brown European, did not their eyes and hair be 
 tray them. Again, others are so dark that they differ little from mu- 
 lattoes. 2 Their hair is jet-black and coarse, almost like the hair 
 of a horse s mane. 3 Their heads become gray or even white in 
 old age, otherwise they are without exception, black. The men 
 rarely let the hair grow long, and it is common practice among 
 them, though the custom is obsolescent, that they root out the hair 
 from the forehead backward so that the head is bald up to the 
 crown and only a hand-breadth of it in circular form is suffered 
 to remain, whence in the case of savages generally depend long 
 braids, one on either side, closely plaited and bound by bracelets 
 of coral, some, also, hanging silver upon them. It is a very 
 common that they wear a plume of feathers on the middle of 
 the head, rising straight up or hanging downward. They fre 
 quently cut the helix of the ear, leaving the upper and lower 
 ends intact and then hang bits of lead to it so that it is stretched. 
 Then this curved border of the auricle is bound with brass wire, 
 distending it considerably, and decorated with silver ornaments. 
 Among- Indians who have come in contact with whites this is 
 less often done. They, also, pierce the nose and adorn it with 
 silver. The beard is rooted out as soon as it begins to gro\v. 
 The men tattoo their bodies in arm, leg or face with all manner 
 of figures, serpents, birds or other animals, which are marked 
 out by pricking the skin with a needle, powder or soot being 
 afterward rubbed into the punctures. Occasionally, the women 
 mark their bodies thus. The women let the hair grow long, 
 so that it sometimes reaches to the knees ; they do not braid it 
 but tie a cloth around it. The Mingoes, 4 Shawano 5 and Wion- 
 datoo 6 women have a long braid reaching the hips, bound in cloth 
 
North American Indians. 13 
 
 and red ribbon, in the case of the rich, being further adorned 
 with silver clasps of considerable weight from top to bottom. 
 The Delawares, also, do this, though not so generally. The 
 women wear earrings of wampum, coral or silver. 
 
 The men hunt, secure meat for the household, clothing for 
 their wives and children, getting it in exchange for hides, build 
 houses or huts, and also help their wives clear the land for cultiva 
 tion and build fences around it. The duties of the women are 
 cooking, finding fire-wood, planting and reaping. They plant 
 corn, principally, making of this their bread, which is baked in 
 the ashes, and preparing with it varipus dishes. Besides, they 
 raise pumpkins of various kinds, potatoes, beans and other vege 
 tables, which they have learned to know through the whites, 
 such as cabbage, turnips, etc. 7 
 
 The best time for the chase is in the fall, when the game 
 is fat and the hides are good. Hence, they commonly in Sep 
 tember and October go hunting with their families, remaining 
 afield until the New Year or longer, though after that the skins 
 cannot be used. Elk and buffalo they shoot little and rarely, as 
 the hides are too heavy and of little value, and if they shoot 
 one of these animals now and again, most of the meat is left lying 
 in the woods, where it is consumed by wolves, or other wild ani 
 mals or birds. The deer, which are most sought and are larger 
 than the European roe, have the best skins and are most valued 
 by the Europeans. After the New Year they devote themselves 
 to the catching of the beaver, the raccoon, the fox and other fur- 
 yielding animals ; they also hunt the bear, at that time very fat, 
 as a rule, and hibernating in dens, hollow 7 trees or rocks or thick 
 ets and eating nothing for two or three months except that they 
 suck their paws and are nourished by the fat they have acquired 
 in the fall from consuming acorns, chestnuts, various other nuts, 
 etc. Hunting of this nature lasts until spring, when in May 
 their time for planting begins. In ^ February sugar-boiling be 
 gins, farther north in March. 8 This is the work of the women, 
 the men continuing the chase. When planting time is past, the 
 summer chase begins at the end of June or the beginning of 
 July, when the deer take on a reddish hue and the pelts are again 
 good and fit for trade. The deer change their color twice in the 
 
14 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 year. After spring-time they become red and the hair is thin. In 
 September they turn gray or fallow, when their color is like that 
 of the trees in the woods. The fur becomes very thick, being the 
 winter coat. Farther north the game is larger ; farther south it 
 is smaller. In the region of Onondago 9 and at the lakes the 
 deer are considerably larger than here along the Muskingum, 
 and in the country of the Shawanose, about two hundred miles 
 from here, 9% markedly smaller, which makes a difference in trade. 
 The Indians who really devote themselves to the chase, and this is 
 the principal occupation and business of the savages, are at home 
 but a small part of the year, spending most of the time in the 
 forest. Those, on the other hand, who come to Christ and join 
 the church, turn to agriculture and raising stock, keeping cattle, 
 hogs and fowls. They, also, go on the chase for three or four 
 weeks in the fall, though never far from home, in order that 
 they may be able to use the meat ; they secure their clothing in 
 exchange for the skins. 
 
 Because the savages are accustomed to go about in the 
 forest, which is their greatest delight, they do not care to keep 
 cattle, for in that case they must remain at home to look after 
 it and are prevented from going into the forest. Some have 
 secured cattle, for they are very fond of milk 10 and butter. 
 
 Food which they prepare must be well cooked and well done ; 
 they do not like anything rare or raw. Meat and even fish must 
 be so thoroughly cooked that they fall apart. 
 
 Concerning the chase in general, as engaged in by the 
 Indians, it should yet be noticed that, because there is consider 
 able trade in skins, deer are killed mainly for their hides and 
 only so much of the flesh is used as the Indians can consume 
 while on the chase, wherefore, most of the meat is left in the 
 woods for the wild animals, which the wolves, especially, seem 
 to know, for these animals take advantage of the hunting season 
 and move in the direction of much shooting; they follow the 
 report of the guns and, when the huntsman has skinned the 
 deer, consume the carcass. The Indians rarely shoot a wolf, the 
 skin of this animal being of little value. As an Indian shoots 
 from fifty to a hundred and fifty deer each fall, it can easily be 
 appreciated that game must decrease. 
 
North American Indians. 15 
 
 Their dress is light; they do not hang much clothing upon 
 themselves. If an Indian has a Match-coat, that is a blanket 
 of the smaller sort, a shirt and brich clout 11 and a pair of leg- 
 gins, he thinks himself well dressed. In place of a blanket, those 
 who are in comfortable circumstances and wish to be well 
 dressed, wear a strowd, i. e., two yards of blue, red or black 
 cloth which they throw lightly over themselves and arrange much 
 as they would a Match-coat. Trousers they do not wear ; but 
 their hose, reaching considerably above the knee and held to 
 gether by a piece of strowd and extending only to the feet, to 
 some extent supply the place of trousers. If they desire to go 
 in state, they wear such hose with a silken stripe extending 
 from top to bottom and bordered with white coral. Their shoes 
 are made of deer skin, which they prepare themselves, the women 
 being particularly skilled in doing this and in working all man 
 ner of designs ; Mingoe women excel all others in this particular. 
 Some wear hats or caps secured in trading with the whites ; 
 others do not cover themselves but go bare-headed. 
 
 Women are distinguished in dress only in this respect, that 
 instead of a coat they wear a strowd over the hips bound about 
 the body next the skin, removed neither day nor night and ex 
 tending but little beyond the knees. They anoint the hair liber 
 ally with bear s fat, so that it shines. Their adornment consists 
 in hanging much wampum, coral and silver about their necks 
 and it is not unusual for them to have great belts of wampum 
 depending from the neck. Their shirts and strowds they adorn 
 with many silver buckles. It is also customary for them to sew 
 red, yellow or black ribbon on their coats from top to bottom, 
 being very fond of bright things. 
 
 Men as well as women wear silver bracelets, and the latter 
 also arrange silver clasps in their hair or wear a band about the 
 head with as many silver ornaments on it as it will hold. All 
 these things they secure from the whites, principally from traders 
 who in times of peace bring their wares to the Indian towns to 
 exchange for skins and pelts. In course of such occupation 
 many traders have, in the event of Indian wars, lost all their 
 goods and even their lives. 
 
16 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 In the matter of House-keeping and Domestic Arrange 
 ments, it seems to be established that what a man secures in the 
 chase belongs to his wife; as soon as he brings skins and flesh 
 home he no longer regards them as his own, but as property of 
 his wives. On the other hand what the woman has gained in 
 planting and harvesting is for the husband and she must provide 
 for him everything that he needs in the chase. Yet I have 
 observed that this is not invariably the case, for some men keep 
 the skins, and buy for the women and children such clothes 
 with them as they need and do not permit them to suffer want. 
 Cattle belong to women, horses to men, though a man may give 
 his wife a pony for her own. 12 Children, especially boys, are 
 not held to work ; the latter are to become hunters. They are 
 allowed their own way, their elders saying: "We did not work 
 ourselves in the days of our youth." They follow their own in 
 clinations, do what they like and no one prevents them, except 
 it be that they do harm to others ; but even in that case they are 
 not punished, being only reproved with gentle words. Parents 
 had rather make good the damage than punish the children , 
 for the reason that they think the children might remember it 
 against them and avenge themselves when they have attained to 
 maturity. Girls are rather more accustomed to work by their 
 mothers, for as the women must pound all the corn in a stamp 
 ing trough or mortar, they train their daughters in this and also 
 in such other work as will be expected of them, as cooking, 
 bread-making, planting, making of carrying-girdles and bags, 
 the former used to carry provisions and utensils on their backs 
 while journeying and the latter to hold the provisions. Both 
 are made of wild hemp 13 which they gather in the fall and use 
 for various purposes, for mending of shoes and making the 
 thread with which they sew amongst the rest. Wild hemp is 
 much tougher than that cultivated by the whites. In the matter 
 of cleanliness, too much must not be expected among the Indians. 
 The brass kettles in which they cook, the dishes which they make 
 of the growths and knots of trees, and also their spoons, which 
 are usually very large, are rarely washed, so that it is not very 
 tempting for a European, unaccustomed to this, to eat with 
 them. Yet in this respect, also, one finds differences, for some 
 
North American Indians. 17 
 
 are as cleanly as one could expect it. The Monsys 14 and the 
 Mingoes, however, far excel the Delawares in uncleanliness, and, 
 since the dog s are constantly in the houses or lying about the 
 fires, there are generally many fleas and other insects. 
 
 Their britchen, 15 made of boards and arranged about the 
 fire, serve as table, bench and bedstead. The underbedding upon 
 which they lie, is either an untanned deer or bear skin or a mat 
 of rushes, which grow in ponds or stagnant water ; these the 
 women are clever enough to decorate in red, black or other 
 colors, finding the materials for the latter in the forest. These 
 mats they also fasten about the walls of their lodges, keeping 
 out the cold of winter as well as for ornamentation. Blankets 
 worn during the day as part of the clothing serve at night as 
 covering. 
 
 Boys and girls sleep apart. As soon as girls walk a little 
 frock is fastened about them in order that they may accustom 
 themselves to wear their clothing in a modest manner, the gar 
 ments of the women being short, for the reason that long gowns 
 would seriously inconvenience them in their movements through 
 the forests. In this particular the boys are neglected, wearing 
 little or nothing until at the age of five or six years, when a 
 flap of cloth is fastened to a leathern band or girdle that has 
 been worn from early in infancy in order that they might become 
 accustomed to it. 
 
 Houses of the Indians were formerly only huts and for the 
 most part remain such humble structures, particularly in regions 
 far removed from the habitation of whites. These huts are 
 built either of bast (tree-bark peeled off in the summer) or the 
 walls are made of boards covered with bast. They are low 
 structures. Fire is made in the middle of the hut under an open 
 ing whence the smoke escapes. Among the Mingoes and the 
 Six Nations 1 1 one rarely sees houses other than such huts built 
 entirely of bast, which, however, are frequently very long, hav 
 ing at least from two to four fire-places ; as many families in 
 habiting such a house as there are fire-places, the families being 
 related. Among the Delawares each family prefers to have its 
 own house, hence they are small. The Mingoes make a rounded, 
 2 
 
18 David Zeisbergcr s History 
 
 arched roof, the Delawares on the contrary, a high pitched, 
 peaked roof. The latter, coming much in contact with the whites, 
 as they do not live more than a hundred miles from Pittsburg, 
 have learned to build block houses or have hired whites to build 
 them. Christian Indians generally build proper and comfort 
 able houses and the savages who seek to follow their example 
 in work and household arrangement learn much from them,. 
 
 The North American Indians, whom I wish now to describe 
 as well as I have learned to know them, are by nature (I speak 
 of savages) lazy as far as work is concerned. If they are at 
 home and not engaged in the chase they lie all day on their 
 britchen and sleep ; when night comes they go to the dance or 
 wander about in disorderly fashion. The old men work a little, 
 chopping wood or doing other things about the house, but the 
 younger do nothing unless driven by dire necessity to build a hut 
 or house or the like. Whatever time is not devoted to sleep is 
 given to amusements, such as ball playing, which they have 
 learned from the whites, as also cards. A game with dice they 
 have themselves invented. The dice are made of the pits of wild 
 plums, not cubical but oval shaped and smooth, black on one 
 side and yellow on the other. These they each in turn raise in 
 a wooden vessel and throw forcibly to the ground, occupying 
 whole days in this way and accompanying their plays with much 
 noisy ejaculation. Dances take place every night, all young 
 people, men and women, attending. The dancing takes place 
 either in a large house or in the open about the fire. 17 The men 
 lead in the dance, the women closing the circle. Such is the 
 exultant shouting on these occasions that it can be heard two 
 or three miles away. The dance usually lasts until midnight, 
 though there are intervals of rest. The drum which keeps the 
 time is a thin deer-skin stretched across a barrel, or, in lieu of 
 this, a kettle. 
 
 They are proud and haughty, even a miserable Indian, cap 
 able in no respect, imagines himself to be a great lord. 18 They 
 hold themselves in high regard as if they were capable of great 
 and wonderful things, in which respect they are much encour 
 aged by dreams, held among them to be very significant and, 
 
North American Indians. 19 
 
 indeed, it would appear that through dreams Satan holds the 
 heathen bound and fettered and in close connection with him 
 self, subjecting them in this fashion to delusion. All this the 
 missionaries discover in those who come to the church and who 
 need be thoroughly humbled before they give up the vain imagin 
 ations concerning themselves. 
 
 They are masters in the art of deceit and at the same time 
 are very credulous ; they are given over to cheating and stealing, 
 and are not put to shame when caught. Stealing is very com 
 mon among them. They will steal and sell each other s horses ; 
 and, though a thief be caught, little is done to him beyond taking 
 his rifle. This he hardly refuses to give up, since another can 
 be secured for some other horse that he may steal. 
 
 They are capable of hiding their anger readily, but await 
 an opportunity to avenge themselves on the person by whom 
 they think themselves to have been injured, and this generally 
 occurs secretly and quietly. If, however, one of them expresses 
 himself in harsh threats towards anyone who has injured him, 
 go-betweens are chosen who seek to establish peace between the 
 two, the same being usually effected by means of a belt of sev 
 eral fathoms 19 of wampum, furnished by the one who has been 
 threatened. 
 
 They are courageous where no danger is to be found, but 
 in the face of danger or resistance they are fearful and the 
 worst cowards. 20 Hence, in wartime they prefer to attack de 
 fenceless whites on plantations, women and children, when they 
 least expect it. Against them they show their heroic courage. 
 They can be very friendly to a white man, give him to eat and 
 act as if they had nothing evil in mind against him and then 
 drive the hatchet into his head, of which I will give you a few 
 examples. In the last Indian war, about the year i^6^, 21 when 
 it seemed as if the war were at an end and peace ruled once 
 more in the Indian country but broke out anew so suddenly that 
 the whites knew nothing of it, a large party of traders, with much 
 merchandise, went to the Wiandots. These met them and, seeing 
 that the traders were too strong for them, sought by deception 
 to get them into their power, telling them, therefore, that a 
 strong detachment of Tawas 22 was on the move to destroy them. 
 
20 David Zeisberqer s History 
 
 They, the Wiandots, would give them good counsel to the end 
 that they might save their lives. They should submit as 
 prisoners, suffer themselves to be bound, in order that when the 
 Tawas should arrive they might see them already prisoners, in 
 which case they would do them no injury. They themselves 
 would harm them in no manner and surely accompany them to 
 their towns with their merchandise. Their advice must be acted 
 upon at once for the enemies were not far distant. The traders 
 believed them, allowed themselves to be bound, even aiding their 
 captors by binding each other. No sooner were they fettered 
 than the Wiandots forthwith murdered them and secured rich 
 booty. 
 
 Some years ago, before the present war 23 began, the Shaw- 
 anose causing disturbance, some whites who had been living 
 among them were obliged to save their lives by flight. One of 
 the latter, hungry and weak, had separated himself from his 
 companions and, in view of a Delaware town, fell into the hands 
 of several Mingoes, who perceived at once that he was very 
 weary and weak. They bade him sit down, gave him some 
 thing to eat and after they had fed and refreshed him, killed him, 
 all of which was witnessed by a Delaware woman, who after 
 ward related the circumstance. 
 
 In studying the Indians, their mode of life and deportment 
 toward each other, particularly the relations between the sexes, 
 it is safe to say that one does not learn to know them well until 
 they become concerned about the well-being of their souls and 
 confess the evils that weigh on their consciences. One may be 
 among them for several years and, not knowing them intimately, 
 as stated, regard them as a virtuous people. Far from it. Im 
 purity and immorality, even gross sensuality and unnatural 
 vice flourish among them, according to the testimony of the 
 Indians themselves, more than was the case formerly. 24 As they 
 marry early in life, the men in the eighteenth or nineteenth year, 
 the women in the fifteenth or sixteenth or even earlier, one 
 would imagine that the Indians should increase rapidly and have 
 many children. Yet an Indian may become old and have but 
 few or no children, for family ties are only too frequently and 
 easily broken on slight provocation, even when there are chil- 
 
North American Indians. 21 
 
 dren. Only as the parties advance in age and cannot so readily 
 form other connections, are matrimonial relations apt to be per 
 manent. Owing to instability of family relationship, children 
 are often neglected. This does not argue that the Indians do not 
 love their children. As every creature loves its young, so the 
 Indians do love their children, are indeed, very fond of them, 
 especially as they mature and return the affection. But sin and 
 lust bring about unnatural conditions. It seems as if a curse 
 rested upon them and that they were destined to become extinct. 
 There is another clan of Indians who live with their wives be 
 cause they love their children, and at the same time have concu 
 bines, who do not live in the house, because the rightful wife 
 will not suffer this. The latter will generally be content to remain 
 with her husband. I have known cases where an Indian would 
 have two wives in his house, but this is rare. 
 
 Yet there are Indians, even among the savages, 24 ^ who main 
 tain peaceable and orderly family life. Among them larger fam 
 ilies are the rule, there being often from eight to twelve chil 
 dren. The difference between these Indians and their fellows 
 may be easily appreciated. 
 
 The Indians have both capacity and skill for work, if they 
 only had the inclination. Such is their mental constitution that 
 they readily grasp and understand. Some who have been much 
 with whites have begun to work in iron, have fashioned hatchets, 
 axes, etc., right well, have given up the chase because they have 
 found regular work much more profitable and less hard on 
 clothing and shoes than wandering through the forest in pur 
 suit of game. It is, however, true that in the forest they are a 
 wonderful people. They can go on a journey of many days in 
 the forest where there is neither path nor trail, without getting 
 lost. It is as if Nature had fixed the compass in their heads. No 
 European is equal to them in this respect. If they would go 
 anywhere and have determined on the journey, nothing prevents 
 the carrying out of their purpose. Though creeks and rivers 
 are often swollen and progress is difficult, they know what to do 
 when white men would be at their wit s end. In company of 
 Indians one mav be sure not to be lost nor to suffer starvation. 
 
22 David Zeisberycr s History 
 
 On their journeys they are never in haste, for they are 
 everywhere at home and whithersoever they wander they find 
 sustenance in the forest. Therefore, if a white man travels with 
 them it is wisest that he be content not to hasten but accommo 
 date himself to their movements. In the morning they do not 
 break camp early, not until they have eaten heartily, by which 
 time the sun has usually been above the horizon two or three 
 hours. Thereafter, they proceed very steadily until near sun 
 down, when they go into camp. In rainy weather they peel 
 bast from the trees and speedily build a hut, that is, a roof sup 
 ported by four posts, under which they remain comfortably dry. 
 This they do not only in summer but also in winter, at which 
 time they know what trees to peel. In more northerly regions, 
 as near Goschgosching 25 and the Mingoe country, where the snow 
 is apt to be deep in winter, they go on snowshoes over the deep 
 est snow. Here along the Muskingum, however, where the snow 
 is never deep, this is not necessary ; hence, in this means of loco 
 motion the Delawares are not as skilled as the Mingoes. These 
 snowshoes are like a heavy barrel-hoop, curved and very nar 
 row in front, pointed behind and broad in the middle. This 
 hoop is mostly interlaced with deerskin, something- like a coarse 
 sieve, so that the snow may not gather on it, but fall through. 
 A little to the front of the middle there is a wooden cross- 
 piece and a small opening upon which the foot is placed 
 and bound with leathern thongs in such a fashion that the snow- 
 shoes seem to be dragged along behind on the snow. As to 
 provisions for the journey, they take corn crushed to a meal or 
 roasted in hot ashes, then crushed, with which they mix a little 
 sugar ; of this, in the heat of summer, a refreshing and at the 
 same time, nourishing drink may be prepared, if a little is stirred 
 in water. This mixture may also be boiled in water or eaten 
 dry. These two kinds of meal are the usual provisions. Corn- 
 bread does not keep long, in the summertime, particularly, be 
 coming unwholesome in three or four days. Meat they can pro 
 cure anywhere in the forest, as game is always to be found. In 
 the securing of it they lose little time, for when they contem 
 plate pitching a camp, the Indians plunge into the woods and 
 shoot a deer, a turkey-cock or something else. 
 
North American Indians. 23 
 
 If they wish to proceed by water, or having been hunting, 
 are anxious to return home heavily laden with meat and skins, 
 they speedily make a canow [canoe] of bast, load it with their 
 things and go whither they will. These canows are fashioned 
 of one piece of bast, the outer side of which is turned inward, 
 both ends sharply pointed and securely sewn with bast, the inside 
 being stretched out by a ribbing of bent wooden rods, which 
 keeps the canow in its proper form. These canows are so light 
 upon the water that they easily glide away from under the feet 
 of one unaccustomed to them when attempting to stand. Cap 
 size they cannot, because they are very broad and carry heavy 
 burdens. To make one they choose a tree according to the size 
 of canow desired and peel the bark off carefully so that there 
 may be no rent. If a canow gets out of repair or is punctured 
 by wood that floats in the water, or stones, the latter frequently 
 the case because they are thin, the Indians know how to repair 
 it by securing a patch of bast over any opening. Besides, there 
 is a kind of elm-wood bast which they crush or pound fine and 
 which is of a sticky consistency, serving them in place of tar, 
 to keep their canows water-tight so that they do not leak. Even 
 so, a canow barely lasts more than a year. 26 At one time they 
 were more used than is the case now, when they use them only 
 occasionally, as necessity may dictate ; for since they have 
 hatchet, axe and other tools they make canows hewn out of 
 trees, using fire also to burn out the trunks. 
 
 Indians are not less, rather more, subject to disease than 
 Europeans, their rough manner of life and the hardships of 
 travel and the chase being contributing causes. On journeys they 
 mind neither water nor snow nor ice, even though creeks and 
 rivers be ever so full of running ice they go through and nothing 
 holds them up. On the chase they not only steal through the 
 woods to get, unnoticed, near the game, but also pursue it should 
 it run before them, until they get within range, thus often tiring 
 the deer they may have chased from morn till eve and then at 
 the end of the day shooting one after another, sometimes eight 
 or ten miles away from their hunting lodge, no food having been 
 tasted the entire day. So long as they are young and strong, 
 
24 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 they suffer no ill effects, but with advancing years, the inevitable 
 results are felt. Rheumatism is common among them.- 7 often 
 leading to lameness, deafness or blindness. The women who 
 carry everything by means of a earning girth fixed to the fore 
 head, whence the whole burden and a hundred weight is not 
 considered heavy is suspended down the back, suffer in back 
 and neck as they grow older. The men carry everything hung to 
 a carrying girth fixed across the chest. A deer weighing from 
 a hundred to a hundred and thirty pounds they will earn the 
 entire way home before allowing themselves to rest. 28 
 
 These carrying girths are made by the women of wild hemp 
 which is first spun. That part of these girths which passes 
 across the breast and over the shoulders is three fingers [inches] 
 broad and decorated with various figures: from it depend long, 
 plaited, durable bands, to which the burden is bound. 
 
 They are subject to festering sores. Cured in one place. 
 they break out in another. 29 Chills and fever, dysentery, hemorr 
 hage, and bloody flux in women are very common among them. 
 Venereal diseases have during the last years spread more and 
 more, due, doubtless, to their disorderly life. 
 
 Care and attention for the sick amount to but little, the 
 Indians being poor nurses. So long as they can go out they 
 lie on the hard bed of boards; no longer able to do this they 
 are laid on the ground near the fire, possibly upon grass or hay. 
 a small hole in the ground under the patient serving as a bed 
 pan. In time of sickness their diet consists of thin soup of 
 pounded corn, without either butter, fat or salt. Xot until a 
 patient is convalescent is he allowed any meat. 
 
 There are Indians who have considerable knowledge of the 
 virtue of roots and herbs. 30 learned from the fathers, and who 
 bring about relief. They are well paid for their services. Who 
 ever is in possession of knowledge of this nature keeps it to 
 himself, communicating it to no one. Only in old age or when 
 death is near is the knowledge imparted to a child or friend, 
 though even this does not always happen. If they give a dose. 
 which, as, indeed, all roots and herbs used for medicinal pur 
 poses, they call Beson, i. e.. medicine, and which consists com 
 monly of quite a kettle full for with them quantity signifies 
 
North American Indians. 25 
 
 much and the decoction usually being weak is rarely an over 
 dose none can see nor know of what roots and herbs it has been 
 prepared, for they are pounded very fine. If one should know 
 enough to help himself, being able to prepare Beson, and 
 became ill, he will rarely treat himself, having the superstitious 
 belief that what is prepared by himself will be of no benefit. 
 Using what has been prepared by another, he believes, will bring 
 relief. 
 
 Wounds and external injuries the Indians treat very suc 
 cessfully, knowing what applications to make. In the curing of 
 those suffering from snake-bite, they are particularly capable. 
 For the bite of every variety of snake they have a special Beson** 
 For the treatment of internal affections, however, they lack both 
 knowledge and skill. 
 
 The doctors among the Indians are nothing 1 other than char 
 latans. 32 Fancied skill and imagined ability to heal the sick are 
 traced to dreams which these individuals may have had in their 
 youth. To the dreams they appeal, for in them they have much 
 faith. Thus one may in a dream see a fierce animal. Upon 
 this he will ponder much, believing that it was not by chance 
 but rather that it signifies a gift of special power, marking him 
 out a favored man : or an Indian will seem to converse with 
 him in a vision, saying: "I am lord over all and can do what 
 soever I will ; if you will offer sacrifice to me I will give you 
 power to do great things and none shall be able to do you any 
 injury." Older Indians, no longer fit for the chase, are par 
 ticularly anxious to become medicine men, being able as such 
 not only to maintain themselves but even to acquire wealth. 
 Should one wish to be treated, payment must be ready, in value 
 from 20 to 30, as soon as the doctor enters the home. If the 
 payment is insufficient it may be expected that there will be but 
 little circumstance and ceremony, in which case treatment will 
 hardly avail. The doctor has the patient laid before him on the 
 ground in the house or in the open, breathes upon him ; or, tak 
 ing a potion prepared from herbs and roots, blows it into 
 the face and over the body of the sick for they fancy them 
 selves capable of curing the sick by breathing upon them and 
 persuade the Indians that they have this power; or he makes 
 
26 David Zeisberqer s History 
 
 horrible grimaces, tries to appear hideous and terrible and make 
 such a noise with his howling that he can be heard in the whole 
 town. Treatment of this kind takes many forms. Some 
 times the doctor crawls into a sweating-oven, expressly built 
 for the purpose, taking a sweat-bath while the patient lies with 
 out at the opening. Temperature within is kept up by contin 
 ually adding hot stones. Continuing his awful howling, the doc 
 tor occasionally looks out at the patient, with horrid grimaces ; 
 he may also feel his pulse. All this done, he will declare either 
 that the patient will soon be better or that he has been bewitched 
 or that he must bring sacrifice to appease spirits who have been 
 offended or make some other requirement. What the doctor 
 says, must be done. If the sick recover, it is believed to be due 
 to the treatment. In case there is no improvement another doc 
 tor is summoned. Not infrequently this is kept up until all the 
 possessions of a family have been devoted to useless doctoring. 
 The poor are treated by these doctors only when their friends 
 contribute to make certain the payment for services. In all man 
 ner of cases, whether it be external injury or paralysis or internal 
 disease, child-birth s3 or child complaint, these doctors are sum 
 moned. They rarely give any medicine but always go through 
 their deceptive performances. There are Indians who think 
 little of such treatment and do not willingly summon a doctor, 
 but they have the superstitious fear that a doctor might bring 
 about their death if he were not consulted. An Indian, now a 
 Christian, told me that once, while still a heathen, he had come to 
 an Indian who was ill and who required of him that he should give 
 him a doctor s treatment, promising a horse in payment. This 
 Indian had never done such a thing, for he was no doctor, yet 
 as the invalid insisted, he consented to do it and got the horse. 
 This seems to indicate that any one may become a doctor who 
 can conduct himself in a sufficiently mad fashion. 
 
 It is a custom of the Indians, even when they are tired or 
 Tiave caught cold, to go into a sweating oven several times a 
 week. For this purpose every town has on its outskirts a sweat 
 ing oven. It is built of timber and boards, covered completely 
 with earth. They crawl in through a small opening, the latter 
 being closed as soon as they have gone in. A fire is usually 
 
North American Indians. 27 
 
 built in front of the opening before they go in and hot stones 
 placed in the middle of the inclosed area. Not long after they 
 have entered, they are covered with perspiration, then they 
 crawl out and cool off, returning to repeat the same thing three 
 or four times. Women have- their own sweating ovens though 
 they do not use them as commonly as do the men. 34 
 
 Blood-letting and cupping are also in vogue among them. 
 For blood-letting they use flint or glass. Of either they break 
 off little fragments until a piece is secured that suits the pur 
 pose. This is fixed to a short stick, placed upon the artery and 
 struck. In case of cupping, they open the skin with a knife, put 
 a little calabash over the opening, burning birch-bast instead of 
 a lamp. 
 
 The Delaware Nation, consisting of three tribes, the 
 Unarms, 35 Wunalachticos 36 and Monsys, 37 formerly lived in the 
 region about Philadelphia, also in Jersey about Trenton, Bruns 
 wick and Amboy. The Unarms are the chief people of the 
 nation ; their language, differing but little from that of the 
 Wunalachtico, is the most melodious. The Monsy tongue is 
 quite different, even though the three grew out of one parent 
 language. The last named tribe lived in Minnissing 38 along the 
 Delaware, behind the Blue Mountains. 
 
 Among Indians belonging to the Moravian Congregation 
 on the Muskingum River there are some old people, who were 
 in Philadelphia when the first houses were built there. They 
 are able to relate how peaceably and agreeably the whites and 
 Indians dwelt together, as if they had been one people, being 
 ever ready each to serve the other. Even among the savages 
 there are old people, who tell the following, as I have heard it 
 from various individuals. 
 
 Before the whites had come into the land, there had been 
 Indians who foretold that someone would come to them across 
 the great sea. This they had repeated on various occasions in 
 the hearing of other Indians, at the last even indicating the day 
 when this should come to pass, the event making good their 
 words. How these Indians could have foretold it, no one pro 
 fesses to know, the only explanation offered being that there 
 
28 David Zeisberyer s History 
 
 must have been vision or revelation. They had repeatedly looked 
 out over the sea, until at last a vessel was sighted, when they 
 had immediately summoned the Indians and said: "See, here 
 comes some one to us, concerning whose coming we have long 
 ago told you ; the gods are coming to visit us." They wor 
 shipped them, regarding them as deities. When the whites 
 landed, they gave the Indians knives, hatchets, muskets and 
 various other things they knew not how to use and, consequently, 
 carefully put away. On occasion of feasts or sacrifices they sus 
 pended the knives and hatchets from their necks as ornaments 
 and worshipped the various articles, bringing sacrifices to them. 
 The muskets they did not use except on special days, when to 
 satisfy curiosity a few shots were fired and then sacrifices offered 
 them. When the whites, after lapse of considerable time came 
 again and saw that the things they had given were worn about the 
 neck, they gave the Indians instructions in the use of the knife, 
 hatchet and musket. 
 
 In those early days the manner of living of the Indians was 
 very different from that of the present time, yet, though they 
 were wretchedly equipped and could barely supply their wants, 
 they succeeded in supporting life. 39 They planted corn, beans, 
 pumpkins, which they had at that time. Their hoe was a bone 
 from the shoulder blade of the deer, which is broad at one ,end 
 and very narrow at the other. With this bound to a stick they 
 worked the soil. A turtle-shell sharpened by means of a stone 
 and similarly attached to a stick, served much the same purpose. 
 A kind of tobacco known as Brazilian tobacco, they also had ; 
 to the present day this tobacco, which has but small leaves, is 
 called Indian tobacco. 
 
 Their knives were made of flint, not in the form of our 
 knives but shaped like arrow-heads, i. e., triangular, quite thin 
 and with the two larger sides sharp. With such knives they 
 stripped off the skin of deer and other game. 
 
 Their hatchets, also made of stone and about the length of 
 a hand, smoothed and sharpened, were secured to a wooden 
 handle. These were not used for splitting wood but only to kill 
 tre,es, as no more is necessary than to chop through the bark, 
 if this is done at the right time, or to peel off bast for covering 
 
North American Indians. 29 
 
 their huts. Trees were killed wherever they wished to have 
 space for planting. 
 
 For the chase they used bow and arrow, both made of wood, 
 the point of the arrow alone being of flint in the shape of a 
 lengthened triangle, sharp and pointed, securely tied to the shaft. 
 
 Kettles and pots for cooking they made of clay mixed with 
 sea shells, pounded very fine. After the pot had been shaped 
 it was burned hard in fire. All these things, knives, hatchets, 
 arrows and large pieces of the pottery they used at one time, 
 are frequently found in places where Indians have lived. Pots 
 herds have become black through and through so that the shell 
 pieces may be seen. 
 
 They could shoot game as well in those days as at the pres 
 ent time with their rifled guns. They declare that game was 
 not as shy then as now by reason of the report of the guns. In 
 those days they killed only as much of game as was needed 
 for sustenance, skins being used for clothing both men and 
 women ; hence, game was more abundant at that time. The 
 women made blankets of turkey-feathers which were bound 
 together with twine made of wild hemp. Of such many are to 
 be found even at the present day among the Indians, and these 
 in winter are a better protection against the cold than the best 
 European blanket. The women also made themselves petti 
 coats of wild hemp. 
 
 Bow and arrow have fallen into disuse among those Indians 
 that trade with whites ; are, indeed, only used for small game, 
 such as the pigeon, fox and raccoon, in order to save powder. 
 There are, however, whole tribes to the west and northwest that 
 use nothing but bow and arrow in the chase and that have no 
 European weapons, that are not even anxious to obtain them ; 
 for, say they, if we discard bow and arrow, who will then make 
 for us enough of powder and shot. They prefer, therefore, to 
 hold to their old custom and usage. 
 
 The fire materials of those days consisted of a dry piece 
 of wood or board and a round dry stick. The latter was placed 
 upon the board and turned or twirled with great swiftness, both 
 hands being used, until there was smoke and fire. This, how 
 ever, was done only in case their fire had gone out, which they 
 
30 David Zeisberqer s History 
 
 were generally careful to keep burning. On journeys they 
 were accustomed to carry fire with them from one lodging-place 
 to another, for which purpose they used a certain kind of 
 fungus, 40 that grows upon trees. With such a glowing piece of 
 fungus they could travel from morning to evening. This cus 
 tom has to the present day not ceased among the Indians, nor has 
 the method of making fire described above, some still employing it 
 on special occasions and in connection with their sacrifices, in 
 order to remind themselves of former customs and usages. Fire 
 wood they did not split in former days nor could they have done 
 so with their hatchets of stone. They burned it into pieces of 
 such length that could be carried home. They built a fire against 
 the trunks of standing trees and kept it burning until they 
 fell, which method still obtains among them, especially the older 
 ones, for whom it is difficult to fell trees and split wood and who, 
 perhaps, do not even own a hatchet. These may not burn a 
 piece of split wood during a whole winter, but provide fuel for 
 themselves in the manner described, which is quite easy and con 
 venient for them. 
 
 Canows made of wood as well as bast, they also had 
 in earlier days, fashioning the former out of a whole tree 
 trunk, which they burned out and only used their hatchets to 
 chop off glowing coals, lest they should burn in deeper in one place 
 than another or even burn a hole through. 
 
 Their dwellings were huts of bark, which they lined with 
 rushes in order to keep out the cold, roofed they were with 
 bark, even as is the case now, though sometimes rushes or long, 
 dry reed-grass served the purpose. 
 
 Underground dwellings there were, also, of which here and 
 there traces may be found, particularly along the Muskingum, 
 in which region one may yet see many places, where embank 
 ments, still to be seen, were thrown up around a whole town. 41 
 Here and there, furthermore, near the sites of such towns there 
 are mounds, not natural, but made by the hand of man, for in 
 those clays the natives carried on great wars with one another, 
 Indians being formerly, according to their own testimony, far 
 more numerous than at the present time. At the top of these 
 mounds there was a hollow place, to which the Indians brought 
 
North American Indians. 31 
 
 their wives and children when the enemies approached and at 
 tacked them, the men ranging themselves round the mound foi 
 defensive action. Their weapons were the bow and arrow and 
 a wooden club, this last a piece of wood of not quite arm s length 
 having at the end a round knob about the size of a small child s 
 head and made of very hard wood. Shields they bore made ot 
 hardened buffalo leather and presenting a convex surface with 
 out, while being hollow within. The curved outer surface the} 
 held toward the enemy and before their own breasts and faces 
 in order that arrows discharged at them, striking the curved 
 surface, would glance off and go to the side. With the left hand 
 they held both shield and bow and with the right they drew the 
 bow and held the arrow. On the above named hills they always 
 had great blocks lying all about, in order that should the ene 
 mies attempt to storm the heights these might be rolled upon 
 and among them so as to keep them off. In such attacks both 
 sides usually lost many men, which were often buried in one 
 pit and a great mound of earth raised above them, such as may 
 even now be seen bearing in these days great and mighty trees. 42 
 
 DOKS they likewise possessed in former days, of a kind still 
 to be found in considerable numbers among them. These may 
 be readily distinguished from European dogs, which are now 
 most commonly found among the Indians, especially the Dela 
 wares. The ears of Indian dogs rise rigidly from the head and 
 the animals have something of a wolfish nature, for they show 
 their teeth immediately when roused. They will never attack a 
 wolf in the forest, though set on to do so, in this respect, also 
 differing from European dogs. Of their origin their masters 
 can give as little information as of that of the Indians themselves, 
 
 The wampum strings of the Indians were formerly made of 
 bits of wood, some white, some black, which were used in con 
 nection with embassies and speeches. Belts of wampum were 
 also made. Some few were made of mussel-shells, which were 
 held in the same value among them as gold among the Euro 
 peans, for much time was consumed in making even one such 
 string of wampum. When whites came into the country these 
 contrived to make wampum strings which they bartered to the 
 Indians, who used them in place of their wooden wampum, a;; 
 
32 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 is even now the case, though they are not accounted as valuable 
 as at one time. Formerly they sometimes used in the place of 
 the belts the wing of some large bird, which is still done among 
 the nations living in remoter regions, where wampum is rare or 
 not to be had at all, where there is no trade with Europeans and 
 some have not even seen wampum. Occasionally, though not 
 often, embassies from such distant people come to the Dela- 
 wares. 43 
 
 A belt is given in confirmation of a message or speech, as 
 they know 7 nothing of writing ; an answer given is similarly rati 
 fied by a belt of the same Si/e. An alliance or league is hardly 
 arranged by two peoples with less than twenty belts of wampum. 
 Often thirty or more are required. 
 
 As 1 have digressed from the main matter, viz., the charac 
 ter and nature of the land, I must yet in passing notice how it 
 came about that the Delawares, who had lived near the sea and 
 along the Delaware River, came to Alleghene, 44 where they were 
 strangers and had no claim to the land. Some eighty years ago, 
 more or less, the whites being already in the country and many 
 of the Delawares having moved far up the Delaware River, a 
 party of these Indians, with the cousin of a chief as captain, went 
 on a hunt. They were attacked by Cherokees, at that time dwell 
 ing along the Allegheny and its branches, and some of them 
 were killed, the captain, a cousin of the chief, among the rest. 
 The survivors fled to their homes, related to the chief what had 
 happened and suggested that he give them more men in order 
 that they might avenge themselves on their enemies. The chief, 
 how.ever, put them off and did not let them go, even though he 
 sorrowed over the loss they had suffered. After the lapse of a 
 year the chief sent out several hundred men to avenge them 
 selves on the Cherokees (the Delawares at that time already 
 having European arms). When they arrived at the enemies 
 first towns along the Allegheny, they found no one, for all had 
 fled at the news of the Delawares approach. The latter pur 
 sued, the Cherokees constantly retreating until they were over 
 taken at the great island 45 at the fork where Pittsburg is now 
 situated. Perceiving that the Delawares were strong in num- 
 
North American Indians. 33 
 
 hers, they had no heart to fight, though they stood ready with 
 bow and arrow in hand ; instead, their chiefs called to the Dela- 
 wares to rest their arms and not fight. Afterwards they had an 
 interview with the Delawares and surrendered themselves as 
 prisoners. About half of them, however, dissatisfied with the 
 capitulation, refused to surrender and escaped during the night, 
 going down the river to the mouth of another river, now named 
 the Cherokee River, 40 where they landed and afterward settled 
 along this stream, in the region in which they still live. After 
 the Delawares had finished with the Cherokees, the Six Nations 
 arrived, having heard of the expedition of the Delawares. When 
 they realized that the Delawares were masters of the situation, 
 they professed satisfaction and said that they had come to assist 
 them, but recognized that their aid was n*ot now needed. There 
 upon the Delawares gave them some of their prisoners as a pres 
 ent for their trouble and suffered them to go to their homes. 
 Then the Delawares remained a long time at the Beaver Creek, 
 to which they gave its name, in view of the animals that there 
 abounded. After that the Delawares turned their faces home 
 ward but soon returned, and since that time this region has been 
 inhabited by Delawares and year by year more have come. Later 
 the Wiondats, in connection with a solemn council, recognized 
 the claim they made to the territory, inasmuch as they had con 
 quered it. All this land and region, stretching as far as the 
 creeks and waters that flow into the Alleghene the Delawares 
 call Alligewinenk, which means, "a land into which they came 
 from distant parts." The river itself, however, is called Alligewi 
 Sipo. The whites have made Alleghene out of this, the Six 
 Nations calling the river the Ohio. 
 
 The Cherokees were very powerful but had no friends 
 among the nations; on the contrary, the Six Nations and the 
 Wiondats waged war against them, though the Delawares made 
 no further expeditions against them v Once it occurred that the 
 Cherokees, pursuing the Six Nations who had done them some 
 injury, came up to some Delaware towns and killed several of 
 that people. This provoked a war between the Delawares and 
 Cherokees that lasted until 1766 or 1767, when the Cherokees 
 3 
 
34 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 sought the friendship of the Delawares, who had clone them much 
 harm, even to the extent of going into their towns and killing 
 a number of people. Hence, they made peace and the Cherokees 
 recognized the Delawares as their grandfathers. Through inter 
 vention of the Delawares the Cherokees secured peace also with 
 the Six Nations and others, which was established in i768, 46l/2 
 when the mission of the Brethren was begun at Goschgosching. 
 
 With the Delawares the Six Nations carried on long wars 
 before the coming of the white man, and even after the advent 
 of the pale-face, but the former were always too powerful for 
 the Six Nations. The latter were convinced that if they con 
 tinued the wars, their total extirpation would be inevitable. The 
 Six Nations indeed boast that they had overcome the Delawares 
 but these will not grant it, stating that as the Six Nations recog 
 nized the superior strength of the Delawares they thought of a 
 means of saving their honor and making peace so that it might 
 not seem that they had been conquered by the Delawares. 
 
 Soon after Pennsylvania had been settled by the whites, 
 the Six Nations sent an embassy to the Delawares, opened nego 
 tiations and said : 47 It is not profitable that all the nations should 
 be at war with each other, for this would at length ruin the 
 whole Indian race. They had, therefore, contrived a remedy by 
 which this evil might be prevented while there was yet oppor 
 tunity to do so. One nation should be the woman. She should 
 be placed in the midst, while the other nations, who make war, 
 should be the man arid live around the woman. No one should 
 touch or hurt the woman, and if any one did so, they would 
 immediately say to him, "Why do you beat the woman?" Then 
 all the men should fall upon him who has beaten her. The 
 woman should not go to war but endeavor to keep the peace with 
 all. Therefore, if the men that surround her should beat each 
 other and the war be carried on with violence, the woman should 
 have the right of addressing them, "Ye men, what are ye about ; 
 why do ye beat ,each other? We are almost afraid. Consider 
 that your wives and children must perish unless you desist. Do 
 you mean to destroy yourselves from the face of the earth?" 
 The men should then hear and obey the woman. Ever since then 
 the Six Nations have called the Delawares their cousins, i. e., 
 
North American Indians. 35 
 
 sister s children, and declared them to be the woman, dressed 
 them in a woman s long habit, reaching down to the feet, though 
 Indian women wear only short garments that reach but little 
 below the knee, and fastened this about their bodies with a great, 
 large belt of wampum. They adorned them with ear-rings, such 
 as their women were accustomed to wear. Further, they hung a 
 calabash rilled with oil and beson [medicine] on their arms, 
 therewith to anoint themselves and other nations. They also 
 gave them a corn-pestle and a hoe. Each of these points was 
 confirmed by delivering a belt of wampum and the whole cere 
 mony observed with the greatest solemnity. One must not, 
 however, think they actually dressed them in women s garments 
 and placed corn-pestle and hoe in their hands. It is to be under 
 stood in the same way as when the chiefs among the Indians 
 lay out a trail several hundred miles through the woods, they 
 cut away thorn and thicket, clear trees, rocks and stones out of 
 the way, cut through the hills, level up the track and strew it 
 with white sand, so that they may easily go from one nation 
 to another ; but when one goes the way that has thus been cleared 
 it is found to be full of wood and rocks and stones and all over 
 grown with thorns and thicket. The woman s garment signi 
 fied that they should not engage in war, for the Delawares were 
 great and brave warriors, feared by the other nations ; the corn- 
 pestle and hoe that they should engage in agriculture. The 
 calabash 48 with oil was to be used to cleanse the ears of the 
 other nations, that they might attend to good and not to evil 
 counsel. With the medicine or beson they were to heal those 
 who were walking in foolish ways that they might com,e to their 
 senses and incline their hearts to peace. 
 
 The Delaware nation is thus looked to for the preserva 
 tion of peace and entrusted with the charge of the great belt of 
 peace and the chain of friendship which they must take care to 
 preserve inviolate and which they bear on their shoulders at 
 its middle, the other nations and the Europeans holding the ends. 
 
 Thus it was brought about that the Delawares should be 
 the cousins of the Six Nations and were made by them to be the 
 women. Such a state of things was preserved until 1755, when 
 a war broke out between the Indians and the white people into 
 
36 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 which the Delawares were enticed by the Six Nations. The 
 woman s dress of the Delaware nation was shortened so as 
 to reach only to the knees and a hatchet was given into their 
 hands for defense. More than this, on the occasion of a council 
 held during the same war, near Pittsburg, the Six Nations pro 
 posed to take the woman s dress away altogether and clothe 
 them with the breech-clout, saying they could well see that the 
 dress was a hindrance, inasmuch as the Delawares did not enter 
 heartily into the war, being well aware that the Six Nations 
 only sought their ruin. This, therefore, was not approved of by 
 the Delawares, one of their chiefs rising to say to the Six Na 
 tions, "Why do you wish to rob the woman of her dress? I 
 tell you that if you do. you will find creatures in it that are 
 ready to bite you. 
 
 The Six Nations who had betrayed the Delawares into a 
 war with the white people, at the last fell upon them them 
 selves at the instigation of Sir William Johnson, taking many 
 captives, especially of the Monsy [Monsey] tribe, whom they 
 delivered over to Johnson, destroying and ravaging their towns 
 on the Susquehanna and killing their cattle. 481 / 2 The Delawares will 
 not easily forget this piece of treachery and there is and remains 
 a national hostility between these nations. In this present war 
 the Delawares have done much to avenge themselves. 
 
 With the Mohicanders and Woapanose 49 the Six Nations 
 also carried on wars for a long time ; through the instrumental 
 ity of white people peace was eventually declared between them 
 at Albanien. 50 
 
 Concerning the country in which the Delawares formerly 
 lived, viz., in Pennsylvania and Jersey, it is unnecessary to add 
 anything, as these regions are well known. Along the Susque 
 hanna, where our Indians lived, that is, at Friedenshutten, 51 the 
 country is beautiful and the soil good along the river, but away 
 from the river in the heart of the country it is very mountainous 
 and of no use to the Indians except for the chase. Where the 
 Indians would prepare land and plant, the soil must be of the 
 best. In many cases where the Europeans would think it pos 
 sible to have fine farms, the Indians would not look at the soil. 
 
North American Indians. 37 
 
 In this region they found deer, elk and bear hunting good, as 
 also beaver, fox and raccoon in plenty. The Susquehanna is 
 well stocked with fish. The chief fish are the Rock fish, 63 re 
 garded as one of the best fish, having large scales and often 
 weighing from ten to forty pounds; the Shad 53 or May-fish 
 which in the spring of the year come up the rivers in great 
 numbers, at which time they are caught by the hundreds and 
 thousands with nets made of wild vines ; the Yellow Perch, 54 as 
 its name suggests of yellowish color, having sharp prickles along 
 the back, a narrow head and sharp teeth like the pike, 55 which 
 also abounds ; the Horn-fish 50 with a long bill like that of a 
 duck, only narrower, having very sharp teeth. This fish is not 
 eaten by the Indians. Further, there are trout 57 in the creeks 
 in great numbers in winter and spring, as also in the Susque 
 hanna. There are large eels 58 and various smaller fish, such 
 as Catfish, Sunfish and others. 
 
 In the spring of the year 1765 two seals 59 were shot by the 
 Indians at Wajomick. As the like had never been seen there 
 before, these caused much astonishment among the Indians of 
 that region. Many were summoned to witness the marvel. 
 After they had sufficiently expressed their astonishment, a coun 
 cil was called to consider whether it would be proper to eat 
 them or not. An old Indian arose and observed as God had 
 sent them they could not but be good to eat, even though they 
 had not seen such animals before. They, accordingly, prepared 
 for a feast and all who were assembled partook of the seals and 
 found them a palatable dish. These seals had unquestionably 
 come from the sea and had come up the river several hundred 
 miles. 
 
 The region under consideration has this peculiarity above 
 the country to the south that it has great swamps. A swamp 
 is the name given to such a place where the sun never shines 
 because of the dense thicket and which even in the middle of 
 summer is always wet and cool. In such places the beech, 
 white pine and spruce grow well. The Six Nations, to the 
 north, are surrounded with such swamps. Hence, one must go 
 a journey of many days through the wilderness before their 
 
38 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 habitations can be reached and is obliged to climb over many 
 fallen trees. Near the home of the Six Nations there are also 
 many cedar swamps not the red cedar but the white 60 and 
 swamps of this sort are the wildest and darkest regions, home 
 of the black bears, which the Mingoes Indians belonging to 
 the Six Nations catch in wooden traps. Otherwise, there is 
 in that region little or no game, save the beaver and fur-skinned 
 animals. A few moose are found, though those that are shot have 
 generally come from Canada. 61 Hence, the Mingoes, besides cul 
 tivating the soil, mainly for growing corn this being the work 
 of the women subsist largely on fish, for fish may be caught 
 the year round. 62 Salmon are deemed the best and most valuable 
 fish in these parts. They have red spots like the trout. In 
 the autumn they go up the little creeks where they are easily 
 caught. I have found carrying two of them a good load. Sal 
 mon fishing is carried on by the Indians through the whole 
 summer. 
 
 Besides this they catch eels 63 in the fall, which are a dif 
 ferent variety from those found in this region, the head being 
 small and sharply pointed. In the fall, when they go out of the 
 rivers into the lakes, they are caught in baskets by the thousand 
 in a single night. Dried, they may be kept a long time. They 
 are so fat that when fried it is as though bacon were being 
 fried. In the matter of salt, Indians of that country do not suf 
 fer want, for there are in various places salt-springs which supply 
 them more abundantly than I have seen elsewhere. 
 
 All rivers and waters of that region empty into either Lake 
 Ontario, of which the St. Lawrence is the outlet, or into Lake 
 Erie, which pours into Lake Ontario after the waters have 
 leaped over the falls of Niagara. Upon both bodies of water 
 the English have large vessels bearing cannon which are deemed 
 a necessity for the defense of trade with the Indians. 
 
 As I have not seen the cataract, 64 though I have more than 
 once heard it described by Indians who have seen it, yet could 
 give no very accurate account of it not being able to measure 
 its height, I will enter upon no description of the phenomenon, 
 particularly, as correct description may be found in various 
 books. As Indians who have been there relate, the waters 
 
North American Indians. 39 
 
 shoot out over a precipice so perpendicular that Indians find it 
 possible to go hither and thither on the rocks under the water. 
 Fish that plunge over the falls are killed. Wild geese, ducks and 
 other birds that come too near the cataract in their flight are, 
 through air currents started by the stream, drawn into the waters 
 to their destruction. Hence, the Indians may always find good food 
 there. Some Mingoes fishing above the falls on one occasion 
 were dragged into the current. All their exertions to reach the 
 shore were in vain. As they drew helplessly near the cataract 
 they threw everything away, seated themselves, drew their 
 blankets over their heads and plunged into the abyss. Others 
 on shore watched them, but were unable to render any aid. Two 
 others narrowly escaped the same fate. Seized by the swift 
 current, they succeeded in working their way toward the island, 60 
 which is a mass of rocks bearing bushes and a few trees on the 
 verge line of the falls, a considerable distance from either shore ; 
 nearing the island they both sprang out of the canoe into the 
 water, one of them managing to catch hold of a little tree that 
 hung down into the water, the other seizing the legs of the first. 
 Having safely drawn themselves up on the rock, they spent four 
 clays and nights there, unable to make those whom they could 
 see on shore hear their cries because of the roar of the waters. 
 At last they were seen. The French, at that time in possession 
 of Canada and, therefore, also of Niagara, did their utmost to 
 save them, letting themselves float down in a canoe to the island 
 for this purpose. Working back from the island they kept the 
 canoe pointed toward it, in order that should they be unable to 
 make headway against the stream it might have been possible 
 to reach the island again. The shore was reached in safety. 
 
 Their canoes are made of birch bark, many small pieces 
 being sewed together with exceeding neatness. Being very 
 light they are often carried many miles across the country. In 
 them they cross the Lakes, and as they are so light, less water 
 is dashed into them by the waves than would he the case with 
 a European boat. 
 
 There are various smaller lakes in this country. Oneider 66 
 Lake is thirty-two miles long and eight miles broad. Cayuger 67 
 Lake is about the same size. In the Sennecker countrv I saw 
 
40 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 several that are larger than either of the two named. 68 Inas 
 much as the Mingoes do not change their place of residence as 
 the Delawares are accustomed to do, who never remain many 
 years in one place, one sees orchards of large, old apple trees 
 near all their towns. 69 t The Six Nations lived in these parts long 
 before the advent of the whites. About the year 1600 the French 
 waged many wars with them, at the last making peace. They 
 live in about a straight line from east to west. The easternmost 
 are the Mohoks, 70 few in number, who live for the most part 
 among white people. Next to these live the Oneider and Tus- 
 carores. The Onondager occupy the middle, where the great 
 council is held, to which representatives corne from all places. 
 Further to the west is the dwelling place of the Cayugers and be 
 yond them are the Senneckers, the westernmost. Wiondats or 
 Hurons, who live partly in Sandusky, at the western end of Lake 
 Erie, and partly in Detroit, are not counted in with the Six 
 Nations, though they are allied with them. Their language 
 bears greatest resemblance to that of the Mingoes. 
 
 Last year, 1779, the Six Nations were driven out of their 
 land by the Americans and all their towns and settlements were 
 destroyed, a fate they had never before experienced. 71 Winter 
 in that region is usually very severe and the snow very deep, as 
 a rule. The soil is rich and fertile. Indians there plant a dif 
 ferent variety of corn from that used here. It ripens earlier. 
 The kind planted here along the Muskingum would not mature 
 in those parts. 72 
 
 The Six Nations have ever been a war-like people, unable 
 to preserve peace. There are few nations with whom they have 
 not at some time had war. It is not too much for them to travel 
 in parties five or six hundred miles into an enemy s country, to 
 hide then in the woods for many days, even weeks, that they 
 may catch hostile braves, though they must, in so doing, suffer 
 hunger, not being able to shoot any game lest they be betrayed. 
 When a deed planned has been accomplished they hurry away. 
 If they can bring back a captive or a scalp they regard them 
 selves as amply rewarded for all weariness and need they have 
 suffered and danger to which they have been exposed. Had 
 they not, with the captives taken, replaced those of their own 
 
North American Indians. 41 
 
 numbers who had perished in the endless wars, they had, long ere 
 this, died out. As it is they have degenerated and are a very 
 different people from what they once were. As all the Indian 
 nations treat their captives in much the same manner, I will refer 
 to this matter elsewhere. 
 
 Concerning the region in question, 1 merely wish to add 
 that it is w.ell watered by rivers and lakes so that it is possible 
 to get almost anywhere by water. In the matter of trade, this 
 is of great importance, though trade among the Six Nations 
 amounts to little, as they do not secure much by the chase. The 
 nations dwelling beyond them engage much more in trade. Each 
 of the Six Nations has its language, the Cayuger and Sennecker 
 and particularly the Tuscarores, who came from Maryland 73 
 when they lived by the sea, speaking tongues very different 
 from the rest. In the main, however, all these dialects form one 
 speech and the Indians of the Six Nations are all able to under 
 stand one another. The language of the Delawares, on the 
 other hand, differs so much from that of the Six Nations, that 
 they cannot understand each other. It is much easier to acquire 
 the language of the Mingoes than that of the Delawares. 
 
 The country of the Six Nations is not mountainous but 
 very level, so-called hills being of but little account. Indeed, 
 the hills and elevations partake of the swampy nature of the low 
 land, even on the heights one is in the same kind of dens.e 
 thicket as in the valleys, in which the sun rarely reaches the 
 ground. 
 
 Concerning the St. Lawrence River, it is yet to be noted 
 that its navigation is considerable, even though there are many 
 rapids, which render the unloading of boats necessary. From 
 Quebeck light boats are used as far as Fontenac 74 at the eastern 
 end of Lake Ontario, a distance of three hundred and eighty 
 miles. Thence, cargo is taken in sloops across the lake to 
 Niagara at the western end, a distance of two hundred and 
 twenty miles. From this point it is taken nine miles across 
 country to navigable water and thus it is carried through Lake 
 Erie to Detroit, a further distance of two hundred miles. 
 
42 David Zeisbergcr s History 
 
 From this digression I return again to the Alleghene or 
 Ohio Region. This is separated from Pennsylvania and the 
 other colonies by the Alleghene mountains. The most consid 
 erable mountains to be passed on the road (from the land of 
 the Delawares) to Pittsburg are the Sidling Hill, the Alleghene 
 Mountain and Laurel Hill. 75 In other directions there are more, 
 since the mountain chains at times divide and receive different 
 names in the different regions in which they lie, though they 
 belong to the same system. In Pennsylvania they are called the 
 Blue Ridge, viz., the Little and the Great Blue Ridge, the latter 
 being also called the Wolf s Mountain, on account of the num 
 ber of wolves which infest it ; and in the country about Tulpe- 
 hocken and Thiirnstein 76 as is to be seen on the chart, and an 
 other name is Jacob s Height. 77 The Thiirnstein belongs, there 
 fore, to the Alleghene Mountains, as appears not only from its 
 position but also from similarity in mass, breadth and height to 
 the other parts of that range. 
 
 This mountain chain forms a boundary between this region 
 and that to the east even in the matter of weather conditions. 
 In Pennsylvania the east wind generally brings rain. This is 
 not the case in Ohio, where the east wind rarely blows and 
 then hardly above twelve hours at a time. The south and west 
 winds bring rain, and it even rains sometimes with a north 
 west wind. In Pennsylvania northwest wind brings clear and 
 fine weather. All thunder storms rise either with the south, 
 west or northwest winds and a land rain from the west some 
 times continues for a week. 
 
 The Alleghene River rises in a swamp lying between it and 
 the Susquehanna, about a hundred and fifty miles to the north 
 of Pittsburg. About one hundred miles to the north of that 
 place the Venango (in the Indian tongue Onenge) empties into 
 it. This river is the passage to Presquisle, 78 Lake Erie and 
 Niagara. 79 On the journey to these places there is a portage of 
 fifteen miles. Formerly the French carried on considerable 
 trade along this route and all their provisions were in this way 
 brought to Fort du Quesne, now called Pittsburg, when this 
 place was in their possession. 
 
North American Indians. 43 
 
 At Pittsburg the Monongehella, which takes its rise in 
 Virginia, enters into the river. In the Indian tongue the name 
 of this river was Mechmenawungihilla, which signifies a high 
 bank, which is ever washed out and therefore collapses. Ten 
 miles up this river on Turtoise 80 Creek General Braddock was 
 defeated by the French and Indians in 1755 and at Fort Sigo- 
 nier, 81 fifty-four miles to the east of Pittsburg, at various times 
 during those wars many people were killed by the Indians. 
 
 The Alleghene is a navigable river and as one says in Eng 
 lish, "of gentle current." Large vessels may pass from Pitts 
 burg down the Ohio to Illinoise and into the Mississippi, which 
 is fifteen hundred miles, and to a French island, New Orleans, 
 in the last named river. The Ohio empties into the Mississippi 
 fourteen hundred miles below Pittsburg. Previous to this war, 
 the east side of this river was already thickly settled, but 
 since the Indians have massacred so many, most settlers have 
 retreated. Further down, about six hundred miles from Pitts 
 burg, also on the east bank of the river there is a large settle 
 ment of the whites on the Kentuke 82 River. These also suffered 
 much from the Indians in the late war. 
 
 Up to six or seven years ago the Delawares lived along the 
 Alleghene, but after the Six Nations had sold a considerable 
 portion on the eastern side of the river to the whites, they re 
 treated to the Muskingum, where they now live. This stream 
 rises near Cajahages 83 in a small lake, and the Cajahage River 
 empties into Lake Erie only a short distance from its source. 
 
 When one thinks of the number of rivers and creeks that 
 flow into the lakes, one ceases to wonder at the existence of 
 the Great Lakes. Lake Huron, Michillimakinac, Michigan and 
 Superior, which lie to the north of Detroit, all find an outlet 
 in Lake Erie and this in turn in Lake Ontario, whence the St. 
 Lawrence River rises. In all these lakes no current is observ 
 able, but their waters are clear and transparent, abounding in 
 fish. 
 
 Traders have journeyed northward from Detroit through 
 Lake Superior and beyond to the neighborhood of Hudson Bay 
 in the interest of trade with the Indians. Such a journey usually 
 takes a year. 
 
44 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 The Muskingum (meaning Elk s Eye, so called because of 
 the numbers of elk that formerly f.ed on its banks, these animals 
 being found there even at the present time) empties into the 
 Ohio two hundred miles below Pittsburg. It is navigable for 
 canoes or light boats, which the Indians use upon it, from its 
 source to its mouth. 
 
 The country is diversified with hillocks and gentle risings, 
 but no great mountains are to be seen to the west of the Alle- 
 ghene Mountains. The Indians are, therefore, yet in the pos 
 session of the best land. Along the creeks and rivers the soil 
 is very rich and commonly called "The Bottoms." This sort of 
 land is chosen by the Indians for agricultural purposes not only 
 because it is easily worked, but also because it yields aboundant 
 crops for many years. When, however, their fields begin to 
 grow grass they leave them and break new land, for they re 
 gard it as too troublesome to root out the grass. For winter crops 
 such soil would be too rich and would yield little or nothing. 
 But corn and all else raised by the Indians thrives in rich soil. 
 
 The higher lying land, generally of medium richness, though 
 some of this also is extraordinarily fertile, is the best for winter 
 grains, and as but little of it is stony soil it would be difficult to 
 find a spot that could not be cultivated to advantage. 
 
 Concerning the climate, I can only speak from a twelve 
 years acquaintance with the country. In the summer it is quite 
 warm, especially in July and August, which are the two hottest 
 months ; woolen garments can hardly be worn at this season 
 of the year. The winter is generally very mild. The snow is 
 never de,ep, nor does it remain long on the ground. Last win 
 ter, 1779-80, which was very severe in Pensilvania, snow fell once 
 to a depth of two feet. In eight days this was gone, though 
 the ground was covered with snow most of the time between 
 New Year and February. As I have neither chart nor instru 
 ment, I am unable to say in what degree of latitude it lies, 
 though I reckon it to be about the same as that of Philadelphia. A 
 distance of a hundred English miles north or south makes a very 
 perceptible difference in temperature ; for in Sandusky on Lake 
 Erie, it is much colder and the snow is much deeper than here in 
 the Muskingum Valley and along the Scioto, 84 which empties into 
 
North American Indians. 45 
 
 the Ohio three hundred miles below Pittsburg, one hundred miles 
 from here, snow hardly ever remains on the ground, and the 
 ground is bare for most of the winter. In autumn and even up 
 to Christmas and New Year or beyond that time, there is little 
 frost, and even if in a clear night the ground should freeze, it 
 thaws soon after sunrise. There are very few clear, beautiful 
 days in the winter-time ; much of the time it rains, occasionally 
 it snows. After a few clear days a change may be looked for. 
 If there has been quite a snow, rain may follow. Yet the Mus- 
 kingum, not having a strong current, is frozen over when there 
 are several cold nights in succession. Usually this happens once 
 during the winter, rarely oftener. 
 
 The Indians make little provision to feed their cattle in 
 winter, for as there is no deep snow and the weather is generally 
 mild, cattle and particularly horses can forage for themselves, 
 finding feed in the woods. In the bottoms grass never quite 
 dies away but remains green toward the end of March and be 
 ginning of April grows again. 
 
 Of wild fruits the strawberries, 85 much like those in Europe, 
 are the first to ripen in spring. Blackberries, 88 raspberries, 87 bil 
 berries, 88 are also found, though not native to these parts, for 
 these varieties grow best on hills and in not too rich soil. Further, 
 there are wild gooseberries 89 and currants, 90 the latter black in 
 color and with a somewhat different taste from that of the red 
 which are cultivated in gardens, though having the same sort of 
 leaves. There are two varieties of cranberries ; 91 one grows in 
 swamps on low bushes not as high as the bilberry bushes, the 
 other on small trees. For both the Indians have one name 
 (Rakilun). Of the wild cherry, there are three kinds, not found 
 in Europe at all, and having a very good taste. The one sort 92 
 grows on high thick trees, which are found in large numbers and 
 yield a very fine red wood that is well suited for cabinet work. 
 The other kinds 93 grow on bushes. On the islands in the Sus- 
 quehanna, cherries 94 are found, very like the cultivated fruit, 
 having about the same form and taste. The only difference is 
 that they grow neither on trees nor bushes, but on vines, which 
 lie on the ground and when lifted up appear laden with fruit. 
 
46 David Zeisbergcr s History 
 
 These grow on very stony ground near the water, where the 
 sunshine is particularly hot. In these parts I have not come 
 across this variety. 
 
 Besides, there are mulberries, 95 plums, 96 and wild grapes 
 of three sorts, those growing on high ground 97 or hills being 
 the best ; those 98 found in the bottoms are very sour. Crabap- 
 ples" grow in great plenty and the Indians, being very fond of 
 sharp and sour fruit, eat them in abundance. 
 
 Of nuts there are found: (i) The well known hazel nut, 100 
 (2) the hickory nut, 101 found in great plenty in some years 
 and which the Indians gather in large quantities and use not 
 only as they find them they have a very sweet taste but 
 also extract from them a milky juice used in different foods and 
 very nourishing. Sometimes they extract an oil by first roasting 
 the nut in the shell under hot ashes and pounding them to a 
 fine mash, which they boil in water. The oil swimming on the 
 surface is skimmed off and preserved for cooking and other 
 purposes. (3) The walnut of two varieties, the white walnut 102 
 deriving its name from the color of the wood which, strictly 
 speaking, is gray, and the black walnut, 103 of which the wood 
 is dark-brown, sometimes even shading into violet. The latter 
 is very much used by cabinet makers for tables, chests and other 
 things. The nuts, the one variety having a. very hard shell, are 
 eaten, but are very oily. 
 
 The papa 104 tree, which I have seen nowhere else than along 
 the Ohio, bears a very beautiful fruit, in form and size resemb 
 ling a middle sized cucumber, of an agreeable smell and taste. 
 
 Wild laurel 105 is found in the bottoms in great abundance ; 
 the berries are smaller than thos,e found elsewhere, but have 
 about the same taste. Of these, even the whites make use. 
 They grow on bushes, the wood of which has a strong spicy 
 odor and taste, used by the Indians for medicine and called by 
 the English, spicewood. 106 
 
 Chestnuts 107 are very plentiful in some years. The Indians 
 gather them and prepare various dishes with them. A larger 
 variety of chestnuts 108 is native to these parts, but these are 
 not fit to eat. 
 
North American Indians. 47 
 
 Of roots, wild potatoes 109 and wild parsnips are found. 
 Bread is baked of both, which one may be driven to eat by 
 pangs of hunger. The Indians look for both roots when famine 
 threatens and the supply of corn runs low, sometimes sustaining 
 life with them for a considerable period. 
 
 A kind of bean, called by the Indians earth-bean, because it 
 grows close to the ground, is also found and tastes when boiled, 
 like the chestnut. 
 
 Wild citrons 110 or May apples, grow on a stalk not over a 
 foot high. The Indians enjoy eating the fruit, which has a sour 
 but pleasant taste. The roots are a powerful poison which, who 
 eats, dies in a few hours time unless promptly given an emetic. 
 
 Watermelons and muskmelons, which grow by culture only, 
 are very refreshing in summer. Of some watermelons the meat 
 is yellow and the seeds black ; of others the meat and seeds red. 
 
 The forests contain mainly oak trees ; other kinds of trees 
 are, however, also found. They are not dense, but generally 
 sufficiently open to allow comfortable passage on foot or horse 
 back. There are five varieties of oak, white-oak, 110a black-oak, llob 
 red-oak. 110c Spanish-oak, llod and swamp-oak. 100e The red-oak has 
 very narrow, small leaves and bears little colored acorns, such as 
 I have seen nowhere else. Besides these, hickory trees of three 
 sorts. 111 ash, 112 white and red beech, 113 sassafras, 114 in some places 
 very thick, poplar 115 and chestnut 11 5 are the kinds generally 
 found on high lying land. In the bottoms there are walnut, 
 linden, 117 maple, 118 water-beech, 119 that grow near to the water 
 and often attain great height and girth, hawthorne 120 and crab- 
 apple. 12] 
 
 The Hoop-ash, 122 a little known tree and found only in this 
 region, has this name because barral-hoops are made of the 
 wood. It grows in the bottoms and is of little use otherwise, as 
 the wood easily rots. 
 
 The Honey-locust 12 5 is likewise found in the bottoms. This 
 tree but little resembles the locust of P.ensilvanien, except that 
 there is some similarity in foliage, though the leaves are smaller 
 and finer. The trunks of the thickest trees are two feet in 
 diameter on the average. The trunk is covered with thorns 
 that stand straight out, are about six inches long and very sharp. 
 
48 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 The wood is red, very hard and heavy and does not rot very 
 quickly in the ground. It bears pods that fall off in the autumn. 
 Besides the seeds, the pods contain a kind of molasses or honey, 
 thus accounting for the name Europeans have given the tree. 
 The Indians call it the thorn-tree on account of its many thorns. 
 Sugar trees are usually found in low, rich soil, sometimes, 
 also, on higher land and in more northerly regions even on 
 hills, where, however, the soil is very moist. The Delawares 
 call this tree the Achsuntuimunschi, that is, the stone-tree, on 
 account of the hardness of the wood. The Mingoes give it a 
 name signifying the sugar tree, as do the Europeans. From 
 the sap of the tree sugar is boiled. This is done by the Indians 
 in the early part of the year, beginning in February and con 
 tinuing to the ,end of March or beginning of April, according 
 as spring is early or late. In this region it is possible to boil 
 sugar even in fall after there has been frost and in winter, if 
 the season is mild. For as soon as the trees thaw a little the 
 sap begins to run and then the trees are tapped. As, however, 
 at that time of the year the weather is very uncertain and it is 
 possible that there should be a cold wave at any time, it is 
 hardly worth the effort to make the necessary arrangements 
 and is hardly ever done, unless some one be driven of necessity 
 to provide sugar for the household. This, we ourselves have 
 been obliged to do and the sisters of our congregation have 
 already boiled a quantity of sugar for congregational love- 
 feasts, shortly before Christmas. 
 
 Spring is the proper season for boiling sugar. The fol 
 lowing preparations are made. A number of small troughs 
 are made for receiving the sap. Usually, the Indians make them 
 of wood, cutting them out roughly with a hatchet. Some In 
 dians are able to make tw.enty or thirty of them in a day. Some 
 do not go to so much trouble, but make dishes of the bark or 
 bast of a tree, which serve quite as well, but are good for no 
 more than one season. According as they have large or numer 
 ous kettles and troughs they can make much sugar, for there 
 is no lack of trees. Besides the smaller troughs and dishes, 
 
North American Indians. 49 
 
 there must be several of larger size in which the sap is col 
 lected. If one is well supplied with utensils, there is this ad 
 vantage, that on days when the sap flows freely much may be 
 collected, which will enable one to keep on boiling when the 
 sap does not flow plentifully. The sap flows most plentifully 
 when it freezes at night and the sun shines during the day. At 
 night it commonly ceases to run. The same is true in case of 
 warm or rainy weather. As soon as there has been frost the 
 sap runs again. There is a time in the boiling season when sap 
 once or twice begins to flow in considerable quantities, both 
 day and night. When this occurs the height of the sugar season 
 is on. The sap which flows after this is not so good and yields 
 less sugar. The last sugar secured in the spring is always of 
 inferior quality. Hence, toward the end of the season no sugar, 
 but only molasses is in most cases boiled. 
 
 The length of the season is determined by the weather con 
 ditions. If spring is late and night frosts continue for a con 
 siderable time, the flowing season is the longer. With the early 
 advent of warm weather the season terminates very quickly. 
 The shortest season lasts about a month, the longest nearly two 
 months. 
 
 The thickest of the trees are two feet, sometimes more, in 
 diameter. Those of middle size, which are still young, have 
 many branches and are growing, yield the most sap. Expe 
 rience has shown that such a tree will yield about sixty gallons 
 of sap while sugar is being boiled, and thereafter another sixty 
 for molasses. Seven to eight gallons of sap are regarded as 
 necessary for a pound of sugar. Such a tree may, therefore, 
 yield more than seven pounds of sugar and seven quarts of 
 molasses. It has also been found that a tree which one year 
 has yielded very freely, gives but little the next, and on the other 
 hand, a tree that has yielded but little one season, gives largely 
 the next. The sap, which is of a brownish color and becomes 
 darker the longer it boils, is boiled until it gets to be of the con 
 sistency of molasses, is then poured off and kept. Wher a suf 
 ficient quantity of this consistency has been secured, it is boiled 
 over a slow fire until it becomes sugar. It is important to boil 
 
 4 
 
50 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 this over a slow fire, for the sap readily boils over and is easily 
 burned. If the boiled sap is stirred until cold, the sugar becomes 
 granulated and is as fine as the West Indian sugar. As the 
 Indians lack the dishes and do not care to take the time to 
 prepare it in this way, they usually form it into cakes, put it in 
 a kettle or dish, or in default of these, on a stone and let it 
 cool, when it becomes hard and may be ,easily preserved in 
 baskets. If the troughs and kettles used for collecting the sap 
 are made of wood that does not give color, the sugar becomes 
 the finer, but if it gives color, as does the white walnut, the 
 sugar becomes black the first year ; thereafter, this is not the 
 case. 
 
 When everything is prepared, an oblique incision is made 
 in the tree and at the lower end of the same a thin wedge, three 
 or four inches broad, is forced in, whence the sap runs down 
 into the vessel placed below. According as the sap runs freely 
 or contrarywise, the dishes must be emptied at given intervals, 
 day and night. According to the manner of making the incision 
 one may determine whether a tree shall be good for many or few 
 years. If large openings are made the tree is soon spoiled and noth 
 ing is gained, for the sap runs no faster. In this matter, how 
 ever, the Indians are very careless, for trees are numerous and 
 after they have used one place for three or four years, they seek 
 out another. There is, strange to say, no tree among all the rest 
 so hardy as the sugar-tree, for even if the stem is cut all around, 
 so that it can no longer be used, it does not die. Hence, the 
 Indians very reluctantly make their fields where there are sugar- 
 trees, as these are not to be exterminated, except they be cut 
 down. This, however, is true that when trees have been used 
 for eight or nine years they give less sap than formerly, as they 
 are full of incisions and scars. An incision having been made 
 in a tree in the spring of the year and the sap having flowed 
 for some time, the incision needs to be enlarged, though only a 
 little. This may be done two or three times in a season. 
 
 As the Indians have trees in abundance, their labors are 
 richly rewarded. For if a man owns a kettle of ten or twelve 
 gallons and has a few smaller ones with which to keep 
 the large one filled, it will be possible for him to make several 
 
North American Indians. 51 
 
 hundred pounds of sugar in a season and a quantity of molasses, 
 besides. 
 
 Sugar boiling is chiefly the employment of women. Even 
 widows are able to earn enough by it to secure clothing and 
 whatever else they may need. While the women are thus en 
 gaged, the men hunt and supply meat. As the deer skins are of 
 little value at that season of the year, they generally hunt bear, 
 which they se,ek in the rocks, hollow trees or thickets in their 
 winter quarters. Bears are at this time generally fat. 
 
 Dog-wood 124 is also found in these parts. The rind of the 
 root is used in the apothecary shops in place of Jesuit-Bark. 125 
 This tree grows to be neither large nor high. 
 
 Red Cedars 120 are found along the Muskingum finer and 
 larger than I have seen elsewhere in North America. They do 
 not grow on the mountains as in Pensilvanien, where they are 
 stunted and scrubby, but in the bottoms. 
 
 The spruce tree 127 is neither a fir nor a pine, according to 
 my view, but something between the two. In this region the 
 tree is found only occasionally along the creeks and rivers. In 
 more northerly districts, however, there are great spruce forests 
 arid swamps. 
 
 Pitch-pine 128 is rarely found here and white pine 129 not at 
 all ; a hundred miles to the south one may see many specimens 
 of either variety. Fir-trees 130 I have seen near the source of the 
 Ohio and pines 131 not far from Bethlehem, across the Blue 
 Mountains in the great swamp. 
 
 Vines are very numerous, especially in the bottoms. They 
 climb up the trees and look like anchor strands, often being 
 thicker than these. The grapes they bear have a sour taste. 
 Those which grow on the highlands and only have short, tender 
 shoots, being frequently disturbed in their growth by brush- 
 fires, have the best grapes. These have a good taste. Expe 
 rience has taught that good wine may be made of both kinds. 
 
 The elm tree, 132 already noticed above, is of no particular 
 use, for the wood rots quickly, except that the Mingoes make 
 bast canoes and kettles for sugar boiling of the bark, which is 
 very tough. 
 
52 David Zcisbergcr s History 
 
 The bark of stone birch 133 trees, as of many others, the In 
 dians pound fine, mix with water and use as a medicine. This 
 is the only variety of birch trees here. In Pensilvanien there 
 are birch trees like those of Europe, though they do not grow 
 to any size. 
 
 Aspen trees 134 are also found, though not in great numbers 
 nor everywhere. One kind of tree is found here that I have seen 
 nowhere else. The wood is soft and yellowish. The leaves 
 are smooth and oval-shaped. The Indians call it Wiseweminscki, 
 the yellow tree. 135 
 
 Of oil wells I have seen three kinds, ( I ) wells that have 
 an outlet; (2) wells that have no outlet, but are stagnant pools; 
 (3) wells in creeks and even in the Ohio at two different points, 
 one hundred and fifty miles from one another. 
 
 In the wells which have an outlet, oil and water together 
 exude from the earth and where these flow grass and soil be 
 come oily. When there is no means of discharge one sees 
 nothing more than oil welling up, which, if none has been taken 
 off for some time, floats an inch or more in depth on the water. 
 In the creeks it is possible to see some of the places where 
 the oil flows, others not, for often the current carries the oil 
 with it at such rate that you see the oil over all the surface of 
 the water. In the Ohio there are, also, such places in the region 
 of the oil wells. Here the current is very gentle and the Indians 
 skim off the oil, though it is not easy to do this as the current, 
 even though not swift, keeps carrying it along. Such places 
 are usually revealed by the strong odor. Even though the water 
 of a river keeps carrying away the oil, one may smell it at a 
 distance of a quarter of a mile from the well. The soil near 
 an oil well is poor, either a cold, clayey ground, or if it is near 
 a creek, a poor quality of sand at the top. Neither good grass 
 or wood will grow nearby, hardly anything more than a few 
 stunted oak trees. 
 
 If the Indians wish to collect oil, which they prefer to do 
 where the well has no discharge, as it is there most easily secured, 
 they first throw away the old oil floating on top, as it has a 
 stronger odor than that which wells up fresh from the earth. 136 
 
North American Indians. 53 
 
 The odor is somewhat like that of tar, though not very much so. 
 They stir the water violently then let it settle and become clear. 
 The more the pool is stirred the more abundantly does the oil 
 flow. When it is clear they scoop it into kettles, and, as it is 
 impossible to avoid getting some water, boil it and preserve it 
 for use. They use it as a medicine in all sorts of cases for ex 
 ternal application, thus for tooth-ache, head-ache, swelling, rheu 
 matism, strained joints. Some also take it internally and it ap 
 pears to have hurt no one in this way. Some, indeed, declare 
 that the oil flows from the coal deposits, but this is not likely, 
 for in the first place, there is no sign of pit coal to be seen in 
 this region one sees nothing more than poor sandstone and, 
 in the second place, in other parts where there is much pit coal, 
 as for example, along the Muskingum, no sign of oil is to be 
 seen. Were the oil to be found there, the Indians would know 
 of it, for they value it highly and have looked for it, but found 
 none. Most probably it comes out of the earth. It is brownish 
 in color and may be used in lamps, for it burns well. 
 
 Salt springs are to be found both along the Muskingum and 
 along the Ohio. Of this salt the Indians make little use; they 
 prefer to buy it from the whites, even though they have to pay 
 a high price for it owing to the fact that it has to be brought 
 a considerable distance from the seaports. Moreover, they use 
 very little salt and seem not to require it. They often eat their 
 food unsalted, even though the}- may have the salt, until they feel 
 a longing- for it. 
 
 These salt springs are usually to be found on the bank of 
 a creek or even in the middle of the creek on a sand-bank, the 
 fresh water flowing on both sides. The Indians have on occa 
 sion boiled a considerable quantity of salt in a short time at 
 such a well, so that it would appear worth the labor to get it, 
 especially as it is so expensive. 
 
 There are, also, many salt licks to which cattle, horses 
 and game go in large numbers. These are generally springs 
 that have salt or saltpetre 137 in them. 
 
 The common sort of stones in this region along the Ohio 
 are the sandstones. Some are very hard, others soft. They 
 
54 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 are, for the most part, of a gray, fine sand and make as good 
 whetstones as one might wish. Rocks you meet occasionally 
 along the Ohio, but away from the river and here along the 
 Muskingum very few, even most of, the mountains and hills are 
 not rocky. 
 
 Pit-coal is found in abundance, but as there is no lack of 
 wood it is little used and hardly thought of by the Indians. In 
 Pittsburg the coal is used in fire-places and by blacksmiths. 
 
 A kind of stone, black in color, is found here, that is easily 
 worked and cut. It has no sand in its composition and the 
 Indians make tobacco pipes of it, some doing very neat work. 
 
 There is also a kind of stone, blue in color, which is very 
 hard. It somewhat resembles the limestone of Pensilvanien, 
 but examination has shown it to be different. Limestone has not 
 yet been found in this region. 
 
 A mineralogist would find many more varieties to describe, 
 to which I am unable to give even the names, especially along 
 the shores of the river, where all kinds may be seen, green, yel 
 low, blue, red and black. About ore I know little or nothing 
 concerning this region. The Indians believed themselves to have 
 found gold and silver, but what they produced as precious ore, 
 because it resembled this somewhat, on the test and examination 
 of whites was found to be sulphurous substance. 138 Whatever 
 glitters, the Indians are apt to look upon at once as being gold 
 or silver. 
 
 The Cherokees, who through the years have had much inter 
 course with the Delawares, brought with them many tobacco 
 pipes for trade. These they made of quite white stone, probably 
 white marble. 139 When completed they blackened the pipes and 
 in such a way that they retained their color. These pipes are 
 made so neatly that they are no heavier than the European 
 pipes. 
 
 From the Mississippi the Indians bring red marble, when 
 ever they come from that direction. Of this pipes are also made. 
 Such pipes, however, are as a rule to be seen only in the posses 
 sion of chiefs or captains, for not many of them are to be had. 
 A pipe of this sort is generally used in council or on solemn 
 occasions. This is carried about bv the chief counsellor, each 
 
North American Indians. 55 
 
 one present draws a few whiffs of smoke and this is called smok 
 ing the peace-pipe. 
 
 There are four kinds of clay. There is the white, which is 
 almost like chalk and with which, when dry, one can write as 
 with chalk. 140 Another variety is quite black. This, however, 
 becomes quite white when burned. Besides these, gray and 
 yellow clays are found. A sort of yellow earth, rather of an 
 orange tinge is found, of which the Indians, especially the war 
 riors, make a fine color by burning. 14 With this they paint 
 themselves and they are particularly careful that the head shall 
 be always red. It is not too much for the Wiondats to come 
 here to Tuscarawi, a distance of at least a hundred miles, to 
 supply themselves with this red coloring matter. 
 
 Concerning plants and roots of medicinal virtue, it would 
 be possible, if one were to devote himself to inquiry, to secure 
 a great deal of information from the Indians, for what one of 
 these does not know another does, each man and woman having 
 some knowledge in this direction, some more, some less. Hence, 
 the custom that a patient who has consulted an Indian and se 
 cured a medicine from him without, however, being benefited, 
 will go immediately to another ; if no relief is obtained through 
 his advice, the patient goes to a third, a fourth until he finds 
 one whose medicine helps. For many ailments they have very 
 good remedies, e. g., for rheumatism. In respect to this affliction 
 I have witnessed instances where they have effected a thorough 
 cure and not only once or twice. At times they can secure 
 desired results with only two or three kinds of roots, at other 
 times more are required. If a simple remedy does not afford 
 relief, they may use twenty or more kinds of roots. Even in 
 such cases I know of cures having been effected. In treating 
 rheumatism, bathing and sweating play a great part. 
 
 They have remedies even for fevers. When a patient has 
 been given a dose, they are generally able to tell from its work 
 ings whether he will recover or die. If he does not retain the 
 medicine, this is regarded as a sign that he will hardly recover. 
 I have paid some attention to this and like cases of treatment 
 and found that the Indians have generally been correct in their 
 
56 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 predictions. In one important respect, according to my opinion, 
 they make mistakes, namely, in not properly measuring doses 
 and often needlessly torturing patients. Hence, it is that in con 
 nection with the external hurts, where over-treatment is less 
 likely to occur, they have the better results, as is the case with 
 rheumatism, for which they use only external applications. One 
 Indian knows of good remedies for one disease or kind of in 
 jury, another another. Owing to the fact that they rarely re 
 veal their knowledge to each other, much of the practical knowl 
 edge is lost. 
 
 In the matter of diseases peculiar to women, the women 
 know a number of remedies, which usually act quickly and 
 well, as in the case of hard labor, which sometimes occurs, though 
 not frequently, and in other troubles. If mothers cannot suckle 
 children for want of milk, they are able, by use of a drink, to 
 increase the supply. 142 
 
 In the use of poisonous roots the Indians are well versed, 
 and there are many melancholy examples where they have by 
 their use destroyed themselves or others. If a case of poi 
 soning is taken in time, the effect of the poisonous root may 
 be prevented by inducing vomiting. In case assistance is ren 
 dered too late, death follows, as a rule, in a few hours. There 
 are poisonous roots that operate by slow degrees, in some cases 
 illness may last a year or longer. 
 
 The so-called Poison Vine 143 grows plentifully in the bot 
 toms. It climbs up the trees, much as a grape vine will, the 
 main stem becoming as thick as an arm. Some are affected 
 with swelling in the face and body if they touch it, others, even 
 when the wind blows over it upon them. This is very painful 
 until cured. Others do not suffer from the vine at all. This 
 holds good of Indians as of others. 
 
 There are some poisonous trees. 144 These do not attain 
 great height. They have a milky juice under the bark which 
 is very poisonous. 
 
 The bark of many different kinds of trees is used by the 
 Indians for preparing medicine. Occasionally, you will meet 
 an Indian who has knowledge in this kind of remedies, but 
 knows nothing of roots or herbs. With the white walnut bark, 145 
 
North American Indians. 57 
 
 used externally and internally, they effect many cures. Laid 
 upon flesh wounds this relieves pain at once, prevents swelling 
 and accelerates healing. Applied externally in case of tooth 
 ache, head-ache or pain in the limbs, this brings speedy relief. 
 Beyond question there are many roots and herbs not found 
 in Europe ; perhaps it would be safe to say that this is true of 
 most here found, but as I am no authority in this subject and 
 know no names, except perhaps the Indian designations, I will 
 add nothing further about roots and herbs. Doubtless, there are 
 books from which one might get more information than it is 
 in my power to give. 
 
 The following quadrupeds are to be found along the Ohio: 
 In the first place, there are the deer, 146 whose skins are much 
 used in barter and trade by the Indians. Their horns are not 
 straight, but bent toward each other and have prongs. From 
 May until September they are red, after that they lose the red 
 hair and their hide is covered with long, gray hair, which is their 
 winter coat. At about the beginning of the year they shed 
 their horns ; new ones grow in spring. These are at first and 
 until they attain their full size, covered with a thin skin, which 
 peels off when the horns harden. The tail is about a foot long 
 and stands up straight when they run. As the under side of the 
 tail is white it is possible to see them running at a great dis 
 tance. The young are born in June or about that time, are red, 
 spotted with white, until in the fall when they become gray. 
 D.eer have young each spring, sometimes two. As, however, 
 they are hunted so persistently at the call of trade, their num 
 bers diminish with each year, even though the forests are of 
 vast extent, for the hunters are many. A large buckskin is 
 valued at a Spanish dollar ; two doeskins are regarded as equal 
 in value to one buckskin. 147 
 
 The bear is quite black, has short ears, a thick head and 
 quite a sharp snout. 148 It has but a very short tail and great 
 strong claws on his feet. It can easily climb the trees and bring 
 down chestnuts and acorns. This is done, however, only when 
 these are not ripe and do not, therefore, fall down. They gen 
 erally break off the branches, throw them down and then climb 
 
58 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 down to consume the nuts. Where there is food and mast they 
 are found. It is as if they knew that in this or that region it 
 would be good for them to live. In the fall, when the Indians 
 hunt the deer, they take no notice of the bears ; otherwise they 
 would spoil their fall hunting. They do, however, notice their 
 tracks and whither they lead. At the end of December the bears, 
 having fattened, seek their winter quarters, which they prepare 
 in the trunks of hollow trees or in caves or the thickest part 
 of the forest, where many old trees lie piled up. They leave 
 their winter quarters in early spring, if they have young, of 
 which there are generally two, not until May. During this 
 period they are said to eat nothing, but to live on their own 
 fat. When the deer hunt of the fall, at which season skins are 
 best, is over, the Indians immediately prepare for the bear hunt. 
 They are remarkably expert in finding out the haunts of these 
 animals. If the bears are in hollow trees, it is frequently neces 
 sary to cut down the tree, as the bear will not leave his retreat 
 otherwise. In case the bear comes out when they hammer on the 
 tree and make a noise, they stand prepared with their guns to 
 kill him as soon as most of his bulk is emerged. Their skins 
 are no great object for trade, hence the Indians prefer to use 
 them for their sleeping places, for which the long hair makes 
 them peculiarly useful. There is likewise a kind of bear, much 
 larger than the common bear, with much hair on the legs, but 
 little on the bodies, which appear quite smooth. 149 The Indians 
 call it the king of bears, for they have found by experience that 
 many bears will willingly follow it. While all the bears are carniv 
 orous, and, therefore, flesh of game kept by the Indians hanging on 
 trees forms for them a welcome repast, or they are fond of feed 
 ing on swine they catch in the forest, this kind of bear is par 
 ticularly voracious. Many instances are known where they have 
 seized upon even defenseless Indian women and children. In 
 more northerly regions, as, e. g., in the country of the Mingoes, 
 these are more frequently found and they have killed many 
 Indians. 
 
 Elk are in my estimation most like the European stag, 150 and 
 I have often thought that they must be the same species and 
 that what is here called the stag is the European fallow deer. 
 
North American Indians. 59 
 
 but as I have seen neither stag nor fallow deer in Europe I can 
 not speak authoritatively. I recognize that the English distin 
 guish between the elk and the stag in Europe. They, also, shed 
 their coat in spring and are reddish in color during the sum 
 mer like the deer. In fall they are light gray and in winter 
 dark gray. The bucks have long, heavy antlers with many 
 prongs. These they shed each year as do the deer. The tail 
 is quite short. As the skins are very thick and heavy and of no 
 particular value, elk do not tempt the Indians to the chase. Oc 
 casionally, one is shot that happens near an Indian, but most 
 of the flesh is left in the forest for beasts of prey, even though 
 the animals are always fat, in summer as in winter and do not 
 become lean, like the deer. 
 
 The buffaloes 151 are dark brown in color, covered with long 
 hair, or rather soft down mixed with hair. Their legs are short, 
 the body is very heavy. They have a hunch upon their backs, 
 just above the shoulders. This diminishes toward the rear, 
 hence, they appear much shorter from the back than from the 
 front. They have a thick head and a long beard depends from 
 the chin. Altogether, they present a terrible appearance. Their 
 horns are short, but thick and quite black. The buffaloes are a 
 good deal heavier and larger than cattle. One that I have seen 
 was a yearling, raised by the Indians and quite tame ; even this 
 was the size of a small cow, that has already had calf. At one 
 time these animals appeared in great numbers along the Mus- 
 kingum, but as soon as the country begins to be inhabited by the 
 Indians, they retire and are now only to be found near the mouth 
 of the above named river. Along the banks of the Scioto and 
 further south, both Indians and whites say that they may be 
 seen in herds numbering hundreds. That is two or three hun 
 dred miles from here. If a buffalo cow is shot, its calf, if such 
 it has, will stand quietly by until the huntsman has skinned its 
 dam and then follow him into his hut, stay at his fire and not 
 leave him. That this is true, I have living witnesses enough 
 about me to testify. 
 
 The panther 152 has a head and face like a cat, its legs are 
 short and the paws are armed with sharp claws. It is a beast 
 of prey of uncommon strength. Its tail is long, compared with 
 
60 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 that of the cat. Deer it is able to catch at will. If it spies one 
 and is desirous of capturing it, the panther crawls along the 
 ground behind fallen trees or through the thicket until it is sure 
 of capturing the deer in one leap. Then it springs upon its 
 prey, seizes it with its claws and does not release its hold until 
 the victim is dead. If it misses its aim at the first spring, it 
 never attempts a second. When the deer has been killed, the 
 panther devours but a small part, leaving the rest. When again 
 pressed by hunger it seeks new game. At a distance of ten 
 yards from a tree, the panther can leap ten yards up the tree 
 and leap the same distance from the tree. It is not known that 
 a panther has ever done the Indians injury without provocation. 
 Should an Indian get near the place where the young are kept, 
 then he is in great danger and if he does not know what to do 
 under such circumstances, is almost sure to lose his life. He 
 must never turn his back upon the panther, thinking that he 
 can escape. He must not take his eyes off the animal, and if he 
 has not the courage to shoot, gently walk backward, until he 
 is a good distance away. If he shoots and misses, then he is in 
 imminent danger and must keep his eyes fixed on the panther. It 
 has happened that in this way Indians have saved their lives. 
 It has occurred that a bear has fought so long with a panther, 
 near to where the latter had its young, that both fell dead. The 
 skin of the panther is gray in color, mixed with reddish hair. 
 W r ild cats, gray in color, are distinguished from the do 
 mestic cats in that they have hardly any tail. 153 They are beasts 
 f prey, even invade the hunting lodges of the Indians, when 
 the latter are out and if they find meat devour it. 
 
 There are three varieties of fox, red, 154 gray 155 and black. 156 
 The raccoon 157 is somewhat larger than a common cat and 
 has a pointed snout. Its forefeet bear some resemblance to hands 
 and are used as such, for it digs up small mussels out of the 
 sand, which form its food when there are no acorns or chest 
 nuts to be had. Its hind legs resemble those of the bear. It is 
 fattest in autumn and winter, when it lives in hollow logs like a 
 bear, without seeking food. They do not hibernate as long as 
 do the bears. In a severe winter it retires for two whole months, 
 
North American Indians. 61 
 
 otherwise, only four weeks. The flesh is wholesome and tastes 
 like bears meat and its skin is useful to hatters. 
 
 The otter 158 can live on land or in water. It often travels 
 a considerable distance across the country from one creek or 
 river to another. 
 
 The beaver 159 was formerly found in great numbers in this 
 region, but since the Indians have learned from the whites to 
 catch them in steel-traps, 100 they are more rarely found. A neces 
 sary thing in connection with the beaver-catch is a certain oil 
 or spirit which the Indians prepare of various kinds of bark of 
 trees and other aromatic things, which they place in the traps 
 to decoy the beavers into them. The skins are always of con 
 siderable value. They are very industrious animals and for their 
 size, of uncommon strength. Beaver dams of such dimensions 
 are found in creeks, that it might be imagined that they had been 
 built by human hands. Such dams they build when there are 
 many together, for they work harmoniously, at night, in order to 
 dam up the water and often put a considerable piece of land 
 under water in course of their operations. In the middle of the 
 dam they build their dwelling places that are raised above the 
 water, wood and earth being the materials used. As their dens 
 are in the middle of the lakes they cannot be easily reached. 
 In the front part of the mouth they have four quite broad and 
 very sharp teeth, two above and two below. With these they 
 are able to gnaw through trees that are nearly a foot in diam 
 eter. When the tree is down they divide it into pieces of such 
 size that they are able to manage them. These pieces carried 
 into the water, they join together in such fashion that the water 
 cannot tear them apart. I have myself seen in quite a large 
 creek a beaver dam, in which the beavers were still undis 
 turbed at home, so that I could observe their habits and work. 
 The dam, extending straight across the creek, reached three 
 feet above the water, so that it was possible to cross the creek 
 dry shod, and put several acres of land under water. In another 
 place, where the water had threatened to take another course, 
 they had been obliged to build another dam, made of earth and 
 branches of trees. Had this dam not been so far from human 
 habitation, one might have thought that it had been constructed 
 
62 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 by men. The animals are of a dark brown color, have short legs 
 and broad feet, adapted to swimming and armed with short 
 claws. The tail is broad and flat. At the end it is broadest, 
 smooth, without any hair, and looks as though covered with 
 fish scales. The tail furnshes the best flesh and is much liked 
 by the Indians. It has an appearance different from the rest 
 of the animal s flesh, being more like fish meat. As the skins 
 always bring a good price, the Indians hunt these animals con 
 stantly. 
 
 The opossum is about as large as a small dog, of grayish 
 white color and carnivorous. 01 If it finds a dead deer, it strikes 
 into the carcass, lives there and devours it gradually. It climbs 
 the trees and sleeps hanging to a branch by its tail, 162 which 
 is bare of hair and quite round. Should one approach it un 
 awares, it never attempts to escape but lies down as dead and 
 makes no motion, though handled and turned. If one leaves 
 it, the animal watches and creeps off slyly as soon as the enemy 
 has retired some distance. It is not able to run swiftly. The 
 female has a bag under her belly, in which she carries her 
 young until they are too large for this receptacle, when they 
 follow the mother. If she meets with a fallen tree in her passage, 
 she either walks around or lifts her young, one by one, over the 
 trunk and then proceeds on her journey. The flesh of the crea 
 ture tastes like pork and is eaten by the English, rarely by the 
 Indians. 
 
 The pole-cat 163 has white and black markings, a gentle and 
 mild countenance. It goes out of the way for no one, and who 
 ever approaches too near is ill rewarded for his curiosity. It 
 has a special gland containing a fluid intolerably foetid. If 
 one approaches too closely, the fluid is discharged and thrown 
 in all directions with the tail. The offensive odor no one can 
 bear and one is ready enough to get away. If one s person or 
 clothes has been infected by the moisture, it is necessary to bathe 
 and change before returning into company. Even dogs, when 
 they kill the animal, find the stench unbearable. Yet the flesh 
 of the creature is eaten by the Indians. It is said to be very 
 good and not to have any offensive odor. 
 
North American Indians. 63 
 
 The porcupine 164 is not found along the Muskingum, seldom 
 seen along the Ohio to the north, but frequently in the country 
 of the Mingoes. The Indians eat its flesh, which tastes like 
 pork, with great relish. It climbs the trees nimbly and has its 
 home in hollow trees. The body is heavier than that of the fox. 
 On the back the animal has whitish-brown quills, the length of 
 a finger. These the squaws, particularly among the Mingoes, 
 color red and use as needles to ornament their moccasins, pouches, 
 in which tobacco and pipes are carried, and other things. As 
 it cannot run swiftly, when anyone approaches, the animal turns 
 its back, which is full of quills, toward the enemy, unless it is 
 possible to get up a tree. Hence, they are easily killed. Dogs 
 that attack the creature, suffer terribly and usually die, unless 
 all the quills they have gotten into their bodies are removed, 
 which is not easily accomplished, as many of them break off. 
 
 There is a small animal in the Mingoe country, called the 
 marten, 165 concerning which I have been told that it probably be 
 longs to the sable tribe. Though but small animals, their skins 
 are of great value. The Indians catch them in wooden traps, 
 using meat as a bait. The skins are sold to the whites. 
 
 I have already referred to the moose 166 that are to be 
 found further north, of which I have seen nothing but the horns. 
 The latter differ from those of the elk in that the prongs are 
 broad and round. The Indians declare that these are equal in 
 size to a horse. They have cloven hoofs and nostrils large 
 enough to put a hand in. As I have no certain knowledge of 
 these animals and have never even in Europe seen any nor have 
 ever had a satisfactory description, I will not definitely declare 
 that these are the animals they speak of, though I should be at 
 a loss to know what other animals they refer to. 
 
 The muskrat, 167 able to live in or out of the water, is in 
 many respects most like the beaver. Its tail is not broad as 
 that of the beaver, but oval-shaped. Their dwellings are in the 
 water, but so arranged that they can, according to inclination, 
 be in the water or in a dry place. A great quantity of odorous 
 matter is found in the body of this animal. The odor is un 
 pleasant when too strong, but a little of it is agreeable. In the 
 
64 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 settlements of the white people the muskrat does much damage 
 to mill-dams by its burrowing. 
 
 There are three kinds of squirrels, the black, 168 the grey, 168 
 and the red. The black are most commonly found, the grey 
 are the largest and the red the smallest in size. Their flesh is 
 tender, and eaten by the Indians in case of sickness or when 
 they are very hungry for meat. 
 
 The ground squirrel 170 lives under the ground and is some 
 what smaller than a common rat. They do great damage in 
 the fields of the Indians, not only digging out the corn when 
 it has been planted, but also pumpkin and melon seed. When 
 the Indian corn is ripe, they lay in good stores of it for the 
 winter. They stuff their cheeks full of it and then carry it to 
 their storehouses. 
 
 The groundhog 171 also has its dwelling under ground. It 
 is about the size of a large domestic cat, though heavier. It 
 lives on grass and is, also, very fond of melons and pumpkins. 
 It chews the cud. 172 Its feet are armed with claws. When 
 pursued and unable to reach its hole, the animal will climb a 
 tree. The flesh is toothsome and eaten by the Indians. 
 
 There is, also, a very large variety of wild cat, 173 other 
 than the kind already mentioned. This is as large as a dog. It 
 is very savage, even attacking a deer and killing it. 
 
 The hare 174 in these parts is small and not found in large 
 numbers, being pursued by birds and beasts of prey. Towards 
 the north I have seen them of the same size as those in Europe. 
 In that region some are found with a snow white fur. 175 They 
 dwell in hollow trees. 
 
 White deer are seldom seen in these parts. 176 These have 
 generally in summer some red and in winter some gray spots. 
 The Indians call a white deer the king of the deer and believe 
 that the rest flock about and follow him. 177 
 
 Wolves are very numerous, most are gray, some are almost 
 black. As their skins serve no useful purpose and are not much 
 valued, the Indians do not pursue them, unless they catch them 
 tearing skins or devouring meat they have carefully laid away. 
 Sometimes the wolves break into their hunting huts and do much 
 damage. They rarely attack men, never when there are deer 
 
North American Indians. 65 
 
 to pursue. The latter they attack in summer or winter, never 
 stopping pursuit until a victim has been captured. Occasionally 
 the deer save themselves in creeks and rivers, swimming a great 
 distance down stream, so that it is impossible for the wolves to 
 trace them. When a wolf has caught a deer and killed it, it 
 will not at once consume the flesh, but go to the highest hill 
 nearby and call its comrades, by howling. When these have 
 assembled they devour the deer together. 
 
 Wild geese 178 appear here in spring and autumn. Some 
 remain during the winter, others during the summer, the latter 
 hatching their young in this region. Most of them remain long 
 in this country, passing toward winter into a warmer latitude, 
 toward summer to the north, where they build in the neighbor 
 hood of the Great Lakes and return in autumn with their young. 
 
 Wild ducks are birds of passage like the geese, but there 
 are some varieties that stay during the summer season. One 
 kind, called the tree duck, builds its nest in hollow trees, either 
 hanging over the water or near to it. 179 When the young are 
 hatched, they are thrown into the water and taken elsewhere. 
 The male bird is the most beautiful of the water-fowls and very 
 good to eat. 
 
 Another variety, that also has its nest here, is the shel 
 drake. 180 This has a narrow bill, armed with teeth. They live 
 on fish, their flesh having the taste of fish. Indians rarely use 
 them for food, though the flesh of some is very palatable. 181 
 
 The crane is the largest of the birds of these parts. 182 Stand 
 ing on its long legs and stretching its neck upwards, it is as 
 tall as a man. Its body is proportionately heavy. When hit by 
 a shot and only wounded, it attacks its pursuer and has great 
 power in striking with its wings. It is gray in color, has a 
 sharply pointed bill and its feet are formed like those of the 
 turkey. This bird is commonly found upon large plains or near 
 to rivers. Their flesh is dark, rather tough and seldom eaten 
 by the Indians. Their trumpeting may be heard a considerable 
 distance. 
 
 Wild swans 183 are quite like the domestic birds, I have seen 
 in Holland, quite white and of the same size. The Indians 
 5 
 
66 Daiid Zeisberyers History 
 
 declare that their flesh tastes like that of the hear, of which 
 they are particularly fond, and is often so fat that pieces may 
 be cut from the flesh. 
 
 Wild turkeys 184 may be seen in the fall in flocks numbering 
 hundreds. In the summer they disperse in the woods, this being 
 the time for hatching the young. In winter their plumage is of 
 a shining black, with white spots on the wings ; in summer it 
 changes to a light brown. When the time comes for laying 
 the eggs, the Indians seek them, as they are very fond of them. 
 
 Pheasants are not valued by the Indians, though their flesh 
 is palatable. 185 They fall victims, however, to birds of prey. 
 Were it not for the birds of prey the woods would swarm with 
 them, for the hen lays above twenty eggs at one time. 
 
 Heath-grouse, found here also, are a little larger than the 
 pheasants. 186 They are not valued by the Indians any more than 
 the pheasants. In the winter the latter shelter themselves from 
 the birds by plunging, when pursued, into the snow, often run 
 ning a considerable distance from one place to another under 
 the snow, thus escaping their foes. 
 
 The wild pigeon 187 is of an ash-gray color, the male being 
 distinguished by a red breast. In some years in fall, or even in 
 spring, they flock together in such numbers that the air is 
 darkened by their flight. Three years ago they appeared in such 
 great numbers that the ground under their roosting-place was 
 covered with their dung above a foot high, during one night. 
 The Indians went out, killed them with sticks and came home 
 loaded. At such a time the noise the pigeons make is such that 
 it is difficult for people near them to hear or understand each 
 other. They do not always gather in such numbers in one 
 place, often scattering over the great forests. 
 
 The turtle-doves are smaller than the pigeons and are 
 always found in pairs. 188 
 
 Partridges are small, neatly formed birds. 189 In the fall 
 and winter they fly in broods. In the settlements they like to 
 remain near the plantations, as they find the food they like in 
 the fields. The flesh is tender and of a fine flavor. They are 
 favorites with all people, being innocent and harmless birds. 
 
North American Indians. 67 
 
 The eagle has a white head and tail. 190 The wings are 
 black and the body partly black and partly ash-colored. It 
 builds its nest usually in the fork of some lofty and thick tree. 
 It lays the foundation with a great quantity of branches and 
 repairs the nest built there every spring. Usually, they hatch 
 but one, at most two, in a year. It is unquestionably the strong 
 est among the birds of prey. I have seen it fight with another 
 bird of prey, 101 much larger than itself and that wished to occupy 
 its nest. Lifting the other bird into the air, the eagle hurled it 
 down, after having severely injured it. Every morning the eagle 
 goes out in search of prey and brings to its young, birds, squir 
 rels, snakes and fish. Fish now and then prove destructive to 
 them, for in attacking large fish, the bird sometimes cannot dis 
 engage its talons soon enough, but is drawn down into the water 
 and drowned. 
 
 There is another species of eagle that I have seen nowhere 
 but in this region. The Indians call it Chauwalanne, forked 
 eagle, 192 from the fact that its tail is forked. It often soars to 
 such a height that the eye cannot reach it. If it approaches the 
 dwellings of the Indians, they always look upon it as a sign of 
 change of weather or rain. Often the change follows such 
 approach. It feeds upon snakes and other creatures, as does 
 the white-headed eagle, but it is as a rule, continually on the 
 wing during its repast. It builds its nest in high trees, but in 
 as concealed a place as can be found. 
 
 Of other birds of prey, there are to be found here the 
 hawk, 193 the stone-falcon, 194 that remains near the rocks, the 
 pigeon-hawk, 195 that pursues not only the pigeon but all other 
 birds it can conquer, though it is a small bird and not as large as 
 the pigeon. 
 
 The wood-pecker has a light red head with a red plume 
 and is otherwise black with white spots. 196 It finds its food in 
 old trees, this consisting of worms that are to be found in the 
 wood. 
 
 One variety is called the Red-headed Wood-pecker, 197 be<- 
 cause of the red head, is a nuisance in orchards, because it at 
 tacks the apples. 
 
68 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 Another variety of wood-pecker is very small, is spotted 
 and is much pursued by birds of prey, especially the hawk. 
 Occasionally, the wood-pecker is able to defend himself against 
 his enemies, it having happened that this bird when attacked, 
 has thrust its bill into the head of the pursuer so that the latter 
 fell dead. 
 
 The yellow wood-pecker, 108 so called because of its yellow 
 wings, also climbs up and down the trees in search of food, 
 with its head turned upward or downward. 
 
 A few green parrots 199 are seen in the woods here in sum 
 mer. Further south they may be found in great numbers. 
 
 The loon 200 is a water bird about the size of a goose and is 
 heavily feathered. It is spotted black and white, lives on fish 
 and has a pointed bill. It cannot walk on land, as its feet are 
 too far back, but is a strong swimmer. It can swim a consid 
 erable distance under the water, before rising to the surface, 
 especially if it is being fired upon. Often the Indians are 
 obliged to shoot a number of times before they hit the bird, for 
 it is noted for its swiftness in diving, as well as for its swim 
 ming. It is not eatable, but the Indians make pouches of its 
 skin, which is taken off whole, large enough to hold pipe, to 
 bacco, flint, steel and knife. 
 
 There are two other birds of prey among those that fish, 
 the one larger than the eagle 201 the other a small bird 202 that 
 makes its nest on the ground along steep banks of creeks or 
 rivers, where it makes a hole just large enough to slip into. 
 
 The heron 203 has long legs, great wings and a lean body. 
 
 There are two kinds of owls. The larger 204 is heard very 
 much in the woods at night. 
 
 Crows 205 do much damage on the plantations, especially in 
 the cornfields, both when the corn is planted and when it is ripe. 
 
 The Turkey Posser 206 has a head like a turkey, without 
 feathers. It lives on carrion. The raven 207 is also a scavenger 
 and at the same time a bird of prey, often attacking chickens. 
 The raven makes good use of the meat that Indians leave in the 
 woods. 
 
 The hoopoe 208 is fawn colored on the back and has a brown- 
 
North American Indians. 69 
 
 ish breast. It has a plume of feathers on its head and is to be 
 found along creeks and rivers where it finds its food. 
 
 The black-bird 209 has a reddish breast and its wings and 
 back are ash-colored. Its song may be heard in wild regions 
 and deserts. 
 
 The blue-bird 210 has a reddish breast also, otherwise its 
 color is a beautiful azure. It makes its appearance in spring 
 before any other bird. 
 
 The mocking-bird 211 mimics what it hears and imitates other 
 birds. 
 
 A certain yellow 212 bird with black wings is to be found 
 everywhere in great numbers. Its song is very agreeable. 
 
 There is another kind, 213 orange in color with black spots. 
 This bird hangs its nest, made of wild hemp or flax, on the 
 branches of trees. At one side of the nest there is a little open 
 ing at which the bird goes in and out. 
 
 Another kind of birds, 214 light-red in color, is particularly 
 beautiful, as is another red bird 215 with black wings. Both kinds 
 I have seen in Georgia and South Carolina. 
 
 Starlings 216 are quite black and found here in great num 
 bers. They do much damage on the plantations. 
 
 The cat-bird 217 is so called because its note is like the mew 
 ing of a cat. 
 
 Finches, 218 torn-tits, 219 wrens, 220 are found in great num 
 bers. 
 
 The smallest of the birds of this region is the honey-bird, 221 
 Without perching on the flowers, it sucks the honey out of them. 
 In its swift flight it makes the air buzz and hum with its wings. 
 
 Serpents are so numerous that it is remarkable that Indians 
 who spend much of their time in the forests are not bitten oftener. 
 In stony places or mountains they are found most frequently. 
 The winter they spend underground or in crevices of the rocks. 
 In places where they are numerous, they gather in the fall and lie 
 upon one another and twisted together until spring. Should 
 they be discovered in winter they have to all appearances but 
 little life, being able to move, but not having strength enough 
 to crawl away. 
 
70 David Zeisbergcr s History 
 
 (i) Among the most dangerous reptiles are the rattle 
 snakes. 22 They are yellow in color, marked with black spots. 
 The largest are about four feet long, sometimes more, and about 
 as thick as an arm. The rattles are at the end of their tails, 
 and often betray the snakes when they are not seen. These rat 
 tles appear to be a thin, transparent horny substance, arranged 
 in links. From the number of links it is possible to tell the 
 age of the serpent, one being added every year. It is a rare 
 thing to find one with twenty rattles. When the rattling sound 
 is heard, it is a sign that the serpent is angry, the trembling 
 of the tail causing the rattling. Even when they glide along 
 the rattles make a slight sound which can, however, be detected 
 only by those well acquainted with the ways of the snake. They 
 do not rattle unless something approaches them. Head and 
 mouth are rather broad in proportion to the size. On either 
 side of the mouth they have two very sharp teeth, which lie 
 concealed in a skin sack until they want to bite, when they are 
 able to move these forward with great swiftness. Hence, it is 
 that when anyone has been bitten four little openings close 
 together may be seen in the skin. If a rattlesnake has been 
 killed, which often happens, as they do not seek to escape nor 
 go out of the way for any one, and one draws forward the 
 teeth with a little stick, a clear liquid spurts out of the bag lying 
 at the root of the teeth. This is the poisonous juice. Un 
 doubtedly, the teeth in themselves are also poisonous. Indians 
 who have been bitten, even if they happen to be quite alone in 
 the forest, know what to do. They seek certain herbs and roots 
 that may be found anywhere and cure themselves of the bite, 
 so that one rarely hears of death occasioned by the bite of this 
 serpent. Horses or cattle bitten in the woods, where it is not 
 possible to render immediate assistance, die in a short time. 
 With proper management these animals may recover in twenty- 
 four hours. With human beings a cure is not effected so 
 quickly, and a curious thing is that the part where a human 
 being has been bitten, becomes spotted like the rattlesnake. The 
 fat of the rattlesnake is used by apothecaries. Here along the 
 Muskingum rattlesnakes are not as numerous as in some regions 
 that are stony or mountainous. Along the Susquehanna there 
 
North American Indians. 71 
 
 are very many, especially along the West Branch up in the 
 mountains. In that country in the spring of the year when the 
 snakes come out of their holes they have been seen in such num 
 bers in certain places that it would have been possible to load 
 up several wagons with them, the air being infected with an 
 intolerable stench. This was seen to be the case by Indians who 
 were coming down the West Branch. At the time many of the 
 reptiles had already crawled up the mountains, which were very 
 steep. As there were many fallen leaves about, they set fire 
 to them and the trees with the result that many of the snakes 
 rolled down the mountains and were burned. When I passed 
 through that region the first time, which was in June, I did, 
 indeed, see unusually many rattlesnakes, but I could hardly 
 have believed that there would be as many as the above incident 
 would indicate. The second time, however, when my travels 
 took me through that country, which happened in July, my com 
 panion and I had quite a different experience. Xot only did 
 we see them singly and in smaller numbers along the wayside, 
 but in stony places so many around that when we began to kill 
 them there was rattling all about to such a degree that we held 
 it advisable to get out of that region as soon as possible. After 
 this I could believe what I had heard, for in the fall, when they 
 gather at different places, there must be immense number of them. 
 
 2) Copperheads, 223 named from the color of the reptiles. 
 Their bite is as venomous as that of rattlesnakes. 
 
 3) Vipers 224 have a flat head, are short and thick, black 
 on the back and gray on the belly. \Vhen approached, they dis 
 tend the head and hiss so that it is possible to hear them at quite 
 a distance. Their bite also is venomous. 
 
 4) One variety 225 of snake found here I have met with in 
 no other region. The belly is quite red. These serpents may 
 be found in the water and on land. They get to be from five 
 to six feet in length and their bite is poisonous. To cure the 
 bite of this reptile the Indians use a plant that grows in the 
 water. These snakes have teeth all around the mouth, above 
 and below, but no fangs. 
 
 5) Hornsnakes 226 are in color and size like the copperheads, 
 except that they have a sharply pointed horn on the tail. They 
 
72 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 are as venomous as the copperheads and like them, only of 
 middle size. 
 
 6) There is another kind 227 of blacksnake which gets to be 
 about six feet long, but it is slender and able to move more 
 swiftly. These climb trees and despoil nests of the young birds. 
 The bite of the reptile causes a slight swelling, but has no other 
 evil effects. 
 
 7) Water snakes 228 spend much of their time in the water, 
 live on fish and are not poisonous. 
 
 8) A kind of striped, brightly marked snakes, 229 which 
 are small and harmless. 
 
 9) There are green snakes, 280 white-bellied, not more than 
 a foot in length and harmless. 
 
 I have myself seen a hawk descend on a blacksnake, of the 
 kind described under number 6, and attack it, but the snake 
 quickly coiled itself round the bird and killed it. 
 
 Concerning none of the reptiles described above, beyond 
 the rattlesnake, is it known that they gather in great numbers 
 at any time. None are so numerously represented as the rattle 
 snakes. All of them swallow their prey whole. Frogs, 
 turtles, birds, groundhogs, squirrels, they swallow thus, but 
 by slow degrees. They usually begin with the hind leg of 
 an animal and gradually draw it in. All serpents cast 
 their coat in spring. Often the whole skin of a snake, com 
 plete from the head downward, may be seen lying on the ground. 
 This is very thin. The new skin of a black serpent is a shining 
 jet. It is said that a rattlesnake, if irritated, and unable to 
 avenge itself, will sink its fangs into its own body, with the 
 result that it swells considerably and dies in a few hours. This 
 snake is said to possess another peculiar property, as witnessed 
 both by Indians and whites, viz., that of gazing with fixed eyes 
 upon bird or squirrel and by a kind of fascination, stupefying 
 them in such a manner that the poor creatures drop from the 
 boughs and fall easy prey to their enemy. 
 
 Lizards are but rarely found here. One variety, not above 
 five or six inches in length, is said to be poisonous. Indians 
 make much ado when they see them and try to frighten them 
 away. They dwell in hollow trees, where they also keep their 
 
North American Indians. 73 
 
 young. Other varieties, some very small, come into the huts 
 that are reared in the forests and are very harmless. 
 
 Of fishes, there are doubtless many more varieties than 
 those I have seen in the Ohio. I will, however, confine notice 
 to those I have seen and know. 
 
 1 ) Pike 231 are of uncommon size and generally known. 
 
 2) The black-fish, 232 as the Indians call it, has large, brown 
 scales, a small head and a small, round, soft mouth, not armed 
 with teeth. Its shape is not broad, but round. It is reckoned 
 one of the best flavored. 
 
 3) The buffalo-fish 23 ^ is thus called by Indians and Euro 
 peans because of its being heard sometimes to bellow in the 
 water. Its length is about a foot and a half or even two feet, 
 and its breadth five or six inches. It has a curved back, prickly 
 fins, a narrow mouth, and a small head, in which two white 
 stones 23 * are found, flat on one side and a little convex on the 
 other. These are not ordinary stones, but have a stony appear 
 ance. The fish has no teeth, but at the entrance of its throat 
 there are two strong flat bones, with grooves exactly fitting each 
 other. With these it can crack the hardest mussels, which are 
 its chief food, and serve to bait the hook in angling for it. The 
 Indians, however, rarely using a hook and line, commonly pierce 
 this fish with an iron prong of their own making. If any one 
 should venture to put his finger into its mouth, even when to 
 appearance it is half dead, he is in danger of losing one or more of 
 his fingers, for the mussel shells which the fish constantly cracks, 
 are very hard. 
 
 4) The catfish 235 is without scales and a good fish to eat. 
 In the Muskingum there are no very large specimens of this 
 fish. In the Ohio, on the other hand, they grow to an unusual 
 size. In Pittsburg, a man who had gone fishing at night, hav 
 ing bound the line to his arm and gone to sleep in his canoe, 
 was dragged into the water by the catfish and lost his life. Man 
 and fish were found close together several days later. 
 
 5) The sturgeon 230 is the largest of the fish in the Mus 
 kingum. The largest caught here were from three to three and 
 a half feet in length. 
 
 6) There is a kind of fish 237 with a narrowly formed mouth, 
 
74 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 armed with sharp teeth, almost like the bill of a duck. It 
 has scales. The Indians do not use it for food. 
 
 7) Another kind 238 resembles the catfish very much. It has 
 no scales. This also has a broad, plain beak like the bill of a 
 goose, almost the length of a hand. This it uses to dig in sand 
 or slime in search of food. The mouth opens below. 
 
 8) The white perch 239 is short and broad. It has scales 
 and is good to eat. 
 
 9) The yellow perch 240 is not broad, but longer than the 
 last named, has prickly fins and sharp teeth like those of a pike. 
 It has a yellowish appearance and is one of the most palatable 
 of fishes. 
 
 10) Eels are rarely found. 241 
 
 11 ) There is an other variety of fish, 242 or whatever one 
 may call it, resembling a small catfish, but having four short 
 legs. It has a wide mouth and is about a foot and a half in 
 length. The fins are short. 
 
 The river tortoise 243 of these parts is a species different 
 from that found in Pensilvanien, which has a hard shell. The 
 shell of this is quite soft and its head small and pointed, like 
 that of a sea tortoise. The Indians shoot them, for they are 
 not easily caught in any other way, as they seldom venture out 
 of the water upon the banks of the river. The Indians are very- 
 fond of the flesh and of the eggs, which the animals lay in the 
 sand on islands. 
 
 There is another variety of land tortoise 244 in these parts 
 which has a hard shell, is small and very prettily marked. Flesh 
 is also eaten. 
 
 Two varieties of shellfish 245 are found as well. One re 
 sembles the clams found along the seacoast, the inside of the 
 shell being violet, shading to red ; the other has a larger shell, 
 which is white inside. Some speciments of smaller varieties 248 
 are also found. 
 
 Snails are likewise found. From one variety spring, it is 
 believed, the many large gad-flies, which in the summer, in the 
 months of July and August, worry the cattle to such an extent 
 that during the day they cannot graze in the forest. During 
 these two months both cattle and horses make for shelter every 
 
North American Indians. 75 
 
 morning as soon as the sun begins to shine and return to the 
 forest only at sundown. This species of snail deposits a color 
 less liquid of the consistency of saliva on the stems of various 
 plants in the forest (presumably containing the eggs of the 
 animal, which are hatched out by the sun). From this, it is 
 supposed that the pestiferous gad-flies are hatched out. 247 Where 
 there are large herds of cattle that destroy the weeds and root 
 them up, not many of these insects are found. 248 
 
 The common frogs are found in swamps near puddles and 
 ponds. They are of a brownish color, do not croak, but have 
 a note like a short whistle. 249 In springtime they may be heard 
 all night. The Mingoes catch them at night by the light of a 
 torch and eat them either fresh or dried. Green frogs are but 
 rarely met with and only in rivers and brooks. 250 The largest 
 American frog is the bull frog. 251 It inhabits rivers and large 
 brooks. Their croaking resembles the bellowing of a bull, but is 
 far more penetrating. 
 
 Of rats, nothing is known in these parts, but mice 252 are 
 very common. 
 
 Mosquitoes and sandflies are found in woods in summer 
 time in great numbers. Both sting and a night in the forest 
 would be intolerable without the smoke of a fire. They are par 
 ticularly annoying in changeable weather. Even horses will 
 make for the fire and stand in smoke to be free of the pests. 
 Great and small gadflies come in July and August and trouble 
 cattle so much that only at night the latter will graze, the gad 
 flies disappearing until dawn of day. 
 
 Ticks are to be found in the woods. These will attack one, 
 pierce the skin and suck the blood until they have so swelled that 
 they drop off. Red-bugs are to be found in the Indian huts at 
 any time and fleas in the summer, not a few. 
 
 The first deer a boy shoots proves the occasion of a great 
 solemnity. If it happens to be a buck it is given to some old 
 man ; if a doe, to some old woman. These bring in the whole 
 animal, skinned, if it is possible to do so. If the animal is too 
 heavy, they" bring the skin and as much of the flesh as they can 
 carry, fetching the rest later. When they reach the village, they 
 
76 David Zcisberger s History 
 
 turn to the east, having the whole or part of the animal on the 
 back, always with the skin, before entering the house and give 
 vent to a prolonged call, which is the old man s or old woman s 
 prayer to the Deity in behalf of the boy, that he may always be 
 a fortunate hunter. During the repast they repeat their peti 
 tions and give counsel to the boy (who, with his companions, is a 
 mere spectator) regarding the chase and all the circumstances 
 of his future life, exhorting him above all things to revere old 
 age and gray hairs and to be obedient to their words, because 
 experience has given them wisdom. Such counsel was heeded 
 in time past, and though the ceremonies, are still kept up, the 
 young no longer revere the aged as was the case at one time. 
 
 Formerly, the young revered the old, especially if they had 
 gray or white heads." 53 They believed that these must be very 
 wise and prudent, because they were of such an age and seemed 
 to be favored of the gods. Therefore, they treated the aged 
 well, brought them, it may be, a deer, in the hope that they 
 might be instructed of them how to attain to equal age. They 
 presented the old, also, with wampum or belts, with the same 
 hope. While nothing was said, the aged understood and gave 
 the desired instruction on another occasion. 
 
 No young Indian in those days would have dared to take 
 the tobacco pouch, (made usually of the skin of the otter, beaver, 
 raccoon, fox, pole-cat, or some other animal, stripped off whole, 
 with a little slit at the neck), of an old person and take a pipe 
 ful of tobacco, thinking such an act a great sin and believing 
 that it would be the cause of shortening his life. When, there 
 fore, in those days, a young brave asked an aged man permis 
 sion to fill his pipe from the latter s pouch, the old man under 
 stood that this was not the young man s intention at all, but he 
 wished to place something in the pouch. Usually, wampum was 
 put in and no tobacco taken out. This, also, was done with the 
 hope that the aged man might instruct the young brave how to 
 be wise and to attain to great age. Indeed, good counsel is 
 given, to bring offerings regularly on behalf of themselves and 
 their friends, to be chaste, to abstain from drinking and stealing, 
 which were common even in those days. These customs, how 
 ever, have ceased. The old have lost respect and the young 
 
North American Indians. 77 
 
 regard them but little. They do not seem to be ashamed of their 
 vices. For this reason, Indians themselves declare that their 
 condition grows worse from year to year. As there is neither 
 law nor legal penalty among them, they have nothing to fear, 
 except that an injured one may avenge himself in the manner 
 in which he has been injured. If one has seduced the wife of 
 another, the offended party will seek to seduce the wife of the 
 offender. He will keep his purpose a secret and not rest until 
 he has obtained satisfaction, when he makes known to others 
 what he has done, so that the original offender may hear of it. 
 When, in a young female, the first menstrual discharge oc 
 curs, generally between the twelfth and sixteenth year, the Dela- 
 wares generally separate such daughters from all companionship, 
 the Monsies [Monseys] being more strict and having more cere 
 monies in the observance of the custom than the Miamis. They 
 build for such a girl, separate hut, apart from the rest, where 
 her mother or some old female acquaintance cares for her and 
 guards her so that none may see her. Wherefore, she is also 
 kept within the hut the whole of the menstrual period, with the 
 blanket over her head. She is given little to eat, but regularly 
 dosed with emetics. She is not allowed to do any work during 
 the whole time, which generally lasts twelve days. At the end 
 of the time, they bring her into her home, looking black, grimy 
 and dishevelled, because she has been lying about in dust and 
 ashes the whole time. Washed and dressed in new garments, 
 she is allowed to be in the home, but required to wear a cap with 
 a long shield, so that she can neither see any one readily, nor be 
 seen. Such a covering she must wear for two months, at the 
 end of which time she is informed that she may marry. 
 
 The Shavanose [Shawanese] and Mingoes, however, who 
 observe much the same custom, follow a different course in this 
 matter. The young woman in question is allowed to remain in 
 the house. She prepares food for those in the house, of the 
 corn and fruits she has raised. Of such food she does not, how 
 ever, herself partake, but goes to her hut, apart from the others, 
 and there prepares and eats her food. 
 
 Every month, during her menstrual period, a Delaware 
 woman lives by herself in a separate hut, which is usually very 
 
78 David Zcisberger s History 
 
 poorly built, and remains there two or three days, food being 
 taken to her. When the time is over they bathe and wash their 
 clothes and are allowed to return to their husbands. During the 
 menstrual period, they are not permitted to do any cooking or 
 domestic work. None will eat what a woman in this condition 
 prepares, for food prepared under such circumstances is said to 
 be unwholesome and to cause pain in the abdomen. The women 
 do not go into company, but keep to their huts until their time 
 is over. Hence, it occasionally happens that a woman engaged 
 in baking will leave everything and go to her hut. This custom 
 does not obtain among the Mingoes ; their women continue their 
 usual work and remain in the house. 
 
 Tn the wooing of a bride, custom demands that if an Indian 
 would proceed honorably and at the same time have assurance 
 that his wife when married will remain with him, he first sends 
 a present of blankets, strouds, linen and whatever else the 
 Indians commonly use for clothing and perhaps a few belts or 
 fathoms of wampum. If he has no cloth, wampum alone will 
 do. These things he gives to an Indian to whom he has declared 
 his purpose and who hands them to a friend of the person fixed 
 upon, speaks for him and presses his suit. Thereupon, the 
 friends assemble, examine the present, propose the matter to the 
 girl, who generally decides agreeably to the wish of her parents 
 and relations. The suitor is then informed that his proposal 
 has been accepted. If it is decided to decline the proposal, the 
 present is simply returned and understood to be a friendly nega 
 tive. In case the match is agreeable, the girl is led to the dwell 
 ing of the groom, without further ceremony. After the bride 
 has joined her husband, the things constituting the present are 
 divided among the friends and the belts of wampum cut and a 
 piece given to each. The friends return the civility by a present 
 of Indian corn, beans, kettles, dishes, spoons, sieves, baskets, 
 hatchets, brought in solemn procession into the hut of the newly 
 married couple. Commonly, the latter lodge in a friend s house 
 until they can erect a dwelling of their own. 
 
 This custom still obtains among the Indians. Within the 
 last years, however, disorderly living and evil have become so 
 common that faith is not kept and many of the usages, that were 
 
North American Indians. 79 
 
 good and preserved a certain decency, have fallen into disuse. 
 At the present time, even if the Indian would take a wife in 
 honorable fashion and proceed in accordance with the above de 
 scribed custom, the parties concerned will not deny his suit in 
 view of the presents, even though the friends and the girl are 
 not willing to accept him. The friends will urge the girl to live 
 with the man a short time, and tell her that if she is not pleased, 
 to leave him again. Thus it happens that women will go from 
 one to another for the sake of the gifts. Yet there are many 
 cases where husband and wife are faithful to one another 
 throughout life. 
 
 Occasionally, parents who have a son will agree with parents 
 who have a daughter that in due time their children shall marry. 
 As, however, they can neither persuade nor compel their children 
 against their wishes, it in the end depends upon the children 
 whether the match shall be consummated. 254 
 
 Among the Mingoes it is not unusual to fix upon children 
 of four or five years of age, with a view to future marriage. In 
 this case the mother of the girl is obliged to bring a basket of 
 bread every week into the house of the boy and to furnish him 
 with firewood. The parents of the boy must supply the girl 
 with meat and clothes, till they are both of a proper age. Their 
 marriage, however, solely depends upon their own free will, 
 for there is never any compulsion. If either man or woman is 
 unwilling to follow up the engagement entered into by parents, 
 no marriage results. 
 
 Although there are many Indians who live peaceably with 
 their wives, especially if they have children for whom they care 
 (for if a man has several children he will try to get along with 
 his wife-) the younger Indians at the present time generally live 
 together only a very short "time after a marriage. Hence, forni 
 cation is very common among them, Satan s influence in this 
 respect being very strong. 
 
 If it is asked why the Indians at the present time are more 
 given to vice and disorderly living than formerly, when they 
 were as ignorant heathen as they are now, two reasons may be 
 given. First, much evil unquestionably has been taught them 
 by white people, especially the traders, who were content to live 
 
David Zeisberger s History 
 
 among the Indians as long as there were no Indian wars. 
 Through the examples of the traders, also the Indians acquired 
 the habit of drinking to excess. Secondly, the Indians had for 
 merly great respect for the aged and the chiefs, from whom they 
 learned that unfaithfulness in the marriage relationship was a 
 great crime and that whoever was guilty of such evil would live 
 neither long nor happily. At the present time they show little 
 reverence to the -aged and each one thinks himself to be wise in 
 his own conceits. 
 
 The Indian women are in general of a very strong bodily 
 constitution. There are generally clever and experienced women 
 enough who are able to give assistance and advice in time of 
 labor ; generally, women will remain in the house at this time. 
 Some go into the woods by themselves and bring their children 
 to the house when they have seen the light of day. Most 
 mothers nurse their children until they are two or more years 
 old. During this time many husbands have concubines, though 
 not in the house. 
 
 If it is left to the mother to give the child a name, she uses 
 little ceremony and calls it after some peculiar mark or character 
 in it, for instance the Beautiful, the Good Child, the Great- 
 Eye, sometimes giving it a name of unsavory meaning. If the 
 father gives the child a name he pretends that it has been sug 
 gested to him in a dream. The name is given at a sacrifice, on 
 which occasion the Indian brings to some aged person, who 
 performs the offering, a string of wampum, and tells him that 
 he wishes his child s name to be named thus and so. During 
 the sacrifice some other person sings a song in Indian fashion 
 at a public gathering and makes known the child s name. This 
 is called praying over the child. The same ceremony is per 
 formed when an adult person receives a name, even although he 
 may already have been named. It is not common to call an adult by 
 his name, for they are ashamed of their own names. If the 
 attention of any one is to be attracted it is done in some other 
 fashion than by the use of the name. In case of children, the 
 names are used. In assemblies and in discourses they do not 
 use the name of any one who is present, though absent persons 
 are referred to by their names. 
 
North American Indians. 81 
 
 The children have entirely their own will and never do 
 anything by compulsion. Told to do something they do not care 
 about, the children let it go by default and are not reprimanded 
 for it. Yet many wellbred children are found among them who 
 pay great attention and respect to parents and do things to please 
 them. They are courteous, even to strangers. They respond to 
 rnild treatment. The contrary generally produces bitterness, 
 hatred and contempt. The women are frequently guilty of thus 
 raising their children to anger, for the women are often ill-tem 
 pered. By way of punishment, they will pour water on the 
 children or thrust them into the water. The parents are care 
 ful not to beat their children, lest the children might remember 
 it and revenge themselves on some future occasion. Instances 
 are not wanting where children when grown have reproached 
 their parents for corporal punishment received in youth and have 
 threatened to return the indignity. 
 
 Rarely does an Indian have two or more wives, being fear 
 ful of strife in the house. Blood relations do not marry ; in this 
 particular they are even more strict than the whites. They 
 claim that division of the race into tribes came about in order 
 to make it more readily certain that a man in taking a wife was 
 not marrying a near relative. Concerning the tribes, however, 
 more will be said in another connection. An instance of an 
 Indian having married a mother and her daughter at the same 
 time was a most extraordinary thing. 
 
 Families have from four to six children. More than this 
 number is unusual. Birth of twins is rarely heard of. In many 
 cases children who have become motherless after birth have been 
 reared by careful old women. Sometimes children are given to 
 such women. Then they spare no pains in rearing them. Soup 
 made of Indian corn, pounded very fine, is given by them to 
 infants of tender age, that may have come into their possession. 
 Ordinarily, orphans, even if they have lost but the mother, meet 
 with hard experience and often suffer want. Children who have 
 been given or bequeathed, on the contrary, are almost without 
 exception well cared for. 
 
 In the management of household affairs the husband leaves 
 
 6 
 
82 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 everything to his wife and never interferes in things committed 
 to her. She cooks victuals regularly twice a day. If she neg 
 lects to do it in proper time, or even altogether, the husband 
 never says a word but goes to a friend, being assured that he 
 will find something to eat, for when a stranger comes into the 
 house the first attention shown is to put food before him, if there 
 is anything in the house. The husband never offers to put wood 
 on the fire, except it be that he has guests or some other extraor 
 dinary call to do it, for the woman cuts the wood and brings 
 it to the house and is, therefore, the proper person to take care 
 of the fire. 
 
 If his wife longs for meat, and gives him a hint of it, the 
 husband goes out early in the morning without victuals and sel 
 dom returns without some game, should he even be obliged to 
 stay out till late in the evening. When he returns with a deer, 
 he throws it down before the door of the hut and walks in, 
 saying nothing. But his wife, who has heard him lay down his 
 burden, gives him something to eat, dries his clothes and then 
 goes out to bring in the game. She may then do what she 
 pleases with it. He says nothing, if she even gives the greatest 
 part of it to her friends, which is a very common custom. A 
 woman generally remembers her friends when meat has been 
 secured, or when her husband has brought flour from the whites. 
 
 If the husband intends to take a journey or go hunting, he 
 gives his wife notice, and then she knows that it is her business 
 to furnish him with proper provisions. If any dissatisfaction 
 arises between them, the husband commonly takes his gun and 
 walks off into the woods, without telling his wife whither he is 
 going. Sometimes he does not return for some days, when both 
 parties have generally forgotten their quarrels and live again 
 in peace. 
 
 Young people who marry rarely remain faithful to each 
 other, but join themselves to others and again separate, continu 
 ing such disorderly living until they are older and more sensible. 
 Then it not infrequently happens that they find one another 
 again, or the husband may join himself permanently to some 
 other woman and settle down to housekeeping. Marriages are 
 contracted early in life, when men are from eighteen to twenty 
 
North American Indians. 83 
 
 years of age and women fourteen or fifteen. There is in gen 
 eral no very strong tie between married people, not even between 
 the older. A mere trifle furnishes ground for separation. Not 
 every Indian, however, is indifferent to the light behavior of his 
 wife. Many a one takes her unfaithfulness so to heart that in 
 the. height of his despair he swallows a poisonous root, which 
 generally causes death in two hours, unless an antidote be ad 
 ministered in good time ; this is often done, the Indians knowing 
 that the properties of certain herbs counteract each other and 
 being able to judge from the effects, what poison has been taken. 
 Women, also, have been known to destroy themselves on account 
 of a husband s unfaithfulness. To prevent such a calamity, they 
 make use of a Beson, a love-charm, prepared by the old people 
 and sold at a good price. This is constantly carried about by 
 one or the other of the parties and is believed to keep man or 
 woman faithful. Such a charm is even declared to have had the 
 effect of making a woman run always and everywhere after her 
 husband, until weary of life she has destroyed herself, or of 
 similarly affecting a man. For this Beson, also, the Indians 
 have their antidote. All this converted Indians have related to 
 me. 
 
 Older men and women, particularly, have another Beson, 
 supposed to have the magic power of bringing many presents 
 to them. This charm they guard jealously among their most pre 
 cious belongings, and is said to have the effect of bringing them 
 food, clothing and whatever else they may need. It is prepared 
 of roots pounded very fine, incantations being murmured mean 
 while. A little of this preparation, about the size of a pea, is 
 sold with a white and black wampum shell for a considerable 
 price, often for a belt of wampum with several pounds in money. 
 The love charm and others are similarly prepared. Usually, 
 this is done by old women, who thus support themselves and 
 promote superstition among the young. 
 
 The men have a Beson for the chase. This beson is a prep 
 aration made by old men, who are no more able to hunt, consist 
 ing of roots and herbs or made of the seeds of a certain plant. 
 This is sold by them at a high price. They may earn much in 
 this way, for every huntsman carries such a charm about in his 
 
84 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 pocket. Thus the old men support themselves when they can no 
 longer engage in the chase. As there are several sorts of charm 
 of this character, every one is desirous to get the best, even if 
 he has already at the price of half the catch of a season bought 
 one charm and if it should cost him the greater part of his prop 
 erty to get the new one of which he has heard. Some Indians 
 chew a certain root when on the deer-hunt, so the deer may not 
 notice their approach when the wind blowing over the Indian 
 to the game would otherwise give the alarm. 
 
 Another kind of Beson, considered to be a more powerful 
 charm, is taken inwardly and occasions violent vomiting, but this 
 is not in common use. According to the opinion of the Indians 
 this beson will prove mischievous and have a contrary effect 
 unless every ceremony connected with its use is attended to with 
 the most scrupulous exactness. If a huntsman shoots nothing 
 for several days, he swallows a small dose, observing all the 
 rules prescribed by magic art. Not having taken any food he then 
 starts on the chase and does not return before evening unless he 
 has secured some game. It is claimed that the use of this charm 
 enables them to shoot deer in considerable numbers. I have ob 
 served, however, that Indians have repeatedly taken such doses 
 during a period of three weeks and not been successful. In 
 such cases ill-luck is ascribed to some other cause, frequently to 
 the presence of a missionary. In cases where Indians, unable to 
 secure anything in spite of the use of this beson while I was 
 present have been successful in my absence, it has appeared that 
 my presence has in some way interfered with their incantations. 
 In connection with the chase they lay much stress on dreams. If 
 the dreamer fancies he sees an Indian and hears him say, "If 
 thou will sacrifice to me, thou shalt shoot deer at pleasure, he 
 will immediately prepare a sacrifice and burn the whole or part 
 of a deer in honor of the apparition. 
 
 Occasionally, when an Indian would go hunting for a sea 
 son, he will by way of preparation shoot a deer or two, bring 
 home the flesh and prepare a feast, which is at the same time a 
 sacrifice, to which the aged are invited. The latter pray for him 
 that he may be fortunate and then he departs to stay away some 
 time. 
 
North American Indians. 85 
 
 The Delaware Indians use no other than rifle-barrelled guns, 
 having satisfied themselves that these are the best for shooting 
 at long range, in which they are very skillful and shooting ac 
 curately. They have acquired considerable skill in making minor 
 repairs when their weapons get out of order. Some have even 
 learned to furnish them with stocks, neatly and well made. An 
 Indian really intent on making something will not spare pains 
 or time in accomplishing his purpose even when he has not seen 
 the thing made and takes great pride in the work of his hands. 
 Among nations living farther inland the rifle-barrelled guns are 
 rare and muskets are more commonly found, often in very poor 
 condition, except among the Shawanose [Shawanese] who know 
 and value the rifle-barrelled gun. 
 
 It occurs to me to add that when a man and his wife have 
 no children, they generally separate before long, each believing 
 the other to be the guilty cause, and attributing it to the other. 
 There are also women who never have children. Such a one 
 goes from one man to another until some man who has children 
 already takes her. There are men also who never have children. 
 In both sexes, however, these cases are rare. 
 
 Cursing and swearing are never heard among the Indians ; 
 they have no words of this character in their language. If wo 
 men or men would berate one another rarely the case among 
 men, except in case of the younger, more frequent among 
 women they direct words and speeches at one another which 
 would not be considered terrible by other people but are very 
 seriously taken by the Indians. If they would revile one another 
 in extremest fashion, they use some obscene expressions. 
 
 Mothers carry the children on their backs under the blanket. 
 They do this even when the children are five years old and over, 
 for they love their children. In former days it was the custom 
 to bind the child upon a board which was carried by means of a 
 band fastened round the head in such a way that the child was 
 suspended on the back in an upright position. This practice gets 
 more and more out of fashion, for the reason that it has been the 
 cause of miserable death of the children. It was customary that 
 children thus fastened were placed against a bench or elsewhere, 
 
86 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 the mother going to fetch water or on some other errand. The 
 children by pushing and kicking not infrequently tumbled them 
 selves into the fire or other danger and thus miserably perished, 
 or were severely burned. For this reason the custom is in dis 
 favor. 
 
 Their houses are fairly clean, some being superior in this 
 respect and affording a comfortable night s lodging for a 
 European. In case a guest is expected, especially if it be a white 
 person, they prepare as comfortable a bed as possible. They 
 sweep the bunk, that serves as seat and table in the daytime and 
 as bed at night, and spread a mat with one or more deer or bear 
 skins upon it. Though usually a comfortable couch in summer 
 time it may be made very uncomfortable by the fleas brought in 
 by dogs. Their kettles, dishes and spoons are not kept in good 
 order; sometimes they are only licked by the dogs in lieu of 
 washing. Dishes and spoons they make themselves of wood, 
 sometimes of tree knots or growths, often very neatly. The 
 spoons are generally large and round shaped. Occasionally, a 
 spoon will be used by several people, turn about, at a meal. 
 Brass kettles, to be found in most houses because very necessary 
 for sugar boiling, are bought from the whites. 
 
 The Indians are lovers of finery and dress, the women more 
 than the men; the latter take care that the women adorn them 
 selves in proper manner. The men clothe themselves rather 
 meanly, regarding it as a disgrace to be better appareled than 
 their wives. The dress which particularly distinguishes the wo 
 men is a petticoat or strowd, blue, red or black, made of a piece 
 of cloth about two yards long, adorned with red, blue or yellow 
 bands laid double and bound about the body. Many women wear 
 a white shirt over the strowd, decorated with silver buckles, the 
 more the better. Red or blue leggings are worn, made of fine 
 cloth joined by a broad band of silk bordered with coral. These 
 leggings reach only to the feet. Shoes are made very neatly. 
 Over the first strowd they may wear another, not decorated with 
 ribbons, which if it inconveniences them in their movements may 
 be easily laid aside. Thus clad a woman is well dressed. In 
 place of the white shirts, blue linen or cotton may be worn. When 
 they wear a white shirt, which is preferably of fine linen, it is 
 
North American Indians. 87 
 
 often dyed red with cinnabar about the neck. Such a shirt may 
 be worn unwashed until it is torn. More careful women, how 
 ever wash their clothing. Men and women paint their faces 
 almost daily, especially if they go out to a dance in the evening. 
 Men, particularly, think it is proper to paint and often their 
 whole head is colored vermillion. 255 Here and there black spots 
 may be introduced, or they paint one-half of their head and face 
 black, the other red. Figures are added according to taste. 256 
 Indian women never paint their faces with a variety of figures, 
 but rather make a round red spot upon each cheek and redden the 
 eyelids, the tops of their heads and, in some cases, the rims of 
 the ears and the temples. 1 1 " 7 Older women adorn themselves 
 but rarely, usually appearing in old cast-off garments. Even 
 if the husband of such a woman provides new clothing, she will 
 rarely put it on. especially if she has a daughter to whom she 
 gives the new clothing in exchange for old garments. 
 
 Their towns are generally laid out near a lake, river or 
 brook, yet sufficiently elevated to escape the danger of inunda 
 tions, which are very common in spring. In building towns no 
 regular plan is observed but every one builds according to his 
 fancy. The houses are not built close together. Some years ago, 
 when the Delawares planned Gochachgunk, they wished to imi 
 tate the Christian Indians and build their town in orderly fash 
 ion but they did not succeed, even though they had laid it out. 
 When they have lived long in one place, it at last becomes trou 
 blesome to secure wood for fuel because all the wood in the 
 neighborhood has been used. This causes them to leave the 
 place and plan a new village for the sake of the wood and other 
 conveniences. Although they have horses that roam about and 
 are rarely used except when they wish to ride, it is too trouble 
 some for them to break these to work and, furthermore, since 
 fetching wood is the work of the women, the men do not con 
 cern themselves about it. 
 
 Of inheritances they know nothing. Every Indian knows 
 that whatever he leaves at his death is divided among his friends. 
 If a woman becomes a widow, no matter how long she may have 
 lived with her husband, friends come, take everything that be- 
 
88 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 longed to the man, and bring it to one place. The friends do 
 not keep a single article, for they wish to forget the dead and 
 are afraid lest the smallest part of the property of the deceased 
 should remind them of him. They give what the deceased has 
 left to their friends and no one of his friends receives anything; 
 even though he should wish to take something he will not do it 
 through fear of the others. If a dying Indian leaves his gun or 
 any other trifle to a particular friend the legatee is immediately 
 put in possession and no one disputes his right. The widow gets 
 nothing, yet whatever the husband has given to his wife during 
 his life-time remains her property. Therefore we need not won 
 der that a married Indian pair should not have their goods in 
 common, for otherwise the wife would be left wholly destitute 
 after her husband s death. In like manner the husband inherits 
 nothing when his wife dies. 
 
 According to ancient custom a widow should not marry 
 again within a year after the death of her husband, for the In 
 dians say that he does not forsake her before that time. At the 
 end of this period, however, they believe that his soul goes to 
 its place. A widow must endeavor to live by her own industry. 
 She is not permitted to purchase any meat, for the Indians are 
 superstitiously persuaded that their guns fail if a widow should 
 eat of the game they have killed. Now and then a kind friend 
 will venture to transgress the rule and give her some meat se 
 cretly. As soon as the first year of her widowhood is passed, 
 the friends of the deceased husband clothe and provide for her 
 and her children. They also propose another husband if they 
 know of a desirable party, or, at least, tell her that she is now 
 at liberty to choose for herself. If, however, she has not at 
 tended to the prescribed rule but married within the year, they 
 never trouble themselves about her again except, perhaps, to 
 speak evil of her. 
 
 If a man s wife die, her relatives pretend to have some claim 
 upon him until a year has passed. If he has remained a widower 
 during that time they generally secure him a wife, preferring 
 a sister of the departed, if one be living. 
 
 The burying places are at some distance from the towns. 
 Before thev had hatchets and other tools they used to line the 
 
North American Indians. 89 
 
 inside of a grave with the bark of trees and when the corpse was 
 let down they placed some pieces of wood across, which were 
 again covered with bark and then the earth thrown in. When 
 they were able to split boards they placed them, not, however, 
 joined in any way, in the grave in such a manner that the corpse 
 might be between them. A fourth board was laid over it as a 
 cover. Now they have learned to make proper coffins. The 
 graves are generally dug by old women as the young people 
 abhor this kind of work. The coffin is made by men and placed 
 in the grave. Then the corpse is brought, dressed in new cloth 
 ing and a white shirt, with the face and shirt painted red, laid 
 upon a new mat and let down into the grave. They cover the 
 body with the strowd and nail up the coffin. Formerly it was 
 the custom to place the pouch, tobacco, pipe, knife, fire material, 
 kettle and hatchet in the grave but this is no longer done. They 
 also fill up the grave with earth, which was not done in former 
 times. The graves are all arranged in such a manner that the 
 head was turned to the east and the feet to the west. At the 
 head of the corpse a tall post is erected, pointing out who is 
 buried. If the deceased was a chief this post is neatly carved 
 but not otherwise decorated. If it was a Captain the post is 
 painted red and his head and glorious deeds are portrayed upon 
 it. The burial post of a physician is hung with a small tortoise 
 shell which he used in his juggling practice. In honor of a great 
 warrior his warlike deeds are exhibited in red color on the burial 
 post. 
 
 In the evening soon after sunset and in the morning before 
 daybreak the female relations and friends assemble in the house 
 of the deceased and mourn over the body. This is done until 
 he is buried. All the effects of the deceased are piled up near the 
 body. These are taken to the place of burial and the greater 
 part is distributed among those who assisted in burying the 
 dead. The rest is given to the friends present, each receiving a 
 share. During the letting down of the corpse into the grave the 
 women set up a deafening howl. Men deem it a shame to weep, 
 yet in silence and unobserved they often cannot refrain from 
 tears. After the ceremony is over the mother, grandmother or 
 other near female relative of the deceased goes evening and 
 
90 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 morning to the grave and weeps over it. This is repeated daily 
 for some time but gradually less and less till the mourning 
 period is over. .Sometimes they place victuals on the grave that 
 the deceased may not suffer hunger. The food thus left is gen 
 erally consumed by dogs. 
 
 The Nantikoks [Nantikokes] of whom more in another 
 place, have this singular custom that about three or four months 
 after the funeral they open the grave, take out the bones, clean 
 them of the flesh and dry them, wrap them up in new linen and 
 inter them again. A feast is usually provided for the occasion, 
 consisting of the best they can afford. Only the bones of the 
 arms and legs of the corpse are thus treated. All the rest is 
 buried or burned. 
 
 The Indians are a free people, knowing neither law nor re 
 straint. They may not be prevailed on in any matter that does 
 not please them, much less forced. If they cannot be persuaded 
 with gentle words, further effort is in vain. 
 
 Each of them may settle where he pleases. Not satisfied 
 with one place, an Indian may move to a town with which he 
 is better pleased and no one offers any objection ; or he may 
 retire to a solitary place. Rarely will a family move far away 
 from all society, though they frequently live apart from the 
 towns to avoid being annoyed by drunkards ; or they live thus 
 alone in order to carry on the profitable traffic in rum more to 
 their advantage. Many engage in rum traffic, especially women, 
 who fetch it from the white people and sell at a considerable 
 profit to the Indians, often taking from the latter everything they 
 have, sometimes even their rifles on which they depend for sub 
 sistence. Chiefs and counsellors have often considered what 
 might be done to stop this ruinous trade, and have often deter 
 mined that no one should ever bring spirituous liquors into their 
 towns again ; for a time such a resolution would be kept, and 
 then be broken, perhaps by the very ones who had counselled 
 the prohibition. Since the Indians have taken so much to drink 
 ing rum. murders are more frequent. Murder committed in 
 drunkenness is not severely punished. Hence, it is that one 
 harboring hatred for another will, on the occasion of a drinking 
 
North American Indians. 91 
 
 orgy, put him out of the way, pretending to be very drunk and 
 not capable of judging of the nature of his deed. Under such 
 circumstances, according to ancient usage, the murderer must 
 pay a hundred fathoms of wampum for the murder of a man 
 and two hundred for that of a woman. If he is too poor to 
 raise the amount, which is commonly the case, his friends help 
 to raise it and turn it over to the relatives of the slain, at the 
 same time delivering a speech. If any one has murdered his 
 own relative, he usually escapes without difficulty, for the family 
 can easily find reason for the deed, not wishing to lose two of 
 their friends at once. Should a murderer not feel himself safe, 
 he goes to another region or town where he is a stranger. 
 
 In case of theft, which is held as a disgrace among them, 
 nothing further is required than that the thief must restore what 
 he has stolen, pay for it or give something in exchange. If jus 
 tice cannot be satisfied in one of these ways, because the thief has 
 nothing, loss falls on the party robbed, or the friends of the 
 thief, if such he has, must make good the loss. 
 
 When a whole party goes out to hunt, they govern them 
 selves according to the wishes of the oldest or the most expert, 
 particularly if he be a member of the council. It is not consid 
 ered good form for one to leave the party before the end of the 
 hunt. If one has wounded a deer and another followed and 
 killed it, the skin belongs to the first and either the half or the 
 whole of the meat to the latter. If several take aim at once and 
 they cannot determine which of them made the best shot, the skin 
 is given to the oldest of the party, or, if he happened to be one 
 of those taking aim, he is said to have killed the animal. Old 
 men, therefore, no longer able to shoot well, generally get their 
 share of the skins, if they only aim now and then with the others 
 though they do not hit the mark. 
 
 Such old men, accompanying a hunting party, get both 
 meat and skins, for the good hunters will not let them return 
 empty-handed. They have, in general, and the Unami in par 
 ticular, the custom that when a huntsman has shot a deer, and 
 another Indian joins him or only looks on at a distance, he im 
 mediately gives him the whole animal and goes in pursuit of 
 another. 
 
92 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 If a debtor is unable to pay, the creditor duns his friends, 
 who must pay and rarely refuse to do so. Occasionally, the 
 debts of friends must be paid years after they were contracted, 
 even after the death of the debtor, if only the debt can be proven. 
 
 A purchaser, dissatisfied with what he has bought or the 
 price paid, is allowed to return what he has purchased and re 
 cover what was paid. One who has done an injury, killed a 
 hog or chicken or occasioned loss in some other way, and obsti 
 nately refuses to make good the injury, cannot be touched. His 
 friends may make good the loss. Should the offender, in the 
 long run, not heed the admonitions of his friends, they will drive 
 him away. 
 
 Hence, it is that in wars with whites practically all the 
 tribes have been involved more or less. If the nation, as such, 
 has taken no part in the war, these unmanageable offenders 
 have gone with the fighting peoples, despite the warnings and 
 threats of the chiefs. The same is true of the present con 
 flict. 258 The Delaware chiefs had determined at its beginning 
 to remain neutral, daily admonishing their people not to allow 
 themselves to be persuaded to go into the war. The nation as 
 such remained true to the determination of the chiefs, being con 
 stantly and earnestly watched, but obstinate offenders took part 
 against all order and command. 
 
 Though the Indians are a free people and not subject to 
 the rule of any one, each nation, considering itself a unit, has a 
 kind of government of its own choosing, imperfect as it may be. 
 This holds good of all the North American nations. A nation 
 is constituted of three principal Tribes, the first or leading tribe 
 is called Packoango, i. e., the tribe of the great Tortoise, the 
 second, Blem, the Turkey Tribe, the third, Ptucksit, the Wolf 
 Tribe. Each of the tribes has its chief and each chief his coun 
 sellors. The chief of the Tortoise Tribe is the first in rank and, 
 together with the other two chiefs, deals with all matters of 
 national interest, particularly, such as have reference to nations 
 with whom, according to treaty, friendly relations are to be 
 cultivated. A chief may not presume to rule over the people, 
 as in that case he would immediately be forsaken by the whole 
 tribe, and his counsellors would refuse to assist him. He must 
 
North American Indians. 93 
 
 ingratiate himself with the people and stand by his counsellors. 
 Hence, it is that the chiefs are generally friendly, gracious, hos 
 pitable, communicative, affable and their house is open to every 
 Indian. Even strangers who come on business put up in the 
 chief s house and are accommodated with the best it affords. 
 The ambassadors of other nations generally lodge with the chief 
 and they are well cared for. If their number is too great, and it 
 has happened in connection with weighty affairs concerning 
 several nations that ten or twenty men of other nations have 
 arrived at the principal chief s house, they are put into a sep 
 arate house and provided with every thing at the public expense, 
 the counsellors taking care that they are entertained most hos 
 pitably in order that the nation may be in good repute amongst 
 other nations. 
 
 In externals a chief has no advantages above others. He 
 must provide for his own maintenance, for no one is under any 
 obligation to supply his wants. His wife, whose duty it is to 
 provide sufficient corn for the year, is usually assisted by other 
 women in her plantations, for much corn is required in such a 
 house. If the chief is young and able to hunt he will, his offi 
 cial duties permitting, occasionally join the chase. He will even 
 secure his own firewood as far as possible. In case he is old 
 his friends, of whom there are usually many, and other Indians 
 will furnish him with game, especially if he be popular. 
 
 The council house is either the house of the chief, which is 
 commonly large and roomy, or a building erected for that pur 
 pose. Here public councils are held, that is, such where mes 
 sages which have arrived from whites or other Indians are pub 
 lished. Every one may listen and the messages are also dis 
 cussed. In case there is something of particular importance to 
 consider, only the chief and the counsellors assemble and deter 
 mine upon the matter. The old chief Netawatwes 259 used to 
 lay all affairs of state before his council for consideration. When 
 they gave him their opinion, he either approved of it or indi 
 cated what was missing or not correct in the speech, upon which 
 they would make the necessary amendments. Thus he kept 
 them active and was held in great esteem. 
 
 The chief has the council bag in his possession, as also the 
 
94 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 treaties that have been made with the governors of the provinces 
 and other documents, although they are not able to read. These 
 constitute the archives, where all messages and reports are kept. 
 With each message or speech there are one or more strings or 
 belts of wampum. These, with the message or speech after the 
 latter have been properly considered and answered, are deposited 
 in the archives. 260 In connection with such a message there 
 may be a string or belt to each point, for as soon as the deliverer 
 of a message has finished with a point he gives over a string or 
 belt to the chief, gets out another and continues to speak until 
 his message has been fully delivered when he announces that 
 he has done. If the strings and belts are handed about from 
 one to another in the council this is an indication that the mes 
 sage is being favorably received. It may happen, however, that 
 the chief does not take the belt into his hands but pushes it 
 to one side with a stick, in which case no one will touch it. The 
 messenger who has brought it must in this case take it back. 
 This signifies that his message does not find approbation and it 
 is accounted a disgrace. Such a rejected belt may be a war belt 
 summoning the people to war, or it may be a belt admonishing 
 them to maintain peace, or something else that is not agree 
 able may be required. 
 
 The wampum which Europeans make and barter to the 
 Indians is made of sea-mussel shells. One variety is quite 
 white, the other dark violet, a quarter of an inch in length, an 
 eighth of an inch in thickness and round. A hole is bored 
 lengthwise through each shell, large enough to admit a heavy 
 cord. They are strung like beads. Wampum constitutes the 
 money of the Indians. Two hundred shells cost a buck hide, 
 or a Spanish dollar. 261 Before the white people came they had 
 no such wampum for want of proper instruments to make it. 262 
 The white are a little less in value than the dark. 
 
 Strings are made of the beads that have been strung as 
 described. Two, four or six placed side by side and properly 
 fastened form a string. A string is usually half a yard long, 
 sometirrles longer. Upon delivery of a string a long speech may 
 be made and much said upon the subject under consideration. 
 
North American Indians. 95 
 
 But when a belt is given few words are spoken, and they must 
 be words of great importance, frequently requiring an explan 
 ation. Belts are of pure wampum worked in all manner of 
 clever forms by the Indian women, they being informed in each 
 case what the figures must be, inasmuch as the figures must 
 correspond with the message. A belt is three or four inches 
 broad and about a yard long. 263 Neither color nor the other 
 quantities of wampum are matters of indifference, but have an 
 immediate reference to those things which they are meant to 
 confirm. A white string of belt signifies a good message and 
 such a belt may have figures in dark wampum. If a treaty is 
 to be made or renewed with another nation the message is com 
 monly accompanied by a Road Belt. This is a white belt with 
 two rows of black wampum running the entire length with a 
 white row between the two black rows also running the entire 
 length of the belt. This signifies that the way from one na 
 tion to another has been cleared of all brush, trees and stones. 
 At the ends of the belt the two nations are likewise represented 
 by two small dark spots. If a string or belt of wampum is in 
 tended to confirm a warning against evil or an earnest reproof 
 the belt delivered is in black. When a nation is called upon 
 to go to war or war declared against it the belt is black or 
 marked with red, having in the middle the figure of an hatchet 
 in white wampum. A peace belt is quite white, a fathom long 
 and a hand broad and of not inconsiderable value. 
 
 A chief has more use for the white wampum than the black. 
 In particular cases and upon extraordinary occasions a voluntary 
 contribution of wampum is made by the whole tribe or nation. 
 The rich are considered as principal supporters of the chiefs 
 and furnish them with wampum in an emergency, which rarely 
 occurs more than once in three years. The usual expenses are 
 defrayed from the treasury chest of the council, which is never 
 empty, because when wampum is paid out usually an equal 
 amount comes in. In general the chief does not speak in coun 
 cil, but has his speaker to whom he communicates his senti 
 ments briefly and leaves him to expatiate on them. The latter 
 must be able to put the whole matter in a speech well arranged, 
 which requires a clear and open understanding, a faithful mem- 
 
96 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 ory, experience in the affairs of the state and a knowledge of 
 the formal language employed in council, which differs as much 
 from the common language as does the language used by the 
 whites in legal procedure, from the language of ordinary inter 
 course. 
 
 When a message is to be sent, this is entrusted to two or 
 more messengers. One of these is to be the speaker, the others 
 being ready to remind him of anything he might forget. A mes 
 sage is formally entrusted to ambassadors at a meeting of the 
 Council. It is repeated a number of times and the one appointed 
 speaker of the messengers must in turn repeat it several times, 
 until he is able to deliver the message with facility and in proper 
 form. The messengers are then fitted out with necessaries for 
 the journey and dispatched. As the whole of a message is to 
 be delivered verbally, a speaker must be a sensible and reliable 
 man. Young men, destined for such service, are admitted as 
 hearers to the council, where they may learn much. Any one 
 employed as messenger is held in high regard. They must be 
 young men, of great endurance on the march, who will not be 
 stopped by bad weather or high waters. On occasions of ex 
 treme importance, as in time of war, messengers may have to be 
 on the march night and day, finding their way in the darkest 
 night on paths that a white man could scarce follow in daytime. 
 
 The council meetings are as quiet and orderly as if they 
 were acts of devotion. Noises, talking and laughing are not 
 heard, even though the young may be present. All pay strict 
 attention to the speaker. The counsellors are called together 
 by a servant and when they appear, they welcome one another, 
 shake hands and express their joy at meeting. Each brings 
 pouch, pipe and they smoke a considerable amount of tobacco 
 that has been mixed with dried and crushed sumac leaves. 
 Women are never admitted to the council; in matters of public 
 interest they may stand about the house and listen, and they 
 account it an honor when they are admitted, to hand victuals 
 and keep up the fire. Provisions must always be in plenty in 
 the council-house, for eating and deliberating alternate. 
 
 The principal chief, either himself or through a speaker, 
 sets forth the subjects that shall engage the attention of the 
 
North American Indians. 97 
 
 council in a solemn speech. If the subjects are of great impor 
 tance all who take part in the discussion stand as they speak. 
 Each counsellor has the liberty to utter his sentiments and hav 
 ing made his speech, sits down. No one interrupts the speaker 
 but all sit silent and attentive as if engaged in an act of devo 
 tion. The speeches are delivered in a pleasing manner and the 
 words of the speakers flow as readily as if they were read from 
 a manuscript. Whoever visits such an assembly, whether white 
 man or savage Indian, cannot but be profoundly impressed. 
 
 A subject is often very thoroughly and extendedly discussed. 
 The chiefs and counsellors in turn give their opinions and sug 
 gestions. When all have spoken, one of them is called upon to 
 .sum up the principal parts of all the speeches in a concise man 
 ner. This is done extempore and the necessary amendments 
 proposed, every subject being brought into as short and compre 
 hensive statement as possible. Before deliberations begin, the 
 strings and belts of wampum must be placed in due order, for 
 whatever is said without being confirmed by them is considered 
 vain and without effect. They are so accustomed to this that 
 when they communicate the contents of a message, merely in 
 private conversation, they cannot do so without something in 
 their hands, a strap, a ribbon or a blade of grass. Holding 
 some such thing in his hand the speaker will recount the points 
 in proper order as with the strings or belts of wampum thereto 
 belonging. 
 
 When chiefs are compelled to give answer to a proposition 
 of which they do not approve, but which they have consented 
 to consider because they did not wish openly to offer an affront, 
 they are able to frame their reply in so figurative and equivocal 
 a style as to allow 7 of almost any desired interpretation or ap 
 plication. Those who receive such an answer, know as little 
 after the reply has been given as before, but are ashamed to 
 ask further, lest they should be regarded as stupid and because 
 chiefs are supposed to understand everything. 
 
 When treaty of peace is made with another nation it is de 
 termined that it shall last as long as sun and moon shine or rise 
 and set, as long as the stars are in the heavens and the rivers 
 7 
 
98 Daiid Zcisbergcr s History 
 
 and waters flow. In this connection, nations who make the 
 treaty, or are allies, exchange a pipe between them which is 
 called the pipe of peace. Such -a pipe is carefully preserved and 
 generally lighted in council by a captain or chief, whenever any 
 thing occurs relating to the ally and each member smokes a little 
 out of it. The one who carries about the pipe reminds the mem 
 bers of the council of the covenant and the time of its establish 
 ment. The head of the pipe is commonly of stone, the stem of 
 wood wound with a fine ribbon neatly decorated with white 
 corals, the latter the work of the women. 
 
 It is the duty of the chief to maintain peace, to advise peace 
 as long as possible. It is not in his power to begin war as long 
 as the captains are averse to this. Without their consent he may 
 not accept a war belt. If it is received this is on condition that 
 he will turn it over to the captains for consideration. The chief 
 must endeavor to preserve peace to the utmost of his power. 
 If the captains are unanimous in declaring war he is obliged, 
 as it were, to deliver the care of his people for the time being 
 into their hands, for they are the warriors. 
 
 In the matter of choice of a chief various things are to be 
 observed. The principal captain may choose a chief and inaugu 
 rate him, and it is also in his power to take him out of office if 
 the chief proves a poor regent, acts contrary to the customs, does 
 according to his own wishes and refuses to accept counsel. The 
 captains, who always have the people on their side may thus 
 forsake a chief, not only refusing to support him but even pub 
 licly announcing that they do not agree with him, and thus his 
 power is at an end. The chief must always be a member of that 
 tribe in which he presides. The sons of a chief cannot inherit 
 their father s dignity, for the reason that they are not and can 
 not be, according to established usages, members of the tribe, 
 inasmuch as children do not inherit tribal rights from the father 
 but from the mother. 265 No Indian will marry a person in his 
 own tribe, as he is too closely related to all in it. Herein, the 
 Indians allege, is to be found the reason for the existence of 
 the tribes. Were it not for these, they could not be quite sure 
 whether persons to be married are near relatives or not. Hence, 
 it is, also, that children are considered the property of the wife. 
 
North American Indians. 99 
 
 If a divorce takes place they follow the mother. Those that 
 are grown up may stay with the father if they please. Herein 
 again is to be found reason for the conduct of parents towards 
 their children. They never oppose their inclinations in order 
 not to lose their affection. Parents never know how soon they 
 may be separated, and both parties, in that event, fearing de 
 sertion by their children, are very desirous of gaining and re 
 taining their love and affection. The Indians, therefore, regard 
 their wives as strangers. It is a common saying among them, 
 "My wife is not my friend," that is, she is not related to me 
 and I am not concerned about her, she is only my wife. This 
 satanic notion it is very difficult to uproot. 
 
 To return again to the matter of selection of a chief; as 
 his sons cannot, for the reasons named, succeed him, a great 
 grandchild or nephew may become chief, that is, either his 
 daughter s daughter s son or his sister s son, so that the privilege 
 of becoming Chief cannot be confined to too intimate relationship. 
 
 The principal duty of the first chief is to maintain the peace 
 and covenants made between his people and the other Indian 
 nations and the Europeans as also to carry on a kind of cor 
 respondence with them, all of which is generally done with the 
 advice and consent of the chiefs of the Turkey and Wolf tribes, 
 unless they are absent. It is further the particular duty of the 
 principal chief to see to it that nothing is neglected and when 
 necessary to send embassies. Finding that it is necessary to 
 take action in some matter he summons the council, submits 
 the subject and lets them deliberate which often demands of 
 them much thought and attention. Another of his duties is 
 that of keeping the people together and preventing any un 
 necessary dispersion. Much depends, therefore, on whether a 
 chief is beloved of his people. Where this is lacking the Indians 
 are like a swarm of bees without a queen bee. A chief must 
 prevent all disorders in his town, have an eye to justice, and 
 seek to do away with strife with the aid of his counsellors. But 
 he may not seek to do this by force or severity but only by calm 
 reasoning and friendly exhortation. Usually, the Indians are 
 amenable to good words. In a general way the Indians pay due 
 honor and respect to their chiefs, though there are some who 
 
100 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 are moved neither by fear of men nor of God ; fortunately there 
 are few such. 
 
 Strong drink occasions much disorder in the Indian 
 towns. 266 If a chief is himself an abstainer, he may accomplish 
 much against this evil, but he must be ever watchful and not 
 tire in his efforts. 
 
 At the death of a chief neither his children, wife, nor 
 relatives inherit his possessions. Everything is distributed 
 among the people except the wampum and belts, which belong 
 to the chief in his official capacity, and the Council Bag. These 
 are preserved and turned over to his successor in office. In 
 general, some person who lived in intimacy with the deceased 
 chief, and is well acquainted with the affairs of state is chosen 
 to be his successor. It is generally agreed that such and such 
 an one is the right person to assume the dignity of chief. If 
 he is discreet and wins the favor of the captains and the peo 
 ple, the former in particular, will support him in every possible 
 way. A captain, such as White Eye 267 was, is the Chief s right 
 hand. He must undertake everything ordered of him by the 
 chief, even at the hazard of his life. To show fear would not 
 be in harmony with his dignity and a disgrace. If he is 
 wounded or killed by the enemy, the whole nation joins in 
 avenging his death, taking injury done him as seriously as if 
 it concerned the person of the chief. This the captains are 
 aware of and it gives them courage. 
 
 A captain has no more right to conclude peace than a chief 
 to begin war. 268 If peace is offered to a captain, when he is 
 in the enemy s country, he can give no other answer than that 
 he will bring the proposal to the notice of the chief, for as a 
 warrior he cannot make peace, and that in due time reply will 
 be given. If the chief inclines to peace, he, as it were, assumes 
 his office again, exerts his power, takes the matter out of the 
 hands of the captain and desires him to sit down, which signifies 
 declaring a truce. The hatchet is taken out of the captain s 
 hand and he is obliged to cease from hostilities and keep his 
 men quiet. The chief knowing that inactivity is not agreeable 
 to the captain, asks his assistance in the negotiations and 
 generally chooses him to be the messenger of peace to the 
 
North American Indians. 101 
 
 nations. By such a commission an accession of honor and re 
 spect is acquired by the captain. So soon as he gives up the 
 tomahawk, his men must cease from hostile acts and demon 
 strations. 
 
 The rank of captain is neither elective nor hereditary. First 
 intimation of this honor comes usually in a dream, early in 
 life, one or another having seen a buffalo, a bear or other 
 ferocious animal, or he has seen in a vision an Indian who 
 spoke with him and gave him the necessary gifts. Such a dream 
 is pondered over and related to friends and usually interpreted 
 as destiny for the office of Captain. The dreamer s imagina 
 tion leads him to believe that nothing may injure him and that 
 no bullet can harm him. He, therefore, endeavors to attain 
 to the necessary qualifications for this dignity and prove his 
 powers for he must be tested, as will appear presently. Occa 
 sionally, bovs are prepared and instructed for this position. These 
 are given little to eat, are made to fast often and long, so that 
 their bodies become emaciated, their minds deranged and their 
 dreams w r ild and extravagant. Frequent questions are put to 
 them when in this condition as to the dreams they have had. 
 So long as they have not dreamt or not dreamt the right thing, 
 the process is continued until they have been reduced to skin 
 and bones, when they usually have or pretend to have >a 
 fantastic dream, declared to be ominous. The subject being 
 minutely considered and interpreted by their teachers, they are 
 solemnly informed what will be their future destination. By 
 virtue of these extraordinary revelations they become physicians, 
 great hunters, rich men, Mantewits, that is, sorcerers, or cap 
 tains. The impression thus made on their minds is lasting, and 
 as they grow older they earnestly strive to fulfill their destina 
 tion, believing themselves to be men of peculiar gifts, far in 
 advance of the others. It is not enough to profess to be destined 
 for the dignity of a captain. The claim must be made good. 
 The candidate must be resolute, brave, fearless, even in greatest 
 danger. If a leader, who has not the rank of captain, has the 
 good fortune not to lose a man of his troop in six or seven 
 engagements and to bring scalps and prisoners to the camp, he 
 is recognized and honored as a captain forthwith. If he loses 
 
102 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 a man he must secure a prisoner in his place. Should he lose 
 more than one. responsibility weighs the more heavily upon 
 him, and in default of showing an equal number of prisoners, 
 his authority is at an end and he dare not think of continuing 
 in the office. If an Indian loses his son, or one of his near 
 relatives in war, whom he has highly valued, he gives a belt 
 of wampum to a captain and desires him to go and take a 
 prisoner to supply the place of the deceased. He takes his 
 company into the enemy s country, and if he is fortunate in his 
 exploit, immediately hangs the belt around the prisoner s neck 
 to denote that he shall be received into a family and that his 
 life is safe. Upon delivering the prisoner to his employer, the 
 captain receives the belt as a reward, and the prisoner is adopted 
 by the family as a son or near relative. But if he is un 
 successful or has been so unfortunate as to lose a man. the 
 captain s standing is destroyed and he is disgraced. It depends, 
 therefore, in large degree upon good fortune whether a man 
 becomes or remain? captain. There are never very many cap 
 tains in one tribe, but always some. 
 
 Although a chief is not supposed to have much to do with 
 war, his influence tends greatly either to prevent or encourage 
 the commencement of a war. for the Indians believe that a war 
 cannot be successful without the consent of the chief, and the 
 captains endeavor on that account to live in harmony with him. 
 It is not a light matter for the Indians to begin a war. as it 
 might be among the Europeans, for a war having been begun 
 it is not easy to bring it to an end nor to be reconciled to the 
 enemies. The chief reason for this is that a certain number are 
 killed on both sides and these, according to ancient custom, must 
 be replaced by prisoners. War with the whites is a different 
 matter, for the Indians usually secure more than enough of 
 scalps and prisoners to make up their losses, and they may sue 
 for peace at any time even while continuing hostilities. But 
 with the nations of their own color they cannot do this, for they 
 know that they will be punished by enemies who will avenge 
 themselves in the crudest manner. 
 
 The warriors consist of the young men, among whom, how 
 ever, are those of fifty years and over. The warriors are under 
 
North American Indians. 103 
 
 the command of the captains, especially in times of war, and do 
 nothing without their consent. They neither leave the troop 
 nor go hunting, as they know that their life and honor in a 
 great measure depends upon the prudent conduct of their cap 
 tains, and they obey them with pleasure. The night previous 
 to the march of the army is spent in feasting, at which the 
 chiefs are present, a hog, if procurable, being killed for the 
 occasion. After the feast the captain and his people begin the 
 war dance and continue till daybreak when they are quite hoarse 
 and weary. Sometimes they dance in turn, each taking the head 
 of the hog in his hand ; again all dance together. Spectators 
 are admitted, and may even join in the dance. Sometimes in 
 stead of a hog a couple of dogs are killed, not because dog s 
 flesh is a delicacy, for the Indian dogs are very lean, but because 
 it is said to inspire them with the true spirit of war and murder. 
 I have even seen women partake of this feast, eating the dog s 
 flesh with great greediness. I have steadily and courteously re 
 fused to partake when invited. The war dance having been 
 completed they march out on the following day. The captain 
 leads and his men follow in single file. When they reach the 
 end of the street, they fire their pieces one after another and 
 the captain begins the war song. As both their friends and the 
 women generally accompany them to the first night s encamp 
 ment, they halt about two or three miles from the town, dance 
 the war dance once more, and the day following begin the 
 march proper. 
 
 As they commonly have a long and tedious journey into the 
 enemies land their provisions are soon exhausted. They are 
 then obliged to spend some days in hunting. Xo one enjoys any 
 precedence during the march, not even the captain. They divide 
 their provisions in equal shares, even if each man should get 
 only a mouthful of bread or spoonful of meat. When they 
 reach Indian towns with which they are at peace provisions are 
 given them. They never go out in large parties but usually in 
 -mall companies of ten or twenty, in order that they may not 
 "uffer so much for want of provisions. The captain is very at 
 tentive to the condition of his troop being answerable for all 
 his men. If but a few are weary he orders all to halt till they 
 
104 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 have recovered. As soon as they enter the enemies country 
 they can hunt no longer for fear of being betrayed. They pro 
 vide themselves, therefore, with provisions for several days and 
 watch their opportunity. Occasionally they must lie in hiding 
 many days until their purpose is attained. As soon as the deed 
 has been accomplished, they hurry away, exercising the greatest 
 caution inasmuch as they know that they will be pursued and 
 may themselves suffer injury. Those whom they kill are scalped 
 and the scalps taken home. Prisoners secured are bound and 
 led away and kept bound until they are no more in fear of 
 pursuers. Thereafter the prisoners fetters are loosed during 
 the day. During the night they are fastened by their feet to 
 a stake so split as to admit one leg, this stake being fastened 
 to another that is driven into the ground. If one of them is 
 \vounded the warriors apply remedies which they carry with them 
 on their expeditions and generally succeed in restoring them. 
 Often the wounded must be carried, and if it is at all possible 
 to get them away they are not left to perish. They even carry 
 off their dead, or at least their scalps, or bury the dead lest 
 they should fall into the hands of their enemies. In a skirmish 
 with the whites they generally remove their dead, which makes 
 it hard to determine how many have been killed in action. 260 
 They generally return from a war in a half-starved state, winch 
 is not to be wondered at because of the hard experiences they 
 have gone through, especially on the return. On the return 
 march they are constantly in fear, not knowing which night 
 their enemies may fall upon them, hence they proceed by forced 
 marches until they know themselves to be out of danger. Oc 
 casionally, they are attacked at night or at break of day, when 
 they sometimes succeed in saving life by flight, leaving their 
 weapons and everything else behind. Thus deprived, they may 
 be able to travel several hundred miles until they arrive in 
 the territory of peaceful nations where they again find sus 
 tenance. They generally suffer excessive hunger and fatigue 
 by the way, living upon the bark of trees, wild herbs and roots. 
 Much of this they do not have to fear when engaged in war 
 with whites, for these will not pursue them for any great dis 
 tance. Cases have been known where the Indians have attacked 
 
North American Indians. 105 
 
 and stormed a small fort and taken forty or fifty men,, women 
 and children prisoners and not lost a man. The prisoners they 
 led into the woods a short distance, divided into two parties 
 preserving the more ablebodied and tomahawking- the rest be 
 fore their eyes. The little children that cried and wailed were 
 dashed against the trees, so that the brains stuck to the bark. 
 They are thus barbarous when victorious, and similar examples 
 have been multiplied in times of war. 
 
 Prisoners are not ill-treated as long as they are in the 
 hands of the warriors but fare with them alike. They have so 
 much the more to suffer in the towns of the victorious people. 
 The warriors, upon their approach to the town, repeat the death 
 whoop according to the number of scalps, trophies or prisoners 
 in their possession. Upon this signal, men, women and children 
 run out to meet them, placing themselves in two rows. The 
 warriors with their prisoners, whom they lead bound by their 
 arms, march between the two rows and halt. The scalps they 
 carry on poles held aloft and painted red, and the prisoners 
 are forced to dance for the amusement of the spectators. The 
 dance over they are ordered to go to a house which they see 
 before them in the village. As soon as they set out the people 
 begin to strike at them with switches, clubs, hatchets or their 
 fists. If they gain the house, though ever so bruised and 
 bloody, they are perfectly safe. Indians acquainted with this 
 barbarous custom, if they are not old men, escape a great part 
 of these cruelties by running towards the mark with all their 
 might. Female prisoners are frequently rescued by the women 
 who take them between their ranks and carry them to the 
 town. I have witnessed both practices. As soon as the prisoners 
 have reached the house the warriors take good care of them, 
 wash and dress their wounds and when their meals are ready 
 serve the prisoners first. I cannot think that this is done from 
 compassion but rather that the prisoners may look well and do 
 honor to the triumph they celebrate in passing through all the 
 towns of their nation till they arrive at their own homes. After 
 they have refreshed themselves and rested, the prisoners are led 
 out for the amusement of the inhabitants. They fasten strings 
 of bells or deer-claws to the feet of one of them, to make a 
 
106 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 rattle for the dance, and present him with a parcel of small 
 sticks. What is meant by the latter, the prisoner knows. He 
 takes as many as he pleases and returns the rest. These de 
 termine the number of short dances he has to perform, which 
 he does with great alacrity to the rattling of a calabash, 270 
 filled with small stones and marking the time. After each round 
 he relates one of his heroic deeds or experiences in war, and 
 delivers a stick to the captain who sits in the circle. Though 
 the spectators may not understand his language, they guess his 
 meaning by his looks and gestures. This ceremony is repeated 
 in every town through which they must pass. With white 
 prisoners the procedure is in some respects different. Commonly 
 these particularly must suffer much beating, because they are 
 not conversant with Indian manners and customs. 
 
 When the parties at length arrive at their own homes with 
 their prisoners a council is held to determine what disposition 
 shall be made of them. Many of the prisoners are received into 
 families to supply the places of the slain, the lately deceased or 
 those who may have perished as a result of a drinking orgy, and 
 are immediately considered as members of the family. Such 
 prisoners are well treated, according to Indian custom, and their 
 lot is bearable if they content themselves with their new sur 
 roundings. They are not put to much labor, which in general 
 is little regarded by the Indians. If they run away and are 
 retaken their lives are in danger. If the prisoners are white 
 men their heads are shorn in Indian fashion, only a little hair 
 remaining on the crown, and the face is painted red. This is 
 done as soon as they are taken, so that when the villages are 
 reached it is hardly possible to distinguish whites from Indians. 
 In general they are well treated by the Indians and allowed 
 considerable liberty, provided they conduct themselves properly 
 and do not act in unseemly fashion toward the Indians. 
 
 Those unhappy prisoners who are condemned to die must 
 suffer the most excruciating torture, execution of the sentence 
 often being delayed until the prisoners feel themselves safe. 
 The Indians flock to these executions as to some great solemnity, 
 with a view to reeking on the unfortunate captive their cruel 
 and revengeful disposition. A fire is made in the open, irons 
 
North American Indians. 107 
 
 are heated, and the unfortunate captive is bound to a stake 
 placed at some distance from the fire. He is burned with the 
 irons. Long strips of flesh are cut from his body with knives 
 and salt is rubbed into the raw wounds. He may be half roasted 
 at the fire, then released for a time, with a view to prolonging 
 his tortures, which sometimes last three or four days. At length 
 rendered insensible by pain, death may bring release, or his 
 tormentors put an end to his sufferings and throw the mangled 
 body into the flames. Captives often endure the torture with 
 the greatest fortitude, sing of their heroic deeds accomplished 
 in war, and do not let their captors notice fear or terror of death. 
 
 Now and then a condemned prisoner is released by ransom ; 
 sometimes release is refused no matter how much is offered. In 
 the year 1779 among the Wiandots a white captive was tortured 
 to death. Several English traders who were there offered goods 
 to the amount of several hundred buckskins, that is so many 
 Spanish dollars but without success. Among the Mingoes and 
 Shawanose this inhuman method of treating captives is par 
 ticularly in use. In course of the present war 271 they have given 
 several horrid proofs of their cruel disposition. 
 
 Some years ago when a party of Shawanose went to war 
 against the Cherokees, a young Shawanose was taken captive 
 by the Cherokees and condemned to die. On the following day 
 the fire was started, he was tied to the stake, and every prepara 
 tion made for his execution, when a Cherokee woman arrived 
 with a parcel of goods, and throwing them down at the feet of 
 the warrior to whom the prisoner belonged begged for his re 
 lease, alleging that she was a widow and wished to adopt him 
 as her son. Her request was granted, the captive released and 
 delivered over to her, and on the same day he walked up and 
 down the village well dressed. He was so grateful to his pro 
 tectress that he remained faithful to her, even returning in due 
 time from a visit he paid to his own people. 
 
 The statement that the Indians are cannibals is unfounded 
 in fact. It has happened in some cases that prisoners were de 
 voured, and it may happen now on rare occasions to satisfy 
 vengeful hate. Formerly Indians have been known in the height 
 of their fury to tear an enemy s heart out of his body and devour 
 
108 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 it raw. When an Indian nation wishes to excite another to 
 war, it sometimes happens that they send one or more prisoners 
 to such a nation with the words, "We send you this prisoner 
 to make some broth," and frequently gain their aim in this 
 fashion. The prisoner, however, is not devoured but executed 
 without mercy. There is no rescuing him from horrible death. 
 
 Captains, when about to go to war, send to the captains of 
 nations or towns who are in league with them a piece of to 
 bacco to smoke, thus notifying them that they themselves will 
 soon follow. By this they intend that the captains shall smoke 
 their pipes and consider seriously whether they will take part 
 in .the war or not. One chief about to visit another will, sim 
 ilarly, send him a piece of tobacco with the message that he 
 shall smoke, look in a certain direction and in due time he will 
 see the sender coming. This is done to make sure that the 
 visitor will find the chief whom he wishes to visit at home. 
 
 The last war of the nations was between the Six Nations, 
 the Delawares and Shawanose and the Cherok ees, the latter 
 pitted against the rest. This war continued many years until 
 peace was concluded in I768, 272 as, a few years before, peace 
 had been made between the Six Nations and the Catabe-Nation 27 ! 
 through the mediation of Sir William Johnson at Albany. Con 
 cerning earlier Indian wars nothing is known and since that 
 time war with the whites has engaged the attention of all the 
 Indian nations. 
 
 With the Delawares the following nations are in league: 
 The Mahikander, 274 the Shawanose, the Cherokees, the Twich- 
 twes, 275 the Wawiachtanos, 276 the Kikapus, 277 the Wiondats, the 
 Tuckachschas, 278 the Chipuways, Ottawas, the Putewoataimen 279 
 and the Kaskaski. 2SO The two last named dwell along the 
 Wabash. 281 
 
 The Shawanose, who formerly lived in Florida and have 
 ever been a warlike people, had a war with the Moshkos. 282 The 
 latter were the stronger and the Shawanose were reduced to a 
 few remnants. The survivors left their country, came as fu 
 gitives up the Ohio to the Susquehanna. [Susquehannah]. They 
 moved from place to place until they fell in with a strong party 
 of Delawares. With these they entered into negotiations, stat- 
 
North American Indians. 109 
 
 ing that they were fugitives and wished to settle in the country 
 of the Delawares and under their protection. The Delawares 
 adopted them as grandchildren, even as had been done with the 
 Mahikanders. The Shawanose now call the Delawares grand- 
 lather. 2 " They lived for some time in the Forks of the Dela 
 ware and then moved to Wajomick 284 on the Susquehanna. 
 Having increased considerably in numbers they moved to the 
 western branch of that river and, later, as they deemed them 
 selves secure in the alliance with the Delawares and sufficiently 
 strong to venture it, to the Ohio above Great Island. 285 Here 
 they commenced hostilities against the Cherokees. The latter 
 pursued often following the Shawanose into the country of the 
 Delawares. Unwittingly they killed some of the latter. This 
 brought on a new war between the Delawares and the Cherokees, 
 beginning, as indicated, by the Shawanose and not ended until 
 the year 1768. The Shawanose lived for several years on the 
 Ohio near Kittanniink, 286 whence they moved to Logstown, 287 
 twenty miles below Pittsburg, and from there to the Sioto, 
 whence the Americans drove them and entirely destroyed their 
 settlements, for the reason that they were guilty of constant 
 attack on the settlements of the whites and of many murderous 
 acts. 288 After this the Shawanose turned westward. 
 
 The Delawares have not engaged in war with any of the 
 nations named except the Cherokees. Because these nations 
 were in league with the Delawares, and called each other 
 brothers (the Shawanose excepted), the Cherokees made peace 
 with the Delawares, calling them grandfather, all these nations 
 followed them and entered into alliance with them, and the 
 Shawanose, having been adopted by the Delawares are so se 
 cure that no nation will venture to attack them, even though they 
 are a cruel, warlike people. 
 
 It appears from what has been stated that the Delawares 
 have powerful connections, being in league with most nations. 
 Had the Delawares allowed themselves to be enticed in the 
 present war, America s experiences would have been different. 
 As these remained neutral, the nations in league with them did 
 the same, except the Shawanose, who have nearly cut off their 
 relations with "the grandfather." The Delawares are grand- 
 
110 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 father to all these nations and they are the grandchildren. The 
 Cherokees live on the east side of the Ohio, in the mountains 
 opposite North Carolina. The Chipuways 289 are a numerous 
 people on the north coast of Lake Erie. The Ottawas and the 
 Putewoataimen live to the west of Lake Erie, but a great way 
 beyond it. The Twichttwees and the Wawiachtanos dwell be 
 tween the Sioto and the Wabash and the Kikapus, the Moshkos 
 and Tuckachschas on both sides of the Wobash, yet a consider 
 able distance from one another. 
 
 The country through which the Wobash [Wabash] flows is 
 very level. Here are great plains producing nothing but grass 
 as in the flats of Wajomik. 290 In a journey of some days you 
 meet with neither hill, tree nor thicket. Upon these plains herds 
 of buffalo are seen grazing, comprising sometimes of hundreds 
 of head. The banks of the Ohio are subject to frequent inunda 
 tion, especially in the spring when the snow melts in the north. 
 For several miles on either side of the river the country will 
 at such a time be under water. Should Indians be hunting at 
 this time, they find it necessary to be careful of their canoes, lest 
 they should suffer want or death, for once the water overflows 
 the banks, it runs out many miles and there is no escape with 
 out a canoe. Buffalo and other game perish in large numbers 
 in such floods. Where there is a slight elevation animals gather 
 by the hundreds, until the waters recede. In that region there 
 is a great salt-lick, much visited by buffalo and other game. 291 
 There bones and teeth of elephants of considerable size have been 
 found, both by whites and Indians. In earlier times there must 
 have been elephants in this region. Whether they were exter 
 minated by the Indians or perished in some other way, it is not 
 easy to determine. 
 
 The (Wiondats), or Hurons, have been given the latter 
 name because formerly they lived near Lake Huron, (the Dela- 
 wares call them Delamattenos), 291i they call the Delaware nation 
 their cousin, and the latter in turn call them uncle. With these 
 the Delawares have never had a war but have always been good 
 friends. Between the Delawares and the Six Nations there has 
 never been real friendship, because the latter secured peace in 
 no straight-forward manner. Recognizing that the Delawares 
 
North American Indians. Ill 
 
 were too powerful for them, they pretended that it would not 
 be good for the nations to wage war continually and that one 
 nation ought to be the woman and that nation must be the 
 Delawares, as they were the greatest warriors. Afterward they 
 alleged that they had conquered the Delawares. In the war 
 which began in 1755 and lasted until the sixties the Delawares 
 challenged the Six Nations on the occasion of a Treaty in Pitts- 
 burg, but the latter returned no answer. 292 
 
 Of late years the Delawares have amazingly increased in 
 reputation through the wise management of the Chief Neta- 
 watwes. This man spared no pains to gain the friendship of 
 all the nations. He sent frequent embassies to the grandchildren, 
 and showed himself a true grandfather. When the Delawares 
 sent a message to the allied nations, the speech began with each 
 string or belt of wampum, "Grand-children ;" the nations ad 
 dress the Delawares, Grandfather." The Wyondats and Six 
 Nations are addressed "Uncle," and the Europeans, "Brother. " 
 The speech is generally addressed directly to the chief, though 
 meant for the whole nation. 
 
 The nations generally addressed the French as "Father," 
 when the latter were in possession of Canada and had inter 
 course with them. The same appellation was transferred to the 
 English when they conquered Canada. In the other colonies 
 Europeans and Indians called one another "Brothers." This 
 practice was followed by Sir William Johnson. 
 
 Indians explain the origin of Nations and their names by 
 saying, and this not unlikely, that the inhabitants of towns or 
 districts named themselves according to the places where they 
 dwelt. Thus even at the present time Delawares who live in 
 Goschachgiink are commonly called Goschachgiwak, that is 
 Goschachgithlser "people of Goschachgiink." 
 
 A message sent or a speech in council goes or is delivered 
 in the name of the three tribes, signifying the three chiefs. The 
 Turtle tribe is named first, next the Wolf Tribe and the Turkey 
 Tribe last. 
 
 When a message is returned, not having been accepted, the 
 belt or string of wampum that has been rejected is thrown on 
 the floor of the council house, after it has been announced why 
 
112 Dar-k* Zeisberger s History 
 
 the message was nor welcome. The refusal is considered a great 
 affront and no one of the chiefs or counsellors will touch the 
 rejected wampum belt or string. This lies on the floor, the 
 men of the Council leaving the place, until some old woman 
 removes it. 
 
 Concerning usages and ceremonies connected with the elec 
 tion of a chief the following should have been added. If a 
 chief of the Turtle Tribe is to be elected his own tribe does not 
 choose him but the chiefs of the other two tribes do this. 
 Similarly, if a chief of the Wolf or Turkey Tribe were to be 
 elected, the tribe concerned would have no part in the election. 
 The election is conducted in the following manner. As each 
 tribe lives in a town of its own. the two chiefs, upon whom the 
 election devolves, meet with their counsellors and people at an 
 appointed place, and after all necessary preparations have been 
 made some thirty belts of wampum are required and a num 
 ber of speeches arranged for they move in a procession toward 
 the town where the election is to take place. The two chiefs 
 head the procession and one of them sings along the whole way 
 the speeches that are tc be made to the chief about to be 
 elected, singing in a tone used on this and no other occasion. 
 Thus they, still singing, enter the town where the chief is to be 
 elected. They find everything prepared for the occasion, enter 
 the council house at the east end, pass on one side the two or 
 three fires that have been made and sit down on the other side. 
 Xext the inhabitants of the town enter, welcome the guests by 
 shaking their hands and sit down on the other side of the fire. 
 One of the two chiefs, in a singing tone, opens the proceedings 
 by explaining the object of the meeting, condoling with the chief 
 elect, wipes the tears from his eyes, clears his ears and throat, 
 removes all sorrow on account of the departed chief from his 
 heart and comforts him. Xext he declares him to be chief and 
 formally fills the office made vacant by the death of the former 
 chief. He then exhorts the young people to be obedient to their 
 new chief, whenever he shall require their assistance, and ex 
 plains to them how they are to conduct themselves toward the 
 chief. The speech is confirmed by means of two belts of 
 
North American Indians. 113 
 
 wampum and the speaker receives an answer, a solemn promise, 
 from the young people that they will fulfill their obligation. He 
 likewise addresses the wife of the new chief, who is present 
 attended by several women, and admonishes her to be obedient 
 to the chief. This is confirmed by means of a belt and the 
 woman, in the name of all the women, promises obedience. 
 Finally, he lays before the chief the duties of his office, regard 
 ing 1 the preservation or re-establishment of peace, admonishing 
 him not to meddle in the affairs of war and to keep his people 
 from it. to continually attend to the welfare of his nation and 
 to hear willingly the remonstrances of the people in case he 
 should commit a fault. All this is intoned and the belts given 
 in confirmation are laid before the chief. He promises to act 
 in strict conformity to these injunctions. 
 
 The new chief thus enters upon his office by consent of the 
 tribe and whole nation. He is placed, therefore, in a position 
 of influence. He is loved and honored of his people and aided 
 by them in his undertakings. Whoever obtains the office of 
 chief in any other way is not respected. This is the case with 
 the successor of Netawatwes, who was chosen by Europeans 
 prominent in Pittsburg. 203 Such a one amounts to nothing and 
 is held in no greater esteem than any other Indian. He can 
 accomplish nothing, for neither the other chiefs nor the coun 
 sellors nor the people are with him. Thus the Delawares at 
 present have no real ruler, to whom they are devoted and from 
 whom they are willing to take counsel. This state of affairs 
 will continue until they elect a chief in accordance with their 
 own usages. 
 
 If a chief has made mistakes, he may be admonished by the 
 whole people and is obliged to give attention to them. For 
 any grave fault, which may prove injurious to the common 
 wealth for instance if he suffers the young people to commit 
 outrages or murders, which may be laid to the charge of the 
 whole nation and involve it in war, or if he should not do any 
 thing to prevent such misdemeanors in the first instance he is 
 reprimanded by the two other chiefs, with the same ceremonious 
 solemnity used at his installation, must be willing to take the 
 8 
 
114 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 reprimand, and must promise to fulfill his duty better in the 
 future. 
 
 The name Delawares undoubtedly has its origin with the 
 Europeans, for neither they themselves nor other nations use 
 this name. They call themselves the Lenni-Lenape Indians 
 or Woapanachke, that is people living towards the rising of 
 the sun, having formerly inhabited the eastern coast of North 
 America. It is possible that the word Delawares should have 
 been applied to the nation ; because the Unami Tribe, which 
 lived nearest the sea, uses the word ndellowen very much. This 
 word, meaning "I say, being a verb, appears frequently and 
 in many forms in the conversation of the people. The first 
 Europeans, not understanding the language and hearing this 
 word very often may have made Delaware out of it and called 
 the people thus. The Indians themselves believe this to be the 
 explanation, though it is possible that the Europeans have 
 another, of which I am not aware. 20 * 
 
 If a party of Indians have spent a night in the woods, it 
 may be easily known, not only by the structure of their sleep 
 ing huts but also by their marks on the trees, to what tribe 
 they belong. For they always leave a mark behind made either 
 with red pigment or charcoal. Such marks are understood by 
 the Indians who know how to read their meaning. Some mark 
 ings point out the places where a company of Indians have been 
 hunting, showing the number of nights they spent there, the 
 number of deer, bears and other game killed during the hunt. 
 The warriors sometimes paint their own deeds and adventures, 
 the number of prisoners or scalps taken, the number of troops 
 they commanded and how many fell in battle. 
 
 If two nations are engaged in war and the warriors of one 
 commit some murderous act, it is not uncommon that they leave 
 the hatchet in the head of the victim who has been scalped or 
 lay a war-club, painted red, upon the body of the victim. This 
 is a formal challenge, in consequence of which, a captain of 
 the insulted party takes up the weapon of the murderers and 
 hastens into their country to be avenged. He will do much 
 the same thing, leaving his weapon upon the murdered, and 
 
North American Indians. 115 
 
 endeavor to bring back a scalp or several scalps to show that 
 he has avenged the rights of his nation. 
 
 Across the Mississippi there lives a nation called the Su. 295 
 They live along the river Sti far beyond the Illinois, where there 
 are vast plains without trees and on which wild goats, buffalo 
 and other game graze. As there is no wood, the Indians burn 
 dried buffalo manure. For the winter they provide themselves 
 with peat, which they dry with grass. Their utensils they make 
 of clay and burn them, wherever they may be, for they travel 
 from place to place following game. Their weapons are the 
 bow and arrow. Water being scarce on the plains, they catch 
 the dew for cooking and drinking purposes. For this purpose 
 they use large sponges that grow on the rocks in the rivers. 
 This I have been told by an Englishman who lived sometime 
 in that country. These Indians trade with the Spaniards. I have 
 heard from various sources that the further west one goes the 
 more extensive are the plains. 
 
 Indians usually treat one another with kindness and civility 
 and in their bearing toward one another are modest. They are 
 communicative but thoughtful. Of empty compliments they 
 know nothing. In meeting it is customary to shake hands, greet 
 one another with the friendly title of Father, Older or Younger 
 Brother, Uncle, Cousin, Grand Son, Grandfather and say "I 
 am glad to see you." Sometimes all this is repeated when the 
 guests have been sometime in the house. Expression of greet 
 ing through others is hardly customary, occasionally a gift is 
 sent by way of greeting. Greetings are expressed in all sin 
 cerity. If sentiments do not correspond to words and forms, 
 the latter are dispensed with. If warriors, going to war or 
 coming from war, when the murderous spirit is on them greet 
 one (I will not say an Indian, for that were nothing unusual, 
 but a white person) one may certainly believe to possess their 
 favor and good grace and need fear no harm, for if they have 
 the least feeling against anyone, they will use no form of greet 
 ing. This I know from frequent experience. An Indian carries 
 pouch and pipe with him wherever he goes, for they a re indis 
 pensable. For state occasions they may have an otter skin 
 
116 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 pouch or a beaver-pouch or one decorated with coral, made by 
 the women. Sometimes they have a buffalo horn, from which 
 a pouch, made possibly of tanned deer-skin, depends. In the 
 pouches they carry tobacco, fire materials, knife and pipe. Sumac 
 is generally mixed with tobacco or sumac smoked without to 
 bacco, for but few can stand smoking pure tobacco. Their com 
 mon conversation turns upon hunting or the news of the day. 
 Matter that has no foundation in fact may be drawn into con 
 versation, and even though all may be aware of this, the narra 
 tion continues uninterrupted. They may laugh now and again 
 but they will listen attentively. No one interrupts another. 
 When one has finished another begins. They never put any one 
 publicly to blush ; they are polite to each other and enjoy being 
 politely treated. They like to be regarded as worthy people 
 even though they may be the opposite. They are pleased to 
 know that they are liked. When a guest comes into a house, 
 food is placed before him ; that comes before anything else. 
 If the guests are from a distance and very good friends, the 
 whole kettle of food is set before them, they are given dishes and 
 spoons and allowed to help themselves first to as much as they 
 wish. The guests having partaken of the food, pass the kettle 
 back to the people of the house. They live very simply. Meat, 
 corn, gruel, corn-bread, are the principal articles of diet. 29fi In 
 lieu of meat, various dishes are prepared with corn, or Sopan, 
 milk and butter are used. They like to discuss affairs of state 
 and communicate their opinions. In fact they are more ready 
 to discuss such matters in course of visits than in the Council 
 House, for there they prefer to let the older people speak. Oc 
 casionally visits are made with the purpose of discovering the 
 opinions of others ; in a chief s home all manner of reports, 
 true and false, furnish material for discussion. The women 
 speak of their work, their plantations, the pouches, bags, baskets, 
 carrying bands they have made, many of them though not all 
 smoking tobacco. Stories are carried by women from house to 
 house; they are so often manufactured that if men, having 
 listened attentively to some tale, hear that it originated with a 
 woman they will give it no credit until confirmed by some more 
 reliable authoritv. 
 
North American Indians. 117 
 
 Trade with Europeans is carried on usually on the basis 
 of fixed price, both as concerns goods and pelts. The Indians 
 trade their deer, beaver, otter, raccoon, fox-skins, wild-cat-skins 
 and others for goods which the traders often take a consider 
 able distance into the Indian country. If they can deceive the 
 whites, they do so with pleasure, for it is not easily done. They 
 are delighted, also, if they succeed in purloining something. 
 They are fond of buying on credit, promising to pay when they 
 return from the chase. The traders may be willing to take the 
 risk, hoping to control all that they catch. But if the Indians, 
 on their return, find other traders in the country, they barter 
 with them and trouble themselves no longer over their creditors. 
 If the latter remind them of their debts, they are offended, for 
 to pay old debts seems to them to be giving goods away for 
 nothing. Usually traders learn from their losses to give nothing 
 or but little on credit. This is the safest course and there is 
 no danger in arousing the enmity of the Indians. When war 
 breaks out the traders are the first in danger, not only of losing 
 their property but also for their lives. When the Indians sus 
 pect a war approaching, they keep it secret and take as many 
 goods upon credit as they can get ; as soon as the war breaks 
 out all debts are cancelled. 
 
 The Indians trade much among themselves, especially the 
 women, who deal in rum, which they sell at exorbitant prices, 
 which occasions much disorder. Indian traders usually demand 
 high prices, knowing well that unless the buyer were in great 
 distress, or fully intent upon closing the bargain, he would 
 rather not deal with them. Indians when really anxious to ob 
 tain anything will pay almost any price. If they are in need 
 of corn they will give goods or pelts in exchange for it. Fre 
 quently, the chiefs have prohibited the sale of strong drink in 
 their towns, but it is always brought in in some manner, against 
 which the chiefs are powerless to protest. For instance, they 
 may appoint a sacrifice of rum, in which nothing but rum is 
 used. This the chiefs cannot hinder owing to established custom. 
 When once the Indians, who gather in large numbers for such 
 a sacrifice, have tasted the strong drink but have not satisfied 
 themselves, they will go to the old women who deal in liquor. 
 
118 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 The latter will often obtain everything that an Indian owns 
 except his Breech-clout. For their skins the Indians get from 
 the traders powder, lead, rifle-barrelled guns for other weapons 
 they do not value blankets, strouds, linen, shirts, cotton, 
 callemanco, 297 knives, needles, thread, woolen and silken ribbon, 
 wire and kettles of brass, silver buckles, these are considered 
 as valuable as gold and with them they can purchase almost 
 anything bracelets, thimbles, rings, combs, mirrors, axes, 
 hatchets and other tools. 
 
 If the young are at home and not on the chase hardly a 
 night passes without a dance. The women, who always follow 
 the men, dancing in a circle, act with decency and becoming 
 modesty, as if they were engaged in the most serious business. 
 Neither laughing nor levity are to be noticed and they never 
 speak a word to a man, for this would injure their character. 
 They neither jump nor skip, but move one foot after the other 
 slightly forwards then backwards, yet so as to advance gradually. 
 The men shout and leap and stamp with such violence that the 
 ground trembles under their feet. Whatever man acts in the 
 oddest and most ridiculous manner is the most regarded. They 
 dance in a circle around the fire. Often in the midst of the 
 dance they will all hold their heads forward over the fire, stand 
 bowed or leap and stamp, singing all the time ; suddenly they 
 stand erect again and move forward. They make all manner 
 of unusual movements to show their agility and skill. They 
 have no other music than the drum. When one dance has been 
 finished the one who beats the drum sings and beats until another 
 begins. There is always a leader whom all watch carefully and 
 follow. They have various kinds of dances, some acquired from 
 the other nations. 
 
 The young men often wrestle to test their strength. The 
 one thrown is not angered but admits the other to be his master. 
 Another mode of testing strength is in trying to lift some large 
 stone, or throwing a stone of considerable size the greatest 
 distance possible. 
 
 Nine-pins, ball-playing and cards they have learned from 
 the whites. The Indian game of dice is the most popular of 
 
North American Indians. 119 
 
 amusements. They may devote days in succession to it, always 
 gambling on the throwing. Among the Mingoes I have ob 
 served that two towns brought together goods, blankets, strowds, 
 shirts, linen and played for them. In this case the game lasted 
 eight days. The dice are placed in a dish, lifted up and thrown 
 forcibly on the ground. The people of the two towns met daily 
 during the period named and every inhabitant of each town 
 threw the dice once. This done they parted for the day and 
 each party separately offered a sacrifice in the evening. In con 
 nection with the sacrifice they had their special ceremonies, con 
 sisting in a man going several times round a fire, throwing 
 tobacco into it and singing a song. Afterwards the whole com 
 pany danced. This continued for eight days. When the win 
 ners bore away the spoil in triumph. 
 
 The boys exercise by shooting at a mark with bow and 
 arrow. They may throw something into the air and shoot at 
 it, the one hitting the object being regarded as a good marks 
 man. As soon as they are able to run about they learn to use 
 the bow and arrow. When they grow older they shoot pigeons, 
 squirrels, birds and even raccoon with their bows and arrows. 
 
 Two comrades who have been reared together or have be 
 come attached to one another will be very close and constant 
 companions. If one goes on a journey or to hunt the other will, 
 if possible, accompany him. It seems almost impossible for 
 either of them to live without the other, and for one to give up 
 his companion, as may be necessary when one becomes a Chris 
 tian, is very hard. Often such friends will make a covenant with 
 one another to remain together and share alike possessions and 
 knowledge. 298 If they go to war together and one perishes the 
 other will fight desperately to avenge him, accounting his own 
 life as nothing. 
 
 In traveling in companies they are very companionable and 
 follow some recognized leader. The younger element, on such 
 journeys, engages in the hunt and if deer or bear is shot, the 
 carcass is brought to camp and laid at the fire pf the one who 
 is held to be leader. He divides the meat among all, share and 
 share alike. No complaint is ever heard that one has received 
 more than another. If the chiefs have a journey to make, they 
 
120 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 usually take some of the younger men along, who supply the 
 larder during the journey by engaging in the chase. A journey 
 is rarely hurried for usually it makes little difference whether 
 they arrive at their destination a day late ur not, and they are 
 everywhere at home in the woods. They rarely leave camp 
 early in the morning, wishing always to have a good meal be 
 fore starting and sometimes they delay to mend their shoes. 
 This inconveniences Europeans, who may be obliged to use the 
 Indians as guides very much, especially when they are anxious 
 to reach a certain place at a certain time. It is best policy, how 
 ever, to accommodate oneself to the Indians, for admonition or 
 remonstrance easily offends them and makes them act in a very 
 contrary manner. 
 
 Indians dislike having their evil conduct or acts uncovered 
 and held up to them. They are able, however, in subtle fashion 
 so to touch upon such subjects that the parties concerned will 
 understand. This method they prefer, not wishing to offer an 
 open affront, it has happened that one openly accused of an 
 evil deed, murder or the like, h:is, in desperation, ended his life. 
 They sometimes reveal secret things by means of dreams they 
 pretend to have had when they do not wish to show from what 
 source they have their information. Their desires and inclina 
 tions, likewise, they will reveal through pretended dreams, when 
 they are ashamed to make these known directly; often they 
 achieve their purposes in this manner. Chiefs occasionally re 
 ceive a secret message which must be made known. They will 
 say that at night, while sitting by the fire, some one rose out 
 of the earth, handed over a string or belt of wampum and, 
 whispering the message in their ears, disappeared again in the 
 earth. In this fashion a message may go a hundred miles or 
 more under the earth, coming to the surface where it was in 
 tended that it should, often at the fire of a chief of another na 
 tion. This happens when war is to be made but kept secret 
 for the time being, the message, therefore, being very difficult 
 TO understand for any but the chief. 
 
 They are desirous of retaining the favor and friendship of 
 other nations. When they receive visitors, therefore, the latter 
 are shown all honor and entertained in the best possible way, in 
 
North American Indians. 121 
 
 order that at home they may have nothing but good to report. 
 As hospitality is generally practiced, strangers are everywhere 
 well received and suffer no want, even though they may remain 
 for days, or weeks or months. It is recognized as a duty to 
 care for the wants of a guest as long as he may choose to remain 
 and even to give him provisions for the journey when he does 
 make up his mind to go. 
 
 On the occasion of making or renewing a treaty with an 
 other nation a dance very different from the ordinary dance is 
 engaged in. The dancers join hands and leap in a circle for 
 some time. Suddenly the leader lets the hand of one of his 
 partners go, springs forward and turns around several times, by 
 which he draws the whole company round so as to be enclosed 
 by them, when they stand close together. They disengage them 
 selves as suddenly, yet keeping hold of hands during all the 
 different evolutions and changes in the dance ; this, as they ex 
 plain it, represents the chain of friendship ; a song, used only at 
 such a solemnity, is sung by all. 
 
 The War Dance is very wild and dreadful to behold. One 
 dancer carries his hatchet, another a long knife, another a large 
 club, a fourth a cudgel. These they brandish in the air, to sig 
 nify how they intend to treat or have treated their enemies, 
 affecting all the while an air of anger and fury. The Mingoes 
 use the war dance even in times of peace with a view to cele 
 brate their heroic deeds. 
 
 They regard the Europeans as a peaceable people, created 
 of God to live according to their own manners and customs, 
 even as the Indians have been created to live in their fashion, 
 especially to sustain themselves by means of the chase. They 
 think it contrary to the will of the deity to adopt, themselves, 
 the manner of living peculiar to Europeans, pointing to fish, 
 animals and birds as each having their characteristic habits. 
 Each creature, bear, deer or other animal, continues to live in 
 its own way, and it has never yet been observed that an animal 
 had adopted the habits of another. The same principle, they 
 hold, applies to Indians and Europeans. They recognize that 
 the Europeans are industrious and clever, that without oppor- 
 
122 David Zeisbergcr s History 
 
 t unity to trade with them their position would be without many 
 of the advantages they now enjoy. They admit that the whites 
 are very ingenious, because of their ability to manufacture a 
 great variety of things, but regard their manner of living as 
 wearisome and slavish as compared with their own. Their own 
 skill as hunters and woodsmen, they hold, excels that of the 
 whites. Towards these they harbor a secret enmity which they 
 disguise in their presence, for they suspect that they will deprive 
 them of their land and drive them within narrower confines. 
 This suspicion is not without foundation. Among the Dela- 
 wares this dislike has been moderated through long intercourse 
 with the whites, yet they show that they have no particular love 
 towards them, in that they will sell their lands to them and after 
 these have become inhabited will seek to drive them off by 
 starting war. 
 
 The French seem to possess a greater share of the good 
 will of the Indians than the English, being regarded by the In 
 dians as being more akin to themselves, probably because they 
 enter more easily into the Indian manner of living and appear 
 always good-humored. Indians have more faith in the French 
 than in other Europeans. Since the late war with England all 
 the Americans except the English in Canada, otherwise called 
 by the Indians Virginians, are known as Big Knives by the na 
 tions because, from the beginning, the Indians saw them and 
 the Governor of Virginia on all occasions of negotiations with 
 the Indians wearing long swords. Hence, they called them 
 Choanschican and the Six Nations named them Assarigoa that 
 is Big Knives, which name has been applied to all Virginians 
 and has been extended from it to all Americans because the Vir 
 ginians in this war negotiated most of the treaties with the 
 Indians.- 99 
 
 Judged by the mere appearance of the Indians one is sur 
 prised how modest and careful they are in relation to each other 
 and imagines that the whites, if they were as free a people and 
 had neither government nor punishment to fear, would not be 
 as united and peaceable as the Indians appear to be. The towns 
 and villages of the latter are not indeed governed by force or 
 law. Each individual is at liberty to live where he pleases, 
 
North American Indians. 123 
 
 moving from one place to another according to inclination, yet 
 they generally dwell together for the sake of the help they can 
 render each other in building and in fencing up the great field 
 where all may plant and be sure that their pieces of ground will 
 not be molested by cattle. If they have a good chief he may 
 be very useful to the people, for under him they believe them 
 selves to dwell in safety as it is his business to keep the peace 
 with other nations and order among his own people in so far as 
 this may be secured among the Indians who are a free people 
 recognizing neither compulsion nor authority to punish. By 
 means of discretion and diplomacy a chief may accomplish much. 
 At times he may not tell his counsellors, much less the people, 
 what his ultimate purposes are, for fear of not attaining them. 
 Moving forward step by step he may gain his end. Of violence, 
 murder (except in drunkenness), robbery, theft, one rarely hears 
 among the Indians. They may leave all they have caught in 
 the chase and their utensils in the forest, secured indeed against 
 wild animals such as wolves and bear, but not hidden from the 
 Indians. They often hang their things to trees in the woods 
 where everyone passing by may see them and leave them there 
 for days and weeks, yet they are never molested. Stolen goods 
 may not be easily concealed among them, and whoever has been 
 guilty of theft must restore or repay lest a horse or two or even 
 his gun, which is an Indian s means of sustenance, be taken from 
 him or his friends summoned to make good the injury, even 
 years after the theft has been committed. The latter will rather 
 pay than be much and often called upon to do so. 
 
 Few houses are locked when the people go out. A stick is 
 placed against the door on the outside and the passerby sees 
 that no one is at home and does not enter. Each one is free 
 to do as he pleases without let or hindrance, yet he will rarely 
 do another injury. 
 
 Their old people, even though they are only able to crawl 
 about and are a source of trouble and have nothing to bequeath 
 to anyone, are faithfully cared for by their friends who seem 
 to wish that their lives should be prolonged. That they are 
 unmerciful and insensible towards the poor and needy may not 
 be said of them. Even strangers who have no friends are 
 
124 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 given assistance. A poor widow, even though she have children, 
 finds it possible to make a living if she is willing to work. They 
 pay her above the worth of her services in food and clothing ; 
 if it is summer she may work on the plantations ; in winter she 
 may prepare wood for fire. They are willing to help the poor 
 but always expect them to render some service in return. It 
 has been known that good has been done to prisoners con 
 demned to death, even to whites, though this had to be done 
 secretly. 
 
 A few negroes are found among the Indians having been 
 either bought from the whites or secured as prisoners. These 
 are looked upon as of their own kind and allowed full liberty. 
 Indians and negroes intermarry and their mulatto children are 
 as much loved as children of pure Indian blood. 
 
 They are fond of giving when they can expect something 
 in return and of doing good which they have reason to hope 
 may be returned. They easily forget the good that has been 
 done, but if they have been cheated they never forget it. If a 
 white has done them ever so many favors, helped them in need, 
 or given them presents, and omits an opportunity to do the 
 like only once, then all he may have done is forgotten. If an 
 Indian takes a wife and dresses her generously from head to foot 
 in new garments she will indeed be glad and proud; but she 
 will more readily leave him than if he had given her little or 
 nothing, for in that case she would still be in expectation of 
 receiving something. 
 
 One may even make enemies of Indians through presents if 
 these make them proud and one does not continue giving. Oc 
 casionally when a respectable present has been given the donor 
 is slandered in order that he may not expect something in 
 return from the recipient. 
 
 They are able to control their desires and passions, but 
 once given free rein these are the more violent. Overcome with 
 wrath, they at once think upon murder, and may, in the heat 
 of passion, do something for which they will later feel remorse. 
 
 The women are much given to lying and gossiping. They 
 carry e*vil report from house to house. As long as they are 
 observed they appear modest and without guile. All the wrongs 
 
North American Indians. 125 
 
 or which they are guilty are done in secret. That adultery, 
 theft, lying, cheating are terrible vices they know, having learned 
 it from their ancestors as well as from whites. Fear of dis 
 grace keeps them from open wrong-doing for they do not wish 
 to have a bad name. Secretly, however, they are given to all 
 manner of vice. Some are no longer sensitive to shame. There 
 are traces of unnatural sins among them, hardly known to any 
 except to those such as missionaries who have learned to under 
 stand the people well. Virtue one must not seek among the 
 savages, but the grace of God is able to accomplish wonders 
 among them. Not all are equally bad. Some among them are 
 sensible people and considerate, who act reasonably and have an 
 eye to right and justice. 
 
 I had no faith concerning sorcery attributed to them, though 
 I have lived many years among them, thinking it all to be 
 boasting and lying on their part. I believed the Indians were 
 too stupid for such satanic practices, but I have been persuaded 
 otherwise. I know for a certainty that witchcraft is common 
 among them. Those who make great pretention to skill in the 
 dark arts know the least about them. The adepts do not boast 
 of their knowledge for fear of their lives. They are very careful, 
 even under the influence of strong drink, not to draw suspicion 
 upon themselves. There seem to be Indians who have the 
 ability to bring about the death of any one by other than or 
 dinary means, even in the short space of twenty- four hours. 
 This they do without the use of poison, which, if used, might be 
 discovered and for which an antidote might be administered. 
 Usually two or three or more agree that a certain person shall 
 die. While he is asleep or in the presence of others they some 
 how exert their evil influence upon him. The effects are various. 
 Sometimes the victim falls to the ground immediately in con 
 vulsions, lies for a time as dead, then recovers consciousness but 
 soon dies. Sometimes the effects are not noticeable for several 
 days. Occasionally the unfortunate individuals are afflicted with 
 diseases, from which there is no recovery for years. Hence, it is 
 that when illness cannot be accounted for on natural grounds, 
 the Indians are apt to believe themselves to have been bewitched. 
 
126 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 Accounts of illness attributed to this cause are, however, not 
 all to be credited. 
 
 By the Nantikoks 800 the Indians have been instructed in 
 the use of a peculiar kind of poison called Mattapassigan, mean 
 ing poison. The Nantikoks dwelt formerly in Maryland, along 
 the sea, some of them still living there, and later moved to 
 Wajomick along the Susquehannah, finally proceeding further 
 northward. In the late war they were driven out with the 
 Six Nations. They brought knowledge of this poison, which 
 carries many evils with it, to the nations and also to the Dela- 
 wares. What it is and whereof it is made I am unable to say, 
 as I have never seen it, and the descriptions vary. Possibly it 
 is prepared in different ways. It is said not to be baneful in 
 itself and to receive its power for working injury through witch 
 craft. It is declared to be capable of infecting whole townships 
 and tribes with disorders as pernicious as the plague. With its 
 use the sorcerers are said to be able to remove a person though 
 he may be several hundred miles away. The Delawares have en 
 deavored to extirpate the shocking evil. Their efforts extending 
 over two years were in vain, for those possessed of the knowl 
 edge of its uses kept the knowledge secret. The Nantikoks who 
 were the wretched inventors of this poison and its arts, have 
 nearly destroyed their own nation by it. Its use is rendered 
 efficacious by a company of murderous sorcerers uniting in the 
 same design. Its effects are the more terrible, because it is used 
 not only in connection with individuals but whole communities. 
 In their practices the sorcerers, except in case of the poison 
 described, seem to use no Beson but a little piece of an old 
 blanket or something else. This they rub in their hands until 
 formed into a little ball. Naming the one who is marked for 
 death, they throw this ball at him, saying that he shall die. 
 They call this shooting the witchball. 301 Any person wishing to 
 get another whom he hates out of the way will hire a sorcerer 
 or several of them to do it, paying them in wampum. The 
 Indians say that their poison and witchcraft have no effect upon 
 the white people because they use so much salt in their victuals. 
 But this is merely a pretense as there are instances of Europeans 
 having fallen victims to their skill in poisoning. 
 
North American Indians. 127 
 
 Warriors, and especially Captains, procure a beson thought 
 to be capable of preserving them from arrow and ball. In the 
 year 1774 when a war had broken out between the Shawanose 
 and the whites, the latter had their war-beson carried about 
 among the ranks upon a pole, in a battle they fought with the 
 whites on the Canhawa. 301% But the Beson bearer himself was 
 shot, the whole Indian army routed and the Beson fell a pray to 
 the conqueror. 
 
 Another sort of deceivers are called by them Kimochne, 
 "night walkers." These people get into the houses at night and 
 steal whatever they can get. The Indians say that they bewitch 
 the family into a profound sleep so as not to be discovered. 
 They are said to be able to go a hundred miles or more and 
 back during a single night, proceeding through the air over 
 hill and dale and river. This seemed to me incredible, but I 
 have been told by various individuals that it is true. We have 
 several converted sorcerers in the congregation. 301% 
 
 Most extraordinary experiences have been met with by boys 
 from twelve to fourteen years of age. when they have been 
 alone in the forest in apprehension and in need. An old man in 
 a gray beard may have appeared and said in soothing tone, "Do 
 not fear, I am a rock and thou shalt call me by this name. I 
 am the Lord of the whole earth and of every living creature 
 therein, of the air and of wind and weather. No one dare 
 oppose me and I will give thee the same power. No one shall 
 do thee harm and thou needest not to fear any man." Such 
 and similar prophecies he makes. Such a boy ruminates upon 
 what he has heard and is confirmed in the opinion as he grows 
 up that a peculiar power has been imparted to him to perform 
 extraordinary exploits, and he imagines that no one can do 
 him injury. As he can receive no further instruction from any 
 one, he must learn from experience how far he can go, his 
 imagination inspiring him to make every effort. Such boys 
 give themselves to the practice of the dark arts, having abun 
 dance of time for investigation and practice, because in their 
 youth they are not required to work unless they choose to do so. 
 Such a boy is feared above others, but of these there are very 
 few. Others have been led by dreams to study theory and 
 
128 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 practice of the black art Most are deceivers who pretend to 
 be able to leap over a river or from one mountain to another. 
 Old women are sometimes accused of being witches. If a child 
 dies suddenly some one will pretend to have seen an old woman 
 with the child at night, who is then believed to have bewitched 
 the little one. Some old woman or another Indian may thus, 
 though quite innocent, be thought guilty of witchcraft and be 
 thus considered to the end of life. Again there are witches sup 
 posed to go through the towns at night in the form of an owl 
 or a fox. It is nothing strange that an owl or a fox should 
 get into the town, as many of the towns are surrounded by the 
 forest. Such witches are supposed to kill Indians, bring dis 
 ease and plague into the town. The worst is said to be that 
 when such animals are shot at they do not die, being able 
 to close up the wound caused by the bullet. 
 
 It is remarkable that Indians of such character have been 
 led to lead a new life and turn from all deceitful practices. 
 From them it has been learned that most of their dark practices 
 grow out of imagination and superstition. Of those, however, 
 who seem versed in the us-e of Mattapassigan none have to the 
 present time been converted, though some with whom I came 
 into contact were inclined to better themselves but were unable 
 to refrain from their evil practices, being afraid, apparently, 
 that their lives would be endangered. 
 
 That the Indians have some sort of religion and mode of 
 worship whereby they endeavor to please the Deity, cannot be 
 denied. Their worship, however, is unreasoning devotion. It 
 is remarkable that savages who have been cut off from associa 
 tion with other nations for no one knows how many centuries 
 should have so much knowledge of Deity that is handed down 
 from generation to generation. 
 
 They believe and have from time immemorial believed that 
 there is an Almighty Being who has created heaven and earth 
 and man and all things else. This they have learned from their 
 ancestors, but where the dwelling place of the Deity is they 
 know not. They have always heard that whoever lives a 
 virtuous life, refrains from stealing, murder and immorality, 
 
North American Indians. 129 
 
 would at death go to some good place where conditions would 
 be better than here, where there would be a superfluity of every 
 thing and a happy life of joy and dancing. On the contrary, 
 whoever lived an evil life would arrive at no good place but 
 have to wander about sad and unhappy. Hence nothing is so 
 terrible and awful to them as death, because they do not know 
 how it will be after this life nor whither they shall go. When 
 ever they think of death they are filled with anxiety, but rather 
 than consider how they ought to live they seek to rid them 
 selves of thoughts of death. They fear the thunderbolt, because 
 it occasionally strikes and shatters the trees, but they seek to 
 disguise their fear. Yet they believe that the Deity is graciously 
 and mercifully disposed towards men, because he imparts power 
 to the plants to grow, causes the rain to fall and the sun to 
 shine and gives game to man for his support. Indeed, as to 
 fish and deer they imagine them given particularly to the Indians 
 and not so much to the whites for the Indians were created to 
 sustain themselves by the chase and the whites by the work of 
 their hands. There are indeed some among them who pretend 
 to be able to bring rain when there has been drought, and such 
 a person knowing that the women, whose business it is to care 
 for the plantations, are anxious for rain shows his cleverness 
 in deceiving the people. Noticing from cloudy appearances early 
 in the morning that it is likely to rain during the day, he will 
 tell some one, that if tobacco or something else that he wishes 
 is given him he will bring rain. The party so informed will tell 
 the women, who in their joy contribute each a little and bring 
 the fellow what he desires. The latter goes to some lonely place, 
 draws a circle on the ground, makes a cross within it and puts 
 tobacco, a pumpkin and some red coloring into it as well, seats 
 himself, sings and shouts so that he may be heard, continuing 
 if possible until it begins to rain. Even sensible Indians believe 
 that he has brought the rain because under the circumstances it 
 generally rains. In case the rain fails to come he makes promises 
 for another day. 
 
 They believe God to be almighty and able to do as he pleases. 
 Hence in times past they brought sacrifices and still do this 
 9 
 
130 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 making their offerings not directly to the Deity but to things 
 of his creation, as will later appear. No one has ever heard 
 that they have sacrificed to the devil, whom together with all 
 evil spirits they abhor, believing that all evil comes from them, 
 even as all good comes from God. 
 
 They seem to have had no idea of the devil until in modern 
 times preachers arose among them who proclaimed that there 
 was such a being, having secured their knowledge from the 
 whites. They have no very definite conception of him but con 
 sider him to be a very powerful spirit, able to work much harm 
 and unable to do any good. Many say also that Indians would 
 never be claimed by the devil, however wicked they might be 
 in the world, because he existed only for the whites who wrought 
 evil. They declare that he is not to be found among the In 
 dians but only among the white people, for if he were among 
 the Indians they would long since have discovered him, and 
 their ancestors would have told them about him. They did 
 know, however, about good and evil spirits which appears from 
 this : when crimes had been committed, the guilty ones laid the 
 blame on an evil spirit who had seduced them. They have also 
 been accustomed to admonish one another in time of war not 
 to give ear to the evil spirit but to the good spirit who counseled 
 peace. They also knew nothing of Hell, believing only that 
 wicked men would go to no good place after this life. They 
 have no proper term for such a place other than Machtandon- 
 winek which means, with the devil, Machtando meaning the Evil 
 One. They have never had regularly appointed priests, the 
 oldest men having usually performed the sacrifices, admonished 
 the people to good life and conduct, warned them against im 
 morality, murder and violence, if they would be happy, attain 
 to great age and after death get to the good place. How much 
 this meant among blind savages who were dead in sins and had 
 not the ability to withstand evil and vice may be readily im 
 agined. It is possible that the admonitions of the aged availed 
 to the extent of restraining wickedness, so that it did not break 
 forth as it does at the present time. It is undoubtedly true that 
 there were formerly fewer vices than now. Of some forms of 
 indulgence they know nothing, for example of strong drink, 
 
North American Indians. 131 
 
 through which unquestionably many evils have crept in. They 
 lived in earlier days more simply, perhaps one ought to say 
 more stupidly, and now that they have gained in knowledge and 
 understanding they have become practiced in wickedness. 
 
 They consider the soul to be an invisible being and a spirit. 
 Formerly, they used the word Wtellenapewoagan to describe 
 it, meaning the "Substance of a Human Being." Savages use 
 this word to the present day. Now they have accepted the word 
 Wtschitschank, that is, "Spirit." They believe also in the im 
 mortality of the soul. Some likened themselves to corn which 
 when thrown out and buried in the soil comes up and grows. 
 Some believe their souls to be in the sun and only their bodies 
 here. Others say that when they die their souls will go to God 
 and suppose that when they have been some time with God 
 they w 7 ill be at liberty to return to the world and be born again. 
 Hence, many believe that their souls have come from God and 
 that they have been in the world before. 
 
 They believe also in the transmigration of the soul. Wander 
 ing spirits and ghosts, they claim, sometimes throw something 
 into a public path and whoever goes over it is bewitched and 
 becomes lame or ill. They even pretend to know where such 
 a thing happened, learning it from the doctors who are thought 
 to be able to effect a cure. 
 
 Concerning the deluge there are some fairly clear traditions 
 among the Indians. According to these, the world was at one 
 time entirely flooded and all men perished. The turtle, however, 
 able to live both on land and sea, had survived and again peo 
 pled the world. Hence, the Turtle Tribe is the most important 
 among the Indians. Another tradition is that when the earth 
 was flooded some men and women had seated themselves on 
 the back of a turtle of such great age that moss had already 
 grown on its back. These people commissioned a diver that 
 flew nearby to search for land. After searching in many re 
 gions this bird had at last returned with a bit of earth in its 
 mouth. They, then, proceed on the back of the turtle to 
 where this earth had been procured and found a little spot of 
 dry land, where they settled. Gradually more land appeared, 
 and this was, eventually, peopled by the descendants of those 
 
132 David Zcisbcrgcr s , History 
 
 who had on the back of the turtle escaped the general de 
 struction. 
 
 Concerning their origin no trace of tradition is to be found 
 among the Indians. From some old Mingoes I heard that they 
 believed themselves to have come from under the earth, where 
 they had lived before. A badger had worked his way to the 
 surface, seen the beautiful land and returned at once to an 
 nounce to them what he had seen. They had been so pleased 
 with his account that they left their subterranean abode forth 
 with and settled in this beautiful land. From their habit of 
 speaking in figure or parable, it may be concluded that by this 
 account they mean to convey the idea that they originally came 
 from the other side of the earth. Others say that they came 
 from under the water, which may mean much the same thing. 
 The tradition of the Nantikoks is that seven Indians had sud 
 denly seen themselves seated at the sea-side. Whether they had 
 come over the sea or been there created they did not know. De 
 scendants of these Indians peopled the land. Others, again, 
 claim that the first human being fell from heaven. This was a 
 woman, cast out from the upper regions by her husband. Shortly 
 after her fall from heaven she was delivered of twins, from 
 whom the inhabitants of this land are descended. They believe 
 that in the realm above them is a world of men much like this, 
 whence the Indians originally came. 
 
 They believe in numerous spirits or subordinate deities. 
 Almost all animals and the elements are looked upon as spirits, 
 one exceeding the other in dignity and power. There is scarcely 
 an Indian who does not believe that one or more of these spirits 
 has not been particularly given him to assist him and make him 
 prosper. This, they claim, has been made known to them in 
 a dream, even as their religious belief and witchcraft is alleged 
 to have been made known to them in a dream. One has, in a 
 dream, received a serpent or a buffalo, another the sun or the 
 moon, another an owl or some other bird, another a fish, some 
 even ridiculously insignificant creatures such as ants. These 
 are considered their spirits or Manittos. If an Indian has no 
 Manitto to be his friend he considers himself forsaken, has 
 nothing upon which he may lean, has no hope of any assistance 
 
North American Indians. 133 
 
 and is small in his own eyes. On the other hand those who 
 have been thus favored possess a high and proud spirit. 
 
 About thirty years ago 302 preachers appeared among the 
 Indians. They pretended to have received revelations from 
 above, to have traveled into heaven and conversed with God. 
 They gave different accounts of their journey, but all agreed in 
 this : that no one could enter heaven without great danger, for 
 the road, say they, runs close by the gates of hell. Here the 
 devil lies in ambush and snatches at every one who is going to 
 God. They came first to the Son of God and through him to 
 God himself, with whom they pretend to have conversed con 
 cerning the Indians and by whom they were commanded to in 
 struct their people. Thus the Indians were for the first time in 
 formed that there w 7 as a heaven where was the d welling of God 
 and a hell that of the devil. Presumably they got this knowledge 
 from the whites. Some of the preachers confessed that they 
 had not reached the dwelling of God but had approached near 
 enough to hear the cocks crow and see the smoke of the chim 
 neys in heaven. Others that they had approached the Son of 
 God and then returned. 
 
 These teachers marked off on a piece of parchment made 
 of deerskin two roads, both leading to heaven, one designated 
 by God for the Indians, the other for the white people. They 
 claim that the latter had to go a great way round about and 
 the road for the Indians was at that time the shortest, but now, 
 since the white people had blocked up the road for the Indians, 
 they were obliged to make a long circuit to come to God. Fur 
 ther, there were paintings of heaven and hell upon the parch 
 ment as also the figure of a balance to represent the deceitful 
 traffic carried on by the white people with the Indians. This 
 rude parchment is, as it were, their Bible, and lies spread before 
 them when they preach for the Indians. They then explain 
 every mark and figure to their hearers and it is very evident 
 that their chief aim is to influence the minds of the Indians 
 against the white people. It is certain that their preaching has 
 had this effect, for about this time war broke out between In 
 dians and whites there having been no such war before. 
 
 They declared to the Indians that God had commanded their 
 
134 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 cleansing from sin and to this end they gave them twelve dif 
 ferent kinds of Beson to drink, supposed by causing vomiting 
 to free them of sinful taint. Some Indians, following these in 
 junctions, vomited so often that their lives were endangered by 
 it. 303 They were, further, strictly ordered to fast, and to take 
 nothing but Beson. Few persevered in this absurd practice 
 the required length of time. 
 
 Other teachers pretended that stripes were the most ef 
 fectual means to purge away sin. They advised their hearers 
 to suffer themselves to be beaten with twelve different sticks 
 from the soles of their feet to their necks, that their sins might 
 pass from them through their throats. They preached a system 
 of morals, very severe for the savages, insisting that the Indians 
 abstain from fornication, adultery, murder, theft and practice 
 virtuous living as the condition to their attaining after death 
 the place of the good spirits, which they call Tschipeghacki, the 
 "land of spirits," where the life is happy and deer, bear and all 
 manner of game are abundant and the water is like crystal. 
 There nought was to be heard save singing, dancing and merry 
 making. Formerly the Indians only knew of a good place 
 promised to the virtuous, but they did not know where the place 
 was. The preachers pretend to have found the place, which 
 lies to the south. The passage thither is the milky way which 
 may be seen in the heavens on a clear night. They venture also 
 to describe the appearance of the place for there are Indians 
 who have been dead for several days and returned to life who 
 have been there and have told of the things seen. Whoever 
 reaches that place will find a city of beautiful houses and 
 clean streets. Entering a house he will see no one but have 
 good things to eat placed before him, a fire made and a bed 
 prepared all of which is done by spirits invisible to him. 
 Others assert that such an one will see the women coming with 
 baskets on their backs full of strawberries and bilberries, large 
 as apples, and will observe that the inhabitants daily appear in 
 fine raiment and live a life of rejoicing. 
 
 In this they all agree that the bad Indians, who have not 
 lived as these preachers exhorted them, will not reach the place, 
 Tschipeghacki, but must remain some distance away, able to see 
 
North American Indians. 135 
 
 those within dwelling happily but not able to enter. They would 
 receive nothing but poisonous wood and poisonous roots to eat, 
 holding them ever near the brink of a bitter death but not 
 suffering them to die. 
 
 While these preachers admonished the Indians to lead a 
 good and virtuous life their own walk and conduct altogether 
 disagreed with their exhortation. They introduced polygamy, 
 and during their sermons had several of their wives sitting 
 round about them. They even pretended that it was a charitable 
 and meritorious act in them, as men living upon terms of inti 
 macy with God, to take these poor ignorant women and lead 
 them in the way to God and to the enjoyment of eternal felicity. 
 
 This part of their doctrine was greatly relished by the In 
 dians, and it is a lamentable truth that since that period adultery, 
 fornication and other such abominations have been more fre 
 quent among the Indians. The young began to despise the 
 counsel of the aged and endeavored to get into favor with these 
 preachers whose followers multiplied very fast. Some of the 
 preachers went even so far as to make themselves equal with 
 God. They affirmed that the weal and woe of the Indians de 
 pended upon their will and pleasure. Their deluded followers, 
 possessing the highest veneration for them, brought them many 
 presents. Even some of the most sensible and respected Indians 
 assented to their doctrines, punctually following their prescrip 
 tions even at the hazard of health and life. Some of the latter 
 we now have in the congregation, who have learned that noth 
 ing avails to deliver from the servitude of sin save the blood 
 of Jesus Christ. 
 
 One of these preachers often proclaimed openly to the 
 Indians that he was quite at home at the side of God, went 
 in and out of his presence where neither sin nor Satan could 
 do him harm; he stated, however, that he had never heard of 
 the God on the cross preached by the Moravians, and did not 
 believe him to be the real God for his God had no wounds and 
 gave him whenever he appeared a little piece of bread, white 
 as snow. On another occasion, having prepared a drink of 
 bilberries he announced that this was the blood of the Son of 
 
136 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 God. Thus it appeared that through him Satan endeavored to 
 rob the gospel of its power over the Indians. 
 
 As long as the preachers did not proclaim things evidently 
 untrue they were held in great regard and had a considerable 
 following withersoever they went, for they never remained long 
 in one place, else their deception would have been revealed the 
 sooner. They still preached in Gekelemukpechiink 304 when the 
 Moravians came to the Muskingum. Soon thereafter they be 
 gan to be too coarse, seeking to establish their teaching in oppo 
 sition to the gospel. This brought about the end of their in 
 fluence. One has since heard little of them and the most have 
 died. For at the last they preached that whoever would be 
 lieve in them and follow their direction would be happy in the 
 chase and in all other undertakings, would be able to cross sea 
 and land, would reap plenteous harvests even though little had 
 been planted. The Indians who trusted in them soon saw that 
 they had been deceived and that they had been brought to 
 starvation by the treacherous preachers. Then the power of the 
 latter was at an end. 
 
 Worship and sacrifices have obtained among them from the 
 earliest times, being usages handed down from their ancestors. 
 Though in the detail of ceremony there has been change, as the 
 Indians are more divided now than at that time, worship and 
 sacrifice have continued as practiced in the early days, for the 
 Indians believe that they would draw all manner of disease and 
 misfortune upon themselves if they omitted to observe the an 
 cestral rites. 
 
 In the matter of sacrifice, relationship, even though distant, 
 is of significance, legitimate or illegitimate relationship being 
 regarded without distinction. A sacrifice is offered by a family, 
 with its entire relationship, once in two years. Others, even the 
 inhabitants of other towns, are invited. Such sacrifices are com 
 monly held in autumn, rarely in winter. As their connections 
 are large, each Indian will have opportunity to attend more 
 than one family sacrifice a year. The head of the family knows 
 the time and he must provide for everything. When the head 
 of such a family is converted, he gets into difficulty because his 
 
Nor tli American Indians. 137 
 
 friends will not give him peace until he has designated some one 
 to take his place in the arrangement for sacrificial feasts. 
 
 Preparations for such a sacrificial feast extend through 
 several days. The requisite number of deer and bears is calcu 
 lated and the young people are sent into the woods to procure 
 them together with the leader whose care it is to see that every 
 thing needful is provided. These hunters do not return until 
 they have secured the amount of booty counted upon. On their 
 return they fire a volley when near the town, march in in solemn 
 procession and deposit the flesh in the house of sacrifice. Mean 
 time the house has been cleared and prepared. The women have 
 prepared fire-wood and brought in long dry reed grass, which has 
 been strewn the entire length of the house, on both sides, for the 
 guests to sit upon. Such a feast may continue for three or four 
 nights, the separate sessions beginning in the afternoon and last 
 ing until the next morning. Great kettles full of meat are boiled 
 and bread is baked. These are served to the guests by four 
 servants especially appointed for this service. The rule is that 
 whatever is thus brought as a sacrifice must be eaten altogether 
 and nothing left. 303 A small quantity of melted fat only is 
 poured into the fire. The bones are burnt, so that the dogs may 
 not get any of them. After the meal the men and women dance, 
 every rule of decency being observed. It is not a dance for 
 pleasure or exercise, as is the ordinary dance engaged in by the 
 Indians, One singer only performs during the dance, walking 
 up and down, rattling a small tortoise shell filled with pebbles. 
 He sings of the dreams the Indians have had, naming all the 
 animals, elements and plants they hold to be spirits. None of 
 the spirits of things that are useful to the Indians may be 
 omitted. By worshipping all the spirits named they consider 
 themselves to be worshipping God, who has revealed his will 
 to them in dreams. When the first singer has finished he is 
 followed by another. Between dances the guests may stop to 
 eat again. There are four or five kinds of feasts, the ceremonies 
 of which differ much from one another. 
 
 In another kind of feast the men dance clad only in their 
 Breech-clout, their bodies being daubed all over with white clay. 
 
138 David Zcisberger s History 
 
 At a third kind of feast ten or more tanned deer-skins are 
 given to as many old men or women, who wrap themselves in 
 them and stand before the house with their faces turned toward 
 the east, praying God with a loud voice to reward their bene 
 factors. They turn toward the east because they believe that 
 God dwells beyond the rising of the sun. At the same time 
 much wampum is given away. This is thrown on the ground 
 and the young people scramble for it. Afterward it is ascer 
 tained who secured the most. This feast is called ngammuin, 
 the meaning of which they themselves are unable to give. 
 
 A fourth kind of feast is held in honor of a certain voracious 
 spirit, who, according to their opinions, is never satisfied. The 
 guests are, therefore, obliged to eat all the bear s flesh and 
 drink the melted fat. Though indigestion and vomiting may 
 result they must continue and not leave anything. 
 
 A fifth kind of festival is held in honor of fire which the 
 Indians regard as being their grandfather and call Machtusin, 
 meaning "to perspire. A sweating-oven is built in the midst 
 of the house of sacrifice, consisting of twelve poles each of a 
 different species of wood. These twelve poles represent twelve 
 Manittos, some of these being creatures, others plants. These 
 they run into the ground, tie together at the top, bending them 
 toward each other ; these are covered entirely with blankets, 
 joined closely together, each person being very ready to lend 
 his blanket, so that the whole appears like a baker s oven, high 
 enough nearly to admit a man standing upright. After the 
 meal or sacrifice, fire is made at the entrance of the oven and 
 twelve large stones, about the size of human heads, are heated 
 and placed in the oven. Then twelve Indians creep into it and 
 remain there as long as they can bear the heat. While they 
 are inside twelve pipes full of tobacco are thrown, one after an 
 other, upon the hot stones which occasions a smoke almost 
 powerful enough to suffocate those confined inside. Some one 
 may also walk around the stones singing and offering tobacco, 
 tor tobacco is offered to fire. Usually, when the twelve men 
 emerge from the oven, they fall down in a swoon. During this 
 feast a whole buck-skin with the head and antlers is raised upon 
 a pole, head and antlers resting on the pole, before which the 
 
North American Indians. 139 
 
 Indians sing and pray. They deny that they pay any adoration 
 to the buck, declaring that God alone is worshipped through 
 this medium and is so worshipped at his will. 
 
 At these feasts there are never less than four servants, to 
 each of whom a fathom of wampum is given that they may care 
 for all necessary things. During the three or four days they 
 have enough to do by day and by night. They have leave, also, 
 to secure the best of provisions, such as sugar, bilberries, mo 
 lasses, eggs, butter and to sell these things at a profit to guests 
 and spectators. Festivals are usually closed with a general 
 drinking bout. There are always rum-sellers present on such 
 occasions who make large profits. As a result of the drinking 
 there are generally several fatalities, for, among the Indians that 
 gather from various places, such as wish to work off an old 
 score are ready to make use of the opportunity afforded by these 
 occasions. 
 
 Besides these solemn feasts of sacrifice there are many of 
 less importance, for individuals arrange them on their own ac 
 count. They invite guests and prepare a feast of deer or bear s 
 Mesh. The guests consume the whole meal, the host and his 
 family being mere spectators. At the great feasts all who are 
 present partake of the food. Each individual may offer sac 
 rifice for himself when engaged in the chase, in order that he 
 may be successful. Having cut up a deer and divided it into 
 many small pieces he scatters them about for the birds and 
 crows that sit about on the trees waiting. Retiring to some dis 
 tance the Indian will then amuse himself by observing in what 
 manner they devour the prey. Another may offer to his Manitto 
 for some other reason. Corn is said to be the wife of the In 
 dian and to it they sacrifice bear s flesh. To the deer and bear 
 they offer corn. To the fishes they bring an offering of small 
 pieces of bread shaped in the form of fishes. If an Indian 
 hunter hears an owl screech in the night he immediately throws 
 some tobacco into the fire,, muttering a few words at the same 
 time. Then they promise themselves success for the next day 
 for the owl is said to be a powerful spirit. In dreams, they 
 claim, it has been made known to them what creatures to regard 
 as their manittos and what offerings to bring to them. Such 
 
140 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 offerings are then regarded by God as rendered to him. It is 
 clear enough that the Indians, professing to worship God and 
 bringing sacrifices to him, serve Satan, who influences their 
 dreams, and keeps them in slavery in this wise, for the Indians 
 consider dreams to be of great importance and nothing less than 
 revelations from God. It is indeed true as the Apostle says, I 
 Cor. 10:20, the things which the Gentiles sacrifice, they sac 
 rifice to the devils and not to God." Those among the Indians 
 who have been converted recognize this and henceforth hold 
 the Indian sacrifices and offerings to be vain and do not care 
 to say much about them. 
 
 To the spirits of the dead they offer both meat and drink- 
 offerings. If it is to be a meat offering, which the doctors must 
 decide in case of illness or accident, either a hog or a bear is 
 killed for a feast and guests are invited. The latter assemble 
 in the house where the sacrifice is to be offered. An old man 
 gives part of the meal to the enraged spirits, speaks with them, 
 and begs them to be pacified. All this is done in the dark ; there 
 must be neither fire nor light. After the old man has communed 
 with the spirits he tells the guests that they have been appeased. 
 
 If it is to be a drink offering rum is required. Guests are 
 invited also. They drink together and some one speaks with 
 the spirits and pacifies them. The guests walk to the grave and 
 pour some rum upon it. Such sacrifices are very common among 
 them, and are arranged even upon very trivial occasions. In 
 case of a tooth-ache or head-ache, they imagine that the spirits 
 are displeased and must be pacified by an offering. 
 
 Every woman whose child dies in a foreign land travels, 
 if possible, once a year to the place of its burial, taking another 
 woman with her, and offers a drink-offering upon its grave. 
 
 The hare is regarded as a great God and they bring offer 
 ings to it. The name of one of the twins born to the woman 
 that was thrown from heaven was Tschimammus, that is, hare. 
 He made the land upon which the Indians dwell and was their 
 ancestor. Now he is said to dwell in heaven, for many Indians 
 who have been there have seen him and spoken to him and to 
 them he has declared that he would come again. 
 
North American Indians. 141 
 
 The only idol which the Indians have, and which may prop 
 erly be called an idol, is their Wsinkhoalican, that is image. It 
 is an image cut in wood, representing a human head, in minia 
 ture, which they always carry about them either on a string 
 around their neck or in a bag. They often bring offerings to 
 it. In their houses of sacrifice they have a head of this idol as 
 large as life put upon a pole in the middle of the room. 
 
 Their ornaments are partly round shields and half moons 
 of silver, partly the same forms made in wampum. These are 
 usually worn upon the breast for adornment. They also have 
 great belts of wampum made of the violet, not the white, wam 
 pum. Men as well as women wear silver crosses upon the breast 
 and in the ears which custom comes from the French. The 
 Wsinkhoalican they like also to hang about their children to 
 preserve them from illness and insure them success. 
 
 They are very fond of white children. Hence Indian wo 
 men run after white men and, when they have white children, 
 make much of them, although they do not like the white people. 
 Twins are regarded as particularly fortunate, being looked upon 
 as favored people who have a great spirit. 
 
 Their language resembles various other languages, some 
 more, some less. When one remembers how near or how far 
 they have lived from one another it will appear that the differ 
 ences in the languages have come about through the separation of 
 the peoples and the little contact they have had with one another. 
 
 The Unami and the Wunalachtico both lived along the sea 
 in Pennsylvania and in Jersey, a short distance from one an 
 other. Their languages differ very little. That of the Monsys 30 
 who lived on the other side of the Blue Mountains in Minnissink 
 is very different from these, so that had they not dwelt nearer 
 together and been in constant contact in recent times they would 
 hardly understand each other. Yet the speech of each of these 
 peoples is but a dialect of one and the same language. The lan 
 guage of the Mahikanders 307 bears much resemblance to that of 
 the Monsys, the former having lived in New York and the Wo- 
 apeno not far from them in New England. The language of the 
 Nantikoks, formerly residing on the seacoast in Maryland, very 
 much resembles the Delaware, differing only in pronunciation 
 
142 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 and accent. The language of the Shawanose is also related to 
 the Monsy and Delaware but, more particularly, to the Ma- 
 hikander, only the former generally place the accent upon the 
 last syllable of a word. The reason for this is that they orig 
 inally lived in Florida and whether their language changed 
 very much since they were driven out and lived first in the Forks 
 of the Delaware, then along the Susquehannah, then along the 
 Ohio and finally here among the Dela wares, I am not able to 
 determine, except it be, that in Florida the language of some 
 other nations bore a resemblance to this. The language of the 
 Twichtwees and Wawiachtanos resembles the Shawanose and 
 consequently, also, the Delaware. The dialects of the Kikapus, 
 Tuckachschas, Moshkos, Kaskaski the further away they lived 
 resembles the Delawares less and less. Yet the Delawares have 
 much intercourse with them, for many of them live along the 
 Wabash where the Kikapus have given them hunting grounds. 
 Every year Delaware hunters go thither for the chase and return. 
 The language of the Ottawas is related somewhat to that of the 
 Shawanose, Chipuways and the Delawares. The language of 
 the Cherokees is a mixture of other languages. It has a little 
 of the Shawanose, the Mingoes and a great deal of the Wion- 
 dats. The speech of the last named people and that of the Six 
 Nations are again dialects of one and the same language, differ 
 ing from one another yet easily understood by either of the 
 nations named. It appears, therefore, safe to affirm that there 
 are two principal languages spoken by the Indians of North 
 America, namely the Mingoes and the Delaware. 308 Concerning 
 the nations who live along the Mississippi I have no certain 
 knowledge. They are not usually counted among the northern 
 nations. Their language has an agreeable sound both in com 
 mon conversation and in public delivery. The Monsy is much 
 rougher. In their public delivery they speak with a very pom 
 pous and boastful tone, in which the Iroquois excel all the other 
 Indians. There are, indeed, no rules of oratory laid down in the 
 Indian language, yet the speakers must be well versed in mat 
 ters relating to their own nation as well as those of others, and 
 they must know what title to apply to each of the other nations, 
 whether brother or nephew or uncle. The same holds good of the 
 
North American Indians. 143 
 
 various branches of their own nation. The Monsys and Unamis 
 call one another Xitgochk, "my companion [feminine] in play," 
 for the reason that the whole nation has become the women. 
 The several tribes, also, have special names and titles, which 
 the speaker must know. These titles are not generally used but 
 only in their councils when something of importance is to be 
 communicated, which is done with great solemnity. They are 
 able to express themselves with great clearness and precision, 
 and so concisely that much circumlocution is required to convey 
 the full meaning of their expressions in an European language. 
 In spiritual things, of which they are totally ignorant, there was 
 utter lack of expressions. But since the gospel has been preached 
 among them, their language has gained much in this respect. 
 If they intend to speak in an obscure manner, they can speak 
 so cleverly and with so much circumstance that even Indians 
 must puzzle out the true sense of their allusions. They are 
 able to convey an account of a bad action so skillfully that it 
 appears not to be a bad but a virtuous deed. The chiefs are 
 not particularly well versed in this art of dissembling, and, there 
 fore, very strict attention must be paid to every word of their 
 discourse, especially, if an answer is required, and great caution 
 is necessary in order that one may not be caught. 
 
 A speaker in council must be able to deliver his speech 
 without hesitation. Often he has no time to prepare his sub 
 ject, the different heads are only briefly named or left for him 
 to collect from the conversation of the chiefs. He must, then, 
 be able to comprise the whole in a speech, well arranged and 
 uninterrupted, which requires a clear and open understanding, 
 a faithful memory and experience in matters of state. Young 
 men are being constantly trained for such duty. They are ad 
 mitted as hearers to the council, to familiar intercourse with the 
 chiefs, who instruct them faithfully, and are employed as am 
 bassadors to give them an opportunity to exercise themselves in 
 public speaking. 
 
 The pronunciation of their language is easy, only the Ch 
 is a very deep gutteral. The greatest difficulty is presented by the 
 compounding of words with verbs, substantives and adjectives, 
 which is very difficult for a European to learn. They have few 
 
144 Ohio Arch, and Hist. Society Publications. 
 
 monosyllables. In things relating to common life the language 
 of the Indians is remarkably rich. They, in many cases, have 
 several names for one and the same thing under different cir 
 cumstances. They have ten different names for a bear, accord 
 ing to its age or sex. Similarly, they have a number of names 
 for a deer. They have one word for fishing with a rod, another 
 for fishing with a net, another for fishing with a spear or har 
 poon. Such words do not in the least resemble one another. 
 The speech of the Unami has the most agreeable sound and is 
 much easier for a European to acquire than that of the Monsys. 
 The Monsy dialect, however, is a key to many of the expres 
 sions in the Unami. The latter have a way of dropping some 
 syllables, so that without a knowledge of the former, it would be 
 impossible either to spell their words or guess their meaning. The 
 Unami have adopted many words of the Monsy dialect and the 
 Monsys of the Unami dialect. They have no "f" nor "r" in 
 their language, hence they pronounce foreign words containing 
 these letters differently, for example, Pilip for Philip, Petelus 
 for Petrus, adding a syllable, and Priscilla they pronounce Pli- 
 cilla. In polysyllables the accent is generally placed on the mid 
 dle syllable or on the last but one. This must be very minutely 
 attended to because the sense of many words depends upon the 
 accent. They can count up to thousands and hundreds of thou 
 sands, though they are unable to grasp the significance of large 
 numbers. The \vomen generally count upon their fingers, for 
 this is their custom and their memory is poor. 
 
 In arithmetic they have made but little progress. They 
 count up to ten, make a mark, proceed to the next ten and so on 
 to the end of the account. By adding the tens they come to 
 hundreds, and so on. In counting money the penny is the small 
 est coin they reckon. The Monsys call the stiver, of which they 
 learned from the Dutch in Minissink, 309 stipel. Sixpence they 
 call Gull, corruption of the Dutch Gulden. They usually count 
 money according to Gulls, twenty Gulls being equal to ten shil 
 lings. If they want to calculate carefully, they take Indian 
 corn, calling every grain a penny or a gull, adding as many as 
 are necessary to make shillings and pounds. 
 
North American Indians. 145 
 
 Of writing they know nothing, except the painting of 
 hieroglyphics, already referred to, which they know very well 
 how to interpret. These drawings in red by the warriors may 
 be legible for fifty years. After a hero has died, his deeds may, 
 therefore, be kept in mind for many years by these markings. 
 A letter, especially, if it is sealed, is considered a very important 
 thing. If any treaties, contracts or deeds are required to be de 
 livered to the Europeans, signed by their chiefs, captains or coun 
 sellors, they make their mark and get others to subscribe their 
 names. The mark may be a hook, or the foot of a turkey or a 
 turtle or represent something else. They are very generally 
 ashamed of their Indian names and prefer the names given them 
 by the whites. Some have learned to write the initial letters of 
 their new names. 
 
 In reckoning time they do not count the days but the nights. 
 An Indian says, "I have travelled so many nights." Only if the 
 entire journey has been accomplished in one day, will he speak 
 of a day s journey. Most of them determine a number of years 
 by so many winters, springs, summers or autumns. They say, 
 "In spring when we boil sugar," that is March, or "when we 
 plant," that is May, so and so will be of such an age. Few know 
 their age when they get to be over thirty. Some reckon from 
 the time of a hard frost or a deep fall of snow in such a year, 
 from an Indian war, or from the founding of Pittsburg or Phila 
 delphia, when they were so or so old. They divide the year 
 into winter, spring, summer, autumn, and these periods are 
 divided according to the moons, though, it must be said, that 
 their reckoning is not very accurate. They cannot agree just 
 when to begin the new year. Most of them begin the year with 
 the spring, that is with March, which they call Chwoame 
 Gischuch, that is the Shad month, because at this season this 
 fish goes up the rivers and creeks in great numbers. True, these 
 fish are not found here, but the name was brought from the 
 Susquehanna region. April they call Hackihewi Gischuch, that 
 is Planting month, though they rarely begin to plant before May 
 or the end of April. May has a name signifying the month in 
 which the hoe is used for Indian corn, though this is usually not 
 10 
 
146 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 done until June. The name given to June signifies the month 
 in which the deer become red. That of July, the time of raising 
 the earth about the corn, and of August, Winu Gischuch, the 
 time when the corn is in the milk and ready to eat and roast. 
 September is called the first autumn month, October the harvest 
 month, November the hunting month, most of the Indians going 
 out to shoot bucks. The name December shows the time when 
 the bucks cast their antlers. January is the month in which the 
 ground squirrels come out of their holes, and February they call 
 Squalle Gischuch, the month of frogs, the month when the frogs 
 begin to croak, though this again does not usually occur until 
 later. At the present time the most of them begin the year with 
 the Europeans, if they have come into frequent contact with 
 them. 
 
 They are well versed in their genealogies and are able to 
 describe every branch of the family with the greatest precision. 
 They also add concerning the character of their forefathers, such 
 an one was a wise and intelligent man, a great chief or captain 
 or an Achewilens, that is a rich man and seems to signify as 
 much as the word, gentleman, for the rich among them are highly 
 respected. These make themselves prominent by giving the 
 chiefs great quantities of wampum, when the chiefs are in need, 
 and they are regarded as the main supports of the chiefs. 
 
 Concerning remoter ancestors they know nothing more than 
 that they were great warriors and accomplished many heroic 
 deeds, that in che war with the Six Nations, when they still lived 
 along the sea-coast, the former were unable to do them much 
 harm and after attacks on Delaware towns had fled in such haste 
 that the Delawares had not been able to catch them, though they 
 had got to the mountains as swiftly as turkeys, that, however, 
 in spite of the ability of the Six Nations to get away the Dela 
 wares had caught and killed many of their enemies. They, also, 
 relate concerning their ancestors that the Six Nations regarded 
 them as mighty magicians, feared them and at last concluded a 
 peace with them in the manner already described. Further, they 
 relate how in times past the D elawares made attacks on towns 
 of the Cherokees and killed many of the inhabitants ; how, on 
 occasion, they visited them at night during the dance, mingled 
 
North American Indians. 147 
 
 with the dancers, and when the amusement was at its height 
 killed many of them with short weapons they had concealed under 
 their blankets, escaping, after the deed was done, before their 
 treachery had been discovered. 
 
 The land was never formally divided among the nations, 
 whatever region was settled by a nation was recognized as prop 
 erty of that nation, and no one disputed its title, until, in course 
 of war, one nation overpowered another and drove it out of its 
 territory. In such cases, however, the conquering nation did not 
 always settle on the conquered territory ; for example, the Mosh- 
 kos drove the Shawanose from their land in Florida but did not 
 themselves settle there, still living on the west side of the Ohio 
 in the region of the Wabash. The Delawares conquered the ter 
 ritory in which they live, having been driven out of the region 
 they once inhabited by the white people. The Wiondats adjudged 
 this region as belonging to them ; and the Kikapus have given 
 them a district along the Wabash and bordering on the country 
 they inhabit for the chase. A part of the Delaware nation has 
 lived in the Wabash region these many years, and of those living 
 here many go thither every year. The boundaries of Indian 
 countries are fixed along rivers and creeks or in a straight line 
 from one river to another or along the mountain ranges, where 
 there are mountains. 
 
 Of the spherical form of the earth they have no conception. 
 Some declare that the earth floats upon the sea and that an 
 enormous tortoise bears it on its back. The sky, they say, rests 
 upon the water probably because it appears so to do when they 
 look out upon the sea. Others declare that there is a place where 
 the sky strikes the earth, rises again and continues moving up 
 and down, smiting a rock, which causes such a report that it may 
 be heard many days journey. Two great captains once visited 
 that place, and one of them risked going through the opening 
 when the sky rose. He succeeded in getting into heaven and 
 coming back. Yet where this place is they know as little as they 
 do the location of Tschipey Hacki, the land of the spirits. The 
 sun, they think, sinks into the water when it sets. Thunder is a 
 mighty spirit dwelling in the mountains and sometimes issuing 
 from their fastnesses suffers himself to be heard. Others imag- 
 
148 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 ine the thunder to proceed from the crowing of a monstrous 
 turkey-cock in the heavens. For certain stars they have names. 
 The north star is called Lowanen, that is, north, or it is called 
 the star that does not move. The wagon which revolves around 
 the North Star they call the Bear, whom, they say, the Indians 
 pursued with a little dog, that is the star Wilis ; the three stars 
 in the form of a triangle, represent the head of a bear, which 
 they cut from the trunk and threw down. Certain stars forming 
 an ellipse they call the beaver-hide, because they describe the 
 form of a beaver hide stretched out. The milky way is the road to 
 Tschipey Hacki. The seven stars 309 * they have named Anschisk- 
 tauwewak, that is fire-brands gathered or laid, together. The 
 Monsys (Monseys) call these stars Menhangik, the travelling 
 companions. Other nations have yet other names for them. In 
 case of an eclipse of sun or moon, they say that these bodies have 
 fallen into a swoon. 
 
 In time of illness, they try all manner of remedies, for they 
 have a great fear of death. They not only consult the doctors, 
 but take, also, the medicine that others may prescribe. The 
 doctors must be called in, for if they were slighted, the patient 
 might die. The doctors blow upon the patients, sprinkle a drink 
 of roots and herbs they have taken into the mouth upon them, 
 and murmur incantations over them. They diagnose the disease, 
 tell whence it came and inform them whether recovery is pos 
 sible or not. They give directions, also, as to what must be done 
 and what kind of sacrifice must be brought. They prescribe some 
 sort of Beson prepared from herbs and roots, of which they know 
 the properties very well. It has happened that many doctors 
 have been consulted in a single case, have perhaps given up all 
 hope of recovery, and yet the patient became well. 
 
 For headache they lay a piece of white walnut bark on the 
 temples, toothache is treated by placing the same kind of bark 
 on the cheek over the tooth that gives the trouble. The bark 
 is very heating and burns the skin in a short time, often afford 
 ing relief. The same bark is applied to any of the limbs that 
 may be afflicted, having the effect at times of driving the pain 
 from one part of the body to another, until there is an eruption 
 somewhere. This 6ark pounded fine and boiled to the con- 
 
North American Indians. 149 
 
 sistency of a strong lye stops the flow of blood when applied 
 to a fresh wound, even though an artery may have been ruptured, 
 prevents swelling and heals the wound rapidly. After this 
 solution has been used for one or two days other roots must be 
 applied, such as the great sassaparilla and others that have heal 
 ing powers. 
 
 Epilepsy is not very common among the Indians. It does 
 not often happen that an Indian becomes mad, and madness 
 among these people is not as violent as among the whites, 
 probably, for the reason that they are not possessed of equal 
 power with the whites, and even their bodies are weaker be 
 cause they have not the abundance and variety of nourishing 
 food. Blood letting is supposed to help the epileptics. 
 
 Of small-pox they knew nothing until some of them caught 
 the contagion from the Europeans. Most of them died before 
 the small-pox properly appeared. They are much inclined to 
 boils and sores. Upon these they lay a warm poultice made 
 of the flour of Indian corn ; when the boils are ripe they are 
 lanced. Broken arms and legs they are able to set very well, 
 though limbs are not broken often, dislocated joints they are 
 also able to correct. If an Indian has dislocated his foot or 
 knee, when hunting alone, he creeps to the next tree and tying 
 one end of his strap to it, fastens the other to the dislocated limb 
 and, lying on his back, continues to pull until it is reduced. 
 For tooth-ache the Indians use roots also, placing a little piece 
 in the hollow tooth, which sometimes affords relief though not 
 always. Sometimes teeth are extracted if a pair of pincers can 
 be secured. It is not for lack of skill but for lack of proper 
 instruments that they do not treat external injuries more suc 
 cessfully. Such instruments as they have are not used in the 
 most careful manner. If one who is being operated on cries 
 out, those present laugh. Misfortunes of almost any kind trouble 
 them little; if house and goods have been burned, the un 
 fortunate owners may even relate the experience in a humorous 
 manner. 
 
 Many of them suffer from diarrhoea, particularly, in the 
 fall of the year. The evil is aggravated because they know noth 
 ing of dieting and continue to eat whatever they wish. For 
 
150 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 this and for other troubles they have roots and herbs, which 
 generally prove efficient remedies. Knowledge of these remedies 
 may be confined to a very few, who demand payment for any 
 prescription they make and keep their secrets to themselves. 
 One common mistake made by all Indian practitioners is over 
 dosing the patients. Fortunately, the Indians have strong con 
 stitutions, and usually do not suffer permanent injury from the 
 unwise treatment of their doctors. 
 
 Concerning mourning for the dead it might be added that 
 a widow is expected to observe in externals the following rules 
 during the period of mourning which lasts a year. She must 
 lay aside all ornaments, wash but little, for as soon as she makes 
 pretensions at cleanliness, combs and dresses her hair, it is re 
 ported that she is anxious to marry. Men who are in mourn 
 ing have no such regulations to observe. 
 
 Should a chief have lost a child or near relative, no com 
 plaint may be brought before him, nor may his advice be asked 
 on any affairs of state. Even important embassies from other 
 nations cannot be attended to by him until comfort has been 
 formally offered. This is commonly done by delivering a string 
 or fathom of wampum and addressing to him a speech, in which 
 figuratively the remains of the deceased are buried, the grave 
 covered with bark that neither dew of heaven nor rain may fall 
 upon it, the tears are wiped from the chief s eyes, the sorrow of 
 burial taken from his heart and his heart made cheerful. This 
 done, it is possible to confer with him on the matters of state 
 that need consideration. 
 
 When Europeans, who are in more comfortable circum 
 stances than the Indians, wish to comfort a chief, they not only 
 give a string of wampum but wrap the corpse of the deceased 
 in a large piece of fine linen, laying another piece on the grave 
 and wipe the tears from his eyes with silk handkerchiefs. Both 
 the linen and the silks are given him as a present. 
 
 When a chief dies sympathy is expressed with the whole 
 nation. I will give a brief description of "the ceremonies ob 
 served when the Cherokees sent a formal and numerous embassy 
 to the Delawares in Goschachgiink to renew their alliance with 
 
North American Indians. 151 
 
 them after their Chief Netawatwes had died. The ambassadors 
 halted several miles below the town and sent word that they 
 had arrived. The day after some Delaware Captains went down 
 to welcome them and delivered a speech, in which they expressed 
 joy on their arrival, extracted the thorns they had gotten on the 
 journey from their feet, took the sand and gravel from between 
 their toes, and anointed the wounds and bruises made by the 
 briars and brushwod with oil, wiped the perspiration from their 
 faces and the dust from their eyes, cleansed their ears, throats 
 and hearts of all evil they had seen, heard or which had entered 
 their hearts. A string of wampum was delivered in confirma 
 tion of this speech and then the Captains, accompanied by a, 
 large number of Indians, conducted the embassadors to the 
 town. On entering the Cherokees saluted the inhabitants by 
 firing their pieces, which was answered in the same manner by 
 the Delawares. Next, the Captain of the Cherokees began a 
 song, during which they proceeded to the Council-house, where 
 everything had been prepared for the reception of the visitors. 
 All having been seated, the Cherokee Captain comforted the 
 grandfather, the Delaware nation, over the loss of the Chief. 
 Continuing he wrapped the remains in a cloth, buried them, 
 covered the grave with bark, wiped the tears from the eyes of 
 the weeping nation, cleansed their ears and throats and took 
 away all the sorrow from their hearts. He confirmed his speech 
 by delivering a string of wampum. Then the peace-pipe was 
 stuffed, lighted and in turn smoked by several Captains of the 
 Delawares and Cherokees. 
 
 The peace-pipe is held in high regard among the Indians. 
 It is brought out at certain solemn occasions, as when peace is 
 concluded or renewed. The head is six or eight inches long and 
 three inches high. It is made of stone or marble. A pipe made 
 of red marble, as was the one used on the occasion described 
 above, is particularly valued. The pipe-stem is made of wood 
 and blackened, it is strong and durable and may be four feet 
 long. It is wound around with fine ribbon and decorated with 
 ornaments made of porcupine quills of various colors. It may 
 be further ornamented with green, yellow and white feathers. 
 If the pipe is made of red marble it is whitened with white clay 
 
152 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 or chalk, for red is the color of war, even though the red marble 
 pipe is most highly valued. For the same reason nothing red 
 may appear on a string of wampum. A war-belt is smeared 
 with red paint or cinnabar. If for want of a white wampum 
 belt, one made of the violet colored shells has to be used, this 
 is whitened with clay and then has the same signficance as a 
 white belt. The dark \vampum belts are used, whenever they 
 wish to give some one a severe lesson or a reproof. After the 
 ceremonies described above had been completed, and all had 
 partaken of a feast, the exercises for that day were at an end. 
 On the next day they approached the chief matters of interest 
 and exchanged belts of friendship, this part of the negotiations 
 lasting several days, as each belt was presented in connection 
 with a formal speech. 
 
 A few words should be added concerning animals. 
 
 1) Swallows 310 are found, generally near some body of 
 water. Snipe 311 are gray in color and have a bill almost as long 
 as the body of the bird. The gull 312 is frequently seen near rivers 
 and lakes. Two kinds of plover 313 may be seen in these parts, 
 both found near water. The one variety is about the size of a 
 blackbird, 834 which is sometimes found away from water, the 
 other much smaller. 
 
 The whippoorwill 315 is a night bird, of gray color, somewhat 
 smaller than a turtledove. 316 It has a thick head, a short bill and 
 a wide mouth. It has received its name from its note, which 
 may be heard all night long. 
 
 The Mosquito-hawk 317 gets its name from catching mosqui 
 toes and flies while on the wing. It is about the size of turtle 
 dove, has a round white spot on each of its wings, which seem, 
 when the animal flies, like holes in the wings. It will dart up and 
 down very swiftly in its efforts to catch insects. 
 
 Of bees 318 nothing was known when we came here in 72, 
 now they are to be found in large numbers in hollow trees in 
 the woods. 
 
 Wasps 31 ft are found in large numbers. 
 
 2) Among the quadrupeds the flying squirrel 320 should be 
 noted. This animal is about the size of a rat, has a thin mem- 
 
North American Indians. 153 
 
 braneous continuation of the skin of the sides and belly by which 
 its hind and forelegs are connected. This supports the animal 
 in leaping from one tree to another. In other respects it re 
 sembles the common squirrel. 
 
 3) There is found here a variety of rattlesnake 312 I have 
 seen nowhere else. It is hardly a foot long and very slender, it 
 has rattles as have the other varieties and its bite is quite as ven 
 omous. The color is, also, like that of the other rattlers, yellow 
 with black markings. 
 
 4) Plants. Laurel, 322 also called the wild box, grows along 
 river banks, or in the swamps in cool places or on the north 
 side of mountains. It grows so thickly that it is impossible 
 to get through. In swamps of laurel, bears like to make 
 their winter quarters. The wood is fine and hard. The In 
 dians make spoons of it. The main stem does not become 
 thicker than a leg. The leaves are green summer and winter. 
 
 THE END. 
 
154 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 NOTES. 
 
 1. It is of the Iroquois and Delawares that the author is speak 
 ing. Six footers among them were the exception; Red Jacket measured 
 live feet eight ; Logan, six feet ; Shenandoah, six feet three. School- 
 craft (History ... of the Indian Tribes, Pt. IV, 349) states that 
 he found about one-half of the men of the Chippewa nation in 1822, 
 six feet high; yet the Dakotas averaged live feet nine. Keokuk was 
 six feet two. The Ottawas were of smaller stature than the average 
 lake tribes. Schoolcraft did not find muscular development large save 
 among tribes located near white settlements where the means of suste 
 nance was more constantly supplied. 
 
 2. The color of the American Indian ranged from the "brown 
 yellow" of the mulatto to the paled faced "White Indians" of the Red 
 River, whose seeming likeness to the Welsh has been discussed (Samuel 
 Gardner Drake, The Aboriginal Races of North America, 1, 52-55). 
 The Blanc Barbus of Canada and Menomonies of Wisconsin were of 
 lighter complexion, while the darkest of aborigines were found in the 
 Caribbean Islands, in Guinea and California. The Cherokees and Chippe- 
 was have been classed with the darker Indians of southern California, 
 the West Indies, etc., as of possible Malay origin. By all accounts the 
 skin of the red man is as thin and soft as that of the white man ; 
 poison ivy affected some Indians if they only came in contact with 
 wind blowing over it upon them. 
 
 3. Peter A. Brown, Esq., in 1852, found the fibre or shaft of the 
 average Indian s hair to be cylindrical, while in the case of the Anglo- 
 Saxon it is oval and in the African race, elliptical ; thus the first would 
 be straight, the second curly and the third fetted or wooly. 
 
 4. The Seneca Tribe of the Six Nations were generally known 
 west of New York by the name of Mingo, especially in the Ohio Valley. 
 The name was also used as an equivalent for the more general term of 
 Iroquois, but oftentimes meaning those who migrated from their New 
 York homeland. 
 
 5. Shawanese or Shawnees of the Scioto Valley. 
 
 6. Wyandots of the region between the Sandusky Valley and the 
 Detroit River. 
 
 7. The general impression that is current concerning the hard 
 ship of the life of Indian squaws could not have been gained from 
 a careful reading of men who wrote of the Indians in their original 
 environment. Writes Heckewelder : "There are many persons who be 
 lieve, from the labour that they see Indian women perform, that they 
 are in a manner treated as slaves . . . but they have no more than 
 their fair share ... of the hardships attendant on savage life. The 
 
North American Indians. 155 
 
 work of the women is not hard or difficult. They are both able and 
 willing to do it, and always perform it with cheerfulness. I have never 
 known an Indian woman to complain of the hardship of carrying this 
 burden (a pack on making a journey) which serves for their own 
 comfort and support as well as their husbands .... the fatigue of 
 the women is by no means to be compared to that of the men. Their 
 hard and difficult employments are periodical and of short duration, 
 while their husbands labours are constant in the extreme. Were a 
 man to take upon himself a part of his wife s duty, in addition to his 
 own, he must necessarily sink under the load, and of course his family 
 must suffer with him" An account of the History, Manners and 
 Customs of the Indian nations (1817) 146-7. As to the universal cheer 
 fulness of Indian women Zeisberger is at variance with his compatriot. 
 "The Indian women," writes Loskiel, "are more given to stealing, lying, 
 quarreling, backbiting and slandering than the men" History of the 
 Mission of the United Brethren, (1794), 16. In our numerous references 
 to the above mentioned writers, in footnotes, we shall use the following 
 terminology, Heckewelder s History, Heckewelder s Narrative, and Los- 
 kiel s History. 
 
 8. Zeisberger, it must always be remembered, is writing in Ohio; 
 his references to the country to the northward are the result of his 
 acquaintance with the Six Nations in New York State. 
 
 9. The Onondaga tribe of Six Nations, located near Syracuse, 
 New York. 
 
 9. Zeisberger seems here to imply that the country of the Shaw- 
 anese was Kentucky ; elsewhere he clearly speaks of the Scioto Valley 
 as but one hundred miles distant. 
 
 10. Contrary to the taste of other Indians, as the Dakotas, School- 
 craft, History, Pt. IV, 67. 
 
 11. Breech cloth. 
 
 12. Singularly enough, everything in an Indian s cabin had its 
 specific owner. "Every individual knows what belongs to him, from the 
 horse or cow down to the dog, cat, kitten and little chicken. For a 
 litter of kittens or brood of chickens there are often as many dif 
 ferent owners as there are individual animals. Thus while the prin 
 ciple of community of goods prevails in the State, the rights of property 
 are acknowledged among the members of a family" Heckewelder, 
 History, 147-8. 
 
 13. Indian Hemp; Apocynum cannabium. L. 
 
 14. Monsey, one of the Three Tribes of the Delawares living 
 chiefly on the Beaver River. 
 
 15. Bunks made of boards. 
 
 16. The expression here is singular and shows that the western,, 
 migratory Iroquois were clearly distinguished from those who remained 
 in the "Long House" in New York State. 
 
156 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 17. The Rev. David McClure states that such was the desire for 
 dancing among the Delaware Indians that "they are building a dancing 
 house in this small village, [the capital of the Delawares near the 
 present site of Newcomerstown, O.] which will cost them more labour 
 than one-half of the houses in it" Diary, 77. This is one of the most 
 valuable volumes of early travel (1770-1790) in the Middle West and 
 will often be quoted. 
 
 18. It is interesting to compare the accounts of Zeisberger and 
 Heckewelder, the former a jotter down of facts, the latter a formal 
 historian. "The Indians are proud but not vain," write Heckewelder; 
 "They consider vanity as degrading and unworthy the character of a 
 man. This passion of the Indians which I have called pride, but which 
 might perhaps, be better denominated highmindedness, is generally com 
 bined with a great sense of honour, and not seldom produces actions 
 of the most heroic kind" History, 159, 161. The plain, unpretentious 
 words of Zeisberger, often derogatory of the Indians, have a ring of 
 accuracy that is found in almost no other record. 
 
 19. The length of space to which a man can extend his arms. 
 
 20. "Courage, art and circumspection, are the essential and in 
 dispensable qualifications of an Indian warrior" Heckewelder, History, 
 166. According to Zeisberger s notion, how appropriate the first lines of 
 the Delaware s chant on going to war : "O poor me !" Id. 204. 
 
 21. Pontiac s Rebellion. 
 
 22. Ottawas. 
 
 23. Revolutionary war. 
 
 24. Heckewelder s descriptions of Indian abhorrence of marital 
 infidelity are not borne out by Zeisberger or Loskiel. David McClure, 
 writing at Coshocton, in 1772, records : "Several of the aged Councillors 
 had lived with one wife from their youth; but a great part of husbands 
 and wives at Kekalemahpehoong [Delaware capital], had separated and 
 taken others. I was astonished at the profligate description which young 
 Killbuck (whose father had directed him to lodge in my house, and 
 to wait on me), gave me of himself. He slept in a loft, which was 
 ascended by a ladder at the farther end of the house. He conducted 
 a squaw up the ladder every night. I asked him one day, if it was his 
 wife? He said no. I admonished him for his conduct. He said he 
 was nineteen years old, and had had several wives, and that he wanted 
 one more, and he should be happy. It is natural to expect that but 
 few children can be the fruit of such unbounded licentiousness. On an 
 average there are about two or three to a family" Diary, 91. 
 
 24J. The distinction here between "Indians" and "savages" implies 
 that the former are Christian and the latter non-christian. 
 
 25. Goschgoschimk, in Venango County, Pennsylvania, a Delaware 
 <Monsey) town on the Allegheny River Edmund De Schweinitz, Life 
 and Times of David Zeisberger, 324, seq. Few volumes relating to the 
 
North American Indians. 
 
 167 
 
 Middle West of pre-Revolutionary and Revolutionary days are written 
 with the care and scholarly accuracy of this Life of Zeisberger, as we 
 shall call it in our numerous references. It is a book of very great merit. 
 
 26. Canoes were often buried in the sand to preserve them through 
 the winter. 
 
 27. Heckewelder records that he has seen boys of ten and twelve 
 whose limbs were so contracted by colds or " fits of sickness" that they 
 were useless. History, 217. By all accounts pneumonia and consumption 
 were exceedingly common among the Indians; cf. McClure, Diary , 67. 
 
 28. Heckewelder calls these bands Happis; by them, he asserts, 
 Indians will carry a load "which many a white man would not have 
 strength enough to raise from the ground" History, 214. 
 
 29. Probably boils ; possibly syphilitic sores. 
 
 30. It is of passing interest to note some of the remedies used by 
 the Indians as given by the late Dr. Zina Pitcher, U. S. A., in School- 
 craft History, Pt. IV, pp. 502, seq. : 
 
 Disease. 
 
 Herb. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 Fever 
 
 Pleurisy 
 
 Consumption 
 
 Asthma 
 Dyspepsia 
 
 Liver complaint and 
 gravel 
 
 Dysentery and Diar 
 rhea 
 
 Dropsy 
 
 Amenorrhoea 
 
 Eupatorium, cambium of 
 
 horse chestnut, butternut, 
 
 etc. 
 Asclepias decumbens, An- 
 
 themis cotula and Poly- 
 
 gonum presecoris. 
 Poltices of mucillage of the 
 
 Ulmus americanus, etc. 
 
 Saururus, benzoin, sassa- 
 faras and Istodes foetida. 
 
 Cambium of the Desculus 
 glabra, inglans, etc. 
 
 A r b u t u s-uva-ursi, spice- 
 wood, gooseberry root, 
 
 etc. 
 
 Blackberry, Geranium macu- 
 latum, Spirea totncntosa, 
 Quercus alba. etc. 
 
 Prickly ash (Zanthoxylum 
 americanum) wild goose 
 berry (Ribes trifolium}. 
 
 Sassafaras. spice-wood, 
 worm-wood. 
 
 Carthartics. 
 
 Consumption was 
 treated as an ul 
 cer and little un 
 derstood. 
 
 Palliative remedies. 
 
 Little known save 
 among trib e.s 
 somewhat civil- 
 ized. 
 
158 
 
 David Zcisberger s History 
 
 \ 
 
 Disease. Herb. 
 
 1 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 Hemorrhage 
 
 Powder of puff-ball (Lyco- 
 
 
 
 pcrdon bovista) pulver 
 
 
 
 ized charcoal. 
 
 
 Wounds 
 
 Washed with decoction of 
 
 
 
 lichen, bass-wood or slip 
 
 
 
 pery elm. 
 
 Great care was giv 
 
 
 
 en to keeping up 
 
 
 
 the suppurating 
 
 
 
 process and keep 
 
 
 
 ing wounds open. 
 
 Ulcers 
 
 Acorns calamus and caut 
 
 
 ery. 
 
 Salt Rheum 
 
 Rumex crispus or yellow 
 
 
 
 dock. 
 
 
 Phlegmon 
 
 Onion poltices. 
 
 Gonorrhoea 
 
 Various species of genus Pi- 
 
 
 
 mis. 
 
 The balsaam used in 
 
 
 
 modern remedies. 
 
 Syphilis 
 
 Local applications as for ul 
 
 
 
 cers. 
 
 
 Paralysis 
 
 None. 
 
 
 Obstetrics : 
 
 S a n g u i n a r i a canaden- 
 
 
 
 sis (blood-root) used to 
 
 
 
 facilitate parturition. 
 
 
 31. Stings of poisonous reptiles were treated variously by the dif 
 ferent tribes. The Senecas used a plant called Polygala senega; others 
 used Liatris spicata, Asclepias tuberosa, Prenanthus alba, Fraximus 
 jitglandifolia, and many applied locally Alis-ma plantago. Scientists are 
 today studying, for perhaps the first time, the action of various forms 
 of venom and the appropriate remedies for each. The poison of the 
 rattler destroys the tissues and blood-cells ; that of the cobra paralyzes 
 the nervous system. See Dr. J. T. Case, Good Health, June, 1909. 
 
 32. Heckewelder distinguishes between "good" and "bad" medicine 
 men, terming the former "physicians and surgeons" and the latter 
 "doctors or jugglers," but states of these latter, "I am sorry that truth 
 obliges me to confess, that in their profession they rank above the 
 honest practitioners." One whimsical conceit of the Indian doctor 
 which well illustrates their superstition and "science" was that the 
 water used to concoct an emetic must be dipped from a stream against 
 the current, while for a cathartic it must be dipped with the current. 
 Heckewelder, suffering from a painful felon, was put at ease within 
 half an hour by an Indian woman who applied a poultice made from 
 the root of the common blue violet. Heckewelder, History, 217-225. 
 
 33. It would seem here that male practitioners were called to at 
 tend labor cases. Dr. Pitcher has asserted that, to his knowledge, only 
 
North American Indians. 159 
 
 women officiated under such circumstances, Schoolcraft History, Pt. IV, 
 515. Loskiel refers to the efficiency of female doctors in child-birth. 
 History, 110. 
 
 34. These primitive Turkish baths were, unquestionably, a great 
 means of health to this race which suffered so largely from colds. Dr. 
 McClure, who gives an interesting description of a sweating oven on the 
 Muskingum, asserts, however, that to pulmonary disorders and small 
 pox, the treatment was quite fatal. Diary, 67. 
 
 35. The Unamis, the chief tribe of the Delawares, lived on the 
 Tuscarawas River. 
 
 3f>. The Unalochtgos, the tribe of second importance, lived beside 
 the Tuscarawas. 
 
 37. The Monseys lived mostly on the Big Beaver River. 
 
 38. Orange Co., N. Y. 
 
 30. It is refreshing, in the face of so many idealistic accounts of 
 primitive Indian life to read these blunt, plain statements of facts from 
 Zeisberger s pen. We probably know more accurately concerning the 
 Six Nations than of any other Indians. One of the earliest reports 
 claims that De Nonville s soldiers in 1687 destroyed a million and a 
 quarter bushels of corn in four Seneca villages. And yet we know 
 that the eating of children in time of utter famine was known among 
 the Senecas Cadwallader Golden, History of the Five Indian Nations 
 (1755) II, 8. If such destitution could exist in a region exceedingly 
 well watered and fertile, what of Indians not so fortunately placed? 
 
 40. Bracket fungus. 
 
 41. Remains of the Mound-building Indians. These were found on 
 the site of at least one of the Moravian Mission towns, Lichtenau. De 
 Schweinitz, Life of Zeisberger, 433,. 436 Note. 
 
 42. Unquestionably a European idea; no mounds in the Middle 
 West were high enough to serve the purpose of rolling blocks or stones. 
 The greater part of the mounds so far opened prove to have been 
 raised over charnel houses after the latter had been filled with bodies. 
 
 43. These facts concerning the wooden wampum and the sub 
 stitute for wampum are of utmost interest. 
 
 44. Allegheny River. 
 
 45. Neville s Island? This is clearly, the Delaware tradition. 
 
 46. Tennessee River, commonly known in early days as the Chero 
 kee River. See A. B. Hulbert s, "Washington s Tour to the Ohio," 
 Ohio State Arch, and Hist. Quart. XVII, (Oct. 1908), 484. 
 
 46J. At the Treaty of Fort Stanwix? 
 
 47. Here begins Zeisberger s version of the legend of the con 
 quest of the Iroquois over the Delawares, one of the famous Indian 
 legends. It is possible that this Zeisberger account is the original English 
 (German) version upon which so many versions have been based. 
 Heckewelder (History 11) referring to the source of his information. 
 
160 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 cites Loskiel, who had only Zeisberger s manuscript to follow. It is 
 peculiar that Heckewelder should refer his readers to an authority who 
 had no first-hand knowledge. Turning to Loskiel s version of the 
 events which led up to the Delawares being made "women" we find 
 (History, 124, seq.} that Zeisberger s plain account has been improved 
 upon by being fashioned into formal speeches. These begin as follows : 
 
 "It is not profitable, that all the nations should be at war with 
 each other, for this will at length be the ruin of the whole Indian race. 
 We have therefore considered of a remedy, by which this evil may be 
 prevented. One nation shall be the woman. We will place her in the 
 midst, and the other nations who make war shall be the man, and 
 live around the woman. No one shall touch or hurt the woman, and 
 if anyone does it, we will immediately say to him, Why do you beat 
 the woman ? " 
 
 By comparison it will be seen that Loskiel has put Zeisberger s 
 words into the mouth of speakers, whereas Zeisberger did not include 
 his account in quotation-marks, giving merely the story as it was told 
 to him. Loskiel, by putting the same words into the mouths of the 
 speakers and phrasing it all in the first instead of the third person, as 
 Zeisberger wrote it, turned a legend into a seemingly accurate historical 
 document. Parkman takes both Loskiel and Heckewelder to task for 
 taking the story in "good faith," (Conspiracy of Pontiac, I, 31) but 
 Loskiel had no reason to take Zeisberger s account as actual history; 
 and De Schweinitz (Life of Zeisberger, 47) states that neither Zeis 
 berger or Loskiel argue in favor of the story, while Heckewelder does. 
 This forms an interesting example of the evolution of a legend into 
 history: Zeisberger tells the Delaware legend, plainly and simply, in 
 the third person; Loskiel forms it into speeches in the first person; 
 Heckewelder takes these formal speeches and argues in their favor as 
 true history. 
 
 48. Gourd or pumpkin. 
 
 48J. See William L. Stone, The Life and Times of Sir William John 
 son, 214-215. 
 
 49. Woapanochky, "a people living toward the rising of the sun," 
 was another name of the Delawares. Loskiel, History I, 2. 
 
 50. Albany, N. Y. 
 
 51. Bethlehem, Pa. 
 
 52. Roccus lineatus (Bloch) an important source of food to the 
 early Virginians as attested by Captain John Smith and others. 
 
 53. Alosa sapidissima (Wilson). 
 
 54. Vernacular names of fishes are so numerous and so variable, 
 the same common name being applied to very different fishes in dif 
 ferent localities, that it is hard to identify some of these references with 
 certainty. This however refers to Perca ftavescem* (Mitchill), commonly 
 known as the yellow perch. 
 
North American Indians. 161 
 
 55. Stizostedian vitrctiin (Mitchill) the pike or sauger. 
 50. Lepisostcits osseiis (L.) 
 
 57. Sak elituts fontmalis (Mitchill), the speckled or brook trout. 
 
 58. Anguilla chrysypa Rafinesque. 
 
 59. Phoca z itulina L., the harbour seal, common farther north, 
 though rare in this latitude even in salt water. Their occurrence at Wy 
 oming nearly 200 miles up the Susquehanna River is quite remarkable, 
 though other similar occurrences have been recorded. 
 
 60. Chamaecy parts thy aides (L.). the white cedar. 
 
 61. Alecs americanus (Clinton). The animals migrated south in 
 the winter crossing the Niagara, or the Lakes on the ice. 
 
 02. Sal in o salar Linnaeus, the Atlantic salmon, formerly very 
 abundant in the Hudson River though now nearly or quite exterminated 
 there. 
 
 I). . Anguilld dirysypa Rafmosque. Possibly the author was more 
 familiar with the lamprey eel, Ichthyomyson concolor (Kirtland) in the 
 Muskingum region, hence his reference to the more slender head of 
 Anguilla chrysypa. However, inasmuch as there is but the one true 
 eel in our fresh waters and the lamprey is small and seldom seen, it 
 seems probable that the eels which the author knew in New York 
 and along the Muskingum were of the same sort. In autumn there is 
 ?. universal migration of the adult eels to the sea to spawn. The In 
 dians, true to their insight into nature, made the best of this opportunity 
 for securing them in great quantities. 
 
 04. Niagara Falls. 
 
 05. Probably one of the Three Sister Islands. 
 00. Oneida Lake. 
 
 07. Cayuga Lake. 
 
 08. Seneca and Ithaca Lakes. 
 
 09. Pyrus coronaria L., the American crab apple or wild apple. 
 
 70. Mohawks. 
 
 71. Reference here is to Sullivan s expedition of 1779. The date 
 of the writing of this history is here shown to be 1780. 
 
 72. Indicating that even with the unskilled cultivation of the In 
 dians, the corn in different regions developed varieties each suited to 
 its particular locality. 
 
 73. North Carolina. 
 
 74. Fort Frontenac. now Kingston, Canada. 
 
 75. One of the most elaborate descriptions of this route through 
 Central Pennsylvania is given in Francis Raily s Journal of a Tour in 
 Unsettled parts of North America. Sideling Hill is near the Juniata ; 
 Laurel Hill is a continuance of Chestnut Ridge, the latter being the 
 local name of the range in Pennsylvania. Zeisberger s mention of it 
 as the important western route at this period (pointing, as it does well 
 back in the eighteenth century") is significant. 
 
 11 
 
162 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 76. The parallel chains of the Blue Ridge now known as Second 
 and Third and Peters Mountains,, being at that time without a name, 
 Conrad Weiser called them, on the occasion of Zinzendorfs second 
 journey into the Indian country, "The Thurnstein" in honor of this 
 distinguished personage, one of whose titles was Lord of Thurnstein. 
 
 77. Jack s Mountain. 
 
 78. The present Erie, Pa. 
 
 79. By way of French Creek. Perhaps no other authority gives 
 the name of Venango or Onenge as the name of this stream. 
 
 80. Turtle Creek. 
 
 81. Ligonier, Pa. 
 
 82. Kentucky River. 
 
 83. Cuyahoga River. 
 
 84. Scioto River. 
 
 85. Fragaria virginiana Duchesne. 
 
 86. Rubus nigrobaccus Bail, the common blackberry and Rubus 
 villosus L.. the dewberry. 
 
 87. Rubus occidcntalis L. 
 
 88. Vacciniuin pennsylvanicum Lam., the dwarf blueberry. 
 
 89. Ribcs cynosbati L., the prickly gooseberry. 
 
 90. Ribes floridum L Her., the wild black current. 
 
 91. Vacciniuin macrocarpon Ait, the common cranberry and 
 Viburnum opulus L., the tree cranberry. 
 
 92. Primus scrotina Ehrh., the common wild cherry. 
 
 93. Primus pennsylvanica L., and probably Primus cuneata Raf. 
 
 94. Primus pumila L., the sand cherry. 
 
 95. Morns rubra L., the common red mulberry. 
 
 96. Primus americana Marsh. 
 
 97. Vitis aestivalis Michx. 
 
 98. Vitis cordi folia Michx. and Iritis vulpina L. 
 
 99. Pyrus coronaria L. and Pyrus angustifolia Ait, both occur 
 along the Muskingum and probably both were used by the Indians. 
 
 100. Corylus americana Walt. 
 
 101. Carya species ( ?) Doubtless the Indians made use of most 
 of the half dozen edible species of the region. 
 
 102. Juglans cinerea L. 
 
 103. Juglans nigra L. 
 
 104. Assimina triloba Dunal. 
 
 105. Benzoin aestivale (L.) the common spice-bush, apparently. 
 
 106. Spicebush. 
 
 107. Castanea dentata (Marsh). 
 
 108. An interesting reference to the Ohio Buckeye, Aesculus glabra 
 Willd. 
 
 109. Iponioea pandurata (L.) a relative of the morning glory with 
 tuberous roots. 
 
North American Indians. 163 
 
 110. Podophyllum peltatum L.., the root of which is still a staple 
 medicinal herb. 
 
 HOa. Quercus alba L., the white oak. 
 
 llOb. Quercus velutina Lam., the black or quercitron oak. 
 
 llOc. Quercus rubra L., red oak. 
 
 llOd. Quercus falcata Michx., Spanish oak. 
 
 llOe. Quercus palustris Muench., the swamp Spanish or pinoak. 
 
 111. Doubtless more than three ! 
 
 112. Fraxinus americana L. 3 is the most common one, though other 
 species occur in the region. 
 
 113. Fagus grandifolia Ehrh. There is but one beech though the 
 wood in some is quite different in color from that of others. 
 
 114. Sassafras variifoUuin (Salisb.) 
 
 115. Liriodcndron tulipifcra L., the tulip tree, commonly called 
 poplar. 
 
 116. Castanca dent at a (Marsh). 
 
 117. Tilia americana L., bass wood or linden. 
 
 118. Acer saccharinum L., the silver maple is most abundant near 
 the water, though Acer saccharum Marsh, the sugar maple, and var. 
 nigrum (Mx) also occur in the bottom lands. 
 
 11!). Carpinus carol iniana Walt., the American hornbeam, is usually 
 known as water beech but this description evidently refers to the 
 sycamore, Platanus occidentals L., sometimes called water beech. There 
 is no other reference which could apply to the sycamore and it was 
 then as now, a conspicuous tree of the river banks. 
 
 120. Crataegus species (?) Several of the 65 ( !) species accepted 
 by the seventh edition of Gray s Manual occur here. 
 
 121. Pyrus coronaria L., and Pyrus angustifolia Ait. 
 
 122. Fraxinus nigra Marsh., the black ash. 
 
 123. Glcditsia triacanthos L. 
 
 124. Cornus florida L. 
 
 125. The bark of Cinchona succirubra and other sjpecies of 
 Cinchona from which quinine is prepared. The Cinchonas grow wild in 
 the Andes Mountains. 
 
 126. Junipcrus virginiana L. 
 
 127. Picca mariana (Mill.) Black or log spruce. 
 
 128. Pinus rigida Mill. Pitch pine. 
 
 129. Pinus strobus L. White pine. 
 
 130. Abies balsam ca (L.) 
 
 131. Pinus pungcns Lamb, the table mountain pine, presumably. 
 
 132. Ulmus americana L., and V. racemosa Thomas. 
 
 133. Betula nigra L., the river birch. 
 
 134. Popuhts tremuloidcs Michx., the American aspen. 
 
 135. Cladrastis lute a (Michx.). 
 
 136. Loskiel records that Indians sold oil to the whites "at four 
 guineas a quart." History, 118. 
 
164 David Zeisberyer s History 
 
 137. A very questionable statement. 
 
 138. It is doubtful what Zeisberger means here by "marble;" pos 
 sible it was gritty sandstone. . 
 
 139. Iron Pyrites or "Fool s Gold." 
 
 140. Kaolin or China clay; colors in clays are due to impurities. 
 The black clay which burns white evidently contained carbonaceous 
 matter. 
 
 141. Yellow ochre. 
 
 142. Possibly a decoction made from polk-berries which would 
 stimulate the secretion of the glands of the breasts, etc. 
 
 143. Rhus toxicodendron L., the poison vine or poison ivy. 
 
 144. Rhus vernix L., the poison sumac, our most poisonous plant. 
 
 145. Not used by the medical profession today. 
 
 146. Odocoileus virginianus (Boddaert). 
 
 147. The introduction of the rifle was the first step in destroying 
 Nature s balance as applied to man and the native wild animals. Doubt 
 less the deer and buffalo easily held their own in spite of the onslaughts 
 of the Indians until the rifle gave the Indians a tremendous advantage 
 as compared with their former weapons. 
 
 148. Ursus americanus Pallas. 
 
 149. In many cases the Indians multiplied the species of our larger 
 mammals, basing their ideas on one or two unusually large individuals 
 they happened to meet, or on some peculiar condition of the pelage. 
 There is only one species of bear known from eastern United States. 
 
 150. Ccrvus canadensis (Erxleben) the wapiti, or "American Elk." 
 The author is correct. The wapiti is nearly related to the stag, Ccrvus 
 elaphus L., of Europe and is not an elk at all. 
 
 Bison bison (L.) 
 
 Felis couguar Kerr. 
 
 Lynx ruff us (Guldenstaedt). 
 
 154. Vulpes fulvus (Dasmarest). 
 
 155. Urocyon cinereoargcntcus (Schreber). 
 
 156. A black phase of the red fox Vulpes fulvus. 
 
 157. Procyon lot or (L.) 
 
 158. Lutra canadensis (Schreber). 
 
 159. Castor canadensis Kuhl. 
 
 160. The steel trap was another white man s invention which, 
 placed in the hands of the Indians, proved most destructive to some 
 of the animals which formerly held their own against the less effective 
 methods of the Indians. The price paid for the pelts by the whites, 
 was of course an additional factor in the destruction of many of the 
 native animals. 
 
 161. Didelphis virginiana Kerr. 
 
 162. Certainly open to question and probably merely an Indian 
 belief. 
 
North American Indians. 165 
 
 163. Mephitis mephitis Schreber. 
 
 164. Erethison dorsatiun (L.) 
 
 165. Mustela amerieana Turton, the pine marten or American sable, 
 and the larger Mustela pennautii Exleben, the fisher, or fisher marten, 
 both range into New York. 
 
 166. Alces americanus Clinton. 
 107. Fiber zibethicus (L). 
 
 168. A melanistic form of the next. At times in some localities 
 it is very abundant. 
 
 169. Scinrus carolinensis Gmelin, the common grey squirrel. 
 
 170. Sciunis hudsonicv.s loqnax Bangs. 
 
 171. Tamias striatus lysteri (Rich.) 
 
 172. Mannota nionax (L.) 
 
 .173. Lyn.v canadensis Kerr, the Canada lynx. 
 
 174. Lepus Horidanus mearnsi Allen. 
 
 175. Lepus ainericaints I irginianus Harlan, the varying hare. 
 
 176. Doubtless partial albinos of the common deer, Odocoileus 
 I irginiainis. 
 
 177. An instance of the erroneous belief that an animal in any 
 way conspicuously different from its fellows becomes a leader. On the 
 contrary, the unfortunate variant is often mistreated by his fellows 
 and sometimes even ostracised. "Sentiment" plays no part in the 
 selection of leaders. It is simply a question of superior strength and 
 endurance. 
 
 178. Branta canadensis (L.), the common wild goose, or Canada 
 goose. Other species occur but are rare and probably never reared 
 their young hereabouts. 
 
 179. Aix sponsa (L.) the beautiful wood duck. The young are 
 said to be carried to the water in the bill of the parent. 
 
 180. Both Mcrcjns americanus Cassin the American merganser or 
 sheldrake, and LopJiodytes cucullatus (L.,) the hooded merganser were 
 formerly abundant in this region. 
 
 181. Probably the hooded merganser, which is said to be quite 
 palatable, the flesh of the other mergansers being rank and fishy. 
 
 182. This is evidently Grus mexicana (Mull), the sandbill crane, a 
 bird now very rare in Ohio. 
 
 183. Olor columbianus (Orel.), the whistling swan, and Olor 
 buccinator (Rich.), the trumpeter swan, have been uncommon birds in 
 this locality, the latter formerly breeding here. Both fit the description 
 given. The former is now much less rare than the other. 
 
 184. Meleagris galopavo sihestris Vieill. 
 
 185. Bonasa umbellus (L.), the ruffed grouse or pheasant, a beau 
 tiful, harmless and valuable bird now in danger of extermination if not 
 rigidly protected. 
 
 186. This apparently refers to Tympanuchus americanus (Reich.), 
 the prairie hen, now exterminated in Ohio and not generally supposed 
 
166 David Zeisbergcr s History 
 
 to have lived as far southeast as the Muskingum region, though it may 
 possibly refer to the heath hen, Tympanuchus cupido (L.), once dis 
 tributed from Massachusetts to Virginia, though doubtfully along the 
 Muskingum, now extinct except on Martha s Vineyard Island, Mass. The 
 heath hen is smaller than the ruffed grouse however. 
 
 187. Ectopistes migratonus (L.), the passenger pigeon, perhaps 
 extinct, or if not already, it is most certain to become so. 
 
 188. Zcnaidtira inner oura carolincnsis (L.) 
 
 189. Colinus virginianus (L.), the bobwhite. The quail was for 
 merly, while the dense forests were still undisturbed, much less abundant 
 and generally distributed than in more recent years. One Ohio ornithol 
 ogist, J. M. Wheaton, goes so far as to say that " it was probably 
 absent or at least confined to but few localities in the State at the 
 time of its first settlement and has steadily increased in numbers as 
 the forest has been cleared away." Report on the birds of Ohio, 
 Rep. Geol. Surv. Ohio, (1882) IV, Pt. I, 449. 
 
 190. Haliaeetus leucocephalus (L.), the bald eagle. 
 
 191. Probably a young bald eagle. The young are three years 
 in attaining the adult plumage, and often contend viciously with the 
 parents for the possession of the nest to which the parents return year 
 after year. Possibly this may have been a golden eagle, Aqiiila 
 chrysaetos (L.), though it has apparently always been rare in the region 
 and is not very pugnacious. 
 
 192. Elanoides forficatus (L.), the swallow-tailed kite, another beau 
 tiful, beneficial and entirely harmless great bird which is almost ex 
 tinct and will probably never be seen in Ohio again, thanks to the skill 
 of the brainless hunter! 
 
 193. The author did not distinguish between the red-tailed hawk, 
 Buteo borealis (Gmel.) and the red-shouldered hawk Biitco lineatus 
 (Gmel.), the two commoner species of large hawk. 
 
 194. Meaning probably Falco peregrinus anatuin (Bonap.) the 
 peregrine falcon or duck hawk, a near relative of the European "falcon 
 gentil of song and story." 
 
 195. Falco colwnbarius L. 
 
 196. Mclanerpes crythrocephalus (L.) 
 
 197. Dryobates pubcsccns medianus (Swains.), the downy wood 
 pecker, and Dryobates villosus (L.), the hairy woodpecker, are almost 
 alike except in size. Doubtless they were not distinguished. The for 
 mer, the smaller one., is much the more abundant. 
 
 198. Colaptes auratus lutcus Bangs, the flicker or yellow hammer. 
 
 199. Conurus carolincnsis (L.), the Carolina paroquet, now almost 
 extinct and long since disappeared from Ohio, another victim of the 
 sportsman s gun and the milliner s art. 
 
 200. Gavia inline r (Briinn.) 
 
North American Indians. 167 
 
 201. It seems hard to determine what this refers to but it is most 
 likely the second year bald eagle. The young requires three years to 
 acquire the adult plumage. 
 
 202. Ceryle alcyon (L.), the kingfisher, which nests in a hole in 
 the bank. 
 
 203. Ardca herodias L., the great blue heron. 
 
 204. Strix varia (Barton), the barred owl and Bubo virginianus 
 (Gmel.), the great horned owl, were both abundant in early days. The 
 small owl referred to is doubtless the ubiquitous screech owl, Otus 
 asio (L.) though several other owls occur in the region. 
 
 205. Corvus braciiyrhynchos Brehm. 
 
 206. Cathartes aura septentrionalis Wied. 
 
 207. Corvus corax principalis Ridgw. Ornithologists have believed 
 that in Ohio the raven occurred only in the northern part. This record 
 for southern Ohio is as interesting as authentic. 
 
 208. Butorides virescens (L.), the green heron or fly-up-the-creek, 
 is meant. 
 
 200. The author, without doubt here refers to Plancsticus 
 migratorius L., the common American robin. A European bird, Merula 
 merula, a near relative of our robin, is black, has habits like our robin, 
 and is commonly known as the blackbird. Before the white settlers 
 came the robin doubtless lived in open places in the forest, so that in 
 the author s experience it was met with only in breaks in the forest, 
 usually remote from the Indian villages. With the opening up of clear 
 ings the robin made acquaintance with the white man and came to live 
 in open groves and orchards. This the robin did in common with many 
 of our other native birds which formerly lived only in the open places 
 in the forest. With the coming of the white settlers these birds found 
 congenial homes in the clearings and orchards where they were also less 
 subject to the attacks of predaceous birds and mammals. 
 
 210. Sialia sialis (L.) 
 
 211. Mimus polyglottos (L.) Very rare in the locality now. 
 
 212. Astragulinus tristis (L.), the American goldfinch or yellow 
 bird. 
 
 213. Icterus galbula (L.), the Baltimore oriole. 
 
 214. Piranga rubra (L.), the summer tanager or summer red-bird. 
 
 215. Piranga erythromelas Vieill., the scarlet tanager. 
 
 216. The European starling is a member of the black-bird family 
 (Icteridae) hence this reference is to our black-birds, of which the 
 common species are Quiscalus quiscula aeneus (Ridgw.) the bronzed 
 grackle or crow black-bird, Molothrus atcr (Bodd.), the cow-bird, and 
 Agelains phoeniceus (L.), the red-winged black-bird. 
 
 217. Dumetella carolinensis (L.) 
 
 218. The many dull-colored sparrows (Fringillidae), most of the 
 thrushes (Turdidae), probably some of the warblers, (Mniotiltidae), 
 
168 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 and doubtless other of the smaller birds are ail here referred to as 
 finches. 
 
 219. Bacolopluis bicolor (L.), the tufted titmouse, and probably 
 also Panis atricapiUus (L.), the chickadee. 
 
 220. Though other species occur, Thryothonts ludovicianus (Lath.). 
 the Carolina wren is the most abundant and most conspicuous species 
 in this region. 
 
 221. Archilochus colubris (L.), the ruby-throated humming-bird. 
 
 222. Cro talus horridns. L. 
 
 223. Ancistrodon contort rix (L.) 
 
 224. Hctcrodon platyrhinus Latr. (probably var. niycr) the spread 
 ing viper or hissing adder, an entirely harmless snake generally thought 
 poisonous. 
 
 225. Apparently refers to Natrix fasciata erythrogaster Shaw, the 
 red-bellied water-snake. The aquatic habits would seem to indicate this 
 species. It is a harmless snake though generally thought poisonous. 
 
 226. Copperheads, Ancistrodon contortrix (I..), with the tail, as 
 described, somewhat horny in appearance. 
 
 227. Zatnenis constrictor (L.,) black snake or blue racer. 
 
 228. Natrix fasciata sipcdon (L.) 
 
 229. Entaeuia sirtalis (L.), the garter snake. 
 
 230. Liopcltis vcrnalis (Dekay), the green or grass snake. 
 
 231. Stizostedion vitremn (Mitchill), the pike perch or jack sal 
 mon. The former large size of this fish is attested by the following: 
 "The pike is the king of fish in the western rivers. Judge Gilbert Devoll 
 took a pike in the Muskingum which weighed nearly one hundred 
 pounds, on the 2nd day of July, 1788. He was a tall man but when 
 the fish was suspended on the pole of the spear from his shoulder, 
 its tail dragged on the ground, so that is was about six feet in length. 
 This enormous fish was served up on the 4th of July at a public dinner." 
 S. P. Hildreth, Pioneer History, 498. 
 
 232. Refers to one or more than one species of sucker. Probably 
 Moxostoina anrolcuin (Le Seur), the common red-horse, was most taken, 
 though Catostoinns commersonii (Lacepede), the white sucker, Cvclcptus 
 clon gains (Le Seur), the black-horse, and other species are not un 
 common. 
 
 233. Ictiobus cyprinella (Cuvier & Valenciennes), the large 
 mouthed buffalo, Ictiobus bnbahis (Rafinesque), the small-mouthed buf 
 falo, and Ictiobus urns (Agassiz), the black buffalo, are species re 
 sembling each other closely. All occur in the region. 
 
 234. The calcareous earstones or otoliths. 
 
 235. Several species of catfish occur in the Muskingum. Among 
 the valuable food species are Ictalurus pnnctatns (Rafinesque), the blue 
 cat, Amchirus hicitstris (Walbaum), the Mississippi cat, Ameiurus 
 Hebiilosus (Lc Sueur), the bull head, and Lcptops olivaris (Rafinesque), 
 the mud cat. The Ohio catfish sometimes weigh sixty or seventy pounds. 
 
North American Indians. 169 
 
 236. Acipenser rubicundus Le Sueur. 
 
 237. Lepisosteus osscus (L.), the gar pike. 
 
 238. Poly don spat hula (Walbaum), the spoon-bill cat. 
 
 239. Aplodinotus grunniens Refmesque, the white perch, called also 
 fresh water drum in allusion to its producing a grunting or drumming 
 noise. 
 
 240. Perca flavesccns (Mitchill). 
 
 241. Anguilla chrysypa Rafinesque. Possibly the author was more 
 familiar with the so-called lamprey eel, Ichthyomyzon concolor (Kirt- 
 land) (cf. note 03), in the region of the Muskingum. 
 
 242. This is a very peculiar reference to the water dogs, Nectnrus 
 maculatus Rafinesque, the water dog with external gills, and 
 Cryptobranchus alleganiensis (Daudin), the hell-bender or water dog 
 without external gills. 
 
 243. Trionyx spinijer (Le Sueur), the common soft shelled turtle. 
 
 244. Cistudo Carolina (L.), the common box or wood tortoise. 
 
 245. There are many species of mussels belonging to the genera, 
 Unto, Anodonta, Lampsilis, etc., occurring in the region and the shells 
 of several of these have a colored nacrous layer. 
 
 246. Other Unio species (?). 
 
 247. The snails, most likely referring to the larger species of 
 Helix and related forms, were innocent of any connection with the 
 gad flies. 
 
 248. In places where cattle destroy the weeds and other dense 
 vegetation, conditions arc not agreeable either to the snails or the gad 
 iiies, hence both are less abundant. These gad flies (family Tabanidae), 
 Tabanus, Chrysops, etc., more commonly known as the horse fly, deposit 
 their eggs on aquatic plants near the surface of the water and the larvae 
 live in the mud and water feeding upon various soft bodied aquatic 
 animals, snails among the rest, but of course not upon the land snails 
 which the author apparently had in mind. 
 
 249. The frog with the call described is one of the tree frogs, 
 Hyla pickeringii Storer, which lives near the water in spring and early 
 summer. The Hylas go to the water very early in spring to deposit 
 their eggs. The most common Hyla is Hyla versicolor Le Conte. The 
 frogs the Mingoes caught were doubtless not the little hylas but more 
 likely the leopard frog, Rana z irescens Kalm, and the green frog, Rana 
 clamata Daudin. 
 
 250. Rana clamata Daudin. 
 
 251. Rana catcsbiana Shaw. 
 
 252. It would be interesting to know if the pestiferous house 
 mouse, Mus mitsculus L., had even then reached this locality. The 
 reference is most likely to the white footed mouse, Peromyscus lencopus 
 (Rafinesque.) 
 
170 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 2-53. The reader will not fail to note that Zcisberger, writing at 
 the beginning of the last quarter of the eighteenth century continually 
 pictures the Indian as he once was ; his tenses are largely past tenses 
 and he shows the contemporary Indian as a degenerate. It will be re 
 membered that Pontiac s appeal to the red race in 1763 was for re 
 generation, for the abandonment of the practices learned of the white 
 man and readoption of the lost arts of forest life which were rapidly 
 being forgotten. Lack of respect for old age was one of the im 
 portant signs of racial degeneration. Does this apply to the red race 
 only? Heckewelder s chapter on "Respect for the Aged," pictures the 
 red man in the primitive state but his tenses are present tenses, though 
 writing at the beginning of the nineteenth century. History, 1-52-158. 
 
 254. Heckcwelder states that when parents negotiate a marriage 
 the bridegroom s mother acts as negotiatrix. The latter "begins her 
 duties by taking a good leg of venison, or bear s meat . . to the house 
 where the bride dwells, not forgetting to mention, that her son has 
 killed it/ The bride s mother soon brings in return some fruit or handi 
 work produced by her daughter. If both the children expressed them 
 selves favorably towards the respective gifts, the matter \vas quickly 
 arranged; if not, the affair was at an end. 
 
 255. A Yellow ochre, found near the Muskingum, when burnt, 
 made a rich red paint, which Indians came many miles to obtain. 
 Vermillion River in Ohio derived its name from the clay there ob 
 tained for painting; the same was true of Paint Creek. 
 
 256. Figures of animals being most commonly used, especially 
 the turtle, deer, bear and wolf. 
 
 257. Heckcwelder records : "The women make use of vermillion 
 in painting themselves for dances, but they are very careful and cir 
 cumspect in applying the paint, so that it does not offend or create sus 
 picion in their husbands; there is a mode of painting which is left 
 entirely to loose women and prostitutes." History, 196. 
 
 258. The Revolutionary war. 
 
 250. The Delaware leader often called King Newcomer, from his 
 capital Xewcomerstown or Gekelemukpechunk, Ohio, who refused to 
 attend Bouquet s treaty in 1764 at Coshocton. A generous friend of 
 the Moravians. See De Schweinitz, Life and Times of Zeisberger, 
 366, seq. 
 
 260. The writer speaks from notable experience, the archives of 
 the Six Nations, than which no Indian archives were of equal moment, 
 were deposited in Zeisberger s house at Onondaga during his residence 
 at that mission. See Bethlehem Diary, Aug. 2, 1755. 
 
 261. 4 s. 4 d. 
 
 262. The primitive wampum was made of pieces of wood variously 
 stained with different colors. 
 
 263. Containing four, eight or twelve fathoms of wampum. 
 
 264. A most interesting fact perhaps noted by no other authority. 
 
North American Indians. 171 
 
 265. Little Turtle, the famous Miami Chief, was such by choice 
 and not by birth ; for, though his father was a Miami chief, his 
 mother was of common stock. 
 
 266. A terrible scene of drunkenness in the capital of the Dela- 
 wares on the Muskingum is described by Dr. McClure, Diary 73-76. 
 
 267. The famous Delaware leader who assisted Netawatwees and 
 befriended and favored the Colonies in the Revolution ; Loskiel de 
 scribes him as the man who kept the chiefs and council in awe" 
 History III, 101. 
 
 268. It happens to be a matter of record that both Netawatwees 
 and White Eyes transgressed each their authority during the Revolu 
 tion, the former taking the initiative for war (De Schweinitz, Life of 
 Zeisberger, 415) and White Eyes overstepping the bounds on the oc 
 casion of his visit to the American Congress (Id. 438.) 
 
 269. The battle at Point Pleasant in Dunmore s War between 
 General Lewis and Cornstalk s Shawanese was the notable example of 
 Indian preservation of the bodies of their dead from capture. During 
 the night after the engagement all the killed and wounded were re 
 moved across the Ohio River unknown to the white army. 
 
 270. A gourd or pumpkin. 
 
 271. The Revolution. 
 
 272. Treaty of Fort Stanwix? 
 Catawbas. 
 
 Mohicans, a New England tribe. 
 
 275. Twightwees, called "Flatheads" in Pennsylvania, the Miamis. 
 
 276. Wawiachtenos, located in Indiana. 
 
 277. Kickapoos, settled west of Lake Michigan. 
 
 278. Tukashas ? a western tribe. 
 
 279. Potawatomies of Indiana. 
 
 280. Kaskuskias, located on the river of the same name. 
 
 281. Wabash. 
 
 282. Creeks. 
 
 283. Zeisberger here follows Delaware traditions. The Shawanees 
 were permitted to settle in Pennsylvania by the Six Nations. According 
 to the legend given by Heckewelder, (History, 70-71) there was bitter 
 warfare between the Shawanese and the Delawares. 
 
 284. Wyoming. 
 
 285. Neville s Island, below Pittsburg? 
 
 286. Kittaning, Armstrong County, Pennsylvania, at the end of 
 the Kittaning Trail or "Ohio Path," as called on Scull s map. 
 
 287. Economy, Pa. 
 
 288. Reference here is to Dunmore s War, 1774, and the depot of 
 Cornstalk at Point Pleasant, West Virginia. 
 
 289. Chippewas. 
 
 290. Wyoming, Pennsylvania. 
 
172 David Zeisbercjer s History 
 
 201. Big Bone Lick, Kentucky. 
 
 291 \ r. This information is of great value. It makes sure the fact 
 that the Hurons were identical with the Talamatans mentioned by Cyrus 
 Thomas, "Indian Trihcs in Prehistoric Times," Mag. Amer. History, XX, 
 a. (Sept. 1888.) 
 
 292. White Eyes declared the Delawarcs independent at Pitts- 
 bur:? in 1775, but the Iroquois refused to admit this until the treaty 
 of Greenville in 1705. Cf. Heckenwelder, History, 52-53; also De 
 Schweinitz, Life of Zeisbergcr, 253. 
 
 203. Gelelemend. The weakness of this chief is fully described 
 by De Schweinitz, Life of Zeisbergcr, 473, seq. The Europeans men 
 tioned may have included General Morgan. Matthew Elliott, Simon 
 Girty, etc. 
 
 204. The Delawares arc said to have been so called because they 
 were found on the river named from Lord De La Ware. 
 
 205. Sioux. 
 
 206. Soup. 
 
 207. Calico. 
 
 208. Such a compact seems to have existed between White Eyes 
 and the noted warrior Glikkikan. De Schweinitz, Life of Zcisberger, 404. 
 
 200. An extremely interesting explanation of the origin of the 
 name "Big Knives", the story here has truer ring, to our minds, than 
 that which states that the tale came from Colonel Gibson and his 
 sword. Cf. C. H. Mitchner, Historic Events in the Muskingum and 
 Tuscarazvas Valleys, 143. 
 
 300. Nantocoke, corrupted from Nechticok. The tribe, descendants 
 of the Delawares, lived on the Maryland river of the same name. 
 
 301. Heckewelder states in his chapter on "Superstition" that 
 a white man once informed him that a noted sorcerer once confessed 
 that the source of their power was mental, the stronger mind acting 
 on the weaker. "Such is the credulity of many," the sorcerer stated, 
 "that if I only pick a little wool from my blanket and roll it between 
 my fingers into a small round ball . . it is immediately supposed that 
 I am preparing the deadly substance with which I mean to strike some 
 person or other." History, 233-4. 
 
 30H. Great Kanawha. The reference is to Dunmore s War. 
 
 301. Concerning this remark we can only say with De Schweinitz, 
 "We neither adopt these views of Zeisberger, nor pronounce them ab 
 surd. In the present aspect of demonolgy, opinions of this kind remain 
 an open question." Life of Zeisberger, 341. Zeisberger s chief experience 
 with sorcerers seems to have been in the Seneca country at the Monsey- 
 town of Goschgoschunk on the Allegheny. Here the sorcerers banded 
 together in a conspiracy to undo the missionaries work and drive them 
 off. Id. 341. 
 
 302. 1748-0. 
 
North American Indians. 173 
 
 303. Waketameki, the Indian town near Dresden. O., was called 
 "Vomit Town by Indian traders because some of its inhabitants at 
 tempted to achieve salvation by emetics. The reference here may be 
 to these poor dupes. Cf. De Schweinitz, Life of Zcisbergcr, 383. 
 
 304. Big Stillwater Creek, was G eg elemukpe chunk Sipo. The 
 town was the first Delaware Capital at its junction with the Muskingum 
 near Xcwcomerstown, Ohio ; spelled Gekelemukpechuenk by Loskiel and 
 Kekalemahpehoong by Dr. David McClure. 
 
 305. Like the famous eat-all feasts of the northern nations. 
 30(>. Monseys. 
 
 307. Mohicans. 
 
 308. Or Iroquois and Algonquin. 
 
 309. Minisink, Orange County, N. Y. 
 309. V. Probably Cassiopeia. 
 
 310. Hirundimdac. 
 
 311. Macrorhamphus griseus (Probably). 
 
 312. Larus (sp.?) 
 
 313. Aegialitis vocifera, larger variety. 
 
 314. Agelaius phoeniceus. 
 
 315. Antrostoma vociferus. 
 
 316. Zenaidura macroura. 
 
 317. Chordeiles virginianus. 
 
 318. Apina. 
 
 319. Vespina. 
 
 320. Sc mroptcms volana. 
 
 321. Crotalus honidus. Probably a young specimen. 
 
 322. Laurus (sp.?). 
 
174 
 
 Dai id Zeisberger s History 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 A. 
 
 Aboriginal Races of North America, The, 
 
 see Drake. 
 Account of the History, Manners and 
 
 Customs of the Indian Nations, An, 
 
 see Heckewelder. 
 Achewilens, a "rich man," 146. 
 Achsunnamunschi, Delaware name for 
 
 sugar maple, 48. 
 
 Admonition, Indians resent, 120. 
 Adultery, retaliated, 77. 
 Age, few Indians knew their, 145. 
 Aged, charms made by, 83-84; favored in 
 
 the chase, 91; well cared for, 123. 
 Agriculture, Christian Indians give up 
 
 hunting for, 14. cf. 44. 
 Allegheny, region described, 42; weather 
 
 in, 42. 
 
 Allegheny mountain, mentioned, 42. 
 Allegheny River, early name, 33; de 
 scribed, 42-43. 
 
 Alligewi Sipo, see Allegheny River. 
 Ambassadors, how received, 93. 
 Amenorrhoea, treatment for, 157. 
 Ancestors, prowess long remembered, 146- 
 
 147. 
 
 April, name for month of, 145. 
 Arithmetic, Indians made no progress in, 
 
 144. 
 Arrow-heads, knives made from flint, 
 
 shaped like, 28. 
 Ash tree, 47. 
 Aspen trees, 52. 
 Asthma, treatment for, 157. 
 August, name of month of, 145. 
 
 B. 
 
 Babes, carrying boards falling into disuse 
 in 1780, 85-86; common cause of in 
 jury to, 85. 
 
 Baily, Francis Journal of a Tour in un 
 settled parts of North America, cited, 
 161. 
 
 Ball, game described, 118. 
 
 Banta, Dr. A. M., mentioned, 9. 
 
 Beads, strings of, 94. 
 
 Bean, see "Earth bean". 
 
 Bear, season, 13; in swamps, 38; in Mus- 
 kingum Valley, 57; dens noted by 
 
 hunters, 57; hunted in the spring, 57; 
 love of nuts, 57; skins of little value, 
 57; "King" of, 58; fond of pigs, 58; 
 seized women and children, 58; more 
 common in Iroquois country, 58; and 
 panther fight, 60; sacrificed to dead, 
 140. 
 
 Beard, pulled out, 12. 
 
 Beaver, season, 13; described, 61; scarce 
 in 1780, 61; fur valuable, 61; caught 
 by perfumed decoy, 61; dams, de 
 scribed, 61-62; tail edible, 62; hunted 
 constantly, 62. 
 
 Beds, nature of, 17, 155; clothing, 17. 
 
 Bed-bugs, common in Indian lodges, 75. 
 
 Beach, white and red, 47. 
 
 Bees, unknown in Ohio before Moravians 
 came, 152. 
 
 Belts, custom of giving, 32; see wampum. 
 
 Bequests, of dead carefully carried out, 
 88. 
 
 Berries, Muskingum Valley, 45. 
 
 Beson, described, 25; see doctors. 
 
 Bethlehem Diary, cited, 170. 
 
 Bibliography, Zeisberger, 10-11. 
 
 Big Beaver River, Monseys lived on, 159. 
 
 Big Bone Lick, mentioned, 110. 
 
 "Big Knives", origin of expression, 122, 
 372. 
 
 Big Stillwater Creek, mentioned, 173. 
 
 Birds, of Middle West, 65 seq. 
 
 Blanc Barbus, The, mentioned, 154. 
 
 Blackbird, mentioned, 69. 
 
 B lack Snake, in fight with a hawk, 72. 
 
 Blem, Turkey tribe, 92. 
 
 Bliss, E. F., Diary of David Zeisberger, 
 mentioned, 4. 
 
 Blood-letting, common, 27; method of, 
 27. 
 
 Bloody flux, mentioned, 24. 
 
 Bluebird, mentioned, 69. 
 
 Boards, for carrying papooses, in disfavor, 
 85. 
 
 Bodies, of Indians weaker than Euro 
 peans, 149. 
 
 Boils, common, 149. 
 
 "Bottoms", chosen by Indians because of 
 rich soil, 44. 
 
 Bracelets, use of, 15. 
 
 Bracket fungus, mentioned, 30. 
 
North American Indians. 
 
 175 
 
 Breasts, Indian method of increasing se 
 cretions of, 164. 
 
 Bread, sacrificed to fish, 139. 
 
 Breathing, "doctors" cured by, 25. 
 
 Brown, Peter A., quoted, 154. 
 
 Buffalo, hides of little value, 13; de 
 scribed, 59; tamed, 59; deserted Mus- 
 kingum Valley, 58; calves remained 
 with dead dam s skin, .39; on Wabash, 
 110. 
 
 Buffalo fish, mentioned, 73. 
 
 Burial, customs, 88-90. 
 
 Burning at the stake, described, 106-107. 
 
 Butter, Indians use of, 14. 
 
 Buzzard, mentioned, 68. 
 
 c. 
 
 Cabinet work, black walnut used in, 46. 
 
 Camp, Indians late in breaking, 22; meth 
 ods of making, 22; time of pitching, 
 22; sites, easily identified, 114. 
 
 Canada, Moose migrate from, 38. 
 
 Cannibalism, known only among Iroquois, 
 107, 159. 
 
 Canoes, use of, 23; methods of making, 
 2:1; described, 39; burieH. in winter, 
 157. 
 
 Captains, attend council, 98; can declare 
 war but not peace, 98, 100; choose 
 and remove chiefs, 98; represent the 
 people, 93; hold up hands of Chiefs, 
 100; deference paid to, 101; methods of 
 choosing%.and training, 101-102; must 
 prove rig ht to office, 101-102; live in 
 accord with Chiefs, 102; duties in war, 
 103-105; send other captains tobacco, 
 108; preserve life in battle by med 
 icine, 127. 
 
 Cards, Indians played, 118. 
 
 Carrying girths, use and manufacture of, 
 16, 24. 
 
 Case, Dr. J. T., on modern treatment for 
 snake bite, 158. 
 
 Cassiopeia, see Stars. 
 
 Cat-bird, mentioned, 69. 
 
 Cat-fish- mentioned, 73; drowned a fisher 
 man, 73. 
 
 Cattle, Indians rarely kept, 14; belong 
 to women, 16; easily cared for in Ohio 
 in winter, 45; prevented grazing in 
 daytime by gadflies, 75. 
 
 Cayuga Lake, mentioned, 39. 
 
 Cedar, swamps in New York, 37; red, 
 51. 
 
 Charms, for bringing presents, 83; to 
 hold lovers true, see Love Charm. 
 
 Chase, charm for hunters in the, 83. 
 
 ChaMwalanne, Indian name for species 
 of Eagle, 67; approach foretells bad 
 weather, 67. 
 
 Cheating, common, 19. 
 
 Cherokee River, see Tennessee. 
 
 Chestnuts, mentioned, 46-47. 
 
 Chiefs, attempt to stop liquor traffic, 90; 
 of Tortoise tribe first take rank, 92; 
 not absolute rulers, 92; must make 
 themselves loved and honored, 92-93; 
 expected to entertain, 93; must sup 
 ply his own wants, 93; perform com 
 mon services, 03; must keep the tribe 
 in good repute abroad, 93; hold the 
 council bag and keep the archives, 
 93-94; leadership in the council, 94- 
 97; supported by wealthy members of 
 the tribe, 95; speak in council through 
 a spokesman, 95; use of figurative 
 language, 97; principal duty to main 
 tain peace, 98-99; have no right to 
 begin war, 98; must accede to cap 
 tains if latter declare for war, 98; 
 how chosen and deposed, 98; must 
 be member of tribe over which he 
 rules, 08; cannot be succeeded by sons, 
 98; have oversight of embassies, 99; 
 must keep his tribe together, 99; must 
 keep his town in order without use 
 of force, 99; usually obeyed read 
 ily, 99-100; combat liquor, 100; pos 
 sessions distributed to all the tribe. 
 100; chosen by common consent, 100; 
 control the captains, 100; chosen by 
 one tribe for another, 112; ceremony 
 of election, 112; ignored if not prop 
 erly elected, 113; may be admonished 
 by chiefs or people, 113; practices on 
 a journey, 119; method of disclosing 
 a secret, 120; determine prosperity 
 of the tribe, 123; in mourning, 150; 
 death of, 150. 
 
 Children, not made to work, 16; seldom 
 punished, 16, 81; sleep apart, 17; 
 clothing, 17; marital bond loose if 
 there are no, 20, 79, 85; lack respect 
 for age, 76; customs in naming, 80; 
 called by name, 80; allowed to do as 
 they please, 81; women sometimes 
 punish, 81; orphan treated kindly, 
 81; loved, 85; property of mother, 
 
176 
 
 Dai id Zcisbcrcjcr s History 
 
 98-99; may stay with father in case 
 of separation, 99; Indians fond of 
 white, 141. 
 
 Chills and fever, mentioned, 24. 
 
 China Clay, see Kaolin. 
 
 Christian Indians, give up hunting and 
 take up agriculture, 14. 
 
 Chwoame Gischuch, "Shad month", (see 
 March). 
 
 Cinnabar, used to dye shirts, 87. 
 
 Claws, deer, used for rattles, 105. 
 
 Clay, four kinds, 55. 
 
 Cleanliness, little practiced, 16, 8C; more 
 common among Delawares than Iro- 
 quois, 17. 
 
 Coffins, made by later Indians, 89. 
 
 Golden, Cadwallader, History of the Five 
 Indian Nations, cited, 159. 
 
 Consciences, missionaries, only, knew the 
 Indians, 20. 
 
 Consumption, treatment for, 157; not ben 
 efited by sweating-ovens, 159. 
 
 Conversation, peculiarities of, 116. 
 
 Copperheads, described, 71. 
 
 Coral, used in dress, 86. 
 
 Corn, in Iroquois country, 40; the "wife" 
 of the Indian, 139; bear s flesh sac 
 rificed to, 139; sacrificed to deer and 
 bear, 139. 
 
 Corn-meal, food and drink for journey 
 ing made of, 22. 
 
 Corpse, how prepared for burial, 89; dis 
 entombed by Nantikokes after three 
 months, 90. 
 
 Council bag, kept by Chiefs, 03; suc 
 cession of, 100. 
 
 Council house, purpose, 93. 
 
 Councils, ceremony observed, 93, 96; 
 young men admitted to learn use of 
 formal language, 96; smoking at, 96; 
 women never admitted, 96; provisions 
 for, 96; discussions at, 97; speeches 
 sent in name of three tribes, 111. 
 
 Counsellors, duties, 93, 99; not always con 
 sulted, 123. 
 
 Counting, methods of, 144. 
 
 Courting, methods of, 78. 
 
 Cowardice, common to redmen, 19. 
 
 Crab-apples, mentioned, 46, 161. 
 
 Crane, described, 65; will attack its 
 enemy, 65; unpalatable to Indian, 65; 
 trumpeting, 65. 
 
 Creation, Indian idea of, 128. 
 
 Credit, Indians glad to buy on, 117. 
 
 Crows, did much damage, 68. 
 
 Cursing, unknown among Indians, 85; 
 
 see Obscenity. 
 Cuyahoga River, mentioned, 43, 162. 
 
 1). 
 
 Dances, daily indulged in, 18; customs, 
 18, 118; houses, 18; music, 18; treaty, 
 121; war, 121; Iroquois dance War 
 Dance in time of peace, 121; at feasts, 
 137. 
 
 Dead, bequests carefully carried out, 88; 
 sacrificed to, 140; meat (hog or bear) 
 offering to, 140; drink (rum) offer 
 ing to, 140. 
 
 Death, distribution of belongings after, 
 87-88; feared by Indians, 148. 
 
 Debts, customs concerning, 92; Indians 
 slow to pay, 117; cancelled at out 
 break of war, 117. 
 
 Deceit, Indians master of, 19. 
 
 Declaration of War, how made, 114. 
 
 December, name for month, 146. 
 
 Deer, most sought for game, 13; killed 
 for hides only, 14; each Indian kills 
 150 every fall, 14; hoe made of 
 shoulder-blade of, 28; described, 57; 
 colors of coat, 13, 57; facts con 
 cerning young, 57; value of pelts, 
 57; White, called by Indians "King", 
 64; Indian boy celebrates killing his 
 first, 75; corn sacrificed to, 139. 
 
 Deer claws, used as rattles, 105. 
 
 Degeneration, of Indians, mentioned, 130, 
 131, 135. 
 
 Delaware River, Shawanese lived at forks 
 of, If, 9. 
 
 De Schweinitz, Edmund, Life and Times 
 of David Zeisbcrger, cited, 156, 159, 
 160, 170, 172. 
 
 Desertion, not uncommon, 82; barrenness 
 causes, 85. 
 
 Devil, Indian idea of, 130; found only 
 among white people, 130. 
 
 Diarrhoea, common, 149; remedies for, 
 150, 157. 
 
 Diary of David Zcisberger, mentioned, 
 4. 
 
 Dice, the Indian "National" game, 118; 
 long game between two Iroquois 
 towns, 119. 
 
 Diet, Indian, 116. 
 
 Diseases, of Indians, 24 seq. 
 
 Dishes, seldom washed, 16, 86. 
 
 Dislocations, well reduced by Indians, 
 149. 
 
North American Indians. 
 
 177 
 
 Divorce, fate of children in case of, 98- 
 99. 
 
 Doctors, charlatanism of, 25 seq; prac 
 tices of, 25, 148; prices charged by, 
 25; remedies secret, 150; labor cases 
 attended by both male and females, 
 158. 
 
 Dogs, make houses filthy, 17; wolfish 
 nature of Indian, 31. 
 
 Dog-wood, mentioned, 51. 
 
 Drake, Samuel Gardner, The Aboriginal 
 Races of North America, cited, 154. 
 
 Dreams, determine profession to be fol 
 lowed, 101; influence of, 120; pre 
 tended, 120; effects on boys, 127-128. 
 
 Dress, Indian s, 15; female, 86. 
 
 Dropsy, treatment for, 157. 
 
 Drums, how made, 18. 
 
 Ducks, wild, 65; migrate, 65. 
 
 Dug-outs, method of making, 30. 
 
 Duties, of men, 13, 82; of women, 13, 82, 
 87. 
 
 Dysentery, mentioned, 24, 157. 
 
 Eagle, described, 67; nests, 67; brave 
 fighter, 67; killed by fish, 67; 
 "Forked", 67. 
 
 Ear, cutting helix, 12. 
 
 Earth, Indian notions concerning the, 
 147, 148. 
 
 "Earth-bean", 47. 
 
 Eat-all feasts, mentioned, 138, 173. 
 
 Eels, of Pennsylvania. 38; of New York, 
 38; rare in the Muskingum River, 
 74. 
 
 Election, of Chief, ceremony, 112, 113. 
 
 "Elephants", supposed to have existed in 
 America, 110. 
 
 Elk, hides of little value, 13; gave name 
 to Muskingum River, 44; found along 
 Muskingum as late as 1780, 44; com 
 pared to European stag, 58; men 
 tioned, 164. 
 
 Elm-wood, paste made of, 23. 
 
 Elm-tree, mentioned, 51. 
 
 Embassy, Cherokee to Delawares, 150, 
 151. 
 
 Embassies, how chosen and sent, 96. 
 Emetic, administered to bring luck, 84; 
 
 whimsical Indian concoction for, 158. 
 
 cf. "Vomit Town". 
 Epilepsy, not common, 149; bloodletting 
 
 for, 149. 
 
 12* 
 
 Europeans, Indian estimate of the, 121; 
 disguise secret enmity toward, 122; 
 devil originated among, 130. 
 
 F. 
 
 Famine, threatened primeval Indians, 28, 
 
 159. 
 
 Fauna, of Muskingum Valley, 57, seq. 
 Feasts, 137; see Worship. 
 February, name of month of, 146. 
 Felon, cured by blue violet decoction, 
 
 158. 
 
 Female diseases, treatment of, 56. 
 Fevers, Indian treatment of, 55, 157; able 
 
 to predict result of, 55. 
 Fields, abandoned by Indians, 44. 
 Figurative language, cleverly used, 97. 
 Finches, mentioned, 69. 
 Finery, Indian women loved, 86; men 
 
 disregard, 86. 
 Fir-trees, mentioned, 51. 
 Fire, worshipped, 138; "grandfather" of 
 
 Indians, 138. 
 
 Firewood, early method of making, 29. 
 Fish, Indians cook well, 14; Iroquois 
 
 lived on, 38; killed an eagle, 67; of 
 
 Muskingum River, 73; bread sacrificed 
 
 to, 139. 
 
 Flint, used to make knives, 28. 
 Flood", legend of "The, 131-132. 
 Food, always well cooked, 14. 
 Fool s Gold (Iron pyrites), 164. 
 Fort Frontenac, mentioned, 41, 161. 
 Fort Ligonier, mentioned, 43. 
 Fox, season for hunting, 13; three kinds, 
 
 60. 
 French Creek, Venango early name of, 
 
 42; Onenge Indian name of, 42, 162. 
 Friedenshiitten, mentioned, 36. 
 Friends, do not desire possession of de 
 ceased friends, 88. 
 Friendships, Indian boys form peculiar, 
 
 119. 
 
 Frogs, mentioned, 75. 
 Fuel, determined location of towns, 87; 
 
 gathered by women, 87. 
 
 Funeral observances, 89, 90; of Nanti- 
 
 kokes, 90. 
 Future life, Indian idea of, 129. 
 
 G. 
 
 Gadflies, prevent cattle grazing in the 
 daytime, 75. 
 
178 
 
 David Zcisberger s History 
 
 Game, killed by Indian belonged to wife, 
 16; larger in North than in South, 
 14. 
 Games, description of Indian, 118-119; 
 
 certain taken from Europeans, US. 
 Gar-pike, mentioned, 73, 74. 
 Geese, wild, 65; migrate, 65. 
 Gekelmukpechunk [Gekelemukpechuenk] 
 
 mentioned, 136, 170. 
 Gelelemend, mentioned, 172. 
 Genealogies, Indians well versed in, 146. 
 Geological Survey of Ohio, cited, 106. 
 Gifts, made trouble, 124. 
 Girths, see Carrying girths, hemp. 
 Glikkikan, mentioned, 172. 
 God, ideas of, 128-129; mentioned by im 
 postors, 133-135; reverenced in feats, 
 138; dwells beyond sun rising, 138; 
 worshipped in sweating-ovens, 138. 
 Gold, whatever glitters Indians called, 
 
 54. 
 
 Good Health, cited, 158. 
 Gonorrhoea, treatment for, 158. 
 Gvschgosching, mentioned, 22, date of 
 
 beginning mission at, 33. 
 Goschgoschuenk, Delaware (Monsey) 
 
 town on Allegheny River, 156. 
 Gossip, Indian women, 116, 124. 
 Government, of each Indian nation, in 
 dependent, 92; of Indian nations, de 
 scribed, 92 seq. 
 Gravel, treatment of, 157. 
 Grain, bottom land too rich to grow win 
 ter, 44; high ground chosen for, 44. 
 Graves, how made, 88-89; face the west, 
 89; visited by friends, 89-90; of chil 
 dren visited by mothers, 140. 
 Great Lakes, extent, 43; traders on, 43. 
 Greeting, Indian method, 115; never 
 
 hypocritical, 115. 
 
 Ground-hog, described, 64; eaten by In 
 dians, 64; chews its cud, 64. 
 Grouse, method of escaping pursuers, 
 
 66. 
 
 Guests, well treated, 120. 
 Gull, mentioned, 152. 
 
 Guns, rifle-barrelled, used by Delawares 
 and Shawanese, 85. 
 
 H. 
 
 Hackihewi Gischuch, "planting month", 
 
 see April. 
 Hair, nature of Indian s, 12; turns white, 
 
 12; styles of, 12; treatment of 
 
 women s, 12; reason for its straight- 
 ness, 154. 
 
 Hare, described, 64; white, 64; worshipped, 
 140; strange legend concerning, 140. 
 Haste, journeying Indians seldom in, 22. 
 Hats, some Indians wore, 15. 
 Hatchets, manufacture, 28; purpose of, 
 
 28. 
 Hawk, mentioned, (57; in fight with a 
 
 l.lacksnake, 72. 
 
 Hawthorne, bush, mentioned, 47. 
 Headache, rum sacrificed to, 140; treat 
 ment for, 148. 
 
 Headstones, erected, 89; red, for Cap 
 tains, 89; physicians, adorned with 
 tortoise shell, 89; warriors, bear rec 
 ord of exploits, 89. 
 
 Heckewelder, John. An Account of the 
 History, Manners and Customs of the 
 Indian Nations, quoted on temper of 
 Indian women, 155; on marital fidelity, 
 155; on Indian pride, 156; on Indian 
 courage, 156; on alleged hardships of 
 Indian women, 155; on Indian division 
 of ownership, 155; cited, 157, 158, 
 159, 170, 172. 
 
 Hell, unknown to Indians, 130; see 
 Machtandonu inck; Cf. 134-135. 
 
 Hemorrhage, mentioned, 24, 158. 
 
 Hemp, used to make carrying girths, 16. 
 25; mentioned, 155. 
 
 Heron, mentioned, 68. 
 
 Hickory trees, mentioned, 47. 
 
 Hides, skinned by flint knives, 28. 
 
 History of the Fire Indian Nations, see 
 Golden. 
 
 History - - - of the Indian Tribes, 
 The, see Schoolcraft. 
 
 History of the Mission of the United 
 Brethren, see Loskiel. 
 
 Hoe, deer shoulder-blade used for, 28. 
 
 Hog, meat offering to the dead, 140. 
 
 Home life, described, 81, 82; division of 
 labor, 82. 
 
 Honey-locust, mentioned, 47. 
 
 Hoop-ash, barrel hoops made from, 47. 
 
 Hoopoe, mentioned, 68. 
 
 Horn-fish, mentioned, 37. 
 
 Horn-snake, see Copperhead. 
 
 Horses, belong to men, 16; used little 
 by Indians except for riding, 87; 
 Indians too lazy to break, 87. 
 
 Hospitality, Indian, 120, 121. 
 
 Housekeeping, customs, 16. 
 
North American Indians. 
 
 179 
 
 Houses, character of, 17; description of | 
 Iroquois, 17; Indians learn to build 
 regular, 18; interior, described, 86; 
 rarely locked, 123. 
 
 Hulbert, A. B., Washington s Tc-nr to the 
 Ohio, cited, 159. 
 
 Humming bird, mentioned, 69. 
 
 Hunting, appropriate seasons for, 13; 
 Christian Indians give up, It; feasts, 
 to bring luck in, 84; parties, rules 
 governing, 91; favor to old men, 91; 
 grounds, Kickapoos gave Delawares 
 and Wyandots, on Wabash, 142. 
 
 Hypocrites, Indians poor, 115. 
 
 I. 
 
 Idol, Indians had one, 141. 
 
 Indians (in genera!) Stature. 12; color, 
 12; hair, 12; ornaments. 12; several 
 duties of men and women, 13, 82; 
 raised vegetables by, 13; hunting, 13; 
 sugar boiling, 13, 48; change customs 
 upon conversion, 14; have few cattle, 
 14; fond of milk and butter, 14; eat 
 only well-cooked food, 14; kill game 
 for skins only, 14; rarely shoot wolves, 
 14; modes and materials of dress, 15; 
 state dress, 15; shoes, 15; hats, 15; 
 women s dress. 15; women s orna 
 ments, 15; jewelry, 15; gave women 
 results of chase, 16; women supply 
 the men, 16; division of ownership 
 of cattle and horses, 16; lax control 
 of children, 16; girls labor, 16; use 
 of wild hemp, 16, 25, 155; unclean- 
 liness of utensils, 16; dogs unclean, 
 17; beds and tables, 17; mats, 17; 
 blankets, 17; boys and girls sleep 
 apart, 17; women s attire, 17; chil 
 dren s clothing, 17; huts and houses, 
 17; Iroquois and Delaware huts com 
 pared, 17; learn to build houses of 
 whites, 18; laziness, 18; labor of old 
 men and boys, 18; games, (dice and 
 ball), 18; dance every night, 18; 
 noisy dancing, 18; musical drums, 18; 
 pride, 18; belief in dreams, 19; in 
 Satan s power, 19; masters of deceit, 
 19; credulous, 19; cheating and steal 
 ing, 19; thieves go unpunished, 19; 
 hide anger, 19; remember revenge, 19; 
 peace-makers, 19; quarrels settled by 
 payment of wampum, 19; cowards, 19; 
 treacherous, 19; known only by long 
 acquaintance, 20; grossly immoral, 20; 
 
 immorality proven by lack of chil 
 dren, 20; only aged moral, 21; love of 
 children, 21; have concubines, 21; 
 families sometimes large, 21; capacity 
 for work, 21; clever mentally, 21; ex 
 cel in iron work, etc., 21; superiority 
 in the forest, 21; never lost, 21; never 
 balked on a journey, 22; always find 
 food, 22; never in haste on journey, 
 22, 120; break camp late in the day, 
 22. 120; cat heartily before journey 
 ing, 22, 120; camp at sun down, 22, 
 120; use of snow shoes, 22; food 
 taken on journeys, 22, 120; canoes 
 quickly made, 23; elm paste for re 
 pairing canoes, 23; diseases due to 
 exposures, 23; sr.ffjr from rheumatism, 
 sores, chills, fevers, dysentery, vene 
 real diseases, 24, 55; modes of car 
 rying burdens, 24; poor nurses, 24; 
 treatment of sick, 21; knowledge of 
 herbs, 24; doctors, 25; superstitions, 
 25; treat external injuries, with suc 
 cess, 25; cure snake bite, 25; be 
 come doctors when they grow old, 
 25; pay doctors large fees, 25; feign 
 to cure with breath, 25; use sweat 
 ing-ovens frequently, 26; doctor s 
 practices, 26; methods of blood-letting 
 and cupping, 27; recollections of early 
 history, 27; legend of coming of 
 whites, 27; primitive implements, 28; 
 tobaccos, 28; knives, 28; hatchets, 28; 
 kettles and pots, 29; stories of primi 
 tive hunting customs, 29; primitive 
 blankets, 29; ancient use of bow, 
 29; primitive fire-making and carry 
 ing, 29; underground dwellings, 30; 
 early dogs, 31; early wampum, 31; 
 legend of Iroquois conquest of Dela 
 wares, 32; acquaintance with and 
 use of petroleum oil, 52; make lit 
 tle use of salt springs, 53; ceremony 
 when boy kills his first deer, 75; 
 ancient respect for old age, 76; lack 
 of respect for age sign of decay, 76; 
 retaliation for adultery, 77; men 
 struation customs in different tribes, 
 77; formal courtship and marriage 
 customs, 78; presents to and from 
 newly-married couples, 78; ancient 
 customs disappearing, 78; husbands 
 and wives sometimes faithful through 
 life, 79; parents cannot arrange a 
 marriage against will of the children, 
 79; decay and immorality accounted 
 
180 
 
 David Zcisbergcr s History 
 
 for, 79; women strong physically, 80; 
 child-birth and nursing, 80; choice of 
 names, 80; custom of praying over a 
 child, 80; children, only, called by 
 name, 80; children never coerced 
 or reprimanded, 81; children often 
 well-bred, 81; children sometimes 
 angered by women, 81; women often 
 ill-tempered, 81; methods of punish 
 ing children, 81; fear of revenge 
 saves children from corporal pun 
 ishment, 81; stricter than whites 
 about marriage of blood-relations, 81; 
 average family, 81; twins rare, 81; 
 infants food, 81; orphans, 81; women 
 manage the home, 81; family distri 
 bution of labor, 82; husbands desert 
 wives after misunderstandings, 82; 
 marriage customs, 82; commit sui 
 cide over disappointments in love, 83; 
 use of love charms, 83; use charms 
 to get presents, 83; same for the chase, 
 83; ascribe ill-fortune in hunting to 
 presence of missionaries, 84; believe 
 dreams affect hunting, 84; skillful in 
 use and repair of guns, 85; take pride 
 in good work, 85; never curse, 85; 
 use obscene expressions when en 
 raged, 85; mothers love children, 85; 
 carrying children on a board causes 
 sickness and death, 85; custom ob 
 solete, 85; men and women seldom 
 sterile, 85; consider barrenness good 
 cause for desertion, 8-3; houses fairly 
 clean, 86; dogs scatter fleas, 86; uten 
 sils rarely clean, 86; use of spoons, 
 bowls, etc., 86; women love finery, 86; 
 men dress meanly, 86; women s dress, 
 86; clothing seldom washed, 87; paint 
 faces and bodies, 87; women dress 
 shabbily when old, 87; method of 
 locating towns, 87; move towns be 
 cause of lack of fuel, 87; use horses 
 seldom except to ride, 87; know noth 
 ing of inheritances, 87; widows re 
 ceive none of husband s goods, 87; 
 dislike to be reminded of departed 
 friends by possessing their goods, 88; 
 widows and widowers do not marry 
 for one year, 88; treatment of wid 
 ows, 88; customs concerning funerals 
 and burial-places, 88; graves dug by 
 old women, 89; customs concerning 
 grave-markers, 89; men ashamed to 
 weep at funerals, 89; political rela 
 tions, 90; free agents, 90; live where 
 
 they please, 90; frequently live apart 
 from towns, 90; much engaged in 
 liquor traffic, 90; women sell rum, 
 90; inability to control liquor trade, 
 90; treatment of murderers, 90; fre 
 quently murder when intoxicated, 91; 
 pay relatives of victims, 91 ; easily 
 escape punishment for murder of rela 
 tives, 91 ; thieves escape punishment 
 on payment being made, 91; gov 
 erned in hunting by recognized rules, 
 91; treat old men graciously when 
 hunting, 91; debtors must pay or 
 friends must pay, 92; purchasers when 
 dissatisfied may return the goods, 
 92; tribes involved in war by un 
 ruly members, 92; tribal organization, 
 92; chieftain s duties, 92; treatment 
 of ambassadors by chiefs, 93; coun 
 cil and council-house, 93; chiefs keep 
 the archives and belts, 93; council 
 procedure, 93; wampum described, 94; 
 language in council, 96; messages and 
 carriers, !>ft; youths train to be mes 
 sengers, 96; women never admitted 
 to council, 96; methods of making 
 addresses, 97; habit of having some 
 thing in the hand when delivering 
 a message, 97; method of refusing by 
 making figurative replies, f)7; use of 
 peace-pipe, 98; chiefs cannot declare 
 war, 98; custom of choosing chiefs, 
 98; inherit tribal rights from mother 
 only, 98; division into tribes a guard 
 against incest, 98; children belong to 
 the mother, 98; rarely punish children 
 through fear of later separation of 
 man and wife, 99; regard wives as 
 strangers, 99; chiefs not succeeded 
 son, 99; chiefs expected to keep clans 
 united, 99; method of choosing chiefs, 
 100; captain s office and influence, 100; 
 methods of concluding peace, 100; 
 boys trained to become captains, 101; 
 warriors, 102; war-parties, size and 
 and deportment, 103; methods of mak 
 ing war, 103; barbarities when vic 
 torious, 104; treatment of prisoners, 
 105; custom of burning at the stake, 
 106; not cannibals, 107; tribes take 
 the name of p ace where they dwell, 
 111; method of election of chiefs, 
 112; ignore chiefs not properly elected, 
 113; reprimand chiefs, 113; methods 
 of writing on trees, 114; method of 
 declaring war, 114; modes of meeting, 
 
North American Indians. 
 
 181 
 
 115; ignore empty compliments, 115; 
 make no sign of greeting if enmity 
 exists, 115; tobacco indispensable, 115; 
 mix sumac with tobacco, 116; intro 
 duce fanciful thoughts in conversa 
 tion without interruption, 116; laugh 
 ing common, 116; attentive listeners, 
 116; never interrupt, 116; never shame 
 one another, 116; love to be treated 
 as worthy, 116; pleased to know they 
 are liked, 116; treatment of guests, 
 116; principal diet. 116; like to talk 
 of important affairs, 116; women usu 
 ally smoke, 116; women carry stories 
 from house to house, 116; men scout 
 women s tales until confirmed, 11(5; 
 articles of trade, 117; glad to cheat 
 and steal, 117; fond of buying on 
 credit, 117; ignore creditors when pos 
 sible, 117; offended if dunned, 117; 
 cancel all debts at outbreak of war, 
 117; traffic among themselves, 117; 
 women sell rum, 117; appoint sacri 
 fices in rum, 117; exchange everything 
 but breech clout for rum, 118; youth 
 dance every night, 118; mode of 
 dancing, 118; games, 118; towns con 
 test in gaming, 119; use of bows, 110; 
 boys form close friendships, 119; cus 
 toms on journeys, 119; never hurry 
 on journeys, 120; eat before jour 
 neying, 120; dislike having evil acts 
 disclosed, 120; dislike admonition, 120; 
 forward messages received from 
 dream, 120; treat guests royally, 120; 
 treaty dance, 121; war dance, 121; 
 attitude towards and opinion of 
 Europeans, 121; love the French, 122; 
 call whites Big Knives, 122; rarely 
 guilty of violence or theft, 123; do 
 not lock houses, 123; care of aged, 
 123: assist poor and needy, 124; pos 
 sess negroes who intermarry, 124; 
 never forget being cheated, 124; 
 strange notions of giving and receiv 
 ing, 124; women lie and gossip, 124; 
 fear a bad name, 125; witchcraft and 
 sorcery, 125; use of the witchball, 126; 
 religious beliefs, 128; fear of death, 
 129; idea of God, 129; idea of devil 
 not native, 130; idea of soul, 131; 
 believe in transmigration, 131; tra 
 ditions of flood, 131; idea of their 
 origin, 132: belief in spirits, 132; 
 reception of native preachers, 133; 
 influenced against Europeans by na 
 
 tive preachers, 133; preacher s idea 
 of Heaven, 134; morals weakened by 
 preachers, 135; modes of worship and 
 sacrifice, 136; observe eat-all feasts, 
 138; dance decently at feasts, 137; 
 celebrate various kinds of public 
 feasts, 137; pay off old scores at 
 orgies, 139; celebrate private feasts, 
 139; kept in slavery by the devil 
 through dreams, 140; disdain native 
 sacrifices after conversion, 140; make 
 offerings to spirit of the dead, 140; 
 imagine trivial pains to be caused by 
 spirits, 140; travel long distances to 
 graves of children to sacrifice, 140; 
 reverence the hare, 140; legend about 
 the hare, 140; idols, 141; ornaments, 
 141; fond of white children, 141; re 
 gard twins fortunate, 141; languages, 
 141-142; study oratory, 142; lack re 
 ligious expressions, 143; adepts at dis 
 sembling, 143; language easy to pro 
 nounce, 143; have few monosyllables, 
 144; have ten words meaning bear, 
 144; count up to hundreds of thou 
 sands, 144; unable to grasp large num 
 bers, 144; women count on fingers 
 because of poor memory, 144; make 
 little progress in arithmetic, 144; usu 
 ally count in Dutch money, 144; know 
 little of writing, 145; esteem a sealed 
 letter highly, 145; writing may last 
 fifty years, 145; ashamed of their 
 Indian names, 145; method of reck 
 oning time, 145; do not know their 
 age, 145; names for months, 145; 
 differ as to beginning of the year, 
 145; well versed in genealogies, 146; 
 respect the rich, 146; remember feats 
 of ancestors in wars with Cherokees 
 and Iroquois, 146; never formally di 
 vide territory, 147; bound territory by 
 rivers, portages and mountains, 147; 
 have no conception of geography, 147; 
 ideas of the sun, 147; ideas of thun 
 der, 148; name certain stars, 148; no 
 tions of astronomy, 148; greatly fear 
 death, 148; impositions of doctors, 
 148; use of white walnut bark, 148; 
 seldom go mad, 149; suffer from boils, 
 149; proficient in setting broken bones, 
 149; method of setting broken leg, 
 149; treatment of toothache, 149; 
 laugh at one who cries out in an 
 operation, 149; little affected by mis 
 fortune, 149; suffer from diarrhoea, 
 
David Zeisberger s History 
 
 149; often suffer from overdoses, 150; i 
 
 widows observe mourning customs, 
 
 150; high regard of peace-pipe, 151. 
 Indians (by tribes). 
 
 Catawba, mentioned, 108. 
 
 Cayugas, mentioned, 40, 41; see Iro 
 quois. 
 
 Cherokees, early relations with Dela 
 wares, 32 seq.; wars with Six Na 
 tions and Wyandots, 33; trade 
 with Delawares, 54; guilty of tor 
 ture, 107; dialect, 142, 146. 
 
 Chippewa, dialect, 142; classed with 
 dark-skinned Indians, 154. 
 
 Creeks, [Moskos] war with Shawanese, 
 108, 147. 
 
 Delamattenos, see Wyandots. 
 
 Dclawar* a, Zeisberger first met, 3, 4; \ 
 legends of "conquest" by Iroquois, J 
 S, 34 seq. ; 146-147; women braid 
 hair, 12; more cleanly than Iro 
 quois, 17; one family in a house, 
 17; history, 27 seq.; tribal divi 
 sions, 27; early relations with 
 Cherokees, 32 seq.; called "Woa- 
 panachky", 36; claim to Ohio land 
 recognized by Wyandots, 33; 
 language more difficult than Iro 
 quois, 41; date of leaving Alle 
 gheny River, 43; buy pipes from 
 Cherokees, 54; private customs of 
 women, 77; use rifles, 85; at 
 tempted formal village, 87; leagued 
 with many nations, 108; attitude 
 in Revolutionary War, 109; made 
 powerful by Chief Netawatwes, 
 111; without real ruler, 113; name 
 (Lenni Lenape) 114; sold land 
 treacherously to whites, 122; en 
 deavored to extirpate "witch-ball", 
 126; relation of language to var 
 ious nations, 142; dialects, 143; 
 drove of Iroquois, 146. 
 
 "Flatheads" [Twightwees] see Mi- 
 amis. 
 
 Hurons, see Wyandots. 
 
 Iroquois [Six Nations, Five Nations] 
 visited by Post and Zeisberger, 2, 
 3; archives kept by Zeisberger, 3; 
 women braid hair, 12; less cleanly 
 than Delawares, 17; houses, 17; 
 treacherous, 20; at war with Cher 
 okees. 33; legend of "conquest" 
 of Delawares, 33 seq.; country 
 
 (New York) described, 36, 37, 39, 
 40, 58; orchards, 39; various tribes 
 (Oneidas, Senecas, Onondagas, 
 Mohawks, Cayugas, Tuscarawas) 
 40; language, Wyandot resembled, 
 40; Wyandots allied to, 40; enter 
 prise in war, 40; language easier 
 to learn than Delaware, 41 ; de 
 generation, 41 ; little engaged in 
 trade, 41; private customs of 
 women, 77; marriage planned by 
 parents, 79; guilty of torture, 107; 
 towns had dice tournament, 119; 
 danced war dance in time of 
 peace, 121; dialect, 142; oratory 
 boastful, 142; name for Cassiopeia, 
 148: tribe of Senecas known as 
 Mingoes in West, 154. 
 
 Kaskaskias [Kaskaski], kiag;)?.l with 
 Delawares, 108; dialect, 142. 
 
 Kickapoos [Kikapus] leagued with 
 Delawares, 108; gave Delawares 
 hunting grounds on Wabash 
 River, 142; dialect, 142; gave Wy 
 andots hunting grounds, 147. 
 
 Mahikanders, see Mohicans. 
 
 Menomonies, mentioned, 154. 
 
 Miamis [Twichtwees] private customs 
 of women, 77; leagued with Del 
 awares, 108; dialect, 142. 
 
 Mohawks, 40; see Iroquois. 
 
 Mohicans [Mahikanders] war with 
 Iroquois, 36; leagued with De a- 
 wares, l ; 8; dialect, 141. 
 
 Money, Indian terms for European, 
 144. 
 
 Monsey, mentioned, 27; dialect, 141- 
 142; lived on Beaver River, 155; 
 see Delawares. 
 
 Moskos, see Creeks. 
 
 Nantikokes, strange burial custom, 90; 
 originated famous poison, 126; 
 dialect, 141. 
 
 Oneidas, 40; see Iroquois. 
 
 Onondagas, 40, 155; see Iroquois. 
 
 Ottawas, mentioned, 19; dialect, 142; 
 small stature, 154. 
 
 Pottowatamies, leagued with Dela 
 wares, 108. 
 
 Senecas, 40; see Iroquois. 
 
 Shawanese, [Shawno] women braid 
 hair, 12; private custom of women, 
 77; used rifle-barrelled guns, 85; 
 guilty of torture, 107; war with 
 Creeks, 108; history, 108; at odds 
 
North American Indians. 
 
 183 
 
 with Delawares, 109; use of war 
 beson, 127; dialect, 142. 
 
 Sioux [Su] mentioned, 115. 
 
 Six Nations, see Iroquois. 
 
 Tukashas [Tuckachachas] leagued 
 with Delawares, 1081; dialect, 
 142. 
 
 Tuscarawas, mentioned, 40, 41. 
 
 Twightwees, "Flatheads", see Miamis. 
 
 Unalochtgos, see (Wunalachtico) Del 
 aware. 
 
 Unami, mentioned, 27; dialect, 141, 
 144; lived on Tuscarawas River, 
 159; see Delawares. 
 
 Wawiachtenos, leagued with Dela 
 wares, 108; dialect, 142. 
 
 Wunalachtico, [Unalochtgos] a tribe 
 of Delaware Nation, 27; see Del 
 aware. 
 
 Wyandots, [Wiondatoo, Wiandots, Del- 
 amattenos] women braid hair, 12; 
 treacherous, 19; war with Cher- 
 okees, 33; recognized Delawares 
 claim to Ohio land, 33; allied with 
 Iroquois, 40; language like Iro 
 quois, 40; came to Muskingum 
 for vermillion, 5o; guilty of tor 
 ture, 107; called Delamattenos by 
 Delawares, 110 (see Thomas) ; dia 
 lect, 142; given hunting grounds 
 by Kickapoos, 147. 
 
 Ingratitude, an Indian characteristic, 124. 
 Inheritances, unknown among Indians, 
 
 87; see Death. 
 Immorality, wide-spread, 20. 
 Injuries, no method of recovering dam 
 ages for, 92; friends asked to make 
 
 good, 92. 
 
 Insane, Indians, seldom, 149. 
 Iron pyrites, see Fool s Gold. 
 Iron, Indians clever in working, 21. 
 
 J- 
 
 Jack s mountain, mentioned, 162. 
 
 January, name for month, 146. 
 
 Johnson, Life and Times of, see Stone. 
 
 Johnson, Sir William, mentioned, 36, 106. 
 
 Journal of a Tour, see Baily. 
 
 Journey, provisions taken for, 22; routine 
 
 while on, 120; leaders on, 119. 
 July, name of month of, 145. 
 June, name for montli of, 146. 
 
 Kaolin, or China Clay, mentioned, 164. 
 Kekalemchpehoong, Delaware capital at 
 
 Newcomerstown, O., 156. 
 Kentucky, settlements in, 43. 
 Kentucky River, mentioned, 162. 
 Keokuk, height of, 154. 
 Kettles, made of clay and sea shells, 29. 
 Kindness, an Indian characteristic, 123, 
 
 124. 
 Kittaning [Kittannuenk] Pa., Shawanese 
 
 at, 109. 
 
 Knives, made of flint, 28. 
 Knowledge, increase of among Indians, 
 
 brought increased wickedness, 131. 
 
 Land, Delawares sell treacherously, 122; 
 boundaries and divisions, 147. 
 
 Language, Indian, described, 141-144; dif 
 ference of dialects due to separation, 
 141; Unami, 141; Wunalachtico, 141; 
 Monseys, 141; Mahikanders, 141; Nan- 
 tikoks, 141; Shawanese, 142; Miamis, 
 142; Wawiachtanos, 142; Kickapoos, 
 142; Tuckachschas, 142; Creeks, 142; 
 Kaskaskias, 142; Ottawas, 142; Chippe- 
 was, 142; Cherokees, 142; Iroquois, 
 142; Wyandots, 142; Delawares, 141- 
 142; two principal (Iroquois and Dela 
 ware), 142; pronunciation easy, 143; 
 richness of, 144. 
 
 Laughter, common among Indians, 116; 
 at pain, 149. 
 
 Laurel (wild box), mentioned, 153; 
 swamps of, bears haunt, 153. 
 
 Laurel Hill, mentioned, 42. 
 
 Lawless, persons driven away by friends, 
 92; have involved most tribes in war, 
 92. 
 
 Laziness, common, ]8. 
 
 Legend, of Delawares being made 
 "women", 34 sc<].; 159. 
 
 Lenni-Lenape, see Delawares. 
 
 Leggings, described, 86. 
 
 Ligonier, Pa., mentioned, 162. 
 
 Linden, mentioned, 47. 
 
 Liquor, women engage in trade of, 90; 
 chiefs attempt to stop trade in, 90; 
 causes murder, 90; see Rum. 
 
 Little Turtle, mentioned, 171. 
 
 Liver complaint, treatment of, 157. 
 
 Lizards, mentioned, 72. 
 
 Logan, height of, 154. 
 
184 
 
 David Zeisberger s History 
 
 Loon, described, 68; skin used to make 
 tobacco pouches, 68. 
 
 Loskiel, Rev. Henry, History of the Mis 
 sion of the United Brethren, quoted, 
 155, 159; version of Iroquois "con 
 quest" of Delawares, 159. 
 
 Love Charm, sold by aged, to hold lovers 
 faithful, as. 
 
 Lowancn, the North Star, 148. 
 
 Lynx, described, 64. 
 
 Me. 
 
 McClure. Rev. David, Diary, quoted, 
 156; on sweating-ovens, 159; on In 
 dian dancing houses, 156; on Indian 
 marital fidelity 156, 171. 
 
 M. 
 
 Machtando, the "Evil One," 130. 
 
 Machtandonivinck, "with the devil," 130. 
 
 Machtuzin. "to perspire", name of fire, 
 138. 
 
 Manittos, Indian idea of, 132-133; each 
 Indian has his, 132; used in wor 
 ship of fire, 138; determined by 
 dreams, 139; worshipped, 139. 
 
 Mantewits, mentioned, 101. 
 
 Maple, mentioned, 47. 
 
 Maple sugar, making described, 48-51 ; 
 profit from, 50; in the fall, 48. 
 
 "Marble", white and red, (sandstone), 
 54. 
 
 March (month) most Indians begin year 
 with, 145. 
 
 Marital vows increasingly ignored, 78-79; 
 reasons therefor, 79. 
 
 Marriage, usual age of, 20, 82; Iroquois 
 customs, 79; not compulsory, 79; 
 slightest provocation disrupts, 82; ar 
 ranged by parents, 170. 
 
 Marten, furs greatly valued, 63. 
 
 Materia Medica, of Indians, 25, 55 57. 
 
 Match-making, formal custom of, 78. 
 
 Mats, of rushes, Indian women color, 17; 
 use of, 17. 
 
 Mattapassigan, famous poison of the 
 Nantikoks, 126. 
 
 May, name for month of, 145. 
 
 May Apples, mentioned, 47. 
 
 Meat, Indians cooked well, 14. 
 
 Meclimenawvngikilla, Indian name of 
 Monongahela River, 43. 
 
 Medicine, roots, herbs and barks used as, 
 25; large doses common, 25, 55. 
 
 Menhangik, "travelling companions", Iro 
 quois name for Cassiopeia, 148. 
 
 Menstrual, customs among women of 
 various tribes, 77-78. 
 
 Mental power, of Indians, 21. 
 
 Midwives, mentioned, 80. 
 
 Milk, Indians use of, 14. 
 
 Milky Way, the road to the Spirit Land, 
 148. 
 
 Minerals, Muskingum Valley, 53, 54. 
 
 Mitchner, C. H., Historic Events in the 
 Muskingum and Tuscarawas Valleys, 
 cited, 172. 
 
 Missionaries, only really knew the In 
 dian, 20; blamed for bad luck in 
 hunting, 84; improvised spiritual ex 
 pressions, 131, 143; hated by native 
 preachers, 135; threatened by sorcer 
 ers, 172. 
 
 Mocking bird, mentioned, 69. 
 
 Monongahela River, explanation of name, 
 43. 
 
 Months, names, see respective names. 
 
 Moose, in Iroquois land, 38; migrate from 
 Canada, 38; described, 63. 
 
 Moravian, Archives, Zeisberger s Mss. in, 
 6. 
 
 Mortimer, Rev. Benjamin, on Zeisberger, 
 5. 
 
 Mosquitos, mentioned, 75; made camping 
 in forests intolerable, 75. 
 
 Mosquito-hawk, mentioned, 152. 
 
 Mounds, of early Indians, 30. 
 
 Moundbuilding, Indians, 159; remains, at 
 Lichtenau, 159; covered charnel 
 houses, 159. 
 
 Mourning, for chief, ceremonial, 150-151. 
 
 Murder, caused by liquor, 90; committed 
 by person intoxicated not punished, 
 90; persons intoxicated in order to 
 commit, 90-91; atoned for by fine, 
 91. 
 
 Muscular development, among Indians, 
 Schoolcraft on, 154. 
 
 Muskingum River, reached by Delaware 
 about 1773-4, 43; name and meaning 
 of, 44; described, 44; navigation, 44; 
 frozen, 45; fish of 73. 
 
 Muskingum Valley, berries, 45; nuts, 46; 
 vines, 51; deserted by buffalo, 59; 
 snakes 69. 
 
 Muskrat, described, 6-3; burrowings dam 
 age dams, 64. 
 
North American Indians. 
 
 185 
 
 N. 
 
 Names, Indians ashamed of, 80, 145; 
 prefer those given by whites, 145. 
 
 Nations, divided into three tribes, 92; 
 named from the places in which they 
 live, 111. 
 
 Negroes, owned by Indians, 124; made 
 free, 124; intermarry, 124. 
 
 Netawatwes, Chief of Delawares, men 
 tioned, 96, 111, 113,- 171; ceremony 
 at death 150. 
 
 Neville s Island, scene of traditional bat 
 tle between Delawares and Cherokees, 
 159; located, 171. 
 
 New York, lakes of, described, 161. 
 
 Niagara Falls, mentioned, 38; Indians lived 
 on fish killed at, 39; Iroquois killed 
 going over, 39; Iroquois saved on 
 Goat Island, 39. 
 
 Nine-pins, game of, 118. 
 
 Nitgochk, "My companion in play", 
 familiar title among Delawares, 143. 
 
 November, name for month of, 146. 
 
 Nursing, Indians poor at, 25; of wounded, 
 remarkable, 25. 
 
 Nuts, of Ohio, 46; oil used, 46. 
 
 O. 
 
 Oak, trees found in Muskingum Valley, 
 
 47. 
 
 Obscenity, Indian form of swearing, 85. 
 Obstetrics, Indian treatment, 158. 
 October, name for month of, 146. 
 Oneida Lake, mentioned, 39. 
 Onenge, Indian name of French Creek, 
 
 42. 
 
 Ohio, climate described, 44; little snow 
 falls in, 44; varying climate in north 
 ern and southern, 44; winters have 
 many cloudy days, 45. 
 
 Ohio Country, described. 42; weather in, 
 42. 
 
 "Ohio Path", mentioned, 171. 
 
 Ohio River, named by Iroquois, 33; nav 
 igation of, 43; east side early settled, 
 43; floods, 110; flood drive animals to 
 high ground, 110. 
 
 Ohio State Achaeological and Historical 
 Society Publications cited, 159. 
 
 Oil, secured from nuts, 46; three kinds of 
 wells described, 52-58; methods of 
 securing, 52; used to cure tooth-ache, 
 53; swellings, rheumatism, strains, 
 
 etc., 53; taken internally, 53; sold to 
 
 whites, 163. 
 Old age, lack of respect for, sign of 
 
 deterioration, 76; preceded dissolute 
 
 living, 79. 
 Opossum, described, 62; lived in carcasses, 
 
 62; rarely eaten by Indians, 62. 
 Orators, training, 95-96, 143. 
 Oratory, Indian, 142-144; very boastful, 
 
 142; required much knowledge, 142; 
 
 often veiled, 143; without hesitation, 
 
 143; men constantly trained in, 143; 
 
 see language. 
 
 Orchards, Indian, in New York, 39. 
 Origin, Indian no tradition of their, 132. 
 Oriole, mentioned, 69. 
 Ornaments, described, 141. 
 Orphans, treated kindly, 81. 
 Otter, described, 61; skins used for to 
 bacco pouches, 115. 
 Overdosing, common, 150. 
 Owls, mentioned, 68; tobacco sacrificed to, 
 
 139. 
 
 P. 
 
 Packoango. Tortoise tribe, 92; first in 
 
 rank, 92. 
 Painting, common among men and 
 
 women, 87; of loose women, 170. 
 Panther, described, 59; power of leaping, 
 
 60; never caused injury unprovoked, 
 
 60; method of awing, 60; in bear 
 
 fight, 60. 
 Parkman, Conspiracy of Pontiac. cited, 
 
 160. 
 Papooses, change in method of carrying, 
 
 85; see Babes. 
 
 Paralysis, treatment for, 158. 
 Parrots, found along the Muskingum, 
 
 68. common to the southward, 68. 
 Parsnips, wild, 47. 
 Partridges, live near settlements, 66. 
 Paste, made from elm-wood bark, 23. 
 Paw-paw, mentioned, 46. 
 Peace-pipe, described, 151-152; see Pipe. 
 Pennsylvania, central and western por 
 tions, described, 36 scq.; swamps, 37; 
 
 fish, 37. 
 
 Personal liberty, of Indians complete, 90. 
 Petticoat, see stroud, 86. 
 Pheasants palatable to Indians, C6; killed 
 
 by birds of prey, 66; lay many eggs, 
 
 66. 
 
 Phlegmon, treatment for, 158. 
 Pigeon, described, 66, in great flocks, 66. 
 Pigeon-hawk, mentioned, 67. 
 
186 
 
 David Zcisberycr s History 
 
 Pike, mentioned, 37, 73. 
 
 Pipes, description of stones and clays 
 which made good, 54; red "marble" 
 made best, 54; Delaware and Cher 
 okee trade in, 54; of peace, described, 
 98; and pouch, indispensable, 115. . 
 
 Pitch-pine, mentioned, 51. 
 
 Pitcher, Dr. Zina, on Indian diseases and 
 materia medica, 157-158. 
 
 Pittsburg, position, 42-43. 
 
 Plains, western, described, 115. 
 
 "Planting month", see April. 
 
 Planting, begins in May, 13. 
 
 Pleurisy, treatment for, 157. 
 
 Plover, mentioned, 152. 
 
 Plums, mentioned, 46. 
 
 Poison Ivy, mentioned, 56; some Indians 
 easily affected by, 56. 
 
 Poisons, knowledge of, 56. 
 
 Pole-cat, described, 62; relished by In 
 dians, 62. 
 
 Polygamy, rare among Indians, 81. 
 
 Pontiac s Rebellion, mentioned, 156. 
 
 Poor, treated kindly, 123-124. 
 
 Poplar, mentioned, 47. 
 
 Pots, made of clay and sea-shells, 29. 
 
 Potato, wild, 47. 
 
 Porcupine, described, 63; quills colored 
 for ornamentation, 63. 
 
 Pouches, for tobacco, indispensable, 115; 
 fancy, 116. 
 
 "Praying over the child", custom of, 80. 
 
 Preachers, influence of wicked native, 
 133; impostures of, 133-134; influence 
 against Europeans, 133; introduced 
 polygamy, 135; claimed equality with 
 God, 135; hated missionaries, 135. 
 
 Produce, raised by women belongs to 
 husband, 16. 
 
 Profession, indicated by dreams, 101. 
 
 Pride, a peculiar savage characteristic, 
 18; enhanced by dreams, 18; humbled 
 before conversion, 19. 
 
 Priests, old men acted as, 130; formerly 
 restrained wickedness, 130. 
 
 Primeval Indian, described, 28, seq,; his 
 arts and customs, 28; utensils, 29; 
 hunting ability, 29; use of bow, 29; 
 method of fire making, 29; under 
 ground dwellings, 30. 
 
 Prisoners, killed by Indians, 19; treat 
 ment of, 104-107. 
 
 Private life, of Indians, dissolute, 125; 
 facts known only by missionaries, 
 125. 
 
 Prostitutes, method of painting, 170. 
 Ptucksit, Wolfe tribe, 92. 
 Putting shot, contests, 118. 
 
 Q. 
 
 Quarrels, settled by wampum, 19. 
 
 R. 
 
 Raccoon, season for hunting, 13; de 
 scribed, 60; skin used for hats, 61; 
 flesh tasty, 61. 
 
 Rain prophets, trickery, 129. 
 
 Rattlesnake, described, 70; bite easily 
 healed by Indians, 70; in Susque- 
 hannah Valley, 70-71; said to poison 
 itself, 72; power to charm, 72; men 
 tioned, 153. 
 
 Red bird, mentioned, 69. 
 
 Red Jacket, height of, 154. 
 
 Religion, Indian, described, 128, 132. 
 
 Revenge, an Indian characteristic, 19. 
 
 Revolutionary War, lawless Indians in 
 volved peaceful nation in, 92; un 
 manageable Indians involved the Dela- 
 wares in, 92. 
 
 Rheumatism, treatment for, 24, 55; com 
 mon to women, 24. 
 
 Rich, Indians much respected, 146; give 
 
 Chiefs wampum, 146. 
 
 I Rifle-barreled guns, favored by Delawares 
 and Shawanese, 85. 
 
 Road-belt, described, 95. 
 Rock Fish, mentioned, 37. 
 
 Roofs, various types, 18. 
 
 Rum, sold by women, 117; "Sacrifice" of, 
 117; principle of article of trade 
 among Indians, 117; exchange every 
 thing for, 118; led to violence, 139; 
 offered as drink offering to the dead, 
 140; sacrificed to toothache and head 
 ache, 14. 
 
 S. 
 
 St. Lawrence River, navigation, 41. 
 
 Salmon, best fish in Iroquois land, 38. 
 
 Salt, charm against witchcraft, 126. 
 
 Salt licks, mentioned, 53. 
 
 Salt Rheum, treatment for, 158. 
 
 Salt Springs, in Ohio Basin, 53. 
 
 Sassafras, mentioned, 47. 
 
 Schoolcraft, Henry, History . . . of 
 the Indian tribes, cited, 154, 155, 157. 
 
 Scioto, [Sioto] Shawanese on, 109; men 
 tioned, 162. 
 
North American Indians. 
 
 187 
 
 Scull s Map, mentioned, 171. 
 
 Seals, killed on Susquehannah River, 37. 
 
 Seduction, retaliation for, 77. 
 
 Self-control, Indians possess much, 124. 
 
 Seneca Lake, mentioned, 40. 
 
 Sentiment, among animals, 165. 
 
 September, name for month of, 146. 
 
 Shad, mentioned, 37; "month", see March. 
 
 Sheldrake, described, 65; palatable, 65. 
 
 Shirts, worn by Indian women, 86; dyed 
 with cinnabar, 87. 
 
 Shoes, mentioned, 86. 
 
 Shooting, practiced by Indian boys, 119. 
 
 Sick, little cared for, 25; diet of, 25, 
 
 Sideling Hill, mentioned, 42. 
 
 Slaves, Indians owned negro, 124; made 
 free, 124. 
 
 Small-pox, ravages, 149; sweating-ovens 
 did not cure, 159. 
 
 Snakes, in Muskingum Valley, 69. 
 
 Snake poison, Indian varying treatment 
 for r - fferent, 158. 
 
 Snails, described, 74-75. 
 
 Snipe, mentioned, 152. 
 
 Snow-shoes, use of, 22; how made, 22. 
 
 Sorcerers, and the Black Art described, 
 125-129; mental power, 172. 
 
 Sores, festering, common, 24. 
 
 Soul, Indian idea of, 131; transmigration 
 of, 311. 
 
 Spirit, voracious, worshipped, 138. 
 
 Spoon-bill cat-fish, mentioned, 74. 
 
 Spruce, mentioned, 51. 
 
 Squalle Gischuch, "month of frogs", (Feb 
 ruary), 146. 
 
 Squirrels, various species, 64; flying, men 
 tioned, 152. 
 
 Stag, American deer like European, 58. 
 
 Stars, Indians named certain, 148. 
 
 Starlings, mentioned, 69. 
 
 Stealing, see Theft. 
 
 Stone, Wm. L., Life of Sir William 
 Johnson, cited, 160. 
 
 Stone birch, mentioned, 52. 
 
 Stone falcon, mentioned, 67. 
 
 "Stone Tree", Indian name for Sugar 
 Maple, 48. 
 
 Stroud, described, 86. 
 
 Sturgeon, mentioned, 73. 
 
 Sucker, mentioned, 73. 
 
 Sugar-making, see Maple Sugar. 
 
 Sugar Maple, Indian name of, 48. 
 
 Suicide, as result of infidelity, 83. 
 
 Sullivan s Expedition, mentioned, 40, 161. 
 
 Sumac, for smoking, 116. 
 
 Summer hunting, character of, 13. 
 
 Sim. Indian idea of, 14 1. 
 
 Superstition, promoted by elders, 83. 
 
 Susquehannah Valley, described, 36 seq.; 
 River, seals killed in, 27; story of 
 rattlesnakes in, 71. 
 
 Swallows, mentioned, 152. 
 
 Swamps, in Pennsylvania, 37; in New 
 York, 37; nature of timber in, 37; 
 surround Iroquois country, 37. 
 
 Swans, toothsome to Indians, 65. 
 
 Swearing, see Cursing. 
 
 Sweating-ovens, doctors use of, 26; how 
 made, 26; described by Dr. McClure, 
 159; fatal to small-pox and consump 
 tion, 159. 
 
 Syphilis, treatment for, 158. 
 
 T. 
 
 Talamataus, see Thomas. 
 
 Tattooing, 12. 
 
 Tennessee River, known as "Cherokee" 
 from Cherokee Nation, 33, 159. 
 
 Theft, mentioned, 19; considered disgrace 
 ful, 91; satisfaction for, 91. 
 
 Thomas, Cyrus, "Indian Tribes in Pre 
 historic Times", cited, 172. 
 
 Thunder, Indian idea of, 147. 
 
 Thurnstein, Lord of, 42. 
 
 Thurnstein", "The, mentioned, 162. 
 
 Time, methods of reckoning, 145. 
 
 Titles, Indian Tribes particular as to, 142. 
 
 Tobacco, never smoked pure, 116; sac 
 rificed to owls, 139. 
 
 Tom-tits, mentioned, 69. 
 
 Toothache, rum sacrificed to cure, 140; 
 treatment for, 149. 
 
 Tournament, Iroquois dice, described, 119. 
 
 Towns, how situated and planned, 87; 
 Gochachgunk, a regularly planned, 87; 
 located with respect to fuel, 87; two 
 Iroquois, in dice tournament, 119. 
 
 Trade, Iroquois, amounted to little, 41; 
 articles of Indian, 118. 
 
 Traders, losses of Indian, 15; evil in 
 fluences, 79; Indians glad to deceive, 
 117; robbed by Indians, 117; lose many 
 bad debts, 117; articles carried by, 
 118. 
 
 Transmigration, of souls, 131. 
 
 Treachery, Indian, stories of, 19. 
 
 Treaty, text kept by Chiefs, 94; of peace,. 
 97. 
 
 Treaty Dance, described, 121. 
 
188 
 
 David Zeisbcrgcr s History 
 
 Trees, killed to increase arable acreage, 
 29; of Ohio, 47, 48, 51, 52, 162 seq. 
 Indians wrote on, 114. 
 
 Tribal, divisions, 92. 
 
 Tribes, created to prevent intermarriage 
 of relatives, 81, 98. 
 
 Trout, mentioned, 37. 
 
 Tschipcghacki, [Tschipey Hacki] the 
 "land of spirits", 134, 147; only the 
 good will enter, 134; Milky Way, the 
 road to, 148. 
 
 Tschimammus, see Hare. 
 
 Tulpehocken, mentioned, 42. 
 
 Turkey, wild, 66; plumage changes color, 
 66; eggs eaten by Indians, 66. 
 
 Turtle, eggs and flesh relished by In 
 dians, 74. 
 
 Turtle Creek, scene of Braddock s defeat, 
 43. 
 
 Turtle doves, mentioned, 66, 152. 
 
 Turtle tribe, repeopled the world after 
 the flood, 131. 
 
 Tuscarawas River, Unamis lived beside, 
 159; Unalochtgos, lived beside, 159. 
 
 Twins, rare among Indians, 81; regarded 
 as fortunate, 141. 
 
 U. 
 
 udellowen, "Delaware" thought to be de 
 rived from, 114. 
 Ulcers, treatment for, 158. 
 Underground dwellings, mentioned, 30. 
 
 Vcnango, early name of French Creek, 
 
 42. 
 
 Venereal disease, ravages of, 24. 
 Vermillion, for painting, 55; found in 
 
 Muskingum Valley, 55; used to color 
 
 men s heads, 87. 
 
 Vermillion River, mentioned, 170. 
 Vines, in Muskingum Valley, 51. 
 Violet, blue, used to make a decoction to 
 
 cure felon, 158. 
 Vipers, described, 71. 
 ""Vomit Town", see Waketameki. 
 
 Wabash River, tribes on, 108; country on, 
 
 110; buffalo on, 110. 
 
 Waketameki, called "Vomit Town", 172. 
 Walnut bark, medicinal properties of, 56; 
 
 reduces swelling, 57; allays toothache, 
 
 etc., 57; mentioned, 77; used to blister, 
 148; concoction of, used to stop 
 bleeding, 149. 
 
 Wampum, uses of, 19, 31; kinds of, 31- 
 32; accompany speeches, 94; ceremony 
 of refusing, 94, 111-112; made of sea- 
 mussel shells, 94; color and manufac 
 ture, 94-95; of two hundred shells 
 worth a Spanish dollar, 94; made by 
 women, 95; for Road Belt, 95; of 
 black signifies warning, 95; of red 
 means war, 95; white means peace, 
 95; furnished by tribe, 95; used in 
 election of chief, 112; mentioned, 159; 
 primitive, 170. 
 
 Wapiti, related to the stag, 164. 
 
 War, how declared, 114; all debts can 
 celled on outbreak of, 117. 
 
 War Dance, described, 103, 121. 
 
 War Parties, small in number, 103; how 
 conducted, 103-105. 
 
 Warfare, earliest fashion of, 31; serious 
 because difficult to end, 102; method 
 of carrying on, 102-105; begun to re 
 gain land once sold, 122. 
 
 Warriors, described, 102-105; take med 
 icine to preserve life, 127. 
 
 Washing, not characteristic of all In 
 dian women, 87. 
 
 Washington s Tour to the Ohio, by A. B. 
 Hulbert, cited, 159. 
 
 Wasps, mentioned, 152. 
 
 Water, determined location of towns, 87; 
 see also Fuel. 
 
 Water-beech, mentioned, 47. 
 
 \\later-dogs, mentioned, 74. 
 
 Water-snake, described, 72. 
 
 Weeping, at funerals, 89. 
 
 Wheaton, J. M., quoted, 166. 
 
 Whip-poor-will, mentioned, 152. 
 
 White Eyes, mentioned, 172. 
 
 "White Indians", mentioned, 154. 
 
 White Perch, mentioned, 74. 
 
 Widowers, retained nothing of wife s 
 property, 88; not remarry within one 
 year, 88; often marry deceased wife s 
 sister, 88; had no rules of conduct, 
 150. 
 
 Widows, not to remarry within one year, 
 88; must live by own industry, 88; 
 must not purchase meat, 88; after one 
 year friends assist, 88; are in dis 
 repute if remarried within ane year, 
 88; retain nothing of husband s prop 
 erty, 87-88; rules of conduct for, 150. 
 
Nortli American Indians. 
 
 189 
 
 Wife, strange idea of relationship be 
 tween husband and, 99. 
 
 Wild cats, described, 60. 
 
 \Vild grapes, mentioned, 46. 
 
 Wild Laurel, mentioned, 46. 
 
 Winters, various facts concerning Ohio, 
 44-45. 
 
 IVinn Gischuch, when the corn is in 
 the milk", (August), 145. 
 
 Witchcraft, Indian, described, 125-129; no 
 effect on Europeans because they eat 
 salt, 126. 
 
 Witch-ball", "Shooting the, murderous 
 practice of the Nantikok sorcerers, 
 126. 
 
 Woapanachke, see Lenni-Lenape. 
 
 Woapanachky, name of the Delawares, 36, 
 160. 
 
 Wolves, follow hunters to feast on game, 
 14; Indians rarely shoot, 14; skin of 
 no value, 14, 64; described, 64; gray 
 and black, Gl; summon comrades when 
 deer is killed, 65. 
 
 Women, strong bodily, 80; love finery, 86; 
 dress described, 86; conversation of, 
 116; reports circulated by, receive no 
 credit, llfi, 124; sell rum, 117; ad 
 dicted to lying and gossiping, 124; 
 had poor memory, 144; hardships dis 
 credited by Heckewelder, 154; Loskiel 
 on temper of, 155. 
 
 Woodpecker, mentioned, 67. 
 
 Worship. [Sacrifices], described, 136-140; 
 by families, 136-137; dancing at, 137; 
 
 various feasts connected with, 137- 
 140; ngammuin, 138; voracious spirit, 
 138; fire, 138; eat-all feasts, 138; in 
 sweating-ovens, 138. 
 
 Wounds, treated skillfully by Indians, 
 158. 
 
 Wrens, mentioned, 69. 
 
 W restling, bouts, 118. 
 
 Writing, Indian, 114, 145. 
 
 Wtellenapewoagan, the "Substance of a 
 Human Being", 131. 
 
 IVtschitschank, word for "Spirit", 131. 
 
 Wyoming, [\Vajomick] Pa., Shawanese at, 
 109; Neville s Island, scene of Dela 
 ware-Cherokee battle, 109; flats com 
 pared with Wabash region, 110. 
 
 Y. 
 
 Yellow bird, mentioned, 69. 
 Yellow perch, mentioned, 37. 
 Yellow Ochre, mentioned, 164. 
 
 Z. 
 
 Zeisberger, David, early life, 1; goes to 
 Iroquois, 2-3; work in New York and 
 Pennsylvania, 3-4; enters Ohio, 3; last 
 years, 4-5; Diary, mentioned, 4; Heck 
 ewelder, on character of, 5; Mortimer 
 on, 5-6; wrote history for Loskiel, 7; 
 published works and manuscripts, 10- 
 11; portrays Indian degeneration, 170. 
 
 Zinzendorf, Count, mentioned, 162. 
 
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