I ( ' THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA RIVERSIDE COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY Formerly Professor of Economics, Columbia University, and Principal Central High School, St. Paul. Author of "War and Economics in History and in Theory," "The Development of Agriculture in Minnesota" RAND McNALLY & COMPANY CHICAGO N'EW YORK Copyright, IQIO By E. V. ROBINSON Edition of 1920 Chicago J-20 PREFACE "Can geography be taught so as to make students think?" Jowett. THIS question, propounded by the translator of Plato's works, suggests the doubt felt by all who hold the dis- ciplinary or culture theory of education, in regard to the so-called "practical" subjects in the curriculum. The question is one which must be fairly met and answered if these subjects are to be accepted as truly educational in character. In the case of physical geography, much advance has been made toward a truly scientific, and therefore disciplinary, method of treatment. But in the case of commercial geogra- phy, less progress has been made because the nature and scope of the subject have been frequently misapprehended, especially in English-speaking lands. Commercial geography seems first to have appeared during the 1 8th century in schools patronized by the trading classes, under the name of Trader's Geography ( Kaufmannsgeog- raphie, Handelsgeographie ) . The subject matter comprised unrelated scraps of information concerning anything and everything "useful for a merchant to know," with special reference, however, to transportation and trade. It was from this class of works that the name commercial geography was borrowed; and by reason of this origin, commercial geography has tended to deal with accomplished facts rather than causes, and with the movement or circulation of goods rather than the fundamental matter of production. Books of this type, lacking a causal or other rational interpretation for their masses of empirical facts, are filled with dollars and bushels and tons in lieu of principles. Clearly, the memorizing of isolated facts and unrelated statistics cannot make students think, nor is it, in any proper sense of the word, educational. Cv) VI COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY On the other hand, those who have sought to rationalize the subject have as a rule proceeded on the assumption that everything must be explained, if it is to be explained at all, in terms of physical environment. The attempt, however, to explain the immensely complex distribution of -industries by one set formula the influence of environment results in innumerable forced, artificial explanations which do not really explain. In the end, after the geographical factor has thus been seriously overworked, the usual upshot of the matter is a relapse into the old plan of piling fact upon fact, figure upon figure, without any serious attempt at explanation. The reader familiar with books on commercial geography will readily recall cases in point. In these circumstances, it becomes necessary to raise the fundamental question: What is commercial geography? What is its purpose, scope, and appropriate method of treatment? The purpose of commercial geography, as the author conceives it, is to explain, in terms of all the factors involved, the geographic division of labor. More briefly, commercial geography is the study of the localization of industries. The factors involved are not only nature, but also man and capital goods; for land (or natural resources), labor, and tools or machinery of some sort are indispensable to every kind of production other than that of the bare-handed savage who merely appropriates whatever nature provides. It follows that any variation in the supply, or efficiency, or cost of either labor or capital goods will affect the localization of industries quite as directly as will differences in natural resources or climate. There are consequently three distinct sets of controls the natural, the human, and the economic which jointly determine the localization of industries; and commercial geography dare not neglect any one of them on penalty of becoming merely a mass of disconnected facts. This is true for the reason that while natural resources are due to nature, products are due to man; and the individual man, on whom in the last analysis all production depends, PREFACE vn takes nature into account precisely as he does the factor of labor or capital, that is to say, only in so far as it enables him to produce more goods of a certain kind, or at less cost. It is only as nature thus becomes transmuted into human motives of an economic sort that it effectively controls industry. Commercial geography, introducing economic considerations and economic modes of reasoning, is consequently the point of contact between the group of sciences dealing with nature and the group dealing with human society; yet it is not a mere mixture of geography and economics. On the contrary, it is a unified scientific discipline so long as it deals with all such facts, and only such facts, as can be shown to have relation to the localization of industry ; for unity of purpose and view- point constitute the unity of every science. In view of its purpose, commercial geography has in general no concern with the machinery of exchange, the technique of trade, or industrial processes, unless (as occasionally happens) some of these become factors in the localization of industry. Still less is commercial geography concerned with the description of industries, city by city, which is the proper function of a gazetteer. There is in fact no reason for so much as naming cities in commercial geogra- phy except as they illustrate some general principle relating to the localization of industries. The purpose and scope of the subject in turn indicate the appropriate method of treatment. The control of industries by physical environment is logically first, since it underlies and conditions all others even when, as sometimes happens, other controls have become predominant. For this reason, the scientific treatment of commercial geography must begin with the natural control of industry. For the same reason, after the general or systematic treatment of controls, a regional treatment properly follows. Relief, soil, climate, and natural resources present striking differences in different regions, and only by a regional treatment can these differences be analyzed and their effect appreciated. Finally, there is the VIH COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY added advantage in a regional treatment that the connection of economic activities with the soil is more obvious, and that the problem of the localization of industries is, therefore, relatively simple and concrete. It follows, therefore, that the intensive regional study of the world, or of some consider- able part of it, 1 logically precedes and forms the training for the broader and more complex generalizations involved in the study of the great world industries. The present work has been written in the belief that the type of commercial geography herein indicated can assuredly be taught "so as to make students think." The author is indebted to many friends and critics for valuable suggestions: notably to Professor Richard E. Dodge, of Teachers College, New York; Professor T. N. Carver, of Harvard University; Professor Isaiah Bowman, Director and Librarian of the American Geographical Society; Professor M. S. W. Jefferson, of the Michigan State Normal School at Ypsilanti; Professor J. F. Chamberlain, of the State Normal School at Los Angeles; Mr. Wm. B. Guitteau, Supt. of Schools at Toledo, Ohio; Mr. W. N. Ferris, of the Ferris Institute at Big Rapids, Mich. ; Mr. Dwight W. Edwards, of the Princeton Mission in Peking; also to Supt. D. Lange, Mr. H. W. Schmidt, Supervisor of Schools, Dr. F. C. Miller, of the Central High School, and Mr. E. N. Bonnell of the John A. Johnson High School, all of St. Paul, Minn. Special thanks are due to Pro- fessor C. D. Allin, of the University of Minnesota, who read the proof with great care and made many penetrating criticisms. It goes without saying, however, that the author is solely responsible for the views expressed. *It is worthy of note in this connection that both the Committee of Nine of the National Educational Association, which reported at Los Angeles in 1909, and also the committee of the Association of Ameri- can Geographers, which reported at the 1909 meeting, expressed strong dissatisfaction with the systematic method even in physical geography. (See Journal of Geography, March, 1910.) NOTE TO EDITION OF 1915 In view of the rapid changes in modern industry, it has seemed desirable to make a thorough revision based on the United States census of 1910 and later statistics, coming down in each case to the latest available year. The same plan has been followed in the sections dealing with other countries. This has necessitated numerous changes alike in the text, the diagrams, and the maps. On the whole, however, it is a striking fact that nearly all of the generalizations are as appli- cable to-day as when first written. This fact conclusively demonstrates that there is a durable content to commercial geography which is but little affected even by the kaleidoscopic changes of modern industry, and in this fact lies its justification as a scholastic discipline. Thanks are due to various correspondents who have called the author's attention to pertinent facts, and especially to Professor E. Dana Durand, former Director of the United States Census Bureau, who submitted suggestions touching the chapters on the United States, and also read proof on these chapters. The author, however, assumes full responsibility for all statements and conclusions. August 2, 1915. NOTE TO EDITION OF 1920 World relations both industrial and commercial have been so vitally affected by the World War as to make necessary a careful revision of the text and the addition of a chapter bearing directly on the far-reaching changes in geography and economics that have taken place in various quarters of the globe. The work of revision has been accomplished through the assistance of widely recognized specialists in these sub- jects. All information available to date of publication has been utilized, but readjustments are still in progress. October 15, 1920. (ix) CONTENTS Preface List of the Maps PAGE V xi PART 1. THE GROWTH AND FACTORS OF COMMERCE I. THE BEGINNINGS OF COMMERCE II. THE MEDITERRANEAN AGE OF COMMERCE III. How COMMERCE DEPENDS ON LAND AND SEA . IV. How COMMERCE DEPENDS ON CLIMATE .... V. How COMMERCE DEPENDS ON MAN VI. How COMMERCE DEPENDS ON ECONOMIC FORCES . VII. THE DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSPORTATION .... VIII. THE PRINCIPAL RAW MATERIALS OF COMMERCE PART 11. CONTINENTS AND COUNTRIES IX. THE MAKING OF THE UNITED STATES .... X. THE NORTH ATLANTIC SECTION XI. THE SOUTHERN SECTION XII. THE NORTH CENTRAL SECTION XIII. THE WESTERN SECTION XIV. THE UNITED STATES IN THE MARKETS OF THE WORLD XV. AMERICAN EXPANSION IN THE PACIFIC .... XVI. AMERICAN EXPANSION IN THE CARIBBEAN XVII. CANADA AND NEWFOUNDLAND XVIII. MIDDLE AMERICA AND THE WEST INDIES XIX. TROPICAL SOUTH AMERICA XX, TEMPERATE SOUTH AMERICA X XXI. OCEANIA AND AUSTRALASIA XXII. JAPAN AND CHOSEN (KOREA) XXIII. THE CHINESE REPUBLIC XXIV. -SOUTHERN ASIA XXV. WESTERN ASIA XXVI. AFRICA >-/ Commerce, p. 26. 10 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 11. Mediaeval Fairs. Such difficulties in transportation made it doubly necessary to fix certain dates when the buyers and sellers of any article, such as furs, could be sure of meeting. This necessity gave rise to annual fairs, like those held at Stourbridge (Cambridge) in England, at Frankfurt and Leipzig in Germany, and at Troyes and other towns in the French province of Champagne. These fairs, like the fairs of the ancient world, were usually held in connection with some religious festival, which served to bring people together and in a measure to ward off hostile attacks. Fairs formed the chief seats of wholesale trade until increasing density of population and ease of transportation rendered them unnecessary. In the less progressive parts of the world, where the railroad, telegraph, and commercial traveler are little in evidence, fairs still retain their pristine importance. The most important fair in modern Europe is doubtless that of Nizhniy Novgorod. Even in advanced commercial countries there are annual agricultural fairs, and occasional international expositions or "World's Fairs," which exercise a marked influence both on education and on commerce. 12. The Levant before the Crusades. The Levant, embracing the lands washed by the eastern Mediterranean, was ruled (after A. D. 330) from Constantinople. This empire, Roman in name, Greek in language, reached the climax of its prosperity and splendor during the ninth and tenth centuries, while western Europe lay buried in squalor and ignorance. The principal factor in this prosperity was trade with the Orient, especially in silk, which was imported raw, woven into exquisite fabrics at Constantinople or Antioch, and exported, again to all parts of the known world. During the early Middle Ages (before A. D. 1000), the bulk of the raw silk came overland, because the sea route from China was long and, for the vessels then in use, extremely dangerous. After the Arab conquest of Egypt (A. D. 640), Constantinople, MEDITERRANEAN AGE OF COMMERCE II commanding all routes to the Far East by way of the Black Sea, succeeded Alexandria as the undisputed commercial capital of the world. (Fig. 3.) 13. Rise of the Italian Cities. After A. D. 1000, a great change began. Larger vessels, possibly also some crude form of the compass, enabled the sea route from China around southern Asia to compete with the overland routes. Con- stantinople, Bagdad, and the row of caravan cities eastward to Balkh, where the Chinese and Indian roads diverged, at once began to stagnate. Constantinople also suffered from the fact of lying too far east to serve the western markets created by the silver mines of North Central Europe, then newly opened, or to profit by the rising woolen and metal in- dustries of Italy and Flanders (Belgium). For these reasons the cities of Italy became at first the rivals, then the successors, of Constantinople. The Crusades confirmed their supremacy, bringing them a veritable "com- mercial boom" through the demand for equipment and for transportation by sea of men and supplies. Venice and Genoa were even able to pull down and set up emperors at Constantinople precisely as the nations of Europe have in recent years striven for mastery at Peking. Venice finally became, after the capture of Constantinople by crusaders in her service (1204), incontestably the leading commercial city in the world. 14. The Commerce of Northern Europe. Since the earliest times, the amber of the Baltic, the tin of Britain, and the furs of the northern forests had found their way along the rivers to the Mediterranean. How important furs were in commerce may be judged from the fact that throughout the Middle Ages the houses of even the nobles and princes entirely lacked heat in winter. Furs were also a staple export to the Orient, being then as now extensively worn by the upper classes in China. In the later Middle Ages (after 1250), the trade of the North (Fig. 4) fell under the control of the Hanse. This was a 12 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY powerful league of some ninety cities, extending from Bruges to Novgorod, with its capital at Ltibeck. To the early exports were added fish, hides, silver and copper from the Harz region, and iron from Sweden. The imports were chiefly articles of luxury, above all, silks and spices. This new commercial realm, centered on the Baltic and North seas, found its chief outlet on the Mediterranean through the port of Venice. Along the roads running north from Venice, just as along the Asian caravan roads, there flourished a series of great commercial cities whose pros- perity was builded almost entirely on the oriental commerce that passed through their gates. 15. The Shifting of Trade Routes. Ancient and mediaeval vessels, being flat bottomed, could sail only with the wind, or else laboriously work their way against it with huge oars. Toward the close of the Middle Ages, however, the keel, invented probably by the Northmen, worked a revolution in navigation hardly less important than has followed the use of steam. By enabling vessels to sail almost into the eye of the wind, the keel made possible for the first time deep-sea, in place of coastwise, navigation. Early in the fourteenth century, the compass also came into general use in the West. The sea route from Italy to Flanders then began to prevail decisively over the land route. This meant indeed the stagnation of all those cities which had lived on the overland trade. On the other hand, the sea route, touching at Lisbon and the English Channel ports, prepared the way for those nations to enter the commercial arena on their own account. The great emporium for the trade between Italy and the North w r as for several centuries Bruges; but later (after 1442) Antwerp took the lead because it was accessible to larger vessels and imposed fewer restric- tions on foreign traders. Finally, the conquests of the Turks, fierce nomads from central Asia, who began as hired soldiers of the Caliphs and ended as their masters, blocked up one after another all the MEDITERRANEAN AGE OF COMMERCE 13 ancient routes to the East. First western Asia (1058), then Constantinople (1453), and lastly Egypt (1520) fell into their hands. In the meantime, this virtual blockade caused the prices of oriental goods in Europe to rise by leaps and bounds, thus offering enormous profits to any one who should find a new and cheaper route to the East. This condition of the market was the impelling motive of the great voyages of dis- covery which ended the Mediterranean, and introduced the Oceanic Age of Commerce. 16. The World Faces the Atlantic. When Vasco da Gama reached India by sea (1498), the world changed front in a day. Hitherto it had faced the Mediterranean. On its shores civilization had largely developed. There empires had risen and decayed. There also a succession of great cities, the homes of wealth, learning, and art, had flourished, fed by the never-ceasing stream of commerce between the East and the West. Now for the first time that stream was diverted from its previous course, and forthwith decay fell upon the teeming cities, and silence upon the crowded roads. The same disaster overtook cities beyond the Alps which had lived on the trade between Italy and the North. "Who- ever wandered *in the streets of picturesque and sleepy Nuremberg after this trade had departed, where the rooks wheeled about the gables that were once, as Longfellow reminds us, the home of art and song, learned in a most impressive manner how cities are made and unmade by the shifting of trade routes. 1 What the Mediterranean lost the Atlantic gained. It became henceforth the great highway of commerce; in its ports the products of the East and West met for exchange. The commercial supremacy of the world passed to its shores to be contested and successively held by the Portuguese, Spaniards, Dutch, and English. 'Could Longfellow revisit Nuremberg to-day he would find it still picturesque, but no longer sleepy. The Suez Canal, the Alpine tunnels, and the railways have made it again the focus of important trade routes. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 17. Character of Modern Commerce. With this transfer of commercial supremacy to the Atlantic, the Oceanic Age began. At that time commerce was mainly confined to articles of FIG. 5. Courtesy of Swift and Company Interior of a general office: This suggests something of the vast and complicated organization required to Itandle the enormous volume of modern commerce. luxury used by the few; to-day it supplies the necessities of all. This stupendous revolution has been brought about by the application of the powers of Nature to the processes of manufacture and transportation 1 . The world as we know it to-day is largely the creation of steam and electricity. (Fig. 5 . ) 1 During the last-two centuries, according to a recent estimate, the for- eign commerce of all commercial countries has increased as follows: Year Millions of Dollars Year Dollars per Capita 1700 I7SO 1800 125 250 1,500 1800 1840 1860 2.31 2-93 6.01 1900 20,105 1900 13-02 1913 40,420 1913 24.47 Ill HOW COMMERCE DEPENDS ON LAND AND SEA "Tell me the geography of a country and I will tell you its future.'' Victor Cousin. 18. What Man Owes to Nature. No man by taking thought can add a cubit to his stature ; still less can he make good any great deficiency in the natural resources of his country. Thus he can fish only where there is water, lumber only where there are trees, mine only where there are min- erals, devote himself to agriculture, manufactures, or com- merce only where natural conditions render these pursuits commercially possible. For the greater part of what he enjoys man thus remains directly or indirectly the pensioner of Nature. Most justly, therefore, and with profound insight into the relation of man and the earth, did the Greeks speak of " Mother Earth." 19. Factors in the Natural Control of Industry and Com- merce. All aspects of Nature doubtless react upon man to some extent. The factors however which affect most directly his mode of livelihood are: the character of the soil; the topography or surface features of the earth; the coast line; the climate; and the natural resources, notably fish, forests, grasslands, minerals, and water power. 20. Civilization Based on the Soil. The soil is the founda- tion of all permanent prosperity. Unless the soil be reason- ably fertile, agriculture is impossible; and without agriculture there can be no enduring civilization and therefore no exten- sive commerce. Gold populated California and built cities as if by magic; but wheat and fruit have long since become the basis of California's prosperity. As with mining, so with lumbering; the forests once cut away, the lumber camps and towns are deserted, and the country relapses into wilderness until such time as a new forest shall have grown to merchant- able size, unless the soil be fit for farming. ds) 1 6 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 21. The Kinds of Soil. The soil comes in the main from rocks which have crumbled to pieces through long exposure to the weather. As to its physical character, soil varies by almost imper- ceptible gradations from coarse gravel to fine clay. For practical purposes, however, it is usually classified as sandy, loamy, or clayey. 1 A sandy soil consists for the most part of relatively large, rounded particles, usually derived from very hard rocks. It is "light" or easily worked; and it is "warm" or readily heated by the sun in the spring, for which reason a sandy soil is well suited to early vegetables. It is, however, so porous that it does not hold rainfall well; and it is comparatively poor in accessible plant food. A loamy soil is intermediate in character, containing both sand and clay in fairly equal proportions. A clay soil consists in the main of very fine particles, derived usually from shale or other soft rocks. Not being so porous as sand it holds w r ater well, which is an advantage in dry regions or seasons. A clay soil is "heavy" or hard to work, and is "cold" or slow to warm up in the spring; but it is the most fertile, and the most lasting in 'its fertility, of all types of soil. The regions which form the world's granaries and those which support the densest population by agriculture have largely clay soils. 22. Organic Matter in Soil. Finally, the soil depends for its fertility not only on its physical character and mineral constituents, but also to perhaps an equal degree on the organic matter which it contains. Undecayed organic matter (peat) is indeed a hindrance to tillage ; but decayed or decay- ing vegetation (humus) renders the soil more open and porous, so that air and water can' more easily reach the roots, and it greatly increases the available plant food. It is largely owing to vegetable humus in the soil that districts recently covered by deciduous forests, and likewise prairies 'King, The Soil, p. 100. COMMERCE DEPENDS ON LAND AND SEA l^ where the grasses have flourished and decayed for ages, are for a time so very fertile when brought under the plow. 23. Formation and Transportation of Soil. As to its method of formation, soil is either residual or transported. Residual soil was formed on the spot from the decay of the rocks lying directly beneath, and of course varies in char- acter with those rocks. South of the Ohio, for example, where most of the soil is residual, it is much more fertile over limestone than over sandstone. In many parts of the world the soil has been transported far from its place of origin by running water, by glaciers, or by the w r inds. The lower valleys of great rivers, for instance, are commonly covered with alluvial soil, deposited by the rivers at flood time. Other vast areas, like most of America north of the Ohio River, have glacial soils, deposited in former ages by melting glaciers. Still other districts' have loess, or wind-borne soil. For example, the loess beds of northern China, thousands of feet thick, were brought by the prevailing west winds of winter from the arid uplands of central Asia and deposited where a moister climate was encountered. These transported soils, though differing greatly from one another in fertility, are alike in that they usually contain fragments of many kinds of rock, and are therefore less quickly exhausted by tillage than are the residual soils. 24. How Lowlands Affect Agriculture. The "everlasting hills" are not in fact everlasting; for every rain and every stream carries a load of soil from the highlands toward the lowlands, lowering the one and filling up the other. Even the cloud-capped mountains would eventually be worn down almost to sea level if the mountain-building forces should cease their work. Lowlands, being thus supplied with fine soil at the expense of the uplands, are the principal sources of the world's food supply. For this reason more than three-fourths of all the people in the world live at elevations of less than 1,000 feet. The most productive and most densely-peopled agricultural 3 1 8 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY regions are naturally the deltas and valleys of great rivers like the Nile and Ganges, which constantly bring down fresh soil. Within the Tropics, however, fertile river valleys are frequently so unhealthful as to be very sparsely peopled. This is the condition of the Amazon Valley. (Fig. 13.) 25. How Lowlands Affect Transportation and Commerce. Lowland rivers, having considerable volume and a slight fall, usually afford cheap transportation, and they can frequently be connected by canals. The level surface also favors railroad construction, unless too low or too level for good drainage. In districts subject to overflow, however, the roads a.nd even the railways keep to the ridges, as in parts of the Red River Valley, where the beaches of former Lake Agassi z form natural driveways . Owing to their fertility, dense agricultural population, and cheap transportation facilities, lowlands are also the principal seats of manufactures and of commerce. 26. How High Plains Affect Commerce. High plains or plateaus are frequently edged by mountains so that the winds are drained of moisture before reaching the plateaus. In such cases they are suited for grazing rather than agriculture, like the Great Basin west of the Rockies, and contribute to com- merce chiefly wool, hides, and other animal products. But plateaus which are fairly well watered, like those in tropical America, sometimes support a dense agricultural population. Being relatively level, high plains hinder transportation only if difficult of access from the lowlands, or if intersected by a profound gorge like the Grand Canon of the Colorado. If too wide to bridge, such a gorge is in fact impassable for commerce, and may compel a detour of hundreds of miles. As a rule transportation routes follow valleys which offer the easiest grades. But if a plateau has been deeply cut into by rivers, roads and railways sometimes follow the divides between the rivers, since these retain the generally level surface of the original plateau. The Allegheny Plateau affords many illustra- tions of this principle, notably in eastern Kentucky. COMMERCE DEPENDS ON LAND AND SEA 27. How Upland Valleys Affect Agriculture and Trans- portation. Broad valleys and valley basins between parallel mountain ranges, being covered in large part with fine soil washed from higher levels, are fertile, and therefore well peopled. Excellent examples are the "parks" of Colo- rado. Even richer in soil are. the beds of former lakes, like the basin surround- ing Great Salt Lake, where the finest and most fertile parti- cles of soil that were washed from the surrounding uplands were deposited. Valleys that cut across mountain ranges furnish the usual routes of rail- ways (Fig. 6) , which follow one stream FlG. 6. How rivers prepare the -way for railways Royal Gorge, Grand Canon of 'the Arkansas. to its head and another stream down the opposite slope, crossing the intervening divide by tunnel or at the lowest pass. Like islands containing harbors in mid-ocean, such mountain passes are individually important in propor- tion as they are far apart. Where a river cuts through a mountain range, the valley usually contracts to a narrow water gap; and since all trade 20 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY and travel up or down the valley is here brought to a focus, a water gap is apt to be marked by a town or city. A good example is Harpers Ferry, located where the Potomac makes its way through the Blue Ridge. Sometimes after cutting a water gap, a river is somehow diverted from its course leaving what is called a "wind gap." Such was the origin of many passes famous in history, like Cumberland Gap between Virginia and Kentucky. (Fig. 59.) 28. How Mountains Affect Agriculture and Transportation. Broken plateaus and mountain slopes are adapted to forests or grazing, rather than to agriculture. The soil is thin and poor at best, and if loosened by the plow, it is speedily swept away by the rains. Moreover, machinery cannot be- used to advan- tage on small or rough fields, nor can crops be readily marketed. Farmers in such a region consequently live a wretched life of poverty and ignorance from generation to generation, retain- ing ideas, tools, and methods long since abandoned in the plains. On the other hand, mountain-born rivers in traversing arid regions, like those adjacent to the Rockies, furnish water to irrigate large tracts of land in their valleys. Mountains which serve as watersheds determine the course of rivers and river valleys, and therefore, in great measure, of commerce. Mountains, moreover, usually lack navigable water ways and good wagon roads. They even exact a heavy tribute from railroads in the shape of expensive bridges, rock cuts, tunnels, snowsheds, constant repairs, extra engines and fuel, and light train loads. Man is far from having conquered the mountains for purposes of transportation, as he has conquered the plains and the sea. 29. Relation of Mountains to Mining and Manufactures. Mountain streams, fed by snows and rains upon the higher levels and descending with rapid current, usually furnish abundant water power. Again, mountains are frequently the seat of mining. Here are found the best building materials, such as granite, slate, and marble. Here also the ancient crystalline rocks, deeply COMMERCE DEPENDS ON LAND AND SEA 21 buried elsewhere, have been brought to light by upheaval and the erosion of running water. It is in such rocks that the ores of gold, silver, copper, and other metals usually occur. Furthermore, the best grades of coal are, as a rule, found in or near the mountains, because the heat and pressure generated by mountain building have driven off the volatile parts of the coal, leaving a large proportion of fixed carbon. By reason of water power, metals, and mineral fuels, manu- facturing cities not infrequently develop at the foot of mountains. Thus Birmingham, Ala., owes its existence to the vast stores of coal and iron in the adjacent hills. (Fig. 92.) 30. How Mountains Affect Climate. Finally, lofty moun- tains force the air passing over them to ascend and become PAVANT Mrs. 10,000 FEET. RAIN-BEARING WIND FILLMORE 5,700 FEET. Average Annual Rain 13.8 Inches^ DESERET 4,600 FEET A i D i -i i ,u,* BASK: 4,000 Toet Average Annual Rain 7.7 Inches HORIZONTAL SCALE : 1 VERTICAL SCALE :.i 1,000,000 60,000 Bureau Plant Industry, Bulletin 103 FIG. 7. Profile sketch showing relation of mountains to rain/all in Utah. chilled, thus causing rainfall on the side toward the prevail- ing winds, but an arid region on the opposite side. (Fig. 7.) They also break somewhat the force of the winds, whether warm or cold. Mountains thus control in great measure the climate, and therefore the industries, of the neighboring plains for hundreds or even thousands of miles. So it is with the Sierra Nevada and Cascade ranges. 31. Relation of Forests to Man. The forest primeval ranks almost with the mountains in its effect o 1 ' man, on his mode of livelihood, and consequently on commerce. 4 a COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY To the early settlers in America, the forest seemed merely a hiding place for wild beasts and hostile Indians. To fell the forests and let in the light therefore came to be regarded as a conquest achieved over a common enemy of man and of civilization. Something of this feeling still persists on the frontier and the pioneer in forested regions still swings his ax with vindictive force, though the forest, so far from being the enemy, has long since been recognized as the best friend of man. Nevertheless, so rapid and so thorough has been the work of destruction that the day is now at hand in this country when the last of the mighty forests prepared by Nature through a thousand years will have disappeared. 32. How Forests Affect Soil, Water Power, and Navigation. Forests not only enrich the soil through decaying vegetation, but they also protect it from rapid erosion. What is perhaps still more important, the mat of forest vegetation, both above and below ground, serves as a sponge to absorb and hold the rain and melting snow. The water consequently sinks into the earth and issues gradually in springs , in place of rushing at once into the rivers. In this way, forests equalize the flow of rivers, moderating both floods and droughts and conserving the rivers for purposes of irrigation, water power, and navigation during all seasons of the year. How important these services are may be judged from the results of deforestation, especially in the hilly parts of the South, where the ground is not protected by frost from the heavy rains of winter. (Fig. 8.) One may see there from the car window thousands upon thousands of acres already stripped of soil by the rains and turned into "bad lands/' as useless to man for all time to come as though sunk beneath the sea. 1 Moreover, the valleys, wherever the forests have been cut away, are increasingly ravaged by floods; while water powers, estimated at over a million horse power and worth $20,000,000 a year, are endangered. 2 In order to check Whaler, in U. S. Geological Survey, Report, 1891, vol. iv, pt. I, p. 332. 2 United States Forest Service, Circulars, 143, 144. COMMERCE DEPENDS ON LAND AND SEA 23 such destruction, Congress has finally provided for the purchase and permanent reforestation of the most rugged districts both in the southern Appalachians and in New England. (Fig. 60.) 33. How Forests Affect the Climate. Again, a forested land is cooler in summer and warmer in winter than a treeless surface. As a result of this fact great forests, sheltering the soil from the burning heat of summer and the biting winds of winter, have something of the same effect as the ocean in moderating extremes of climate. 1 Moreover, a forested surface, cooled by constant evaporation, is a better condenser Courtesy of Department of Agriculture FIG. 8. Hillside ruined by erosion, -where the forest had been cut away. of moisture, and therefore less liable to prolonged drought, than a surface of bare rocks or of sun-baked soil. 34. Economic Importance of Forestry. Finally, forests are as necessary to civilization as grain fields; and, considering the quality of land suitable for forests, they can be made as profitable. Cheap lumber has been a potent factor in the rapid development of the United States, especially the western prairies; and a timber famine, such as now impends, must needs lay a crushing tax on American industry and commerce. It is therefore imperative that a scientific system of forestry be followed in lumbering, whereby the young trees may 1 Forest Service, Bulletin 7, Forest Influences, 2 4 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY be saved to perpetuate the forest, wherever the soil is too stony or sandy or the slope is too steep for farming. In fact, millions of acres of the uplands in the United States, now denuded of timber, would best serve the uses of man if permanently refor- ested. Already the proportion of for- ested area in the United States has fallen almost as low as in Germany. (Fig. 9-) 35. How Coast Lines Affect Commerce. ( 1 20 4 I *)0 So too Finland Russia. i Canada, ^^i^Mi ! United States. Germany ...... r> Based on data furnished by Forest Service FIG. 9. Per cent of area forested in chief timber- producing countries. It is said that there is no place in Greece more than fifty miles, and no place in England more than seventy miles, from the sea. This fact goes far to explain why Greece was the first part of Europe to become civilized, and why England now leads the world in com- merce. Europe as a whole is likewise greatly indented by arms of the sea, giving it a much longer coast line in proportion to its size, and helping to give it a much larger commerce, than any other continent. At the other extreme stands Africa, still the "Dark Continent" in large part because the coast line is sin- gularly unbroken, which has hindered the access of civilizing influences from over sea. The accessibility of the land from the sea affects commerce perhaps even more than the extent of coast line. Harborless coasts as a rule have little share in commerce. By reason of easy access to the sea, islands have often played a part in history and in commerce out of all proportion to their size. The Grecian Islands, Great Britain, and Japan are examples. 36. The Formation of Harbors. The continents, which seem so firm, are in fact in a state of very unstable equilibrium, now rising slowly through centuries and again sinking. A coast which has sunk considerably in recent geological COMMERCE DEPENDS ON LAND AND SEA 2 5 time is favorable to commerce, because the lower valleys are drowned beneath the sea. This is the origin of most impor- tant inlets such as Chesapeake. Bay and Puget Sound. Con- versely, an uplifted coast is unfavorable to commerce, because it lacks such inlets, and is often bordered by dangerous shoals. Some rocky coasts, like Maine and Alaska, are pierced by fiord harbors, that is, valleys eroded deep below the water line by former glaciers. But such harbors are often backed by rugged and un- productive country, which cannot support a large commerce. This condition is illustrated by Norway. On many coasts barrier harbors occur, sheltered by small islands, as at Boston (Fig. 74) ; or sand bars, as at Galveston; or coral reefs, as in the Bermudas. An atoll harbor consists of such a reef partly inclosing a lagoon, as in Fanning Island (Fig. 10), now a station on the cable from Canada to Australia. On volcanic coasts are sometimes found crater harbors, formed by the sea breaking into an extinct volcano. Perhaps the finest example in the world is Pago Pago Harbor (Fig. 1 1) FIG. ii. Pago Pago Harbor, Tiituila, Samoa. FIG. 10. Part of English Harbor, Fanning Island. Where natural harbors 26 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY are lacking or inadequate and the water is not too deep, arti- ficial harbors maybe formed, at great cost, by erecting break- waters, as has been done at San Pedro, Cal. (Fig. 126.) Even the best natural harbors are in part artificial since they require ' more or less improvement to fit them for the immense vessels now in use. 37. How Location Affects Commerce. Napoleon once declared war to be "a matter of positions." In commerce, as in war, success depends largely on the positions held by the contending parties. It was the favorable location of Venice FIG. 12. Where land and water transportation meet. Bird's-eye view of the Reading Terminals at Philadelphia. and the Netherlands, backed by the splendid energy and daring of their people, which made them for many genera- tions the leading commercial nations of the world. The seats of commerce are located at places clearly desig- nated by nature "at the crossroads of the great world thoroughfares." 38. The Termini of Ocean Routes. Such crossroads are found in a preeminent sense, wherever ocean and land transpor- tation meet; that is, where goods brought by sea are landed and those brought by land are transferred to ships. The great COMMERCE DEPENDS ON LAND AND SEA 27 markets of the world are therefore seaports, located either at the head of ocean navigation on rivers, as London, Hamburg, Antwerp, Montreal, Philadelphia (Fig. 12), Baltimore, New Orleans, or else at the head of bays having good connections inland, as Boston, New York, and San Francisco. Important seaports, serving as entrepots, or distributing points, are likewise found wherever many lines of ocean transportation meet ; for many goods are there landed and transhipped. Hong-kong and Singapore are good examples. Such entrepots also arise where a narrow isthmus separates important bodies of water (Corinth, Panama). 39. The Termini of Inland Water Routes. Commercial cities likewise arise away from the seacoast wherever land and water transportation meet. This occurs "near the heads of great lakes, as at Duluth- Superior, and Chicago. It occurs also at the head of river navigation (Trenton, St. Paul); where several rivers and river valleys converge (St. Louis, Pittsburgh); near falls or rapids which impede navigation (Louisville); at the bridge nearest the mouth of a great river (Memphis); and where a great bend occurs in an important river or river valley (Cincinnati, Kansas City). What a vital part water transportation plays in commerce may be judged from the fact that of the twenty largest cities in the United States, nine are on the coast, five on the Great Lakes, five on the Mississippi, the Missouri, and the Ohio, and one on the Potomac. 40. The Crossing of Land Routes. Finally, important cities are also created by the meeting of several lines of land transportation, that is, of caravan routes or railways. Such centers of population are fixed, not less than harbor and river cities, by the surface of the country. They are either in the center of extensive plains, where the lines of trade and travel from all directions cross (Indianapolis), or they stand at the focus of radiating mountain passes. This sort of location, which built Vienna, Turin, and Milan, is equally responsible for Atlanta and Denver. a 8 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 41. Typical Military, Naval, and Commercial Sites. In contrast, therefore, to military cities, which were perched upon hills (Athens, Rome), the chief seats of commerce are found in the lowlands. Moreover in contrast to naval ports, which are located by preference at the extremities of peninsulas so as to have the longest radius of action by sea, commercial ports lie at the inner ends of bays so as to shorten the more expensive transportation by land. Brest in France, Pola in Italy, and the Dry Tortugas near Key West in Florida, are thus typical locations for naval ports; precisely as Le Havre, Trieste, and Mobile are for commercial ports. 42. The Paths of Ocean Commerce. The ocean can, indeed, be navigated in any direction, while a train must follow the rails. This is one great advantage of ocean transportation. Nevertheless there are certain routes, con- necting the principal commercial countries, which are always thronged with vessels, while other parts of the ocean seldom see a sail. (Fig. 14.) Ocean trade routes rarely follow a straight line. Even steamships shape their course more or less by the winds and currents (Fig. 216) since they may gain or lose fifty miles a day in this way. Again, the fogs and icebergs of the North Atlantic force vessels to follow a southerly course part of the year. Finally, projecting capes such as Sao Roque, Good Hope, and Horn modify all routes in their vicinity, while isthmuses such as Suez and Panama, unless cut through by man, would cause a detour of thousands of miles. Ocean trade routes are also controlled in a positive way by the loca- tion of much-frequented channels or ship canals connecting different seas; above all by the English and Florida channels, the Strait of Malacca, the Suez Canal, the Dardanelles, the Strait of Gibraltar, and the Panama Canal. Thus the barriers which limit commerce to-day are not water barriers, as in the ages before man had mastered navi- gation, but land barriers. wo' w 1*0" FIG. 14. Cor "o"* MAURITIUS r'eiv^ Marques ban COMMERCIAL HIGHWAYS OF THE WORLD Navigable Rivers Important Railway _ Important Steamship Lines(density of traffic) Steamship Lines determined by Panama Canal-- Copyright, iqio, by Rand McXally & Co rcial highways. IV HOW COMMERCE DEPENDS ON CLIMATE 43. Climate. Even more than soil, surface, or coast line, climate controls the industry and commerce of nations. In fact, it limits absolutely all natural products except minerals. And nothing shakes the commercial world to its foun- dations like a series of crop failures, due to unfavorable climatic conditions, such as prevailed in the West before the panic of 1893. Climate is simply the average of weather conditions; and its elements are heat, light, moisture, and wind. These factors taken together make up all the climatic differences between Alaska and the Sahara. 44. Why It Rains. Nothing in nature is more impressive than the dependence of human occupations on moisture. The most arid desert, as a rule, lacks nothing but rainfall to make it blossom as the rose ; and the most fertile farm land would speedily lapse into desert were the rain to cease. The causes which produce or hinder rainfall are therefore potent influences in the commerce of the world. (Fig. 15.) It is a fact (or law) of nature that warm air can hold more moisture than cold air. 1 In general, therefore, anything which chills the air considerably will tend to cause rain or snow. Conversely, air absorbs more moisture as it grows warmer. The conditions are thus favorable for rainfall: (i) when the air rises, as in passing over mountains or in approach- ing the centers of low atmospheric pressure 2 which travel from west to east in the Temperate zones; (2) when it blows from the sea toward a cooler land, as on the western coast of Europe in winter; (3) when it blows away from the equator, as in the region of prevailing southwesterly winds north of latitude 4oN. Salisbury, Physiography, Advanced Course, p. 569. 2 See one of the maps issued by the Weather Bureau. (2?) 30 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY On the other hand, drought is produced by a pronounced current of air moving: (i) toward the equator, as in the trade-wind belt (Sahara) ; (2) from higher to lower levels, like the Chinook wind which, descending from the Rocky Moun- tains, evaporates the heaviest snowfall almost over night; (3) from a colder sea toward a warmer land, as in parts of southwest Africa washed by a cold ocean current. The west coasts in Temperate zones, the east coasts in the Tropics, receive the prevailing winds fresh from the sea, the principal source of moisture. They are consequently as a rule tjie best-watered parts of the continents. 45. Causes Affecting Heat and Light. Heat is necessary for life; without it there could be no commerce. If need be, parts of a country can be irrigated; but no country can be artificially heated. The temperature of a region depends on several factors, the most important being its latitude or distance from the equator. (Fig. 1 6.) Latitude affects the temperature not because the sun is materially nearer at the equator, but because, as you go away from the equator, the rays of the sun strike less perpendicularly. The same explanation holds for the greater heat of summer, and likewise for the fact that hillsides facing the sun are somewhat warmer than level lands. It is for this reason that vineyards are tound as a rule on the southern slope in Europe, but on the northern slope in Australia. The second factor is altitude or elevation above sea level. Its effect may be thus roughly expressed: 320 feet elevation i degree of latitude =i degree F. 1 A climb up a mountain side in the Tropics to snow line would thus carry one through the same temperature and vegetation belts as a journey from the equator to the Arctic region a fact of vital import for the future of the white race in the Tropics. The third factor affecting temperature is the sea, which changes its temperature much more slowly than the land 'Harm, Climatology The data are 100 meters = o.57C.,or 328.08 feet= i.o26F. Also 50 latitude in the Northern Hemisphere = 5o.94F. ; in Southern = 49.86 F. COMMERCE DEPENDS O.V CLIMATE 31 and consequently moderates extremes both of heat and cold. Moreover, the ocean currents and the prevailing winds carry the heat of the regions whence they come far away into other lands. Thus Great Britain, surrounded by the sea, has an oceanic climate, neither very hot nor very cold; and the west winds, warmed by passing over a current (or rather a slow drift) of water from the Tropics, spread the influence of the Atlantic over all western Europe. 1 On the other hand, eastern Russia has a continental climate, marked by great extremes of heat and cold. Besides heat, light is necessary for the ripening of crops. Thus grain will not ripen in the Falkland Islands, which are not excessively cold, because the sky there is nearly always cloudy. Finally, the nearer to the poles, the longer are the days in summer, and the many hours of continuous sunshine (twenty or more in the higher latitudes) force vegetation to an extra- ordinarily rapid growth. (Figs. 17 and 171.) To this fact is due the extension of the grain belt far toward the poles. 46. The Relation of the Wind to Commerce. From the foregoing discussion it appears that the active agent in the distribution of moisture and heat is everywhere the wind. The wind system of the world is thus a factor of commanding importance in all industries that depend, directly or indirectly, on climate. Persistent winds blowing over the ocean moreover cause a drift of surface water in the same direction, which in some places develops into strong currents. Both winds and cur- rents, in addition to their climatic effects, materially influence ocean navigation, even in these days of steam. Sailing vessels, of course, depend absolutely on the winds and will always follow a longer course with favoring winds rather than a shorter course with adverse winds. Thus ships sailing from England to Australia commonly go out by way of the Cape of Good Hope, but return by way of Cape Horn, in 'Shaler, Nature and Man, p. 143; Salisbury, Physiography, p. 700. Anti-Trade Winds 3 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY order to take advantage of the strong west wind below lati- tude 40 S. The trade winds are perhaps even more available for navigation than the west winds, because less variable. 47. The Cause of the Wind. The cause of the wind is the unequal weight of the air in different parts of the world. (Fig. 1 8.) The force of gravity does the rest, promptly set- ting the heavier air in motion toward the areas of lighter air. These are FIG. 1 8. The cause of the trade winds. known as " areas of low pressure." The principal cause of this inequality in the weight of the air is the greater heat of the sun near the equator, which expands the air in the equatorial belt and thus makes it lighter. Another cause is the rotation of the earth, which tends to throw the air toward the equator, and thus by com- pression to make it heavier in that region. The joint effect of these two opposing forces is a belt of low pressure near the equator, and a belt or "ridge" of high atmospheric pressure at about 30 3 5 each side of the equator. From this belt of permanent high pressure in each hemisphere, known as the Horse Latitudes, the air moves toward the equator and also in opposite direction toward the poles, just as a spring on a water parting sends its waters down both slopes. The winds blowing toward the equator are the two trade winds, the winds blowing toward the poles are the prevailing westerlies of the Temperate zones all being turned from a direct north and south course by the rotation of the earth. 1 (Fig. 19.) 48. Prevailing Winds and Climatic Belts. Although the unequal heating of land and sea and the effect of ocean cur- rents and of mountains, cause great climatic differences, even in the same latitude, it is still possible to define belts of 'Salisbury, Physiography, chs. 16, 17. COMMERCE DEPENDS ON CLIMATE 33 similar winds and climate roughly parallel to the equator. The limits of all the wind and climatic belts shift north and south about 5 to 10 of latitude with the sun. (Fig. 20.) Going from the equator toward the pole, we find in each hemisphere six climatic belts or zones: the Equatorial, Subequatorial, Tropical, Subtropical, Temperate, and Frigid. 49. The Equatorial Zone. Near the equator, within the permanent belt of low atmospheric pressure, the warm air is always rising, much as it does over a heated stove, but more slowly. (Fig. 1 8.) NorthPole As a result there is very little sur- face wind, and the rising air, becoming chilled, drops part of its moisture in heavy rains. As the sun is vertical twice a year, once in the spring and again in the autumn, and each time strengthens this up-draft of heated air, there are two rainy seasons or rather, two sea- sons more rainy than the rest and two South Pole FIG. 19. The prevailing surface winds of the world. relatively dry seasons. This is the case, for example, at Panama. This belt of calms and rains, extending 5 to 10 each side of the equator, is known to sailors as the doldrums. Owing to the heavy rainfall, most of the belt is densely forested, and produces for export chiefly jungle products, such as rubber, mahogany, dye woods, besides ivory from certain jungle animals. The one important cultivated crop is cocoa. The soil is usually fertile, but the combination of constant heat 34 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY and humidity is debilitating; food sufficient to sustain life may be had for the picking, and clothes are not necessary to exist- ence. There is consequently little incentive to labor, and the natives have as a rule remained naked savages. Such condi- tions are well illustrated in the Amazon and Congo valleys. The mountains and elevated plateaus in this belt have of course quite a different type of climate and population, and yield different products, such as coffee, tea, and even wheat. 50. The Subequatorial Zones. Bordering the Equatorial zone in each hemisphere is a transition belt extending from 10 to perhaps 20 from the 'Westerly Wp^s ^ equator, where the two rainy seasons coming close together in summer merge into one, while in winter the drying trade wind blows. This is the Sub- equatorial or Savanna zone, abounding in grass lands, but treeless except where there are slopes steep enough to condense mois- ture from the trade wind. It is consequently the chief stock-raising zone within FIG. 20. Seasonal migration of winds the Tropics. Examples are and climatic belts cf world. the llanos of Venezuela, the campos of Brazil, the grasslands of Rhodesia, and of the Sudan in Africa. These grasslands bordering the equatorial forests do not cease abruptly but (in Africa, for example) pass gradually into deserts about latitude 18 to 20. 51. The Tropical Zones. The Tropical or trade-wind belt extends from the outer (or poleward) limit of the doldrums to perhaps 30 from the equator. The trade winds, formed by the heavier air pressing toward the equator, blow from the northeast in the Northern, COMMERCE DEPENDS ON CLIMATE 35 from the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere ; and since they move toward a warmer region, they tend to create deserts in level regions such as the Sahara, Arabia, and central Aus- tralia. On the other hand when chilled by rising over elevated coasts or mountains, they yield rain in torrents, as on the east coast of Central America. The level and therefore arid portions of the trade-wind belts play little part in commerce, being sparsely occupied by nomad shepherd tribes, though the desert oases do contribute dates for export. The humid portions, on the other hand, produce the bulk of the commercial staples peculiar to the Tropics, especially cane sugar and coffee. In many parts of the world, the unequal heating of sea and land causes the air to move toward the land in summer and toward the sea in winter. These monsoon winds find their greatest development in southern and eastern Asia, where, owing to the intense heat in the interior of the con- tinent during the summer, the northeast trade wind is diverted from its usual course, or even entirely overpowered, and the heavier air over the oceans rushes from all directions toward the interior of Asia. To this summer monsoon wind are due the abundant rainfall, the productivity, and the dense popu- lation of India, the Philippines, and southern China, which lie in the latitude of the Sahara. (Figs. 15 and 17.) This monsoon region produces most of the rice, tea, silk, jute, Manila hemp, and not a little of the cotton of the world. 52. The Subtropical Zones. Along the poleward edge of either trade-wind belt in the Horse Latitudes the currents of air which ascend at the equator again reach the surface of the earth, producing another belt of calms, or light and vari- able winds. (Fig. 18.) This is the Subtropical zone. Its location is in general about latitude 30 to 35, though in Europe it extends north in summer to latitude 40, or even 45 in southern France. These zones receive some rain in winter from the westerly wind, which then reaches farthest toward the equator, but COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY in summer come under the influence of the drying trade wind, which then begins farthest from the equator. Moreover the descending air cur- rents, growing warmer as they de- scend, tend to pro- duce drought. The Subtropical zones are therefore in the main semi-arid, especially in sum- mer when irrigation is often necessary, and they contain patches of true desert. Southern California, Arizona, and the Mediterra- nean region are familiar examples. (Fig. 21.) This type FIG. 21. Grove of date palms, Biskra, of c ii mate j s most Algeria. , . , , clearly marked on the western side of the continents, while toward the east it is interrupted by summer rains of monsoon or cyclonic origin, notably in Asia and North America. Commercially, the Subtropical zone is important chiefly through its production of southern fruits and nuts especially grapes, figs, olives, almonds, oranges, and lemons for most of which it is no doubt the original home. In the regions of summer rains, however, especially in the .United States, the staple crops are cotton and tobacco. 53. The Temperate Zones. The air current moving from the Horse Latitudes toward the pole blows ^rom the southwest in the Northern, from the northwest in the Southern Hemi- sphere. This is the "Brave West Wind" of sailors, which is COMMERCE DEPENDS ON CLIMATE 37 strongest in the "Roaring Forties" of the Southern Hemi- sphere, where there is little land to obstruct its course. It is usually rain-bearing, except when descending from higher to lower levels on mountain sides, or when traversing plains as warm as the air. The rainfall in these zones is naturally heaviest on the western coasts and on the western slopes of mountains exposed to the west winds. (Fig. 7.) The distribution of moisture is also profoundly affected by the great whirling storms, a thousand miles or more in diameter (cyclones, but not tornadoes) which, in the Temperate zones, surround temporary areas of low pressure as they move from west to east around the world. The warm moist air from the oceans, blowing toward these areas of low pressure, penetrates thousands of miles into the interior of the continents. (Fig. 2 1 a.) Largely through the influence of these cyclonic storms the Temperate zones are well watered, except where lofty mountains intervene. (Fig. 15.) Examples are the greater part of the United States, Canada, northern Europe, and Asia. Measured by temperature, the limits of the Temperate zones are very irregular, as they extend from about latitude 35 to latitude 50 on the east coasts and to 60 (in places even 70) on the west coasts of the continents, where the west winds from the oceans moderate the winters. Perhaps the most satisfactory poleward limit is the line of 50 F. for the warmest month, that being the heat necessary to maintain forests and ripen hardy crops. (Fig. 16.) Commercially, the Temperate zones are most important for the production of breadstuffs and live stock. They are also the seat of the leading mining, manufacturing, and com- mercial nations. 54. The Frigid Zones. In the Frigid zones where the soil is always frozen, except a few inches on top, and where darkness prevails throughout a considerable part of the year, the sea rather than the soil is the source of food and the most severe effort produces barely enough to sustain life, leaving no surplus for the higher uses of man. These regions therefore 3 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY contribute almost nothing to commerce, and their inhabit- ants have never of their own efforts risen above savagery. 55. The Relation of Climate to Man. The climate largely determines men's occupations, food, and dress. It also in a measure stimulates or checks their emotions, directs their thoughts, and subtly moulds their whole constitution and temperament. Tropical peoples are more impetuous, but less tenacious of purpose and far less energetic in labor, than those of colder zones. For this reason no ruling race has ever had its seat within the Tropics, at least in the moist regions; nor has any civilized nation ever arisen there, except such as dwelt at considerable elevations above sea level. There is, however, a sharp distinction between the natives of humid regions in the Tropics and the desert dwellers, who have ever been more energetic and independent, as witness the Arabs. In the Temperate zones, on the other hand, the changes of the seasons are favorable to activity and energy ; and the gifts of nature, being neither altogether lacking nor yet super- abundant, at once encourage and compel man to supplement nature through his own efforts. A temperate climate is thus the most favorable for the development of man. Civilization, indeed, may be defined as a by-product (or incidental result) of the effort necessary to sustain life. Moreover, within the North Temperate zone, the seat of power has shifted far toward the north since the dawn of his- tory. From Egypt and Babylon, located just outside the Tropics, the scepter of dominion passed successively to Persia, Greece, and Rome; when Rome fell, her heritage went to the peoples beyond the Alps. To-day there is no great nation whose capital is much nearer the equator than 40; London is north of 50; and Washington is about 39 north. The temperate zones originate three-fourths of the world's commerce; and the leadership of the world, in industry, commerce, and politics, rests with peoples reared under an inclement sky and schooled to severe labor for their daily bread. VHOW COMMERCE DEPENDS ON MAN "Oh, East is East, and West is West, and never the twain shall meet." Kipling. 56. The Relation of Man to Commerce. The basis of commerce is unlikeness of products in different regions, which must consequently exchange their products in order to satisfy their wants. This condition constitutes geographic division of labor, which it is the business of commercial geography to study and explain. Unlikeness of products may be due to difference in natural resources or to difference in the wants and the productive efficiency of different peoples. The wants of men are the motive power behind all industry and commerce. For this reason, to civilize a savage, the first and most indispensable step is to give him wants. The native of the Tropics, and the savage everywhere, having few wants, cannot be depended on for regular labor. But let the savage once learn to crave new kinds of food or clothes or anything else which he can only secure by labor and he becomes forthwith a laborer. The efficiency of men as producers consequently varies greatly ; and this variation is reflected in the existing economic conditions throughout the world. England and the Sudan, for example," differ not less in the character of their inhabitants than they do in natural resources. Such difference in wants and productive efficiency may result from either the inherited and more or less involuntary characteristics of various peoples, associated with difference in race, religion, custom, language, and nationality; or it may result from their voluntary and purposeful activities, such as the services of government, the system of taxation, commer- cial policies, and the regulation of weights and measures, money, banks, and education. (39) 40 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 57. The Influence of Race. Since the dawn of history some 6,000 years ago, the white, yellow, and black races have been fixed types; and the white race has always been most largely represented in commerce. It would therefore be a waste of time to discuss the business condition or prospects of such countries as Haiti or China without regard to the well ascertained traits of their inhabitants. (Fig. 200.) The chief branches of the white race have in like manner become more or less distinct. A Hebrew is usually unmis- takable, while certain common qualities distinguish the Latin, Teutonic, and Slavic nations from one another. These common qualities, however they originated, control commerce quite as directly as does physical environment. Racial difference assuredly has much to do with the startling contrast, in com- merce as in other respects, between the Portuguese in Brazil and the English-speaking population of North America. 58. The Influence of Religion. , The direct influence of religion upon industry and commerce is far from insignificant. For example, the Jew may not eat pork, nor the Brahman beef; the Catholic is limited to fish on certain fast days; and the Mohammedan is forbidden to use alcoholic liquors. These and other religious rules, such as the numerous holidays required by some religions, affect in important respects the industry and commerce of extensive regions. The indirect influence of religion, while subtle and difficult to state, is still more far reaching. Thus the stagnation of China for the iast thousand years was certainly due in part to Confucianism, the state religion, which exalted the wise men of old so greatly that every innovation appeared a mortal sin. "Whatever has not been, must not be," is the Confucian creed. Again, the decay of the Mohammedan peoples cannot be explained without reference to their fatalism. "Nothing hap- pens but by the will of Allah; why then disturb one's self?" So the Turk reasons ; and logically enough he will hardly bestir himself to throw on water if his house catches fire. Still less, of course, will he bestir himself to labor. If riches come COMMERCE DEPENDS ON MAN 41 to him, it is well; if not, it is also well. However restful such a creed may appear in this strenuous age and country, it is clearly not favorable to industry or commerce. 59. The Influence of Custom and Morality. Peoples long isolated from others are not infrequently hostile to foreigners and to everything of foreign origin. In the interior of China, for example, travelers were sometimes driven to adopt the native garb, even to the "pig tails" (long braids of hair) in order to escape insult and possible injury. The same hostility limits the sales of foreign goods, and leads at times to organized boycotts against them. In like manner, the peons (laborers) in Mexico and Central America refuse to use, and they some- times destroy, modern tools and farm machinery, preferring their wooden hoes and plows. Such a disposition opposes great obstacles to commercial development. Again, since trade was at first a substitute for war (i), a man went down into the market place bent on getting the better of the foreigner, whom he continued to regard as his enemy 1 . Substantially this conception of trade has survived to the present day in most parts of Asia and Africa, where time is not money, where the aim is to make a large profit on a few sales, and cheating seems to be entirely according to the rules of the game. The same method is also pursued in many cases by the huckster and peddler (to say nothing of the horse trader) the w^orld over. On the other hand, the method of small profits but large sales is increasingly characteristic of western civilization; and when carried to its logical conclusion, it means full weight and measure, one price for all, and the sale of goods strictly on their merits. Moreover, since business has come to be transacted so largely on credit, it rests almost entirely on mutual confidence between man and man. Without confidence, indeed, modern business would be impossible. For this reason, business morality must be reckoned at least as essential to success in commerce as intelligence, or skill of hand, or ample resources. 'The Latin word hostis means both "foreigner" and "enemy." 4* COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 60. The Influence of Language. Difference of language is a hindrance to commercial as to social intercourse, imposing as it does the necessity of maintaining a class of interpreters able to use several languages. (Fig. 229,) In this respect, western Europe is less favorably circumstanced for commerce to-day than in the Middle Ages, when Latin was the common language of business, as it was of literature and government. In the hope of overcoming this barrier of language, artificial languages such as Esperanto have been invented; but a true world language will doubtless come, if it comes at all, by the spread and modification of some existing language. Many believe that English would stand the best chance of universal acceptance if only its spelling could be completely reformed. The leading languages of commerce, measured by extent of territory, include: English in the widely scattered British Empire and the United States; Spanish, throughout most of America south of the Rio Grande; Russian, prevalent over nearly half of Europe and of Asia; Chinese, spoken by a fourth of the human race in eastern Asia; and Arabic, current in the native marts from western Africa to central Asia. In addition, there are two curious mongrel dialects of some commercial importance: Lingua Franca, a mixture of French, Italian, and Arabic, spoken in the eastern Mediterranean ports; and Pidgin English (Business English) a mixture of English and Chinese, commonly used in the ports of the western Pacific. 61. The Influence of Nationality. The modern conception of nationality is, in brief, that a man belongs to the nation for which, in case of necessity, he must bear arms. Never- theless, behind this tie of military allegiance there are commonly other and stronger bonds of union, such as com- munity of language, interests, and ideals. In default of such bonds, the mere obligation of military service tends to lose its force. Austria-Hungary, with its warring races and languages, was a case in point. Moreover, the type of man which predominates in a nation determines its attitude toward industry and trade. COMMERCE DEPENDS ON MAN 43 What this type shall be depends not alone on the soil, climate, and natural resources of the country, but also on its history. Thus commerce, held in the highest honor by Phoenicians, was by the Romans esteemed the work of slaves. In like manner, the seven hundred years' war of the Spaniards against the Moors, followed by the Spanish discovery and conquest of the New World, made the object of their desire wealth obtained by conquest rather than by industry or commerce. 62. The Services of Government. Unless the government be able and willing to protect life and property, and especially unless the courts be honest and courageous, a fatal blight falls upon the land. "Men will not work, still less will they save, without reasonable prospect of enjoying the fruit of their labors. This explains in large part the poverty of tropical South America, where the governments sometimes vie with the revolutionists in robbing the people, and the courts often represent merely the will of the dictator of the hour. In addition to protection, the government sometimes renders direct aid to commerce: for example, in the care of rivers and harbors; the building of lighthouses, life-saving stations, roads, bridges, wharves, docks, and canals; the preser- vation of fish and forests; the reclamation of waste lands by irrigation and drainage; the publication of geological maps, sailing charts, consular reports, weather and agricultural bulletins; the establishment of colonies; and the protection of commerce across the sea. These governmental aids to industry and commerce have assumed great importance in recent years, even in the United States, as shown by the forest reserves, and the comprehensive plans for irrigation, drainage, and the conservation of natural resources. Finally, there is an increasing tendency for governments to go into business on their own account, sometimes as a source of revenue, more often to insure the people better and cheaper service. In this country the government operates the postal system, while many cities have their'own water and lighting plants. In Europe this tendency has gone much further. 44 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY Most of the states there own the telegraph lines and the rail- ways; some of them have even established government monop- olies in salt, tobacco, opium, gasoline, and alcoholic liquors. 63. The System of Taxation. To support the govern- ment in the task of maintaining order and giving aid to com- merce, taxation is indispensable. This touches industry and trade at a thousand points. A tax system such as Philip II once tried to impose on the Netherlands (a tax on every sale of every article) would soon ruin the most flourishing country ; while on the other hand a country may prosper under a heavy burden of taxation, provided it be laid on all citizens in pro- portion to their several tax-paying abilities. 64. The Effect of Commercial Policies. In modern times taxes on imports have been used by nearly all nations as a weapon of commercial warfare to build up certain of their own industries, supposedly at the expense of competing nations. Some countries grant direct bounties to encourage certain industries, as Canada has done for the manufacture of pig iron ; many pay subsidies to their merchant shipping either openly, or indirectly, as by excessive payments for the carriage of mails or exemption from canal or harbor dues. The wisdom of this whole protective system is indeed denied by many, who affirm that in the long run free trade would be more advantageous for all nations. Nevertheless protection still remains the general policy of most countries, and has the support of a considerable party even in England, the principal free- trade country of Europe. "Customs lines are an expres- sion of the struggle for existence as it stands at the beginning of the twentieth century." 65. Weights, Measures, and Grading. If business is to be transacted with certainty and dispatch, it is essential that there be common units of weight and measure. With the growth of international trade, it has become increasingly desirable that these units be common to all the nations. For this reason the metric system, invented in France, has been accepted by most civilized nations except those speaking COMMERCE DEPENDS ON MAN 45 English. This system, being based on ten and multiple? thereof, facilitates reckoning. On the other hand, English and American firms doing an export business are at a disadvantage because pounds and feet are entirely unfamiliar to their foreign customers. (Table 2.) Of perhaps equal importance is the system of government inspection and grading of staple commodities such as wheat. It at once insures the purchaser against fraud, and it makes possible the storage (Fig. 22) and shipment of the commodity in car-load or ship-load lots. The system of grading and FIG. 22. The modern type of elevator in use at Minneapolis, The grain is stored in separate steel or concrete tanks as a protection against fire. handling in bulk has contributed hardly less than improve- ments in railways and steamships to cheapen transportation and to extend commerce. Another step in the same direction was signalized by the United States Food and Drugs Act, extending government inspection and certification to foods and drugs, so as to protect the consumer against adulteration. The tendency of such legislation is to inspire greater confidence in American products abroad and thereby to create a better market for them. 4 6 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 66. Time Belts. Since time is marked by the sun, a place farther east has naturally a different time from one farther west. To avoid the confusion caused by frequent changes of time, the railroads some years ago agreed to divide North America into five time belts, each having a time exactly an hour earlier than the belt next toward the west. Railroad or standard time has now come into general use by the public. A similar plan has also been adopted in Europe. (Fig. 23.) As dawn travels in an unbroken course from east to west around the world, it is necessary, in order to avoid confusion FIG. 23. Standard time belts in the United States. as to dates, to fix an International Date Line where each day shall begin. This line follows in the main the iSoth meridian west of Greenwich, England. When it is Sunday noon at Greenwich, Monday is just beginning at the International Date Line. (Fig. 14.) 67. The Machinery of Exchange. Long before any organ- ized government existed, the inconveniences of barter caused people to use as a measure of value and a medium of exchange some commodity, such as cattle, silver, or gold, which nearly every one desired. Any commodity so used was money. COMMERCE DEPENDS OAT MAN 47 Money was thus not created by government, but its regu- lation is now one of the most important functions of the government in all civilized countries. If the money fluctuates in value, as paper money did in the United States during the Civil War, no man can tell whether he will gain or lose by any transaction; consequently confidence is destroyed and com- merce stagnates. At the present time, all important countries except China base their money on gold; that is to say, silver and paper money are made redeemable in gold. Equally essential to prosperity is a sound banking system. If banks are lacking, or if they do not command general confi- dence, the people will hide their money, which is thus with- drawn from circulation. The result is that men who need to borrow money must pay an exorbitant rate of interest, and commerce again stagnates. Moreover, certain banks (Federal Reserve Banks in the United States) issue bank notes which circulate as money; while checks and drafts also, in effect, take the place of money in the payment of debts. Finally, banks settle accounts against one another through institutions known as clearing houses, where credits offset debits and only the differences or balances are paid in money. Essentially the same result is reached in the settlement of international trade balances by the use of foreign exchange or orders-to-pay, drawn by merchants in one country against their debtors in other countries. In the settlement of international trade balances, London is virtually the clearing house for the world. 68. The Bearing of Education on Commerce. Prior to the industrial revolution inaugurated by steam and continued by electricity, most industries were carried on by hand ; and the knowledge of the practical arts was handed down from genera- tion to generation by the apprentice system. In the last century, however, since the rise of science and the victorious advance of power machinery into nearly all the fields form- erly occupied by hand labor, the apprentice system has all but disappeared in the principal industrial countries. 48 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY In like manner, markets were local in the old days, when nearly all industries were neighborhood industries. In such circumstances, the ability to read and write and figure sufficed for the transaction of business ; but the division of labor and the development of transportation have separated ever farther producers and consumers and thrust between them the whole immense machinery of modern commerce. Moreover, the expense of marketing goods is an integral part of the expense of producing them. Inefficiency in commerce thus tends just as effectually as inefficiency in production to increase the cost, limit the output, and lower the quality of goods. It follows, therefore, that while the old method of training for industry and commerce has broken down, the necessity for wide information and trained judgment is greater to-day than ever before. In view of these facts, all the leading nations have at last awakened to the necessity for a thorough technical education. Knowledge is power no less among nations than among men ; and just as the untrained man cannot compete with the trained athlete, so the uneducated nation is helpless against the educated nation. In this age of machinery and speciali- zation, therefore, that country which, having the necessary natural resources, educates most effectively for agriculture, manufactures, and commerce will inevitably become master of the world's markets. To such education, more than to any other single factor, was due the extraordinarily rapid rise of Germany as a commercial nation; but German ambi- tion was directed toward political as well as commercial domination. VI HOW COMMERCE DEPENDS ON ECONOMIC FORCES v>. 69. The Nature of Economic Development. The Greeks fabled that Athena, the goddess of wisdom, sprang full-armed from the head of Zeus; and the Egyptians traced every prac- tical art to some special deity. But we know that skill of hand and knowledge of natural laws have been slowly acquired through the ages, each generation adding a little to the precious heritage, until civilized man has now chained many of the forces of nature to his chariot. However complex this process of economic development may be in its details, it is singularly simple in its main features. The savage, like the beast of the forest, is dependent for his food upon what nature spontaneously provides. Civiliza- tion, in the economic sense, is merely an organized attempt to increase and supplement the free gifts of nature, using for this purpose the materials and forces available in nature. If food and clothes and everything else needed by men were supplied by nature as abundantly as the air we breathe if, in short, as Kingsley fabled,. plum puddings grew on trees and geese flew about already roasted there would be no need for labor, and there would consequently be no. such thir.g as civilization. In order to supplement the gifts of nature most effectively, civilized man has hit upon the division of labor. It is an old proverb that "a jack of all trades is master of none." On the other hand, a man who confines himself to one line of work naturally becomes more skiHful in it. Moreover, some parts of the world are especially fitted, by climate or natural resources, for certain industries. Finally, by means of com- merce the surplus products of all classes of workers and all parts of the world are exchanged, thus giving to each the benefit of the skill and natural resources of all. (49) 50 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY The essence of economic development is thus: (i) increasing division of labor, between classes and between countries; and (2) increasing development of commerce, both internal and foreign. 70. Geographic Division of Labor. So far as transporta- tion facilities permit, each industry tends to become localized: (i) where soil and climate are the most suitable; (2) where raw materials and coal, or water power, are the most abun- dant; (3) where the largest markets are easiest of access; (4) where there is already at hand a supply of labor skilled in that particular industry. It rarely happens that one district combines all of these favoring conditions. Not infrequently, indeed, an industry once firmly rooted will hold its own with surprising tenacity long after all the conditions which at first favored its devel- opment in that locality have passed away; for there remain capital already invested in that industry which cannot be readily turned to other uses, business experience, business prestige, and a supply of skilled labor. This fact serves to explain many of the seeming anomalies of economic geography, such as the persistence of metal industries in New England after iron ore had practically ceased being smelted in that section. 71. The Principle of Maximum Returns. The four factors controlling the localization of industries (70), reduce, in practice, to one the principle of maximum returns. Resources are due to nature, but products are due to man: or rather they are due to individual men, each seeking to make for himself the best possible livelihood. Nature thus controls industry only in so far as it enters into the economic calculations of individuals, by rendering one industry more profitable than another in any given locality. Moreover, it is not enough that one industry yield more per acre than another; it must yield more per man. If a farmer can, with the same labor, grow ten acres of sugar beets at a profit of $50.00 per acre, or one hundred acres of corn at a profit COMMERCE DEPENDS ON ECONOMIC FORCES 51 of $10.00 an acre, he will assuredly plant his land to corn, provided he has land enough. The principle of maximum returns to the proprietor of the business is consequently decisive as to what industries shall be developed. It is indeed' customary and convenient to speak of what the "United States" produces, or exports, or imports. In point of fact, however, industry and commerce are carried on, not by nations, but by individuals; and it is merely the sum total of private production and trade which we call the national production and trade. This pursuit of personal interest sometimes degenerates into the desire to get something for nothing, as in "bargain hunting," or into the craze to get rich quickly. But it happens that, to a considerable extent, the interests of the individual and of society coincide. In order to secure the maximum profit a man must (except in case of monopolies) so direct his labor as to produce the most goods at the least cost; and this, viewed from the standpoint of society, amounts to supple- menting most effectively the free gifts of nature. 72. Maximum Returns from Land. Where land is prac- tically free (as it was on the American frontier a generation ago), the farmer aims to spread his labor over as much land as possible, so long as he thereby increases his crops in the aggregate. This system of extensive farming, still exemplified by wheat raising in the Northwest, yields little to the acre, but much to the man and the team. So long as population is scanty and land is cheap, this is consequently the most profitable system of farming. As population grows denser and the land acquires value, however, more intensive farming (that is, the use of more labor and capital on a given amount of land) becomes neces- sary to secure the maximum profit. After this has been carried to a certain point, it involves the introduction of other crops, such as sugar beets, fruit, tobacco, or garden truck, that call for more labor but yield larger returns per acre than wheat or other staple crops. 52 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY This economic principle of maximum returns often clashes with and overrides purely geographical considerations. It is evident, for example, that the rising value of land, due to the introduction of other crops, may force wheat into a subordinate place in the crop system of the very districts best adapted to it by nature as occurred in the Genesee Valley or may exclude it altogether from such districts, if the land can be used more profitably in other ways. The same principle applies to city property. Cheap land usually has cheap buildings upon it; while the most valuable sites in the business district are occupied by the finest office buildings, for only such buildings can pay a reasonable return on the price of the land. 73. Maximum Returns from Capital. Robinson Crusoe, though cast upon a desert island, had at his disposal the resources of civilization, represented by the spoils from the wrecked ship. Without such resources, he must have made a sorry failure in his attempt to wrest a living from nature. As this illustration shows, capital in the form of tools and other instruments of production is indispensable to effective labor. The problem for the farmer, as for the factory manager, is so to combine capital and labor, together with the proper amount of land, as to secure the maximum returns. Many operations, such as reaping grain or making shoes, may be performed either by hand labor or by machinery. In each case the cheaper method will naturally be adopted. As a general thing, hand labor is cheap in old and densely- peopled countries, but dear in new countries; for which reason new countries, such as the United States, make extensive use of machinery. Extensive use of machinery, in turn, generally favors large- scale production. A large farm, like a large factory, can more profitably use expensive machinery. Large-scale pro- duction in turn tends to localize the industries where machin- ery can best be used. Thus the bonanza wheat farms of the Northwest and of the Pacific slope have been made possible COMMERCE DEPENDS ON ECONOMIC FORCES 53 by the perfection of planting and harvesting machinery. 74. Maximum Returns from Labor. The cost of labor is measured not so much by the wages paid as by the effi- ciency of the laborer. As a matter of fact, highly paid labor is usually the cheapest. Thus skilled laborers in the United States as a rule turn out more goods for every dollar of wages they receive than do laborers in countries where they get only ten to twenty cents a day. There are, however, some industries requiring much hand- labor, which are poverty-industries, carried on only where there is a large population, a low standard of living, and consequently a low rate of wages. Examples are the produc- tion of raw silk, tea, flax fiber, and, in the United States, of ready-made clothing. (494, 498.) Moreover, the maximum returns both for the individual and for society are attained when the ablest manager is in control of the most efficient capital goods and the most fertile or best located land. For this reason an able farmer is seldom found on poor land, or using worn-out machinery; while on the other hand a tumble-down farm and a tumble-down farmer usually go together. Further, labor like machinery must be steadily employed if it is to yield the maximum returns. This principle is of special importance in agriculture, since a farmer who grows only one crop, such as wheat, may be idle the larger part of the year. This is a clear economic waste. As a general thing, a farmer will therefore secure the maximum returns if he plants several crops which demand his attention at different times of the year. For this reason, crops are often grown far beyond their natural geographical limits, like oats in the South, if they happen not to require attention at the same season as the principal crop of the section. 75. Complementary Industries. On the basis of the season when they call for labor, the principal field crops of the United States have been divided 1 into three non-competing groups: 'Taylor, Agricultural Economics. 4 54 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY the winter grains, sown in the fall; the spring small grains; and the crops requiring cultivation early in the growing season (inter-tilled crops) such as cotton, tobacco, corn, sugar beets and other root crops. To these may be added as non-com- peting industries the raising of poultry and live stock for the market, since these require attention mostly in the winter; while dairy cattle, if more in number than the women and children can care for, usually take the attention of the men away from the crops at all seasons. For this reason, stock raising for the market is often a side industry; while dairying tends, wherever established (unless in the form of winter dairy- ing) to supersede the production of crops for the market. Again, the principle of maximum returns for labor often leads to the establishment of complementary manufacturing industries. Examples are the silk and other textile mills (em- ploying chiefly women) near iron and steel mills (employing only strong men) in eastern Pennsylvania, in the Rhine and Ruhr basins of Europe, and elsewhere. Such textile mills are due to the presence of unemployed labor rather than to geo- graphical conditions. Further, there is a most intimate relation between the sev- eral industries, so that the development or decline of one usually affects a number of others. Thus the growth of intensive or scientific farming in Europe created a demand for fertilizers, which has given rise to an immense nitrate trade with Chile; and this trade, giving low rates on return cargoes, has in turn favored European exports to South America. 76. The Influence of Substitution. There are few articles in use for which some substitute, more or less imperfect of course, cannot be found. For example, wheat bread is more palatable than rye bread ; but whenever wheat is scarce and expensive, rye is largely substituted for it, thus advancing somewhat the price of rye and checking the violent rise in the price of wheat which would otherwise occur. Again, whenever a new and cheaper article is permanently substituted for one previously in use, it gives rise to a new COMMERCE DEPENDS ON ECONOMIC FORCES 55 industry, which more or less supplants an old industry. In most cases this involves changes in the geographic division of labor, and consequently in the direction of commerce. Thus petroleum has largely taken the place, for lighting and lubricating purposes, of whale oil. This substitution has almost driven whaling fleets from the ocean. So also cotton- seed oil, a by-product of cotton ginning, competes sharply with cocoanut and olive oil; butterine and oleomargarine, made from animal fats and cotton-seed oil, compete with butter; and beet sugar competes with cane sugar. Perhaps the most far-reaching substitution on record was that of cotton for other textile materials, following the inven- tion of the cotton gin, which multiplied and cheapened many fold the supply of raw cotton. As a result, the South special- ized in cotton culture, depending on the North and on Europe for manufactures; and there grew up the immense modern trade in cotton and cotton products. In like manner the phosphate beds in the South have stimu- lated the demand for sulphuric acid, which is employed in preparing phosphatic fertilizers. .Finally the supply of some articles has been enlarged, with revolutionary effect on commerce, through the use of by-prod- ucts previously thrown away. In some cases new commodities of great importance have been produced in this way. Thus gas and coal-tar are obtained from coal during the slow com- bustion necessary to produce coke; and from coal-tar in turn other valuable products are secured, including aniline dyes which have largely superseded vegetable and animal dyes. 77. The Law of Decreasing Returns. In every sort of production, the essential factors are land, labor, and capital. Moreover, they must be combined in the right proportion if they are to yield the maximum profit; in other words, a man would assuredly need more men and more teams to farm a section of land than a half section. If this right proportion is once reached and an attempt is then made to enlarge the business without increasing all three factors, the right proportion is 56 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY again destroyed and the returns cannot possibly increase proportionately. For example, if the farmer in question, after getting the right number of men and teams for his sec- tion sho'uld continue to hire more men without providing more teams or machinery, he would largely increase his expenses without getting much larger crops. It is in connection with land that this law of decreasing (or diminishing) returns is most important ; for the land surface of the earth is limited by nature and cannot be materially increased by man. It is, moreover, in agriculture that the land plays the largest role as a factor in production. Agri- culture is consequently the industry most seriously affected by the law of decreasing returns. As applied to land used in agriculture, this law amounts merely to the statement of a fact familiar to every farmer boy that crops do not continue to increase in proportion to the labor employed upon the land. In other words, two men and two teams cannot raise twice as much wheat or cotton on a forty-acre farm as one man and one team. There is no getting away from this fundamental fact, even though improved machinery or methods should double or quadruple the yield of the land. It would still be true that two men could not raise twice as much wheat or cotton on a forty-acre farm as one man, using the same improved methods and machinery. In these circumstances it is inevitable that as population grows denser there is a smaller surplus of agricultural products, especially of foodstuffs, for export, until finally the land no longer suffices to feed the people. Such has been the expe- rience of England and Germany; and already New England, like Old England, contains three times as many people as it can feed from its own soil. No nation, therefore, is so near famine as the one which, with a dense population, devotes itself exclusively to agricul- ture. This fact receives terrible illustration in China and India where the people can barely live even in years oi COMMERCE DEPENDS ON ECONOMIC FORCES 57 abundant harvests, and whenever the lean years come, the natives die by millions of starvation unless fed by foreign charity. In such countries, indeed, famine is practically the normal condition. 78. How the Law of Decreasing Returns is Offset. For thousands of years, in the Old World, every generation faced this grim riddle : how to maintain an increasing population on a fixed area of land? For failure to answer it, the penalties imposed by Nature were famine and pestilence ; and the only alternatives open to men were emigration or war. Until within a century, therefore, the law of decreasing returns in agriculture has constantly urged nations to war for the con- quest of more land, since that seemed the only way of increas- ing their food supply. 1 Not the ambition of kings but the struggle for existence of nations was thus the impelling force behind most of the great wars of history. With the introduction of power machinery and of steam, however, a new answer to the old riddle became possible; namely, the export of manufactured goods and the import of foodstuffs from new countries which are still sparsely popu- lated. This is obviously the geographic division of labor on a scale never before dreamed of. England, where power machinery and steam traction were invented, showed the way in this solution of the problem; and all the densely populated countries possessed of coal or water power, ^ogether with the requisite skill and intelligence, have long since hastened to follow England's example. This was the true meaning of Chancellor von Caprivi's famous declaration that "Germany must export either men or goods." 79. Economic Competition and War. Commercial suprem- acy thus means everything in the twentieth century that military supremacy meant in the days of Alexander and of Cassar. At bottom, in fact, the ever-growing competition iSee the author's War and Economics in the Political Science Quar- terly, December, 1900; also reprinted in Carver's Sociology and Social Progress. 58 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY between manufacturing nations for foreign markets is a form of warfare in which the intelligent and industrious survive, while the others are crowded to the wall among those desig- nated by Lord Salisbury as "the dying nations." Already this struggle for markets has become not less keen than was of old the struggle for land. Moreover, it has caused the foundation of new and the enlargement of old colonial empires. In order to guard their colonies and trade routes the nations of Europe have built mighty navies and sown the Courtesy of the Honorable Bartlett Tripp, foi FIG. 24. Pago Pago Harbor, where a coaling station for the United States Navy is now located. seas with fortified cable and coaling stations. (Fig. 24.) Finally, more than one war has been waged, like that between Russia and Japan, to secure or avert a monopoly of trade. When all is said and done the cannon remains the last argument, not of kings, as the old inscription reads, 1 but of nations; and it is true to-day, as never before, that the path to national prosperity and power lies over the waves. 1 Formerly engraved on cannons: Ultima ratio regum. VII THE DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSPORTATION "Those inventions which abridge distance have done most for civilization." Macaulay. 80. The Influence of Transportation. A tethered horse cannot graze beyond the length of his tether; nor can com- merce extend farther, at any given period, than the expense of transportation allows. Many of the older generation now living have heard their grandmothers tell how clothing was spun and woven at home. In those days nearly everything was produced on the premises where it was consumed; to-day, the four quarters of the earth are ransacked to furnish what we eat, wear, and use in our homes. This change is, in the main, the result of improved trans- , 5 10 ,. 30 portation, which promotes the geo- graphic division of labor and con- sequently the development of commerce(6g, 70). IQOO I iSSo ; ' iS6o 1840 _ T _^ 1820 iSoo 'World, Hcju. of Commerce, 1'.09 FIG. 25. The development of world com- merce in billions .of dollars, during the nineteenth century. (Fig. 25.) Thus, New England now depends largely on the Dakotas for wheat, sending cotton goods and shoes in exchange. So also, in respect to meat, wool, cotton, and all other staple products; each is more and more confined to those regions best fitted for its production. So intimate, indeed, is the relation of transportation to commerce that every improvement in transportation is felt immediately, like an electric shock, through every part of the industrial and commercial world. 81. Communication by Messengers. Among savages and at early stages of civilization there was greater need for the communication of intelligence, usually relating to military or (59) 60 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY political affairs, than for the transportation of commodities. Such information was first conveyed by messenger. The runners employed by the Indians and by most ancient nations sometimes covered incredible distances. Phidippides, for example, ran from Athens to Sparta (nearly 150 miles by the road) in two days, before the battle of Marathon, to announce that the Persians had landed. The Peruvians before the Spanish Conquest, had regular relays of men stationed about a league apart, who were thus able to cover the ground at high speed, like runners in a modern relay race. The ancient Persians had similar relays of mounted messengers on all their main highways. From the ancient use of heralds to convey messages to other nations has come the whole modern system of consuls, who look after business interests, and ambassadors, who have charge of political affairs, in foreign countries. Their impor- tance has constantly grown with the increase of commerce. In barbarous states, like Turkey and China, consuls repre- senting civilized nations even have authority to try cases in which their countrymen are involved. 82. The Post. With the advance of civilization written messages came to prevail. The Romans were probably the first to organize a regular postal service (cursus publicus) which, however, was intended solely for the use of the govern- ment. National posts date from about the sixteenth century. The rapid and reliable service of to-day is of course altogether dependent on steam transportation. (Fig. 52.) The original idea was to make the post a source of revenue for the government by charging twenty-five cents or more for carrying a letter even a few miles. In 1840, however, the "Penny Post" was introduced in England. In 1845 the letter rate in the United States was reduced to five cents, and later to three cents (1851) and two cents (1883). Similar reductions were also made in other countries. These radical reforms vastly increased the volume of postal business, and consequently the commercial importance of the post. DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSPORTATION 61 The International Postal Union, which began operations in 1875, now includes all civilized and many barbarous states. The foreign letter rate is five cents, whatever the distance; though the United States applies the domestic rate of two cents not only to its outlying possessions, but also to Cuba, Panama, British Guiana, the British West Indies, Dominican Republic, Mexico, Canada, Newfoundland, Great Britain, Ireland, and New Zealand. In effect, the modern postal service has made all men through- out the world neighbors, and possible customers, of one another. 83. The Use of Signals. Signals, like messengers, were among the earliest means of communication. The ancient Fair weather Rain or snow Local rain Temperature Cold wave or snow N. E. winds S. E. winds N. IV. winds S. IV. 'winds Hurricane warning FIG. 26. Signals used by the United States Weather Bureau. Gauls stationed men within sight of one another to wave or shout the news, which thus crossed the country in a day. Signal smokes were commonly used by the Indians, and signal fires made the coming of the Spanish Armada known throughout all England in a few hours. Signals are still widely used. Fog horns and lighthouses warn vessels away from dangerous coasts or guide them into port. The weather forecasts are indicated by flags (Fig. 26) placed on towers and trains. The Army has a regular code of signals by mirrors that flash the sun's rays, and by flags, the latter system popularly called "wig -wag." Vessels at sea 6a COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY communicate by flags or cannon. At night rockets are used or the searchlight is flashed against the clouds. Another signaling device used at sea is a submarine bell attached to the ship. The sound carries through the water for con- siderable distances and is caught by receivers on other vessels. 84. The Telegraph. The greatest triumph of the signal system came, however, through the use of electricity (1844). Wires and cables running everywhere over the land and under the sea have now literally annihilated distance, so far as communication is concerned; though it is still true that we pay a tribute to Nature (and perhaps still more to the tele- graph and cable companies) in the form of heavy tolls for long-distance messages. A still more marvelous thing is wireless telegraphy. By piercing dense fogs and warning vessels of one another's presence, it has immensely increased the safety of ocean navi- gation. Thanks to wireless telegraphy, passengers now receive messages in mid-ocean from their friends ashore, and read the news in a daily paper published on shipboard. The telegraph has long since become an indispensable factor in commerce. It forms, indeed, the chief means by which the world-wide operations of modern industry and transportation are marshaled and controlled. In particular, it is essential to the safe and rapid operation of railways. It diminishes the stock which merchants need to carry, because orders can be speedily filled from the factory. It extends the market for staple commodities, such as wheat and cotton, till it includes the whole country or even the world. By so doing, it lessens the range and violence of price fluctuations; for a crop failure in one country may be offset by an abundant harvest in another, and the knowledge of this fact averts the danger of famine prices. 85. The Telephone. For local affairs the telegraph has been largely superseded by the telephone, which first came into general notice at the Centennial Exposition in Phila- delphia (1876). By means of this marvelous instrument, the DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSPORTATION 63 human voice is audible from New York to San Francisco. The telephone, moreover, competes, not only with the tele- graph, but also with the post, the railroad, and the street railway. One of the most effective telephone advertisements reads: "Don't go, don't write, don't telegraph, telephone!" The telephone enables business to be transacted at almost any distance and in a fraction of the time formerly required. The retailer is thus relieved from the necessity of carrying a large stock, since the wholesaler is within reach at a minute's notice; and the customer, in turn, is no longer dependent on the small neighborhood store, but has at his command without loss of time the large retail or department stores. In recent years the telephone has begun to penetrate the country, dispelling the loneliness which has hung about the farmer's home and bringing him in contact, not only with the city stores, but with the daily markets and events of the whole wide world. He is thus enabled to sell his crops and order his supplies without loss of time and whenever the prices are most advantageous. 86. The Tests of Transportation. As distinguished from communication, which has to do with ideas, transportation in the narrower sense is the conveyance of persons or commodi- ties from place to place. The tests of its efficiency are: (i) cheapness, that is economy of force; (2) speed, that is econ- omy of time. Efficiency means the conquest of natural bar- riers to commerce, such as seas, mountains, and deserts. To economize force and time, the most direct route, other things being equal, is the best. At sea it is possible, in the main, to follow a direct route; but it is impossible on land, since that would involve the construction of a road from every place in the world to every other place. Consequently, the best that can be done is to provide direct roads between great cities, with secondary roads branching off from these. 87. Methods of Transportation. The development of transportation may be considered with reference to the pro- pelling power, the way traversed, or the conveyance used. 64 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY The first power employed in transportation was muscular, derived either from man or beast. Later, natural forces such as winds, tides, and river currents came into use, mainly in connection with navigation. Finally, within the last 150 years, steam, and still later electricity, generated either by steam or water power, have become the great motive powers. Gasoline and compressed air are also of increasing impor- tance. All these are natural forces, but artificially generated and controlled. With reference to the way traversed, transportation is by land, by water, or by air; and land transportation may be divided into that carried on by road, by railroad, by pipe line, or by wire. Finally, traffic by road is distinguished according to the conveyances used porters, pack animals, sleds, or wheeled vehicles ; and wheeled vehicles may be further distinguished as wagons, bicycles, automobiles, and railway cars. 88. Human Porterage. It would seem, sad to relate, that the first "beast of burden" was woman. This was the case among savages for example, the American Indians partly because the men objected to labor, partly because they had to guard against sudden attacks by wild beasts or hostile tribes. This use of woman still survives in many parts of Europe, where it is no uncommon sight to see a peasant woman and a dog hitched side by side to a market cart. In some parts of Africa, where domestic animals suffer from the dreaded tsetse fly, human porters are the principal means of land conveyance. In China and Japan, moreover, the porters, sedan-bearers, and wheelbarrow and jinrikisha men perform the most extraordinary labor, all for a few cents a day, because overpopulation (relative to the means of pro- ducing wealth) has rendered human labor cheaper than that of beasts. Nevertheless, there is usually no mode of transportation so expensive, in proportion to the weight moved, as human porterage. (Fig. 27.) DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSPORTATION 65 89. Pack Animals. The domestication of animals suit- able for labor was thus a red-letter day in the history of man, providing for the first time not only a reliable food supply, but also ready means of transportation and the power necessary for agriculture. It is hardly an accident that civilization first developed in the Old World, where animals capable of domes- tication abounded, and that the most advanced civilization in America before the Spanish Conquest, the Peruvian, was associated with the llama and alpaca. In the mountains and in backward countries generally, pack animals are still the principal means of transportation, FIG. 27. Transportation by man pouter. drawn by one man. The lntc load is especially the sure-footed ass, the mule, and, in the Andes, the llama. But in arid regions, such as central Australia (Fig. 28) and the district around Goldfield, Nev., the motor car and the traction engine with its train of wide-tired wagons have come into use. In fact, they have even invaded the desert regions of the Old World and now threaten to displace the picturesque camel caravans, which for untold ages have moved on silent feet through the desert solitudes. 66 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY go. Wheeled Transportation. The cart was quite as epoch-making in its day as the locomotive. The first carts, FIG. 28. The modern "ship of the desert' 1 Traction engine and wagons in Australia. to be sure, were crude enough. They were entirely of wood, two-wheeled, hard to move, and made the most unearthly creaking at every turn of the wheels. Such were the carts in which the ancient Germans carried their families on their migrations, and in which the French traders came to St. Paul from the Red River Valley about fifty years ago. (Fig. 29.) Carts of this type are still largely used in Mexico and other backward countries. But crude as they were, wooden carts increased at least tenfold the loads that could be moved. FIG. 29. The old way Red River carts. With improved wagons, the increase was twenty-five to a hundredfold. The invention of the cart was consequently the DEVELOPMENT OF ^TRANSPORTATION 67 basis of land transportation and, therefore in great measure, of civilization, from the age of the Pyramid Builders to that of Queen Victoria. 91. The Construction of Roads. Wheeled vehicles, how- ever, were clearly limited to the open plains until roads had been constructed. Road building, therefore, marked the next great advance in land transportation. First begun in Mesopotamia, this work was carried out on a grand scale by the kings of Persia and later, in a still more magnificent way, by the Romans, whose roads were apparently built not for time but for eternity. For nearly two thousand years all western Europe depended on these Roman roads, using and abusing them with seldom a thought of repairs. It was not until the nineteenth century (1816), when Macadam applied the method of road-making named from him, that decent roads again began to be con- structed on any considerable scale. But at present, with the exception of certain mountainous districts in Spain and Portu- gal, which still linger in the pack-mule and wooden-cart stage of civilization, every country in western Europe has a network of splendid highways, stone-surfaced and with easy grades. Unfortunately, the same cannot be said of the United States. For the most part, especially in the West, the country districts still depend on dirt roads that become quagmires for several months each year, and even in their best condition compel loads to be reduced nearly three-fourths as compared with macadamized roads. 1 (Fig. 30.) On dirt roads, haulage thus costs fully twenty-five cents per ton-mile against six cents on macadamized roads. Moreover, the farmers are forced to market their crops whenever the roads are good, even though (as usually happens) the prices are then low; and the railroads are compelled to keep thousands of cars standing idle most of the year in order to have enough when the crops are moving. The cost of marketing crops is thus a crushing burden on American agriculture and commerce. ^Jenks, Road Legislation, p. 12. (Am. Econ. Assoc. 1889.) Courtly nf Department of Agrimilt" FIG. 30. More eloquent than words A mud road and the same road macadamized. DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSPORTATION 69 92. The Railroad. Distances are measured, for many of the purposes of commerce, not in miles but in hours. All the world to-day, by reason of steam, is no larger than the "tight little island" of Britain a century ago. Caesar and Napoleon, although separated by eighteen centuries, yet saw about them essentially the same modes of life, labor, and travel; but the present age, separated by less than a century from Napoleon, is unlike any that ever went before. Previous ages could judge of the future by the past ; but we have no means of telling what the future may bring forth. In all that pertains to industry, commerce, and government we are afloat on an unknown sea without compass or rudder. This transformation is the work of steam, aided in recent years by gasoline and electricity. Courtesy of C. O. \V. Ry. FIG. 31. Fifteen years' development in locomotives. The railroad, however, began modestly enough (1825), being little more than a stagecoach drawn by steam; but the march of invention soon raised its efficiency to the point where it superseded, except for short distances, all other modes of land transportation. During the last thirty years better roadbeds and the use of Bessemer steel for rails and engines have permitted the weight of locomotives (Fig. 31) and pressure of steam to be quadrupled, while the power from a given weight of fuel has been tripled. Steel cars are now displacing wooden cars, just as steel ships have displaced wooden ships, thus permitting the carload to be tripled. For these reasons the maximum train load to-day is fully ten times what it was in 1850. Nevertheless, the 7<> COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY airbrake will stop the heaviest train in a short space. Special types of cars have also been developed for live stock, iron ore, coal, and perishable products. Refrigerator and heater cars enable perishable goods to be shipped across the conti- nent, alike in summer or in winter. Electric railways, reaching out in all directions from the cities, are now extending modern transportation facilities even to rural districts. (Fig. 32.) FIG. 32. Trolley lines in the Middle West. All of these improvements affecting the three parts of the railway track, engine, and car have proportionately cheap- ened transportation, promoted the geographic division of labor, and therefore increased commerce. (Fig. 33.) 93. Pipe Lines. The earliest form of the pipe line was an open conduit. Canals thus served to irrigate dry regions like Egypt, drain swampy countries like Holland, and furnish cities with water. The Greeks and Romans built splendid stone aqueducts, whose ruins, dotting all the shores of the Mediterranean, are among the most impressive monuments of antiquity. a. The familiar way Twentieth Century Limited. b. The new way Electric traction. Courtesy of Aero Publishing Co c. The newest way Airplane. FIG. 33. Modern progress in transportation. 72 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY At present conduits are usually closed, except drainage and irrigation canals. Closed conduits or pipe lines serve some- times for irrigation purposes, and commonly for carrying city water, gas, heat, sewage, and petroleum. The oil pipes extend for hundreds of miles across valleys and mountains, usually from oil fields to tidewater. (Fig. 71.) Steam or hydraulic pumps are used where gravity will not suffice to move the oil. The cost of transporting oil by pipe lines is less than a third of the average railway freight rate in the United States. 1 Even for irrigation purposes pipe lines are coming Courtesy of U. S. Geological FIG. 34. Old irrigation ftume_ and new redwood stave pipe replacing it. into use, as they can be carried over valleys without expen- sive trestles. (Fig. 34.) In some cities, pneumatic tubes, built on the principle of a boy's air rifle, are used to expedite the handling of mail matter between postal stations. 94. Inland Navigation. Friction is less in the water than on the land ; a horse can draw many times the weight in water that he can by road. Moreover, natural water ways are fur- nished free, and they never wear out. For these reasons 'The Bureau of Corporations reported the cost by trunk pipe lines as 2.38 mills per ton per mile, against an average freight rate by rail of 7.59 mills in 1907 (Report on Transportation of Petroleum.) DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSPORTATION 73 rivers constituted, until the last half century, the principal highways of inland commerce alike in Europe and America. The first effect of steam was temporarily to increase the value of inland water ways, because a steamboat cost only a few thousand dollars, while a railroad called for millions. The half century before our Civil War was thus, in America at least, the golden age of river navigation. But thereafter, the greater regularity and speed of railways, especially where the water ways were icebound in winter, caused many rivers once thronged with traffic to be practically deserted. Such was the fate of the Missouri. The same fate overtook the smaller canals, while many others w r ere bought up by the railways and either put out of service or prevented, by means of high canal tolls and inefficient service, from competing with the railways. The almost exclusive reign of the railway is now, in turn, drawing to a close. Water transportation has proved indis- pensable if bulky commodities such as stone, coal, ore, and timber are to be handled on a large scale at low cost. To move such commodities downstream flat steel barges have been designed which carry a heavy load yet draw only two or three feet of water. Even streams with very rapid currents are rendered navigable by a steel chain in mid-channel which the vessel grips with a wheel driven by steam. In all these improvements the lead has been taken by Europe. To compete with the railway, however, except for down- stream traffic, a greater depth of water is necessary than in former years. The census of 1890 counted all rivers as navigable which had a depth of three feet; but to-day any river having a depth of less than six feet is inadequate and almost useless for general transportation. Canals, being nar- rower and navigated at a slower speed in order to avoid wash- ing away the banks, are of little use unless twelve feet or more in depth so as to carry deep-draft barges. 95. Ship Canals. Most important of inland water ways are those ship canals which pierce land barriers, thereby connecting 74 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY different seas, like the Suez Canal. The Panama Canal will eventually modify ocean trade routes no less profoundly than did the Suez Canal. In the second rank are the Kiel Canal, from the North Sea to the Baltic; and the Corinth Canal, from the Adriatic to the ^Egean. In another class, ranking only a little below deep navigable rivers, are those ship canals which carry the sea to inland cities. Such are the great ship canals extending from the sea to Manchester, Amsterdam (on a bay too shallow for large vessels), Rotterdam, Ghent, and Bruges. Measured by tonnage, the Sa.ult Ste. Marie canals, connecting lakes Superior and Huron, though inland, far outrank even the Suez and Panama canals. 96. The Unity of the Sea. The Greeks under Xenophon, fighting their way back from Babylon against all the forces of the Persian monarchy, came one day to the top of a moun- tain whence they caught the gleam of the distant sea. Forth- with they fell to weeping and embracing one another, crying out, "Thalassa! Tlialassa!" (The Sea! The Sea!); for they knew that they were saved. However distant, it was the same sea which washed the shores of their native land. This fact is fundamental in history and commerce: the lands are many but the sea is one. Mountains, deserts, even continents separate, but the sea unites. Whoever stands upon its shores has before him an open pathway which he may follow, wherever the salt waves dash and the sea winds blow, even to the ends of the earth. It is this fact which alone renders possible world commerce. 97. Ocean Navigation. On the sea, sails remained the general motive power for more than five hundred years from the latter part of the Middle Ages down to the middle of the nineteenth century. Then the greater speed and regularity of steamers began to tell. The decline of sailing tonnage was hastened by the Suez Canal (1869), which lies, like the Panama Canal (1914), in a region of calms. Recently, however, a new type of sailing vessel has appeared, of large size, steel DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSPORTATION 75 built, and equipped with auxiliary engines to handle the sails and cargo and sometimes to enter and leave port with- out assistance. (Fig. 35.) Such vessels will carry a larger cargo than a steamer of equal size, with a smaller crew, little expense for coal, and at but slightly lower speed. 1 In voyages of 5,000 miles or over, sailing vessels would seem to have a material advantage, because so much of the space in steamers is taken up by coal. The first ocean steam- ships (Fig. 36) were small wooden side-wheelers which depended more on sails than on steam. Sea- going steamers to-day are mostly built of Bessemer steel, with double bottoms, several water-tight com- partments, and are driven by high-pressure engines, which are attached to screw propellers. "Ocean grey- hounds" now cross the Atlantic in less than five days, but at enormous cost for fuel. Their practical commercial value, except as carriers of passengers and mail, is therefore slight. The bulk of the world's commerce is borne by another type of vessel, the freighter, broad of beam and rather slow, but of enormous carrying capacity and very 'For example, the "Preussen" carrying over 5,000 tons of freight, sailed from Hamburg to Iquique (nearly 12 ooo miles by the sailing route) in fifty-seven days. CourtMj of H. H Morrison FIG. 35. Tlie modern steel sailing ship. 76 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY economical of coal. For example, the "Minnesota," a vessel of this type built for the oriental trade, will carry at one trip the ^contents of seven miles of freight cars (2,000 cars or fifty trains) and at an exceedingly low cost. In the face of such achievements, it is no exaggera- tion to say that the ocean is alone com- pletely subdued to the uses of man. The land, man's home, still exacts a heavy tribute, while the air as yet is little used for commercial trans- portation purposes. a. The "Savannah," the first ship to use steam in crossing the ocean (1819}. JNLji^M53H^JPv. Copyright. 1914, by Enrique Muller. b. The "Leviathan.' 1 FIG. 36. The old and the new in ocean steamships. 98. How Transportation Rates are Fixed. Transportation charges are fixed, as a rule, not according to the cost of the haul, but according to the supposed value of the service to the shipper. In railway circles this policy is called "putting on what the traffic will bear"; and its object, from the point DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSPORTATION 77 of view of the railway manager, is (in the words of a French statesman) "to pluck the goose so as to secure the maximum of feathers with the minimum of squawking." From the economic view-point, however, the justification of the value-of-service principle lies in the fact that heavy com- modities of low value, such as coal, ore, and timber, which obviously are the most expensive to haul, must be carried at very low rates, or they cannot be moved at all; yet it is essen- tial to the utilization of natural resources and the develop- ment of industry and commerce that such commodities be transported wherever needed. While value of service is the general principle govern- ing transportation rates, it is subject to many modifications in practice. For example, there is a high rate on some goods, such as agricultural implements, because they take up much room. Again, the rate is relatively higher on short than on long hauls because, for one thing, the expense of loading and unloading is just as great for a short as a long haul. Finally, the rates by rail between certain districts are profoundly affected by competition, especially the competition of water ways. In the case of the post, the value-of-service principle appears in the higher rate paid on letters than on printed matter. But a flat (or uniform) rate is made on all except the heaviest class of mail matter within a country, irrespective of the distance, because the larger part of the cost is due to the collec- tion and distribution of the mail, and consequently does not vary with the distance. For similar reasons it would seem that a flat rate would be economically justifiable on express, telegraph, and telephone traffic, at least within very wide zones. In point of fact, rates are commonly fixed on this basis in countries where the government operates these businesses as a part of the postal system. VIII THE PRINCIPAL RAW MATERIALS OF COMMERCE t 99. The Uses of Wild Animals. To savage man, wild animals were the staff of life; to civilized man, they are largely a means of recreation. The delight in hunting and fishing, felt by all right-minded boys and most men, harks back to the ages when to be "a mighty hunter before the Lord" meant all that it means to-day to be a captain of industry. By reason of this hunting instinct in man, the fish and game of forested regions like northern Maine and Minnesota arc a commercial asset of large value, drawing yearly thousands of visitors. From wild animals are also obtained several important com- modities, especially furs, feathers, and ivory. 100. Furs, Feathers, and Ivory. Since the days when the inhabitants of northern Europe were clad in the skins of wild beasts, according to the Roman writers, furs have been an important article of commerce. Their influence in opening up new lands has been very great. It was fish that brought the French to Canada, but furs that drew them ever farther into the interior of the continent. Furs are mainly the product of cold, forested regions, such as northern Canada and Siberia; though some animals, par- ticularly the muskrat, mink, and skunk, are still found in settled districts. Ornamental feathers and ivory, on the other hand, come mainly from warm countries, where birds of bright plumage and ivory-bearing animals such as the elephant and hippo- potamus are now at home. Some fossil ivory is also obtained in Siberia, where the mammoth once abounded. 101. The Harvest of the Sea. More valuable, however, than furs or ivory are fish, which form the only considerable food supply still produced spontaneously by nature. (78) THE PRINCIPAL RAW MATERIALS OF COMMERCE 79 Fish abound in nearly all shallow waters, but are firmer fleshed in cold regions, where they can also be more readily cured or marketed without spoiling. The most important fishing banks or shoals are consequently near the continents in high latitudes, where the fish feed or spawn at certain seasons. The species of greatest commercial value are the cod, herring (Fig. 37), and mackerel in the Atlantic Ocean, and the salmon in rivers tributary to the Pacific. Important also are the lobster and several shellfish, especially the oyster. FIG. 37- Pursing a seine about a school of herring in Boston Harbor. By means of refrigeration fresh fish now reach the interior of the continents. Cured fish (dried, smoked, or pickled) are largely consumed in the Tropics, since they will keep indefi- nitely and are cheaper and less heating than meat. Salmon are mostly canned for market. Other marine products are whale oil and whalebone, walrus skins and seal skins from cold waters; pearls, pearl and tortoise shells, coral, and sponges from tropical waters. 102. Dairy Products. Wandering shepherd tribes were the first to make use of dairy products, employing as milch animals sheep, goats, and horses, as well as cattle. The goat 8o COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY is still the milch animal of hot countries, as the cow is of cool regions. Roquefort cheese is made from the milk of sheep; Parmesan cheese from the milk of goats. As a factor in international commerce, however, the dairy industry depends mainly upon the cow, and consequently tends more and more to be localized in cool, well-watered regions having abundant pasturage. (Fig. 38.) This localiza- tion is especially noticeable where the land is too wet for grain farming, as in Holland; or too sandy, as in Denmark; or too broken, as in Switzerland; or too valuable, as in the eastern part of the United States near great cities. Owing to steam Butter exports Oleomargarine mf Cheese exports Data from Year Books of Agriculture, 1910-13 FIG. 38. Dairy products and substitutes. Averages for three years, totals (million pounds): butter exports, 670; oleomargarine made, 629 (no data in Thirteenth Census); cheese exports, 520. transportation and refrigeration, butter now reaches the London market in prime condition even from New Zealand, on the opposite side of the globe. 103. Eggs and Honey. Similar to the dairy business and often associated with it is the keeping of bees and poultry for their products. The quality of honey seems to depend in part on the soil, which affects the nectar of flowers. Mount Hymettos, near Athens, has been renowned for honey since ancient times. The keeping of poultry for eggs has received a great impetus from the use of cold storage. The poultry industry is most profitable and therefore most important in well-drained regions, where grain or other food is abundant and cheap, especially where small farms prevail. THE PRINCIPAL RAW MATERIALS OF COMMERCE 81 104. Meat Products. Before the days of railroads each farmer kept a few head of stock for his own use. Steam has now, to a great extent, concentrated the grazing industry in regions too dry for agriculture, though the feeding industry (fattening stock for the market) is largely carried on in agri- cultural districts producing forage crops, as in the corn belt of the United States. Grazing regions are found on the dry side of mountain ranges, as in Australia and South Africa. Swine are raised as consumers of waste materials in many parts of the cool zones. Thus in Denmark, where the principal product is butter, the raising of swine on the skim milk is an important by-industry. Swine are also raised on a large scale in two districts, both possessing food of a high fattening Cattle Sheep Swine Data from Year Books of Agriculture 1910-13 FIG. 39. Live stock, averages for latest available years. Totals (in millions): cattle, 448; sheep, 615; swine, 149. power: the oak forests of the Balkan Peninsula, where the swine run at large and feed on acorns, and the United States, where they are fed on corn. (Fig. 39.) Refrigerated and canned meats have largely taken the place (except in the case of pork) of the salted, smoked, and sun- dried meats so generally consumed a generation ago. 105. Leather and Animal Fibers. All the larger animals, including the alligator and walrus, furnish skins suitable for leather. Men early learned how to preserve skins from decay, either by rubbing in oil, as the Indians did in tanning buckskin, or THE PRINCIPAL RAW MATERIALS OF COMMERCE 83 by soaking the skins in a solution of some plant containing tannic acid, such as oak or hemlock bark. Before the days of refrigeration, in districts remote from markets like Argentina, cattle were commonly raised for their hides alone. The principal animal fiber used in weaving cloth is wool. This is obtained commercially not only from the sheep, but also from the Angora (Fig. 40) and the Cashmere goat, from some varieties of camels, and from the alpaca and vicuna of the Andes. The finest wool, such as merino, comes as a rule from dry uplands. Both sheep and goats flourish where cattle would starve. As a result of steam transportation, the industry of wool growing has largely shifted to the semi- arid parts of Australia, Argentina, South Africa, and the United States. The fur of squirrels, rabbits, nutria (an animal from Argen- tina resembling the beaver), and domestic cats is also pressed or "felted" into a kind of cloth used in the manufac- ture of hats. The felting quality is due to saw-like teeth on each fiber, so small that they can be seen only through a microscope. Next to wool, the most important animal fiber is silk. This is the gossamer-like thread spun by the silkworm, a caterpillar that feeds on the mulberry tree. China, where silk was first used, was long known to Europe as Serica,'"the Land of Silk." Eastern Asia still furnishes the bulk of the raw silk. An artificial silk is now made from vegetable matter which is much cheaper and hardly to be distinguished in appearance from the genuine article, though less durable. 1 06. How Plants Connect Man with the Earth. Savage man, living by the chase, was indeed exposed in person to all the rigors of climate. The Indian in his wigwam had little protection against storm or frost. Nevertheless, his mode of life was largely independent of soil and climate, except as these affected the game which he pursued. The practice of agriculture, on the other hand, at once rendered man directly dependent, for the necessities of life, upon soil and climate. 8 4 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY Following this mode of life, he could live only where his food and fiber crops would ripen. 107. Forest Products. The forest was no doubt the origi- nal home of man, and timber the first material used for tools and weapons. Its value has not lessened, though its uses have changed with the advance of civilization. The temperate forests contribute to commerce largely soft woods, such as pine, fir, and spruce, which are at once durable and easily worked, besides turpentine, pitch, and rosin 1 obtained from the same species. Tropical forests yield cabinet woods of great beauty, such as mahogany and rosewood. These woods are very costly because scattered through dense jungles and therefore difficult to get out. Tropi- cal forests also produce numerous drugs, dyestuffs, resins, gums; and, most important of all, rubber and gutta-percha. (Fig. 41.) These various substances occur in the sap of many unrelated plants. The rubber industry, founded on Mackintosh's invention (1820) of waterproof goods, and Goodyear 's discovery 1 Rcsin is a general term for sap products soluble in alcohol or turpen- tine, but not soluble in water. It therefore includes rosin as a special variety. A gum, on the other hand, is soluble in water, but not soluble in alcohol or turpentine. Gum-arabic, used in mucilage, is an example. FIG. 41. Freshly tapped gutta-percha tree, with leaves spread to catch the flow. THE PRINCIPAL RAW MATERIALS OF COMMERCE 85 (patented 1844) that rubber can be hardened by sulphur, has received an additional impetus from the use of rubber tires. Recently a process has been invented for making rubber from starch. Gutta-percha is indispensable for coating submarine tele- graph cables, being resistant to the action of salt water. 108. Cultivated Plants. Some species of plants, as of animals, are useful to man: these are his friends. Others enter into competition for the same food or the same soils: these are his enemies. Competitors for the same food are parasitic plants, such as fungi, and countless varieties of insects that feed upon what the fanner has planted for his own use. Competitors for the same soil are all wild and useless plants, called weeds, which tend to choke out the crops. Some one has asked why crops do not thrive untended, in place of weeds. The answer is simple. By selecting seeds man develops qualities in plants which suit his purpose, but they are seldom qualities which fit the plant for the natural struggle for existence. Crops do not thrive untended because weeds are natural, while crops arc, in a sense, artificial. 109. Fruits and Nuts. In the Tropical and Subtropical zones, certain fruits and nuts are the chief support of large populations; for example, the mango and bread fruit in the East Indies. Others also enter extensively into commerce. Such are the date, fig, and cocoanut (Fig. 42), all dried for export; the grape, yielding raisins and wine; the olive, native to the dry subtropical region, which is either pickled or crushed for oil; the almond, chestnut, pecan, and walnut, which form the chief nuts of commerce. Even fresh southern fruits, especially the banana, grapefruit, and orange, now appear in northern markets through the agency of rapid transpor- tation and cold storage. This is no doubt the beginning of a commercial movement by which the fertile soil of tropical lands, where it is always summer and harvest time never ends, will be increasingly laid 86 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY under contribution to feed the colder and, in this respect, less-favored regions of the earth. In the Temperate zones, the leading fruits are the apple, which will keep for months in its natural condition, and the plum, known when dried as the prune. The processes of can- ning and preserving have largely increased the commercial importance of perishable fruits like the peach and pear. Cocoanut Palm Frjiit Trilnk Lea \ I'h Flo ver Kerpel Mi k Sh ;11 Ht sk Fuel Cabinqt wood spath F< od Co pra Di Hous ink utei ;hold . sils Coir fiber Oil c; ke Oil Cordage Br ishes Stcjck- focjd But tel Soap a id candles Ca pets In coo ing (Younjj ) Food M its Basl, ets Palm House thatching Juice sugar An ack Vin :gar Attur Toothaker FIG. 42. The uses of the cocoa;:ut palm. 1 10. Root and Pod Crops. In warm countries edible roots and stocks largely take the place of grain. This is the case, for example, with yams and sweet potatoes in the West Indies; taro in Hawaii; the sago palm, the pith of which forms the sago of commerce, in the East Indies; and manioc (cassava, yucca), which yields tapioca, in Brazil and Central Africa. Pod crops which are rich in protein also serve as a partial substitute for meat in such countries; for example, chick-peas in Spain and North Africa, and soy beans in India. In the Temperate zones the principal root crop is the potato, native to America, which formed the basis of the Inca civili- zation in Peru. It will grow on poor soil, at high altitudes THE PRINCIPAL RAW MATERIALS OF COMMERCE 87 and latitudes, maturing nearer the pole (70 40' in Norway) than any cereal. Next in acreage and value is the onion. Root crops are in general too bulky to enter largely into international commerce. Moreover, the predominance of root crops for food, as in the Tropics, usually marks an inferior stage of agriculture and of civilization. Root crops are, however, commonly rotated with grain on the same soil, where scien- tific farming prevails. in. The Cereals. The grains are mainly seed-bearing grasses. Barley, which Pliny considered the most ancient food of man, has the widest climatic range (20 to 70 north Corn Oats Books of Agriculture, 1912-13 FIG. 43. World crops of corn, wheat, and cats. Averages for five years, totals (million bushels): corn, 3,810; wheat, J./->5; oats, 4,308. latitude). Though formerly the chief breadstuff of the Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans, it is now more commonly fed to stock. With hops, it is also used in brewing beer. The principal tropical grains are rice, grown mostly in standing water, and millet (durrah), which needs a dry soil. Rice supports nearly a third of the human race in eastern Asia; millet is the leading cereal in the dry parts of India and Africa. The warm temperate grains are corn (maize) and winter wheat; the cool temperate grains are spring wheat, oats, and rye. (Fig. 43.) Corn needs a warm, moist climate and is consequently grown chiefly in regions of summer rains. It was widely culti- vated in America before Columbus, and still has probably the 88 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY largest acreage of any grain in the New World. 1 It is -mostly fed to live stock, though corn meal serves as food for man, and much corn is made into starch, glucose, molasses, and whisky. (Fig. 45.) Wheat, of both the winter and spring varieties, flourishes best in a region of winter or spring rains but warm and rather dry summers. It is the staff of life for the white, as rice is for the yellow, race and enters more largely into commerce than any other cereal. (Fig. 43.) Oats and rye flourish in cooler and moister climates, rye also on poorer soil than whcati Oats was apparently the original breadstuff of northern Europe, but now serves chiefly as horse Kyc Barlev Potatoes Data from Year Books of Agr FIG. 44. World crops of rye, barley, and potatoes. Averages for five years, totals (million bushels): rye, 1,753; barley, 1,458; potatoes, 5,366. feed. Barley, maize, and oats are thus the principal fodder grains. Rye forms the "black bread" of the peasants in Europe and, like corn, is used in distilleries. (Fig. 44.) Buckwheat, a relative of our common dock or sorrel, will grow on even more sandy soil, and in a shorter season, than rye. Hence it is a favorite crop in the mountains, and a "catch crop" elsewhere, being sown after some other crop has failed. 112. Condiments. In former times, when nearly all meats were dried or salted, East India spices 2 were in great demand 1 Water rice (Zizania aquatica) was another important food of the Indians. Analysis shows it to be perhaps the most perfect cereal, but no practical methods of cultivation have been as yet devised. 2 Chiefly black pepper, cloves, nutmegs, and cinnamon. Pimento, red pepper, and vanilla were native to America. Mustard, a temperate country plant, is widely used, yet figures little in foreign trade. THE PRINCIPAL RAW MATERIALS OF COMMERCE 89 owing to their biting, aromatic qualities. During the Middle Ages, indeed, condiments were more important commercially than foodstuffs. Pepper and vanilla are now the most impor- tant of the spices in commerce. During the last few centuries, sugar, previously unknown, has become the leading condiment. It now ranks with wheat and cotton as a world commodity. The principal sources of sugar are the sugar cane and sugar beet. India is the largest producer of cane sugar, though Cuban sugar is more important commercially. Germany has led in beet sugar. (Fig. 278.) Corn Plant (Maize) EJir Stajlk Corn Hub MJus p[iel * Leaves Pith Breakfast food Glut :n HJlls odder Paper Cellulose ~^r^ Stock|food Mattresses Pi'pes Packing n war vessels S Germ Corn oil Oil cake and meal P_ Lubri Paints Stock food :ator Rubber substitute Starch Fo<|>d Lau|ndry Gluc[ose Syrup A cphol Dextrine i Products Mfg. Co. FIG. 45. Industrial uses of the corn plant. ^ 113. Stimulants. Several plants which stimulate the nerv- ous system have also become of great commercial importance in modern times. Such are coffee, native to the mountains of ^Abyssinia, and tea, apparently first used in China. Curi- ' ously enough, cocoa (or cacao), an American plant having a similar stimulating effect, became known in Europe a century before either tea or coffee, both Old World products. Choco- late is a preparation of cocoa. Another plant native to America, though now grown in many parts of the world, is tobacco. In eastern Asia opium has been commonly smoked in place of tobacco. There are in addition many narcotic plants employed only in certain countries. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY An artificial stimulant is alcohol, produced either by fer- mentation, as in wine, cider, and beer; or by distillation, as in rum, brandy, and whisky. Any fruit or grain, besides potatoes, molasses, and honey, may be used for this purpose. 114. Fiber Crops. Next to food, the most imperative need of man is clothing. Flax (linen) is found in prehistoric lake dwellings of Switzerland, and in Egyptian tombs that antedate the pyramids. It is, however, too expensive for common use, because the fiber must be separated from the stalk by hand. For this reason cotton has become, since the invention of the cotton gin (1793), the leading vegetable fiber. (Fig. 46.) The trade in cotton and cotton manufactures is perhaps the 54% 14% 14% 10% 7% 1% Cotton 9,787 million pounds Wool 2,617.6 Jute 2,524 Flax 1,816 IK B ~f. 48% 25% 13% 6% 5% 3% Cotton 925 million dollars Wool 471 Silk 255 3 2 E rt 1 1 |2 M Data from Census Bulletin, 100 FIG. 46. Production and value of leading textile fibers. most important branch of international commerce. Cotton will indeed grow in a variety of climates, but produces the finest fiber in a warm climate near salt water. Abundant moisture is also necessary. The principal cotton-growing countries are the United States, India, and Egypt. (Fig. 47.) There are four fibers of commercial importance for bags and cordage. Hemp was originally in sole possession of the market ; but as no satisfactory gin has been invented to extract the fiber, hemp has been largely superseded, for bags, by jute grown in India where labor is cheap; and for cordage, by sisal (hcncqucn} from Mexico. For heavy ropes, however, Manila "hemp" (abaca) is indispensable. 115. The Influence of Minerals. Civilized man depends for the advantages he enjoys over his barbarous ancestors chiefly THE PRINCIPAL RAW MATERIALS OF COMMERCE on the mineral kingdom. Take away the minerals and all modern manufactures would become impossible, and com- merce, except in the original form of barter from tribe to tribe, would speedily disappear from the face of the earth. In all ages important mineral deposits have consequently attracted population: as shown by Stonehenge, over the flint beds which once furnished tools and weapons for England; and by many mining towns to-day. Butte, Mont., a copper Cotton Plant Fib srs Se ed Stilk YJrn Cotton batting Pa per Fi el_ Clcth Coifdage ilose Cell Smokeless powder Celluloid Artific ial silk L Bat t ng Carjpets Fer ilizer Pa per Cake apd meal food Crtdeoil tock Rope Stock food Pert ilizer Stock Soap s nd twine Cellulose Summer yellow oi Soap stock Winter j ellow oil Stea rin Summer Jhi S oap Butt ;r oil Salajd oil Lard coijip juad FIG. 47. Industrial uses of the cotton plant. city, and Johannesburg, South Africa, a city built on gold, are typical examples. 116. Structural Materials. Stone, copper, and iron have successively formed the mechanical basis of civilization, and have given their names to the ages of Stone, Bronze, and Iron. Stone, which was no doubt the first, is still one of the most important of the mineral resources used by man. It now serves chiefly for buildings and for surfacing highways. Where neither timber nor stone was available, a serious difficulty arose. Nomads could live in tents; but what was 92 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY civilized man to do? This problem was solved by the inven- tion of brick, which alone made possible the palaces, the cities, and the gigantic walls of ancient Mesopotamia. 1 In modern times, especially in the United States, brick is coming into ever wider use as our forest resources dwindle. Tile and pottery, like brick, are also made chiefly of clay. Another structural material invented in prehistoric times was glass, doubtless made at first by melting together sand and salt from the seashore. Without glass or coal, it is diffi- cult to see how civilization could exist at all in high latitudes. In recent years there has been a striking development of the cement industry. Portland cement, made usually of limestone and clay heated to about 3,000 F., has the invaluable quality of setting or hardening under water. Without this material, more durable than natural rock, railroad tunnels, subways, and concrete construction generally would present great, if not insuperable, difficulties. Cement and steel are indeed the mechanical bases of modern industry and transportation. 117. Mineral Fertilizers. Experience shows that there are three elements which tend to become exhausted in soils con- tinuously under cultivation, yet are absolutely necessary to crop production. These elements are nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. The problem of feeding the ever-growing population of the world, therefore, largely resolves itself into the problem of restoring these elements to the soil as fast as needed. For this purpose, certain mineral fertilizers are of the utmost value. Nitrogen occurs abundantly in the form of nitrate of soda in the arid region of northern Chile. It is also possible to obtain a usable form of nitrate (ammonium sulphate) as a by- product from coke ovens, and even to manufacture artificial nitrates, though these processes are still relatively expensive. 2 'R. von Ihering, The Evolution of ike Aryan. Nitrate of lime, by the use of a powerful electric current; and calcium cyanamide, by passing air over hot calcium carbide. The source of the nitrogen in both cases is the air. THE PRINCIPAL RAW MATERIALS OF COMMERCE 93 Nitrogen can likewise be restored to the soil by planting clover or other legumes which have the power (through bac- teria inhabiting their roots) of getting nitrogen from the air. Phosphorus is obtained from phosphate-rock deposits in various regions, notably the South ; and also from the slag of steel mills using the basic process. Potassium, or potash, occurs in great deposits near Stassfurt, Germany, It is also a constituent of wood ashes. 118. Copper. In Homeric Greece the leading material for tools and weapons was copper alloyed with tin to form a hard and tenacious bronze. In modern times copper is also alloyed with zinc to form brass, and with aluminum and manganese to form other kinds of bronze. Manganese bronze, being tough and enduring, is employed for steamship propellers. Copper has, however, been restored to the rank of a great industrial metal, second only to iron, mainly through the fact that it is one of the best conductors of electricity. 119. Iron and Steel. Iron was difficult to master on account of its high fusing point (about 2,790 F.). But iron, with its derivative, steel, is the basis of all modern industries; for no other metal is so well adapted to fine tools or power machinery for either manufacturing or transportation. The production of iron and steel is, therefore, generally taken as an index of the relative industrial development of nations. Cast iron contains up to 5 per cent of carbon, besides other impuri- ties; it is hard but brittle. Steel is of various grades, varying as to its carbon content from .3 to 2.0 per cent; it is in general hard and also tough. Wrought iron contains practically no carbon, and is malleable but soft. A modern blast furnace consists of a high stack, through which hot air (1,400-!, 650 F.) is constantly driven from below, while from above automatic cars dump in ore, coke, and limestone the stone to promote fusion. In place of coke, nttural gas, petroleum, or electricity may be employed. The molten iron runs into cups moving on an endless chain, 94 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY Molten metal pouring into cups on endless chain. b. Dumping cooled iron automatically into waiting cars. FIG. 48. Modern method of handling pig iron. or into trenches on the sand floor, forming "pig" iron (Fig. 48); or is carried directly to the steel mill to avoid remelting. The removal of the carbon necessary to transform iron into steel may be accom- plished either by rak- ing or "puddling" in an open-hearth furnace, or by driving a blast of air through the molten metal (Bessemer proc- ess). In either case, the carbon is burned out by coming in con- tact with air. If phos- phorus is present, it is absorbed by lime (basic process) . To toughen the steel, a little man- ganese is added; to make it very tenacious it is alloyed with nickel, chromium, or tungsten. Thus, nickel steel is used for steel rails on curves, high-power rifles, and armor plate on war ships ; chromium steel for burglar-proof safes and for armor- piercing projectiles. TfJE PRINCIPAL RAW MATERIALS OF COMMERCE 95 120. Lead, Zinc, and Tin. Lead and zinc arc frequently associated in nature, and both form compounds used in paints. Metallic lead is employed for water pipes, since it is not corroded by water; also for bullets, and in various alloys such as type metal. Metallic zinc enters into brass, is one element in elec- tric batteries, and serves to protect iron from rust. Tin, being highly malleable and not easily corroded, is also used as a coating on iron, forming tin plate. It has become important through the increased use of canned foods. 121. Precious Metals and Stones. Gold and silver, also various stones such as the ruby and diamond, early attracted attention by their color and luster. These were consequently used as ornaments and came, through human love of display, to command fabulous prices. For this reason they were called "precious." Most of the silver and much of the gold mined are still consumed in the arts. Gold is frequently found free in nature, that is, not com- bined with other substances. It is either washed from river gravels or obtained from quartz veins, by quarrying and crushing the rock. Quartz mines now yield more than gravels. Silver usually occurs in combination with other elements, especially lead and copper, yet it is more cheaply mined than gold. Owing to the increasing production of silver since 1870, its value, compared to gold, has declined more than one-half. The output of gold has also increased greatly since 1897. Thus its value has fallen, precisely as the price of wheat does after abundant harvests. In the case of gold, which forms the standard money metal, the fall in value is reflected in the advancing price of most other commodities. 122. Mineral Fuels. The ancient Persian Fire Worshipers made pilgrimages to the Caspian Sea, where columns of flame issued from the earth. It remained for Americans to put natural gas to more practical uses (1821). It is thought to have been driven off by heat and pressure from petroleum or coal, and gives an intense heat. Petroleum or rock oil was first obtained by boring, in the 9 6 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY United States (1859); this country produces about two-thirds the world's output. The crude oil is an efficient fuel; when re- fined it yields a series of valuable products. (Fig. 49.) Gaso- line serves as fuel for internal combustion engines, benzine as a solvent of rubber, and kerosene for lighting purposes. The heavier residuum yields valuable lubricating oils, vaseline used in ointments, and either paraffin for candles or asphaltum. Data furnished by Standard Oil Co. FIG. 49. Industrial products of petroleum. Coal is vegetable matter buried under marine deposits and gradually transformed by heat and pressure. It varies from the hard or anthracite coal, which runs from 90 to 95 per cent pure carbon, down through various grades of bituminous or soft coal to the lignite or brown coal, which may not have over 40 per cent carbon, and is, in fact, only peat slightly altered. Coke, a sort of artificial anthracite, is made from soft coal by partial combustion in an "oven" nearly closed to the air. Coal tar, a by-product of coke making, is the source not only of aniline dyes, but also of perfumes and an almost endless series of chemicals and drugs. (Fig. 50.) THE PRINCIPAL RAW MATERIALS OF COMMERCE 97 Coal fields draw to their neighborhood nearly all kinds of manufactures; consequently, while the production of iron is a measure of the actual industrial development of a nation, its possible development is largely measured, in so far as it depends upon nature, by the available supply of coal. (Fig. 51.) Coal, moreover, alone renders commerce possible as con- ducted to-day. We are carried with the speed of the wind Coal Distillation GiU Ammoniabal liquor Cta from T. S. Geologic.! Su FIG. 74. Boston Harbor showing bars and islands which protect it and railways converging on harbor. St. Lawrence or the Mohawk valleys. As a business center Boston includes Brookline, Cambridge, and other outlying suburbs, which in effect double its population. An eight-mile, sea-level ship canal has been opened between Cape Cod Bay and Buzzards Bay, to avoid the long and dan- gerous route around Cape Cod and to give an inside passage between Boston and New York. Portland, the second port of New England, lies at the point of the Maine coast where the Atlantic comes nearest to THE NORTH ATLANTIC SECTION 12 5 Montreal. It is thus the natural outlet of Montreal, that is, of nearly all Canada, whenever the St. Lawrence is icebound. The completion of the bridge at Quebec would naturally bring Portland into equally close relations with the region north of the St. Lawrence and east of Montreal did not the contract of the Canadian government with the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway provide that Canadian ports St. John, N. B., or Halifax, N. S. must be favored. 150. Seaports of the Middle States. Philadelphia, at the head of deep water on the Delaware, was the metropolis of the country during the Revolution. The mountains, pre- senting a barrier toward the west, cost it this preeminence. Moreover, the river is sometimes icebound, which does not happen at New York because of the tidal currents through East River. For these reasons the largest interests of Phila- delphia are manufacturing rather than commercial, though it ranks as one of the great ports of the United States. (Fig. 75.) It is the point where the Pennsylvania railway system, extending to Pittsburgh and the West, reaches tide- water. (Fig. 12.) Baltimore, built on the Fall Line, is likewise a great manufacturing city, and the seaport nearest to the upper Ohio Valley by way of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad. It is also the eastern outlet of the western Maryland line, connecting with the Gould railway system which extends New York 43.6-i Pu^ct Sound c.6 1 : Philadelphia 6.K New Orleans 5.6* San Francisco 5.4" Boston 5,11 Baltimore 4.11 Detroit : 3.61 Buffalo 3.31 Galveston 2.4* All Others... 14.2* Data from C. S. Statistical Abstract. 1818 FIG. 75. Percentage of foreign commerce of United States handled by leading seaports. 126 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY from Pittsburgh to the Far West. Nevertheless, though the distance to the Ohio is shorter, the summit level of the mountains here is higher than farther north. New York, at the mouth of the Hudson, occupies a site fitted, by reason of a superb harbor (Fig. 76) and unequaled ease of access to the interior, for the metropolis of the continent. Already it is the greatest commercial port in the world, and in population ranks next to London. Its manufactures, including almost every conceivable article, exceed in value those of any other city in the United States ; and yet New York's largest interests are commercial, rather than manufac- turing. It handles Data from V. H Geological Eurvoj- FIG. 76. New York Harbor, showing deep water channels, adjacent cities, and converging railways. nearly half of our total foreign commerce, and largely for this reason it is the chief financial center of the country. For many business purposes it includes Yonkers up the Hudson and the neighboring cities west of the Hudson Hoboken, Jersey City, Bayonne, Newark, and Elizabeth. In fact, Hoboken and Jersey City, fronting on New York Bay, contain the terminals of many steamship lines, and several railways from the West. New York now has several tunnels which connect Man- hattan with the Jersey shore and with Long Island, where some of the railways have acquired large tracts of land for THE NORTH ATLANTIC SECTION 127 freight terminals. A subway the entire length of Manhattan, with connection to Long Island, has also been constructed by the city to facilitate rapid transit. (Fig. 77.) 151. Canals in the Middle States. Canals were early built up the Delaware, Schuylkill, Susquehanna, and Potomac valleys, and also across the watershed between the Delaware and the Hudson. Their main service has been to carry coal from the mines to tidewater and especially to New York. At the Census of Water Transportation in 1906, however, these canals had either been abandoned, or had passed under the control of the coal-carrying railroads and w r ere then of little practical importance. (Fig. 62.) Yet several of these canals, especially the Delaware and Raritan, could easily be made serious factors in the coal trade of New York and even of New England/ New York, unlike Pennsylvania, has retained control of its canals, which connect the Hudson with the waters tributary to the. St. Lawrence, along three routes. The Champlain Canal goes by way of Lake Champlain, while the Erie Canal connects with Lake Ontario through the Oswego Canal, and also reaches Lake Erie directly at Buffalo. These canals have been toll free since 1882; and they have been deepened to FIG. 77. Subways and tunnels, New York, uniting Long Island, Manhattan, and New Jersey 128 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY twelve feet, at a cost of more than $100,000,000, so as to admit i,soo-ton barges. This project was undertaken in the hope of meeting the competition of the St. Lawrence route by reducing the cost of transportation between Buffalo and New York to 25 cents per ton, or about .5 mill per ton per mile. Finally, a coastwise canal connects Chesapeake and Dela- ware bays. This canal, providing an inside route for barge traffic, is likely to be replaced at no distant date by a sea- level ship canal. Besides saving distance and time, such a canal would make Philadelphia a port of call on the north- ern route from Baltimore to Europe. The traffic of all these canals even of the Erie Canal has declined greatly in recent years. The obvious reason is that the canals are too small for modern traffic requirements. Moreover, goods must be transhipped to and from canal boats, while railway cars are hauled through to destination. Again, the railways commonly refuse to "pro-rate" or make joint through rates with canals, thereby cutting them off from through traffic. Further, the railroads control most of the coal mines which would naturally furnish the chief canal tonnage. Finally, the railroads now own most of the canals themselves and, having no interest in enlarging them, have either abandoned them or left them to decay. In these ways, the natural advantages of the Middle States for internal navi- gation have been largely nullified. 152. Railway Routes to the West. The finest harbor in the world would remain unused if backed by desert or by impenetrable mountains. Even with dynamite at their disposal, railways seldom penetrate mountains except along pathways prepared by running water. The rivers of the Middle Atlantic region, despite the decadence of inland navigation, thus open transportation routes into the interior of the continent. The Potomac forms the route of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, which follows in part the very trail used by Wash- ington; and the Juniata branch of the Susquehanna is closely THE NORTH ATLANTIC SECTION 129 followed by the Pennsylvania Railroad. The north and west branches of the Susquehanna, together with the Delaware, serve still other lines. 1 The Mohawk Gap, however, having a summit elevation at Rome of only 445 feet, against 2,161 on the Pennsylvania and 2,620 on the Baltimore & Ohio, has been the dominant factor in the commerce of the continent. It furnished the route of the Erie Canal, which built up along its course a row of cities Albany, Troy, Cohoes, Schenectady, Utica, Syracuse, Roches- ter, and Buffalo unmatched except on the Rhine. The Mohawk Gap, moreover, carries six lines of rails which cross the divide on almost inappreciable grades. The Mohawk Gap thus renders the Hudson the eastern gateway of the continent, New York the Empire State, and New York City the metropolis of the New World. Buffalo stands at the east, as Chicago and Duluth stand at the west end of the Great Lakes route. Moreover, the rail- ways crossing the mountains strike either the Great Lakes or the upper Ohio. Buffalo and Pittsburgh are thus the two gateways of the West. l The Erie, Lehigh Valley, Lackawanna, and New York, Ontario & Western. XI THE SOUTHERN SECTION 153. The Southern People. No other section has so many people of direct Revolutionary ancestry as the region lying south of the Potomac and Ohio rivers. On the Atlantic slope, indeed, the same families have dwelt in the same counties, almost unaffected by immigration, since the days of Washington. The original planters were largely English gentry, though in South Carolina the people had a dash of Huguenot blood. Louisiana and Florida also brought a considerable French and a lesser Spanish element into the Union. The uplands, on the other hand, were peopled chiefly by Scotch-Irish, who formed the fighting vanguard of civilization. 154. Surface and Soils of the South. The South consists in the main of a broad coastal plain, mostly below 400 feet elevation ; a hilly or Piedmont belt above the Fall Line ; the Appalachian Highland; and the lower half of the Mississippi Valley. West of the Mississippi, the Appalachian uplift reappears in the Ozarks, an outlying part of the same mountain system. Three districts show distinct characteristics. Southern Florida is underlaid by coral limestone, and barely reclaimed from the sea. The Mississippi flood plain, thirty to sixty miles wide and about 600 miles long, is swampy indeed but extraordinarily fertile, like the valley of the Ganges. Western Texas and Oklahoma are a part of the Great Plains. The soil of the Southern lowlands is sandy near the sea, but clayey in the upper part of the coastal plain. This clay belt was the original seat of tobacco and cotton culture and forms, together with the Mississippi flood plain, the famous "black belt" of the South, where negroes largely outnumber the whites. This belt is moreover growing ever blacker as the years go by. THE SOUTHERN SECTION The soil of the Southern uplands, above the Fall Line, was formed on the spot by the decay of the underlying rocks, and consequently varies in charac ter with those rocks. Thus the fertile "red lands" of the Piedmont region and the limestone soils of the Blue Grass districts around Nashville and Lexington contrast sharply with the adjacent sandstone up- lands, which yield but scanty re- turns to the plow. . The Southern uplands, where slavery never flourished as in the lowlands, arc predominantly, and in parts exclu- sively, white in population. For this reason, while the Old South .was a tidewater South, with outlying plantations only on the richest soils of the upper country, the New South is largely an upland South, dwelling among the hills and mountains. 155. The Southern Climate. It was formerly asserted that \vhite men could not work in the Southern fields. The truth is that native whites now grow a large and increasing proportion of the cotton; Northern men raise much of the rice of Louisiana and Texas; and Italians have displaced negroes on many sugar 'plantations, especially around New Orleans. 10 CDS, \Tropical After map issued by Biological Survey, U. S. Dept. Agricultii FIG. 78. Life zones in North America. 13 2 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY In point of fact, the South has .nearly every variety of climate. (Fig. 78.) This is clearly shown by the vegetation. Southern Florida is tropical, the Gulf coast semi-tropical, the low plains warm temperate, the upper Piedmont region cool temperate, while the mountains carry into Georgia the climate of New York. Moreover, the storms of winter sweep down from the north unobstructed to the Gulf, damaging fruit, indeed, but giving to the air a tonic quality which is indispen- sable to maintain the vigor of the white race. (Fig. 56.) d & Underwood, N. Y. FlG. 94. Florida East Coast Railway bridge at Key West, Florida. Galveston has raised its foundations and built a sea wall against future assaults of the waves. It now leads in the ex- port of cotton, and few ports in the world are more secure of a great future. In like manner Mobile and Pcnsacola are the natural outlets on the Gulf of the coal and iron districts around Birming- ham, and, in fact, of the eastern Mississippi Valley as far as Cincinnati. Mobile in particular has profited largely from the increase of commerce with Cuba and Central America, importing tropical fruits and woods, sisal hemp, and even THE SOUTHERN SECTION 149 Cuban manganese for the steel works along the Great Lakes. It is at the head of tidewater navigation in the eastern, as Galveston is in the western, part of the Gulf; and commerce in heavy commodities seeks inlying ports. Tampa stands on the only deep-water harbor for hundreds of miles, and near large deposits of phosphate. It also handles considerable Cuban traffic for the Atlantic slope. Key West will no doubt acquire a large mail and passenger traffic, which seeks outlying ports, now that the railway is finished thither over the line of coral islands (1912). Key West is the most southerly city in the United States, but a step from Havana. It is, in fact, the farthest outpost of the United States toward the West Indies, Central America, and the Panama Canal. (Fig. 94.) A bridge across a great river attracts commerce much like a gap in the mountains, since a train ferry is always a slow and unsatisfactory substitute. For this reason Memphis, standing on a bluff which the river closely approaches, and which serves as an abutment for the southernmost bridge on the Mississippi, has become a great railway center. Other points where railways converge are Louisville, at the Falls of the Ohio, which forms one gateway toward the north ; and El Paso, at the gap cut by the Rio Grande in the Rockies, vrhich is the southern gateway toward the Pacific. Louisville is the second city of the South. For many business purposes, moreover, it includes New Albany and Jefferson ville across the Ohio. The Panama Canal is giving new life to every industry and every harbor in the South above all to New Orleans and likewise to every city on the Mississippi from St. Paul to the Gulf. Much commerce that formerly moved east or west is going south; still more commerce will be created by the fact of cheap transportation to the west coast of America and to the Orient. The South now lies on one of the main world thoroughfares. XI ITHE NORTH CENTRAL SECTION 1 66. The People of the North Central Section. The North Central section, comprising the states north of the Ohio and west to Colorado, is to-day the heart of the Republic. (Fig. 64.) The population, originally drawn from the best stock of the older states, has been augmented from many sources. Despite this diversity of origin, the uniformity of the land and the wide reach and unbroken horizon of the prairies have not failed to leave their impress on the people. Nowhere else are the democratic traditions of American life so well preserved. 167. The Climate of the North Central Section. The climate is of the extreme continental type, with hot summers that rapidly mature the crops, and cold winters that not only pulverize the soil, but also maintain the physical vitality of the race. (Fig. 56.) As one goes west beyond the' line of twenty inches rainfall, the country is increasingly given over to pastoral pursuits except where irrigation is possible. (Fig. 57.) In recent years, however, some progress has been made in developing a type of farming suited to semi-arid conditions. (196.) In this semi-arid belt a decrease of a few inches more in the rainfall would cause even the grass to disappear, and with it the herds, leaving only desert solitudes. 1 68. The Soils of the North Central Section. North of the Ohio and Missouri, which probably cut their valleys when flowing along the edges of the great ice sheet, 1 most of the soil is of glacial origin (136). It is consequently rough and rocky where the front of the glacier long stood, coarse and gravelly where strong currents flowed, and composed of fine clay or of loam where the currents were checked. Thus the clay soil of the Red River Valley, which grows splendid wheat, was deposited as sediment in glacial Lake Agassiz. 'Mill, International Geography, p. 744. (15) THE NORTH CENTRAL SECTION 151 As in New England, there are large tracts toward the north better suited for forests than farming. As a whole, however, the section has a larger proportion of fertile land than any other in the United States. Moreover, the glacial soil, con- taining rock waste of many kinds and numerous pebbles which furnish plant food as they slowly decay, is not so easily exhausted by tillage as residual soils. For fifty years this part of the United States has therefore been the granary of the modern, as Egypt was of the ancient, world. 169. Furs and Fish. In the forested regions along the lakes, just as in northern Maine and in the southern Appala- chians, we find a "retarded frontier" that is, a section where frontier conditions and modes of life still prevail. Settlers are, however, rapidly pressing on, clearing away the wreck left by the axe of the lumberman, and with infinite labor opening farms in the wilderness. The present generation will witness the final disappearance of frontier conditions wherever the soil is fit for farming. In the meantime the trapping of fur-bearing animals, that characteristic frontier industry, is still carried on within these forested districts. St. Louis and St. Paul, both early stations for the fur trade, are still important primary markets for furs. The fisheries of the Great Lakes and Mississippi River system support a considerable population living on rocky and sandy shores that afford no other means of support. The most important lake species are whitefish, salmon trout, and stur- geon. Refrigeration enables the fish to be consumed fresh in all parts of the section. 170. The Forests of the North Central Section. In the eastern and southern part of the North Central region, some scattered hard-wood groves remain, consisting chiefly of oak. In addition there is some ash, which commonly serves for parts of tools; basswood, used for small wooden wares; birch, employed for furniture; and maple, used for floors. St. Louis and Cincinnati are important markets for hard-wood lumber. Courtesy of Northwestern Mille a. Ancient method Arabs in Algeria cutting grain with sickles. "f ^ Courtesy of International Harvester Oo. b. First American improvement the grain cradle. Courtesy of International Harvester Co. c. Second American improvement the self-binding reaper. Courtesy of Parlin & Orcndorff, Canton, III. d. Third American improvement horseless agriculture, reaping, plowing, and rolling at one operation. FIG. 95. Evolution of grain harvesting. THE NORTH CENTRAL SECTION From central Michigan north and west to the Red River Valley there were originally magnificent forests of white and Norway pine, with some hemlock, spruce, and other varieties. In this section, as in Maine, the frost and snow of winter, which transform marsh and stream into ideal roadways, have made lumbering both cheap and rapid. For this very reason, in part, the forests are now approaching exhaustion. 171. Grain Crops in the North Central Section. To the early settlers, fresh from the rocky hillsides of New England, these broad fertile prairies seemed indeed the Promised Land. I to 1,000 bushels 1,000 to S,ooo bushels S,ooo to 10,000 bu. and over After U. S. Census FIG. 96. "Yield, of all grains per square mile. Grains flourished here as they had never done on the eastern uplands. The level prairies, moreover, afforded a fair field for the great inventions in the line of farm machinery, such as the mower (1834), reaper, and thresher, which have revolutionized agriculture not less suddenly and completely than manufac- tures have been transformed by steam and electricity. (Fig. 95.) Vergil would have found little new on an American farm a century ago ; to-day there would be little that he could understand. Grain thus became for the North Central region very nearly what cotton was in the South. 154 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY The several kinds of grain are grown more or less in all parts of the section. (Fig. 96.) In the southern half, however, south of Milwaukee, the leading crops are corn, which needs a hot summer; and winter wheat, which , t being sown in the fall, needs a moderate winter. Both of these have been grown farther and farther north in recent years. Yet in the northern part of the section the great staple is spring wheat. Consider- able crops of barley and rye are also grown, rye especially on sandy soils. Oats are a common crop throughout the section. Owing chiefly to the grain fields of the North Central section, the United States produces nearly three-fourths of the corn of the world. It likewise grows more wheat and oats than any other country. (Fig. 43.) 172. Other Crops of the North Central Section. Since the abolition of slavery, tobacco culture has been making its way from the lowlands into the uplands, and from the south 43% 10% 15% 11% 15% Argentina United Roumania Russia All others States 116 million bushels 43 41 30 40 Data from Year Books of Agriculture, 1912-13 FIG. 97. Flaxseed crop of the world. Total, average for five years, 103.7 million bushels. toward the north. (Fig. 82.) This migration is the result of more intensive cultivation. Tobacco is now sometimes grown in fields covered with vast tents of cheesecloth, which equalize the temperature, check evaporation, and thus produce a thinner and finer leaf for wrappers. On rich soils, sugar beets are increasingly grown. In fact, there is something suggesting a sugar-beet belt across the continent and down the Pacific slope. This belt traverses New York, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, the largest produc- tion east of Colorado being in Michigan. While overlapping corn somewhat, the areas of beet culture lie mostly north of the true corn belt, because beets require to be cultivated at the same time as com. They moreover call for so much hand labor that a man can care for a much larger acreage of corn than of beets. THE NORTH CENTRAL SECTION 155 Another important crop in the same zone of mixed farming, which extends from New York through Michigan and Wisconsin along the northern margin of the corn belt, is field beans. These are planted, harvested, and threshed much like wheat. In the production of beans, Michigan holds first place. A third crop in the same zone, north of the corn belt, is potatoes. This is indeed the staple crop on the tracts of sandy soil left by the great glacier. Michigan and Wisconsin thus have the largest crops of potatoes. In western Minnesota and the Dakotas, especially where the soil is new and strong, flax is extensively grown for the seed (Fig. 97), which yields linseed oil. This is indispensable in paints, as it dries on exposure to the air. Temperate fruits are grown for local use in all the states. Along the southern and eastern shores of the Great Lakes, which tend to lessen the extremes of heat and cold, fruit growing for market prevails. The Great Lakes region ranks next to California in the production of fruits. Certain districts in western Michigan, especially around Kalamazoo, which were settled largely by Dutch, have become famous for celery and other vegetables. In the same districts herbs are grown for distillation of essential oils, especially pep- permint, of which Michigan is the largest producer in America. 173. Stock Raising in the North Central Section. As early as 1805 stock began to be driven across the mountains to Baltimore. With the consolidation of the railroads into large systems, after 1850, driving to market gave way to shipment by rail. Stock raising then became more than ever a frontier industry, because free range was available there, and as settle- ments advanced, and the land rose in value, the herds could be driven on in search of fresh pastures. In Ohio and Michigan, once the great wool-producing region, sheep are still of importance, though mutton rather than wool is now the main product. Rich soil in this section is, however, too valuable to carry sheep. Moreover, the losses from dogs are serious, but it does not pay to hire shepherds 156 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY to protect a small flock. On the plains west of the agricul- tural zone, cattle and sheep are still raised on wild grasses, and often shipped into the corn belt to be fattened. The grazing industry is thus quite distinct from the feeding industry. Hogs are also raised in the corn belt, in immense numbers; and likewise as a by-product of the dairy, being fed on skim milk. Corn is in fact chiefly fed to stock and marketed "on the hoof." It commands a higher price in the form of meat, and is also condensed, thereby saving two-thirds of the freight. Moreover, live stock is of great value in maintaining the fertility of the soil. 174. Dairy Products in the North Central Section. The dairy industry has made rapid progress in recent years, partly because the soil generally shows the effect of continuous cropping in grain. The leading dairy state in the Middle West at the Thirteenth Census was Wisconsin, which led in butter and cheese. Dairying is the most promising industry on the cut-over pine lands in the lake states, where grasses and roots flourish better than grains. Its development, however, depends quite as much on market conditions as on geographical con- ditions. t Thus dairying has made more rapid progress in Wisconsin and Minnesota, where the fanners have organized cooperative creameries on the Danish model, than it has in Kansas, Nebraska, and portions of Iowa, where centralizers (great private creameries) control the situation and pay the producer seven to eight cents less per pound for butter fat than is paid where cooperative creameries prevail. 1 175. The Location of Manufactures. The center of general manufactures in the United States follows, although with lagging step, the westward march of the center of population. It is now located in Ohio, which enjoys, together with Indiana and Illinois, the double advantage of abundant fuel and water transportation both by lake and river. (Fig. 98.) This migration has occurred because industries naturally prosper near raw materials and large markets (70). 'Report of Chief of Bureau of Animal Industry, 1907. THE NORTH CENTRAL SECTION 157 176. Manufactures of Timber. The sawing of pine lumber, or at least the preparation of secondary lumber products, such as lath, sash, and doors, is still earned on to some extent at numerous cities on the Great Lakes and connecting waters, especially Duluth, Minn.; Superior and Oshkosh, Wis.; and Saginaw, Bay City, and Muskegon, Mich. These industries are also found along the upper Mississippi and its tributaries, which originally brought down the logs at slight cost: as at La Crosse, Wis.; Minneapolis and Winona, Minn; Dubuque, Burlington, and Clinton, Iowa; and at the "Tri-City," Daven- port-Rock Island-Moline. Comparatively, however, the water After Thirteenth Census FIG. 98. The westward migration of centers of population, agriculture, and manufactures (no data for 1910), ways have decreased in importance for logging purposes, being superseded by light logging railways and small mills nearer the timber as the forests have receded from the rivers. The rivers descending from the upland, north and west of the Great Lakes, generate much water power. This, together with the abundance of pulp wood along the rivers, has given rise to a large manufacture of paper, especially in the district adjacent to Green Bay, Wis. Other localities having special facilities for producing wood pulp are Sault Ste. Marie, where a power canal has been built; the St. Louis River, near Duluth; and the Rainy River, at International Falls, Minn. 158 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY Furniture, made chiefly of hard wood, is manufactured at Chicago and other cities, notably Grand Rapids, Mich., where the river served originally to carry timber and drive the machin- ery. Much of the lumber now comes by rail and most of the mills employ steam; but Grand Rapids remains the most specialized center of furniture manufacture because of business experience, and the presence of skilled labor. Rockford, 111., situated much like Grand Rapids, and Shcboygan, Wis., on Lake Michigan, also have large furniture factories. The manufacture of agricultural implements and road vehicles is also dependent on hard- wood forests. It has in a measure followed the westward movement of agriculture because implements and wagons occupy much car space and are therefore expensive to ship. The center of the implement industry is now at Chicago, and the center of the vehicle industry is at South Bend, Ind. ; both conveniently located with reference to the Central Plain and having access to hard-wood timber and to iron. Other important centers are Moline, 111; Springfield, Ohio; St. Louis, Mo. ; Jackson, Mich. ; Racine, Wis. ; and Peoria, 111. Similar considerations caused the rapid development of the automobile industry along the Great Lakes, especially at Detroit, Mich. 177. Meat Packing. In this country meat packing began at Cincinnati (1818). With the use (since 1868, and especially since about 1880) of ice and more recently of compressed air to chill fresh meat, the packing industry has migrated toward the cattle pastures and cornfields. Live stock occupies more room, needs more care, and is subject to greater losses in transit than are refrigerated meats. The packing industry has been concentrated in a compara- tively few great establishments, which use the entire animal, producing a multitude of valuable by-products. 1 1 Including hides, soups, gelatine, and beef tea; oleomargarine, lard, candles, and soap; glue, buttons, and knife handles. In addition, bristles serve for brushes; animal charcoal for sugar refining; hair for upholstering, filling mattresses, and mixing with mortar. THE NORTH CENTRAL SECTION 159 The present center of meat packing is Chicago, the greatest live-stock market in the world, owing to its central location in the corn belt and its transportation facilities. Hammond, just over the Indiana line, has also important packing plants. The advanced stations of the packing industry are on the Missouri at Kansas City, Kans.; South Omaha, Nebr. ; St. Joseph, Mo.; and Sioux City, Iowa; and on the upper Mis- sisissippi at South St. Paul. Other important seats of the in- dustry are Indianapolis, St. Louis, and Cincinnati, all in the corn belt. 178. Grain Products. Starch, syrup, and other corn prod- ucts are extensively manufactured in the Chicago district. (Fig. 45.) So much corn, indeed, is fed to stock or used in manufactures that relatively little is exported. (Figs 130, 134, and 190.) The prosperity of the Northwest began (1870) with the system of successive millings of wheat which, by removing the dark-colored bran, suddenly made spring wheat the most valuable for bread making. 1 Minneapolis, located in the spring-wheat belt at the Falls of St. Anthony, is by far the greatest flour-milling city in the world. Flour milling is likewise one of the leading industries, measured by value of products, in Kansas City, Mo., and Toledo, Ohio, both in wheat-growing regions and originally favored by water transportation; as well as in Indianapolis and numerous smaller cities which are the business centers of rich agricultural districts. Such are Evansville, Ind.; Decatur and Bloomington, 111.; DCS Moines and Cedar Rapids, Iowa; Topeka and Wichita, Kans. 1 Spring wheat is especially rich in gluten which is advantageous in bread making. But so long as the stones were set close together and the grain reduced to flour at one grinding, the bran, which is coarser in spring wheat, remained with the flour, discolored it, and by absorbing moisture caused it to spoil. The new process consisted in setting the stones farther apart at first and removing the bran in large pieces before reducing the rest to flour. The germ, being oily, is also removed. The roller or "patent" process differs chiefly in that buhrstones aic replaced by rollers, but the principle of successive millings is retained. I6O COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY Associated with flour milling is the crushing of flax seed for oil, in which Minneapolis has the same preeminence as in flour. 179. Other Manufactures. The principal tanning center in the United States is Milwaukee, conveniently located to obtain hides from Chicago as well as from the local packing plants, and tanbark from the hemlock forests of Wisconsin. The making of leather goods is, however, widely distributed. St. Louis ranked after Lynn and Brockton, in 1909, in the manufacture of shoes, while Cincinnati stood first in harness and saddlery. The manufacture of rubber goods is an immense industry at Akron, Ohio. This is no doubt due to an early start and acquired skill, though the development of the city itself can be traced to its location on the summit level of the Ohio Canal, and the presence of water power. Ready-made clothing is manufactured in all the large cities, as in the East (144), and especially in Chicago. Before 1920 the brewing of beer flourished in all large cen- ters of population, St. Louis and Milwaukee being especially prominent in the industry. But the distilling of strong liquors, was concentrated in a few cities in the heart of the corn belt, chiefly Peoria, 111., and Terre Haute, Ind. The breweries have largely been taken over for various kinds of manufactures, but most of the distilleries are now producing industrial alcohol. 180. Mineral Fuels. Large "pools" of natural gas and petroleum have been tapped in Ohio, Indiana, southern Illinois, and Kansas. (Fig. 71.) The oil is piped to Cleveland and Toledo, Ohio, and still more extensively to Whiting, Ind., for refining. Pipe lines also extend from the mid-continent field both to the Gulf of Mexico and to tidewater on the Atlantic. The coal fields of the North Central section embrace nearly half the United States coal lands. The coal in the plains, hav- ing been less compressed than in the mountains, is in large part semi-bituminous; while toward the west it is of late origin, and therefore lignitic. For these reasons the plains depend on the Appalachian field for the best bituminous coals. (Fig. 70.) THE NORTH CENTRAL SECTION 161 181. Lead and Zinc in the North Central Section. Lead and zinc are found in two districts, which produce more than a third of the lead and zinc mined in the United States. One district around Dubuque, Iowa, was opened by Julien Dubuque (1788), from whom the city received its name. In this district, including also parts of Wisconsin and Illinois, zinc is now the chief product. The other, on the flanks of the Ozarks, especially around Joplin, Mo., was also worked at an early date (1798). There is even a tradition of Missouri lead having been used in the Revolution. The Joplin district now has much the larger output. In recent years many lead and zinc smelters have been erected in the gas and oil belt of south- eastern Kansas. 182. Gold and Copper in the North Central Section. Gold is extensively mined in the Black Hills, an outlying part of the Rocky Mountains, chiefly in South Dakota. On Keweenaw Point, which juts out into Lake Superior, is a layer of porous volcanic rock containing flakes and sometimes huge masses of pure copper. (Fig. 99.) The metal is extracted Data from Geological Survey FIG. 99. Lake Superior iron and copper districts. a. Mining iron ore with steam shovel, Mountain Iron Mine. it, I'."'.', by Crandll and Fletcher, Duluth b. Ore dock at Allouez, Wis. Cars run on top and dump the ore into pockets, whence it runs by gravity into vessels, through the long pipes shown in the picture. FIG. 100. Modern methods of handling Lake Superior iron ore. THE NORTH CENTRAL SECTION 163 by mining and crushing the rock. These deposits rendered Michigan for many years (after 1844) the chief source ot domestic copper. 183. Iron Ore in the North Central Section. The iron ranges about Lake Superior are the remnants of mountains which in remote geological times were probably as high as the Rockies. The iron once diffused through them has been deposited by percolating waters in fabulously rich ore beds. The Superior iron ores contain few impurities, and run as high as seventy per cent metallic iron. They can be mined in places, especially on the Mesabi Range, by steam shovels. (Figs. 100 and i o i.) After the opening of the Sault Ste. Marie Canal (1855) these ores became easily accessible to water transportation. Now as a result the Superior ranges x furnish more than Copyright, 1005, by Keystone View Co., N. T. FIG. 10 r. Clam shell scoop in hold of vessel taking a 12-ton bite. The scoop is then swung out and dumped on dock or into waiting cars. four-fifths of our domestic iron ore, and far exceed in output either Great Britain or France. In fact, Minnesota alone commonly mines more iron ore in a year than any foreign nation. 1 The Superior iron ranges were opened as follows: Marqtiette (Mich.), 1854; Menominee (Mich, and Wis.), 1872; Penokee-Gogebic (Mich, ami Wis.), 1884; Vermilion (Minn.), 1884; Mesabi (Minn.), 1890; Michipicoten (Canada), 1900; Cayuna (Minn.), 1905. (Fig. 99.) 164 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 184. Manufactures of Iron and Steel. Owing to the lack of coal near the Superior iron ranges, the ore is mostly shipped to the south shore of the lakes, or even some distance inland from that shore, where it meets the coke from Connellsville and West Virginia : for example, at Cleveland, Youngstown, and Columbus, Ohio, in the Erie district; and at South Chicago, Joliet, and Gary, the new steel city, adjacent to Lake Michigan. This iron-ore traffic has also built up a row of ports along the south shore of Lake Erie, notably Ashtabula, Conneaut, and Lorain. Now, however, two-thirds of a ton of coke (in place of six tons as formerly) suffices in modern furnaces to smelt a ton of ore. As a result, the coal is sometimes shipped, being coked in by-product ovens near the steel works in order to utilize the gas. Certainly the recent establishment of a com- plete steel plant on the St. Louis River near Duluth shows that the margin of profit in shipping the ore to the coke, rather than the coke or coal to the ore, is getting narrow and may soon disappear. The manufacture of machinery and of miscellaneous iron and steel wares is widely distributed, being perhaps most important in cities having water transportation, such as Chicago, Milwaukee, Detroit, Toledo, Cleveland, and Cincin- nati; also Davenport and Quincy, on the Mississippi. On the other hand, the iron works at Hamilton near Cincinnati, and at Aurora near Chicago, are favored by lower ground rents. This advantage is more and more attracting manufactures to suburban cities. Cash registers arc a' specialty at Dayton, and ornamental iron work at Canton, Ohio, both on the edge of the Pittsburgh- Cleveland iron-smelting district. The principal watch facto- ries in the Middle West are at Elgin, 111. Steel shipbuilding is an important industry at the principal lake cities; as is the manufacture of cars and other railway equipment at railway centers, notably Chicago, St. Louis and East St. Louis, St. Paul, Council Bluffs, Fort Wayne, Ind., and Springfield, 111. THE NORTH CENTRAL SECTION 165 185. Other Mineral Products. Vast beds of gypsum, associated in places with rock salt, extend from Texas through Kansas into Iowa, and reappear again in Michigan. These were presumably left behind by the drying- up of some ancient sea. Water is pumped through the beds and then evaporated, coal being here used in place of solar heat as in dry climates. The abundance of salt is one cause that has favored the growth of a large chemical industry at Detroit. Ohio, possessing an abundance of clay and coal, leads in the manufacture of the finer clay products. East Liverpool and Cincinnati compete with Trenton, N. J., in pottery, while ZanesvilLe is noted for art tiling and pressed brick. Important glass and tin-plate industries have grown up on the Ohio-Indiana gas field, especially at Muncie and Anderson, Ind. Muncie, indeed, rivals Pittsburgh in glass blowing. Other mineral manufactures are grindstones, made of Berea grit, in Ohio; and Portland cement, manufactured in the region adjacent to the Great Lakes and the Ohio. (Fig. 73.) 1 86. Water Ways of the North Central Section. Within the memory of men still living, most of this region was a virgin wilderness; probably never before was it given to any man to behold such a transformation. Rapid development has been favored by the navigable rivers and lakes, the level surface equally favorable for canal and railway construction, and above all by the use of steam. Thomas Jefferson, in 1803, thought it would be a thousand years before the region east of the Missis- sippi could be fully settled. He was right, reckoning as he did without steam or electricity. After the launching of the first steamboat on the Ohio (1811), steamboats soon made their way on to all the navi- gable rivers. A generation later the coming of railways from the East to the Mississippi (1854) and to the Missouri (1859) drew traffic eastward and checked the growth of river cities, except those which became railway centers. The upper Mississippi still floats large quantities of logs, though few compared to ten years ago; the Ohio carries great i66 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY fleets of barges loaded with coal; while the Missouri, having for most of its course no commodity to transport which cannot as well go by rail, is practically deserted. The heaviest traffic is on the Ohio. (Fig, 102.) The steamboat "Sprague" has taken 70,000 tons of coal (sufficient to load some fifteen miles of freight cars) to New Orleans in one tow, at a cost of 3.2 mills per ton per mile. The Mississippi system, embracing about one-third of the FIG. 102. Fleet of barges carrying coal down the Ohio. mileage of navigable rivers in the United States, is connected by canal with the Great Lakes along four routes, following the portages of the early French explorers and fur traders. These canals connect : (i) the Wisconsin and Fox rivers ; (2) the Illinois and Chicago rivers ; (3) the Ohio River with Lake Erie at Toledo and Cleveland. (Fig. 59.) There is also a canal recently com- pleted by the Federal Government connecting the Illinois River with the Mississippi at Rock Island. (Fig. 62.) Most of these canals will have to be either deepened or abandoned as they I HE NORTH CENTRAL SECTION 167 are much too shallow (four to seven feet) to compete with railways. The state of Ohio, indeed, has already authorized the deepening to twelve feet of the Ohio Canal from Cleveland to the Muskingum River, which is to be improved through to the Ohio by the Federal Government. A private corporation has also undertaken a ship canal from Pittsburgh to Lake Erie, so that coal and iron may go through without transhipment. The Chicago Drainage Canal (twenty-four feet deep), paralleling part of the way the earlier and smaller Illinois and Michigan Canal, is doubtless the beginning of a deep- water connection with the Gulf of Mexico. The project of deepening the Illinois and Mississippi rivers so as to afford a fourteen-foot channel from the Great Lakes to the Gulf is already a live issue and will certainly command still stronger support after the effects of the Panama Canal begin to be felt. The Great Lakes, however, are far and away the most important factor in the commerce of this region, forming a superb water way over a thousand miles into the very heart of the continent, bearing in a year one-third as much freight as all the railways in the United States and at about one- tenth the cost. 1 A single vessel in 1908 carried from Duluth to Buffalo 422,000 bushels of grain, equivalent at fourteen bushels to the acre to the crop from about fifty square miles of wheat fields. The Sault Ste. Marie Canal (Fig. 103), con- necting lakes Superior and Huron, carries a tonnage three times greater than the Suez Canal. Cargoes go in bulk, unbroken, from Duluth and Chicago to Buffalo; by using the Welland Canal (or the enlarged Erie Canal, when open), they may even reach the sea. 187. Commercial Centers of the North Central Section. The level surface, high average fertility, and relatively dense population of the Central Plain have caused it to be covered with a close-meshed net of railways (Fig. 127) especially south l ln 1904 the average freight rate per ton per mile on the Great Lakes was .81 mill; on, the railways it was 7.8 mi'ls. 1 68 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY of the Great Lakes. This condition permits commerce to follow as a rule the shortest routes. Each city is thus a com- mercial center for a considerable district. Some, however, are located "in the very throat of the converging lines of commerce." This is preeminently the case with Chicago, at the south- western end of the Great Lakes route, where all railways from the West and Northwest of necessity converge in order to pass FIG. 103. The Sault Ste. Marie Canal. Vessels at left are being let down from the level of Lake Superior to the level of Lake Huron by gradual lowering of water between two sets of gates. around Lake Michigan. This location, which made Chicago the greatest railway center in the world, is the one great advantage possessed by Chicago over Milwaukee. More than any other city, Chicago seems to embody the very spirit of the prairies ; for there things are done on a truly gigantic scale. But for the Canadian boundary, which turns commerce from the natural line of least resistance, Duluth-Superior, at the northwestern end of the Great Lakes route, would be a second Chicago, controlling the trade of all western Canada. THE NORTH CENTRAL SECTION 169 Canada extends nearly as far south as Chicago; but the Great Lakes bar admission by rail from the West except in three places. At Sault Ste. Marie a bridge forms the connecting link between the northwestern states and Montreal. Again, the narrow waters between lakes Huron and Erie are tunneled at Port Huron for a line from Chicago direct to Toronto. Finally, another tunnel at Detroit opens the shortest railway route from Chicago to Buffalo. Detroit, situated on the most frequented strait in the world, where goods for the southern portion of Michigan are landed, is thus in addition the gate- way from the West to southern Canada, and one of the gateways to New York. St. Louis was located by Laclede (1764) as a center for the fur trade, on a commanding bluff near the mouths of the Illinois and the Missouri. This convergence of river valleys in the midst of the Central Plain has made St. Louis a great commercial center both by river and rail. Cincinnati occupies a somewhat similar position with reference to the Ohio and its tributaries. St. Louis and Cincinnati, together with Louisville, are the principal gateways toward the South. In like manner, Kansas City and Omaha owe their develop- ment to the convergence of river valleys, affording easy routes for railways; while the Twin Cities Minneapolis and St. Paul grew up, the one because of water power, the other at the head of ordinary navigation on the Mississippi. These are the gate cities toward the West. At each of these centers the railways converge ; and from it they again diverge into the territory beyond. XIII THE WESTERN SECTION 188. "The Winning of the West." Nations, like rivers, strive ever to reach the sea. The United States would have been permanently crippled had any strong foreign power retained its hold upon the western bank of the Mississippi. For this reason, it was impossible that the northern prov- inces of Mexico should permanently bar the American advance toward the Pacific. (Fig. 124.) No matter how much we may theorize about it, nothing can in the long run avail to protect rich lands, sparsely peopled by ignorant and unpro- gressive populations, from occupation by more intelligent and energetic races. 189. "The Land of Little Rain." From the beginning of the Great Plains (2,000 feet elevation), approximately along the looth meridian, to the snowy crest of the Sierra Nevada, a distance of some 1,200 miles, stretches "the land of little rain." Only the higher ranges there condense enough moisture to support forests. Throughout most of this vast region, land alone is worthless, but water is priceless; whoever controls a spring or flowing well (Fig. 104), or a stream fed by the mountain snows, is indeed lord of all he surveys. Toward the southwest, in New Mexico and Arizona, the descending air currents (52) and the more rapid evaporation due to the greater heat produce some patches of true desert. Toward the north, on the other hand, lower temperature and stronger west winds produce a heavier rainfall. There, too, the Columbia Gap admits the moisture-laden winds as far as the lofty Bitterroot Range, thus helping to water the splendid wheat district over rich lava soils about Spokane. In spite of the great elevation, even the valleys being 6,000 to 8,000 feet above sea level, the region between the Rockies and the Sierra Nevada enjoys a surprisingly mild climate, because the sun shines the year round from an almost cloud- less sky. (170) THE WESTERN SECTION 171 190. The Pacific Slope. The western slope, lying open to the Pacific, has an oceanic climate, comparatively warm in winter and cool in summer. Los Angeles in July is not so warm as New York; Seattle in January is warmer than Richmond, Va. Southern California, "facing the sea and the sun" (since there the Coast Ranges trend nearly east and west) , has a subtropical climate with almost rain- less summers, like Algeria and southern Spain (52). Irrigation is usually needed south of San Francisco, and prevails behind the Coast Ranges even farther north. In contrast to most of California, the Pacific slope north of Mount Shasta is a humid district, the rainfall increasing rapidly toward the north. Here, however, as in California, summer is the dry season, winter the rainy season; because the colder the land, the more U. S. Geological Survey F i G . 1 04 . A rtesia n well at Woonsocket, S. D., throwing stream ninety-seven feet high. it chills the warm winds from the Pacific. Here is found the true "new England" of America, where soil and climate most nearly reproduce old England. 191. Stock Raising in the West. During the three centuries of Spanish dominion, the few Spanish ranchers in California and New Mexico dreamed away their days amid the most glorious scenery and sunshine in the world. 172 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY Here, if ever, the pastoral Arcadia of the poets was realized. Why toil and sweat to raise crops or dig gold when their herds supplied every rustic luxury ? So the Mexicans reasoned ; not so the Americans. The pastoral industry has, nevertheless, continued to develop in the upland valleys along the Pacific; while in the vast region between the Missouri River and the Sierra Nevada Range, stock raising (Fig. 105) followed hard upon the heels of the hunter and trapper. These lofty plateaus are the true stock country, furnishing most of the young cattle shipped into the corn belt and having by far the largest clip of wool in the United States. (Fig. 106.) Half-wild horses are also raised on the plains; like- wise asses and mules in the mountains where they are indispensable as pack animals, being sure-footed, able to live on little, and to stand much hard usage. The westward migration of sheep raising has injured the cattle ranges, since sheep crop the grass so close to the roots that cattle can not graze after them. Moreover, the homestead unit of 160 acres is too small for stock farming; consequently as homesteaders have pressed on westward, building their shacks by springs and streams which before served as watering places, cattle raising has decreased. Finally, the stockmen, grazing their herds on public land, have crowded more animals on it than the grass could permanently support. Already large tracts have been transformed into deserts of wind-blown sand, thus caus- ing a material decline in the grazing industry. Many believe UNITED STATES Grazing Areas Catfle ranges Sheep ranges Cattle and sheep ranges Barren desert FIG. 105. After Year Book of Agriculture, 1908 Stock ranges of the west. a. Windmill and reservoir for watering cattle on the high plains. b. Sheep grazing in the arid country near Powder River. FIG. 1 06. The grazing industry. 174 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY that this decline has also been hastened by a combination of packers, resulting in low prices to stockmen, high prices to the public, and large net profits for the packers. 192. Other Animal Industries. The dairy, poultry, and bee-keeping industries made marked progress on the Pacific slope during the last twenty years. The leading dairy districts are the Willamette Valley and northern Cali- fornia, where large cities are at hand and where the land had begun to lose fertility from being cropped too contin- .uously in wheat. San Francisco is surrounded by the greatest poultry district in the world. Fruit and bees, moreover, thrive together. Ostrich farming has also become a prosper- ous industry in some parts of Ari- zona and southern California. Courtesy of Maxwell and Mudse FIG. 107. Flume for conveying timber out of the mountains. It is flooded when logs are w be moved. 193. The Forests of the West. The scattered yellow- pine forests on the Rocky Mountains have furnished much timber for the mines ; but their exhaustion is at hand unless still larger forest reserves are established and effectively protected from sheep and goats, which destroy the young growth. Such protection is especially important because the climate is apparently growing drier. Beach marks on the mountains THE WESTERN SECTION '75 show that Great Salt Lake once stood a thousand feet higher than at present. The groves of Sequoia Gigantea, in Cali- fornia the most majestic trees in the world, approaching 400 feet in height, some of which were 3,000 years old at the birth of Christ are also a legacy from a moister climate, being found in some districts now too dry to reproduce forests. The northern Pacific slope con- tains the largest body of standing coniferous woods in the United States, and the most valu- able on account of the enormous size and the splendid quality of the trees. Nowhere else are modern methods employed so effec- tively in lumbering operations. (Fig. 107.) Redwood occupies a narrow strip along the coast of California, from San Francisco north. Farther inland in California, and also in southern Oregon, the prevail- ing species are the western yellow pine and the sugar pine. In the moist Puget Sound region, the red or Douglas fir pre- dominates, mingled with cedar, which is employed for shingles. 194. Fisheries of the West. San Francisco has succeeded New Bedford as the headquarters of most of the whaling vessels still afloat, which hunt in far Northern waters. The Oregon and Puget Sound waters swarm in season with salmon, From Forestry Map issued by the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture FIG. 1 08. Irrigated lands in the West. THE WESTERN SECTION 177 which are taken by nets, traps, and wheels driven by the current. Fish hatcheries are now necessary to maintain the supply. ' Canned salmon is the principal fishery product exported from the United States. (Fig. 131.) The lead- ing canning centers are Astoria, Ore., at the mouth of the Columbia, and Bellingham and Seattle, Wash. 195. Irrigation in the West. Though the West as a whole is rugged in surface, there are vast tracts of fertile soil, espe- cially in the broad valleys between the Sierra and the Coast Ranges, also on the upper Columbia, and in numerous inter- montane basins such as the Big Horn and Uncompahgre valleys, North, Middle, and South parks, San Luis Valley, and Salt Lake Basin. The soil is exceptionally fertile, because Courtesy of Southern Pacific Ry. PIG. no. Irrigating a field, Pajaro Valley, California. not leached of its soluble parts by rain ; but throughout much of the section, water must be brought to the land or there will be no harvest. (Figs. 1 10, 1 1 1 .) For this reason the Federal Gov- ernment has set aside the proceeds of land sales in arid and semi- arid states as an irrigation fund, and has established an efficient Reclamation Service to carry on the work. (Figs. 108, 109.) It is estimated that over 50,000,000 acres in all, situated in valleys and along the foot of mountains, can be irrigated and thus transformed from desert to garden. The census showed 13.7 million acres actually under irrigation in 1 909 ; while 31.1 million acres were covered by irrigation projects. (Fig. 1 1 1 .) THE WESTERN SECTION 179 The current of rapid streams, and the power secured by the erection of gigantic reservoir dams, can even be used to lift water onto the uplands Irrigation will therefore mean the creation of many densely-peopled farming communities separated by arid regions. It will stimulate mining by pro- viding cheaper food. Finally, it will cause the growth of manufacturing and commercial cities, wherever mechanical power and transportation facilities are most available. The possibilities of irrigation are especially interesting along the Colorado the American Nile which in its lower course flows practically on a ridge through a region very like Egypt in climate, and lacking only water to rival it in fertility. This district includes the Imperial Valley of California, filled to unknown depths'with fine river -borne soil. 1 (Fig. 112.) 196. Dry Farming in the West. East of the Rockies, most of the rain falls in summer, owing to the draft of air up the Mississippi Valley at that season (155). In recent years, it has therefore been found possible to grow certain drought-resistant crops in the Great Plains, without irrigation. Such are Kafir corn, a kind of millet (sorghum); milo, another millet grown in the dry Southwest; and especially durum wheat, which has already become an article of export to the Medi- terranean countries and forms a considerable part of the total wheat crop of the United States. (Fig. 114.) West of the, Rockies the rain, coming from the Pacific, falls chiefly in winter. Much of the soil, moreover, is underlaid by clay which is almost impervious to water. These two facts are taken advantage of in a new type of dry farming which seems capable of great development. (Fig. 113.) In some places, the streams which descend the hillsides in winter are diverted onto the fields, where the water is stored in the sub-soil. This practice of winter irrigation enables 'The Imperial Valley is the end of the Gulf of California which tvas cut off by the delta of the Colorado, advancing from the east ; and then dried up, leaving salt (Fig. 122) deposits in the lowest part, called Salton Sink. This is 287 feet below sea level. In 1005 the Colorado at flood cut a channel into Salton Sink, again creating an inland sea. i8o COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY crops to be grown yearly. Where such streams are not avail- able, it is possible to obtain a crop every other year by storing the rains of two winters in the soil and keeping the surface covered during the intervening summer with a dust-mulch to FIG. 112. Relief map of the lower Colorado Valley. check evaporation. This method, which would not be pos- sible if the rain fell in summer (for it would then at once evaporate) enables wheat and some other staple crops to be grown with ten or twelve inches of rain a year. THE WESTERN SECTION Area now being- dry-farmed a available iry-farming 197. Agricultural Products of the West. The leading crops of the West are grain and hay. The principal cereals grown are wheat, barley, and oats. In California, barley takes the place of corn (which needs a moister climate) as a food for stock. The grain fields are mostly in the broad valleys of the Pacific slope and in the Columbia basin around Spokane. Owing to the dry summers the grain in most districts dries on the stalk so thoroughly that it can be cut, threshed, and sacked by one machine (Fig. 115), thus econo- mizing labor and leaving the D eP t. Agriculture, Div. of statistics. B U I. xx. Straw in the fields to fertilize FlG " U 3- Dry-land areas. the soil. Vegetables are also important, especially potatoes and sugar beets, besides lima beans in southern California. Heavy freight charges on bulky commodities have, however, discour- aged grain farming. In Oregon small areas of the best soil are occupied by hop yards (Fig. 116); and on all parts of the Pacific slope the farmers have turned their attention largely to fruit (Fig. 117), since the invention of the refrigerator car. In the aggregate value of her fruit crop, California is unrivaled. Temperate FIG. 114. Dry-land farming. Districts producing durum wheat. 9 a. Plowing. b. Planting wheat. Courtesy of Holt Mfg. Co. c. Combined harvesters which cut, thresh, and sack the grain, in one operation. FIG. 115. Farming by steam on the Pacific slope. TBE WESTERN SECTION 183 orchard fruits, such as peaches, apples, and plums (prunes), even exceed in value the subtropical fruits, such as oranges, lemons, olives, and figs. Grapes, yielding raisins and wine, rank next to oranges. (Fig. in.) Nut growing, especially almond and walnut culture, is also a distinct industry. (Fig. 117.) The date palm has been successfully introduced in the desert regions of southern Calif ornia and Arizona. (Fig. 118.) It needs an average summer temperature of at least 70 F., and one month of 80 F. The drier the air the better the date palm thrives, yet its roots must have abundant moisture. It is thus emphatically the tree of the desert oasis. (Fig. 21.) FIG. 116. Irrigated hop yard on the Pacific slope. 198. Metallic Products of the West. The fierce rush over seas and deserts which followed the discovery of gold in California, the growth of cities almost over night, and the peopling of a state within three years, are matters of history. Gold is still the principal metallic product of the Pacific slope. (Fig. 119.) The gold-bearing gravels, forming a belt twenty to sixty miles wide along the western foothills of the Sierra, were originally panned by hand. This form a. Tent in position for fumigation with poisonous gas /d kill insects in fruit trees. f mirtenj of Bureau of Plant Industry b Almond harvest. FIG. 117. The fruit industry in California. THE WESTERN SECTION 185 of placer mining, requiring no machinery, was the poor man's opportunity. Later came hydraulic mining, which was finally checked by law because it filled up rivers and spread sand over agricultural lands in the lower valleys. Now gold dredges run by electric power from the Sierra and floating in lakes of their own creation, are eating their way back and forth through the land, working over the gold-bearing gravel down to bed rock. (Fig. 120.) "\Vith the rise of vein -mining, however, nearly all the Cor- clilleran states became producers of the precious metals. FIG. 1 1 8. Young date orchard near Tempe, Arizona. Colorado, indeed, has often held first place, having the richest gold district in the United States around Cripple Creek, and the principal silver-lead district around Leadville. Mercury, the only metal fluid at ordinary temperatures, is mined extensively at New Almaden, Cal.; lead in the Cceur d'Alene district of Idaho; copper in Arizona, Montana, and Utah. Butte, Mont., is the greatest copper city in the world. Abundant deposits of tungsten have also been located in Colorado and Arizona. Iron is widely distributed, the largest output being in Colorado, though the richest iron deposits in the West arc in southern Utah, especially Iron County. i86 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY The western mountain states all depend chiefly on the ores "dug from central gloom." Farms and ranches exist there to feed the mining camps. It is, moreover, through the prod- ucts of its smelters that this region enters into the commerce of the world. Shaler even surmises that in the 'future as many men will toil here in the dark recesses of the mines as work upon the surface of the earth. 199. Other Mineral Products of the West. Coal underlies considerable areas along both flanks of the Rockies, and smaller districts on the Pacific slope. Unfortunately, most of the coal fields near salt water are rather small and scattered, while those in the Rocky Mountain region are dependent on transportation by rail. (Fig. 70.) Location of Principal Minerals % Cold a Lead .. Silver * Copper ^Quicksilver After U. S. Uologicl FIG. 319. Location of principal metallic deposits in the West. THE WESTERN SECTION I8 7 The coal is all of late origin, and mostly lignite. But in parts of Colorado and Washington it has been transformed, Courtesy of the Bucyrua Co. FIG. 1 20. A modern gold dredge at work. by heat and pressure during the upheaval of the mountains, into bituminous coal of coking quality ; and in certain small districts of Colorado and New Mexico, near lava flows, it has even been changed into anthracite. Colorado, holding first place in coal and iron west of the Mississippi, has become the Pennsylvania of the West. Important petroleum fields have been tapped in several states. The most productive is in southern California, where, owing to the total lack of coal, the crude oil (Fig. 121) is of the greatest importance as fuel. In fact, the output of oil in California is now more valuable than the gold. In 1904, for the first time, the region west of the Mississippi produced over half of the petroleum in the United States. When petroleum is long exposed to the air, the lighter parts evaporate, leaving ozokerite, a natural paraffin used for can- dles, or asphaltum used for pavements. The largest output of asphaltum is in California, though more extensive deposits are found in Utah. An artificial asphaltum is also made in California by distillation of petroleum. The substances left by evaporation of salt water are widely distributed in the West, especially gypsum. Salt occurs i88 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY chiefly near Salt Lake and in California (Fig. 122); borax, in the most arid districts, such as Death Valley. Precious and semi-precious stones occur in several districts: turquoise in New Mexico and Arizona, whence the Indians obtained their supplies; sapphires in Yogo Gulch, Mont.; topaz, beryl, and tourmaline near San Diego, Cal.; and a whole petrified forest, containing agate and chalcedony, near Holbrook, Ariz. 200. Manufactures in the West. Manufactures in the West are mostly neighborhood industries, the products being consumed near at hand. They are somewhat protected from outside competition by the high freight rates from other sections; but by the same means most of them are prevented from rinding a larger market. In the mountains, the smelting of ores is the leading industry : for example, at Buttc. Mont. It is also important at FIG. 121. Courtesy of the U. P. Ry. Oil wells and derricks in the Bakcrsfield tlislrict, California. THE WESTERN SECTIOtf 189 vSeattle, near the principal Pacific coal fields. Colorado has developed a considerable iron and steel industry, notably Courtesy of Professor J. E. Chamberlain FIG. 122. Salt piles in the Salton Sink before the Colorado rose and flooded it. As water came to the surface of the sink and evaporated, it left a layer of salt which was frequently scraped into piles and hauled away and as often renewed. (Fig. 112.) at Pueblo; and steel ship building has made some progress on the coast, especially at San Francisco, despite the lack of coal and iron in the vicinity. The mining machinery made in Denver and Los Angeles is known in many parts of the world. Pacific coast cities are concerned chiefly with lumber, food- stuffs, and mining machinery. At the census of 1910, lumber was the leading product at Seattle, Tacoma, Portland, and Spokane, located near the heavily forested region. (Fig. 123.) Flour milling is also a prominent industry in all these cities, notably at Spokane, the "Minneapolis of the Far West", likewise at Stockton and Sacramento, all situated in wheat districts. In San Francisco and Los Angeles, the supply points for many mining camps, foundry products rank first. San FYancisco also has extensive refineries for Hawaiian cane and California beet sugar, while the canning industry 190 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY is found both in California, using fruit, and along the Columbia and Puget Sound, where fish are extensively tinned. Courtesy of Weister & Co. FIG. 123. Timber raft on the Columbia ready for lowing to San Francisco. The logs are piled into a deep frame shaped like a ship in order to ride the waves. Dependent on the herds and flocks are the leather-tanning industry in California and the manufacture of woolen goods which has begun in the Columbia and Puget Sound country. The manufacture of moving-picture films, in which the United States leads, also centers in southern California, where there is usually sunshine. Another condition favorable to manufactures, besides the abundance of raw materials, is the enormous water power available on both flanks of the Cordilleran Highland; notably, at Great Falls, on the Missouri; at Colgate, near the foot of the Sierra, whence the electric current is carried to Oakland and San Francisco; at Spokane, the Dalles, the Cascades, and Oregon City, on the Columbia system; and on many of the streams flowing into Puget Sound. THE WESTERN SECTION H)t 201. Transportation Facilities of the West. The West, being in the main a lofty table-land, has few inland water ways. *The rivers entering San Francisco Bay are, indeed, navigable for some distance; below Stockton and Sacramento they carry considerable traffic. The one water way of real commercial importance, however, is the Columbia system, navigable by seagoing vessels to Portland on the Willamette (no miles) and by river steamers to Lewiston on the Snake. At the Dalles a canal eight and one-half miles long and eight feet deep at low water has been built around the rapids (1915). The railways in the West consequently hold the power of commercial life and death. Moreover, railway construction is unavoidably expensive there, because of the rugged surface and great elevation of the mountain passes. The lowest summit level on any Pacific railroad is about double the FIG. 124. The early highways to the Pacific. (Compare Fig. 61.) 192 COM \1ERCI A L GEOGRA PH Y highest elevation on any railway crossing the Alleghenies. The result of these conditions is such high freight rates as seriously to limit many industries. 202. Inland Commercial Centers of the West. Denver, the one great city of the plains, is mountain born, having been at first merely a stagecoach station and outfitting head- quarters for mining camps. It has now become the commercial urteey of Great Northern Kj FIG. 125. Sacked wheat at Waterville, Wash., waiting shipment down the Columbia to Portland. center of the entire Rocky Mountain region, to which it is the central gateway. More than a dozen lines of railways enter its stations. On the vast plateau between the Rockies and the Sierra, the principal commercial center is Salt Lake City, reached from the East by a number of railways, 1 while from it lines 1 The Union Pacific and the Denver & Rio Grande (Gould line), built; the Denver & Salt Lake under construction. THE WESTERN SECTION 193 radiate to Butte, Portland, San Francisco and Los Angeles. Spokane holds a somewhat similar position in the upper Columbia Basin. 203. Seaports West of the Coast Range. The Pacific coast is singularly straight and unbroken, with mountains rising directly from the sea. Such a coast line is in general unfavor- able to commerce. San Diego, on a small but secure harbor, sheltered by a sand bar the famous Coronado Beach is the natural outlet of Arizona and the Southwest. It. was hemmed in by the Coast Range which rises just behind it and has pursued largely "the business of pleasure" as a seaside resort. The completion of a railway through the mountains to Arizona opens a way for commercial and industrial development. In like manner Eureka, on Humboldt Bay, has been prac- tically limited by the Coast Range to handling redwood lumber from the adjacent mountains, for which it is the principal port of shipment; but railway connection with the interior is now established. Los Angeles, the "City of Angels," lies on the seaward slope of the Coast Range, opposite a low pass or gap (the San Bernardino, now traversed by three lines of railway) which leads over into the Imperial Valley; this in turn opens opposite the Gila Valley, forming a natural route toward the Gulf of Mexico. Thanks to this situation, which in effect eliminates both Coast Range and Sierra, and to a climate as mild as that of southern Italy, Los Angeles has become the business and residential center of the Far Southwest. Like Athens and Florence, Los Angeles stands a few miles inland, having been founded without thought of sea-borne commerce. For ocean traffic it depends upon an artificial harbor at San Pedro protected by a g,ooo-foot government breakwater and inclosing an inner bay called Wilmington Harbor. (Fig. 126.) Three railways extend to San Fran- cisco, one along the sea and two through the great San Joaquin Valley. 10 194 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 204. Seaports that Pierce the Coast Range. The Coast Range is pierced by navigable waters at only three places in the United States: San Francisco Bay, Columbia River, and Puget Sound. On these are consequently the great Pacific ports, which handle the bulk of American commerce with the Orient. San Francisco has a harbor larger and more easily accessible than that of New York. It became important, in the first place, through the dis- covery of gold in the Sacramento Valley, and it profits most from trade with Hawaii, Samoa, Australia, and the Philippines. San Francisco is now the terminus of four trans- continental railways, l and it is the commer- cial metropolis of the Pacific slope. Moreover, just as the Pacific cable released (1903) oriental commerce from tribute to the overland tele- graph, so the Panama Canal frees trans-conti- nental commerce from dependence on the railways. FIG. 126. Artificial harbor at San Pedro. Portland is a river port like New Orleans; and now that the troublesome bar at the mouth of the Columbia has been conquered by jetties, and the rapids in the river are passed by canals, Portland l The Southern Pacific and the Santa Fe coming up from the south; the Union Pacific and the Western Pacific (the new Gould line) coming by way of Great Salt Lake. (Fig. 61.) THE WESTERN SECTION 195 will no doubt play a somewhat similar part in commerce. In fact, it has the added advantage that the Columbia runs with, in place of across, the general course of commerce. Portland is already a great grain and lumber port. It is, moreover, reached by railways from San Francisco and Puget Sound ; while from the east, branches of the Union Pacific and of the Great Northern descend the Columbia Valley. The spacious and secure harbors on Puget Sound, however. are the chief rivals of San Francisco for oriental trade. The principal ports, from the mouth toward the head of the Sound (117 miles) are Bellingham, Everett, Seattle, Tacoma, and Olympia. On Puget Sound are the terminals of the three northern transcontinental lines: the Great Northern, Northern Pacific, and the new extension of the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul, called the Chicago, Milwaukee & Puget Sound (1909). The Puget Sound ports are favored by the fact that they stand opposite the lowest, narrowest, and least sterile part of the Cordillcran Highland. They also profit most from the development of Alaska; and the shape of the earth is in their favor, bringing China and Japan nearer to Puget Sound than to ports farther south. XIV THE UNITED STATES IN THE MARKETS . OF THE WORLD "There be three things which make a nation great and prosperous: a fertile soil, busy workshops, and easy conveyance for men and goods from place to place." Lord Bacon. 205. The Foundations of Commerce. Commerce is rooted in the people and the soil. "A nation's commerce is born .of its industry and is part of its struggle for the necessaries, the comforts, and the luxuries of life." (Webster.) The people of the United States are active and adventurous by right of inheritance; for only those of such a disposition were willing to brave the uncertainties of a New World. Moreover, frontier life, in conflict with untamed nature and savage foes, bred inventiveness and self-reliance. Finally, self-government has powerfully promoted general education and intelligence. The natural resources of the country match the spirit of the people. No other equal area in the world has such a combination of fertile soil, abundant minerals, navigable waters, excellent harbors, and temperate climate. And no other great nation, except Russia, fronts on the two greatest oceans. Everything goes to show, as De Tocqueville long ago observed, that the United States seems formed by nature to become the first commercial nation of the world. The achievement of this high destiny is, however, reserved for the future. 206. Staple Products of the United States. All new coun- tries of necessity first exploit the crude resources of sea, forest, field, and mine. They must have food and raw materials before they can undertake manufactures. There is consequently a natural order in the development of industry and commerce. FIG. 128. Areas in the Unit States producing commercial staples. Copyright, iqoq, by Rand McNally & Company From i.epor. of Industrial Corami THE UNITED STATES IN THE MARKETS OF THE WORLD 197 The United States first entered foreign markets as an exporter of fish and timber from the North Atlantic states, tobacco and cotton from the South Atlantic states, grain and animal products from the Mississippi Valley. The area of largest production has indeed shifted westward with the march of population; but raw products still make up a large part of American exports. (Figs. 128, 130, and 134.) Imports by classes Imports by articles Imports by countries Data from Commerce and Navigation, 1912-13, and U.S. Stat. Abs.. 19W FIG. 130. Foreign commerce of the United States. Total, average for five years (millions of dollars): exports 1,992; imports, i,5T2. 207. Fish and Furs. Fish were for colonial New England very nearly what tobacco was for Virginia; and a codfish over the Speaker's chair in the State House at Boston still symbolizes the importance of the fishing industry to Mas- sachusetts. In the country at large, the fisheries employ nearly a quarter of a million workers, supporting upward of a million people. For the last half century, however, the Atlantic fisheries have been slowly failing. The exports of fish, mainly canned 198 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY salmon from the Pacific coast, are now less than the imports, (Fig. 131.) It is important that the fisheries be preserved, if By kinds By districts By exports Data from Fisheries of U. S.. 1908, and Com. and Nav., 1012-13 FIG. 131. Fishing industry of the Untied States. Total (millions of dollars): catch, 65.8; exports, average for five years, 8.3. possible, not only as a source of sea food, but also as a nursery of able seamen and rugged virtues. 1 The exports of furs, including among other kinds seal and sea-otter pelts from Bering Sea, are greatly exceeded by the imports from Canada and the cold parts of Europe and Asia. Curiously enough, up to 1913 sealskins were commonly sent to London for finishing, and then repurchased at a greatly By species' By districts Exports Census Bureau: Forest Products, Forest Service. Circulars for 1912 and 1913 FIG. 132. Lumber industry of the United States. Totals, averages for five years: cut, 39.8 billion feet. b. in.; exports, 112 million dollars. increased price. This illustrates how relatively undeveloped many American industries are. 1 See Kipling, Captains Courageous. THE UNITED STATES IN THE MARKETS OF THE WORLD IQ9 208. Forest Products. Forest products (Fig. 132) almost equaled in value all the crude mineral products of the United States, as shown by the Thirteenth Census. The exports of forest products consist mainly of yellow pine, turpentine, and rosin from the South, together with redwood and other lumber from the Pacific coast. The imports consist largely of tropical "jungle" products. Under this head are included rubber and other gums, cabinet and dye woods, cork, and tanning agents, notably sumac from After Thirteenth Cer FIG. 133. Value of all crops in the United States. Italy and gambier from the East Indies. In addition, there is a growing importation of lumber and wood pulp from Canada. 209. Live-stock Products. Domestic animals yielded, according to the Thirteenth Census, products amounting to nearly two-fifths of all farm products. Hogs, dairy products, and beef cattle were each valued at more than $500,000,000 a year; while even the industrious hen was worth almost four times our annual output of gold. Sheep, horses, and mules also materially swelled the census totals. However it may prove in the future, the introduction of 200 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY steam, gasoline, and electricity has not as yet materially affected the commercial importance of draft animals. The exports of meat and other animal products on the whole exceed the imports, going to all the densely populated countries of Europe, especially to Great Britain. There is, on the other hand, a large import of raw materials of animal origin, notably hides, wool, raw silk, feathers, and bristles. There are besides growing imports of meat, eggs, and dairy products. The imports of hides alone amount to more than $100,000,000 a year. 210. Crop Products. The crops (Figs. 133 and 134) of the United States, as ascertained at the Thirteenth Census, Use of land F.xports of farm products Farm products Data from Thirteenth Census, and Statistic? 1 Abstract, 1913 FIG. 134. Agricultural industry of the United Slates. Totals: contiguous land area, I,QOJ million acres; farm products at Thirteenth Census, n,27o million dollars; exports in igio, r 1 > > > . s > 7 ^. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I fSjSl ii] i 1 /' y 97 l i i i J | 7 9/4 United States ! 7 S i ' ! 1 1 'jooo 1 ' toid. Germany . . \ lS J 2 t _ iqoo iqio A ustria-Hungary i 1/^571' iqooigfb Great Britain i I i /$$! iqoi \igii France . , , ! i ! After Statesman's Year Book, 1901. 1902, 1913 FIG. 136. Growth of population in the principal commercial countries. Figures at top indicate millions; figures on lines indicate dates, 21 z. Why Agricultural Exports Have Begun to Decline. The farmers' mine, the soil, is not easily exhausted. If properly handled, it is indeed like the widow's cruse of oil. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY Yet within a few years the United States will be largely dependent on Canada for timber; the stock industry of the I \Less than $50 to $100 ' $100 to $joo $300 to 7,000 -H $1,000 and over FIG. 137. Value of minerals raised per square mile in the United States. West has already received a check through the overstocking of the ranges; wheat exports show a marked tendency to decline; and cotton has not kept pace of late years with the growth of population. Farm products in the aggregate still constitute, it is true, the largest single item, but twenty years ago they formed the great bulk of American exports. This relative decline in agricultural exports is due to the law of decreasing returns in agriculture (77), operating in the face of an unprecedented increase of population. (Fig. 136.) It therefore cannot be permanently checked, however intensively the soil may be cultivated. 212. Mineral Products. Agriculture and mining, the one exploiting the surface and the other the interior of the earth, are the two primary industries on which all others depend. The mining industry of the United States has advanced, since 1880, with such giant strides as to distance both Great Britain and Germany . (Fig. 137.) This development has been furthered THE UNITED STATES IN THE MARKETS OF THE WORLD 203 by the use of the steam shovel in open-cut mines, and of power machinery for cutting and handling minerals in pit mines. Cold Silver Mercury Data from Mineral Resources, 1909-13, aud Report of Director of Mint, 1914 FIG. 138. World production of minerals. Totals (averages for five years): coal, 1,328 million short tons (2,000 Ibs.); crude oil, 341 million bbl. (42 gals.); natural gas, 529 billion cubic ft.; copper, i.oio thousand short tons (smelter production); lead, 1,231 thousand short tons; zinc, QJQ thousand short tons; gold, 22,211,608 oz. (455 million dollars); silver, 235 million oz. (144 million dollars); mercury, 3,944 metric tons (4.2 million dollars). (See also Figs. 282, 283, and 284.) The United States now holds first place, by a wide margin, in the output of mineral fuels, producing more than a third 804 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY of the coal, more than half the petroleum, and nearly all the natural gas used in the world. The United States is likewise first in the great industrial metals, iron, copper, lead, and zinc; also, in phosphate rock. (Fig. 138.) The United States is also well to the front in the output of gold, silver, and mercury, besides various minor minerals. (Figs. 137 and 138.) The exports of crude minerals, on the other hand, consisting mainly of coal, phosphate rock, and petroleum, are largely exceeded by the imports of minerals not produced here in sufficient quantities (Fig. 139). The true value of minerals, however, as of other raw materials, is only realized when they serve as the basis of Products by kind Products by sections Exports of crude minerals Data from Mines and Quarries, Vol. XI, Thirteenth Census, and Com. and Nav., 1914 FIG. 139. The mineral industry of the United Slates. Totals (millions of dollars'): products, 1,238; exports, 89. manufactures. A pound of unwrought iron is worth only a few cents; made into watch springs its value is multiplied many thousand fold. 213. Manufactured Products. The American people have a natural mechanical bent; in fact, "the American loves a machine as an Englishman loves a horse." Already the value of American manufactures is probably double the value of all farm products. The United States is rated by some as the greatest manufacturing nation in the world. Compared with Europe as a whole, however, which forms a substantially equivalent area, the United States is clearly in the "extractive" stage of industry, producing chiefly food and THE UNITED STATES IN THE MARKETS OF THE WORLD 205 raw materials. Even a major part of the articles that are classed in the United States Census reports as manufactures have undergone but little elaboration. Such articles are rough lumber, breadstuffs, meat, mineral oils, and many other commodities. Europe has thus far retained its preemi- nence in manufactures, despite the great resources of the United States, owing to an abundant supply of skilled labor andto superior educational facilities for industry and commerce. Less than .,?_,-<%> $500 to $6,000 $b,ooo to $25,000 $2j,OOO tO $jO,OOG $jO.OOO fO After Thirteenth Census FIG. 140. Proportional value and intensity of manufactures by geographic divisions. Nevertheless, the proportion of manufactures among American exports has largely increased since 1885; and this increase extends not only to articles such as agricultural implements, encountering little competition abroad, but also to some lines of competitive manufactures, notably iron and steel products, copper wares, including electrical machinery, and leather goods, especially shoes. (Figs. 140,141, and 142.) 214. Why Foreign Markets for Manufactures are Necessary. Since agricultural exports tend to decrease as population becomes more dense, and in any event manufacturing nations 206 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 1885. . . /#... 35* 60% Data from Commerce and Navigation, 1914 PIG. 141. Growth of export trade of the United States in manufactures. are the more prosperous and powerful because not compelled to struggle ever harder against the law of decreasing returns (77), the future commercial pros- perity of the United States manifestly depends on the export of manu- factured goods. (Fig. 142.) The United States must therefore obtain and maintain foreign markets for its manufactures, or undergo a gradual "process of suffocation," which would ultimately reduce the teeming millions of American workmen to poverty and lower the American standard of living to the European level. 215. Where Markets for Manufactures May be Found. Markets for manufactured goods are to be found in the future, not in Europe, which buys chiefly food and raw materials and, moreover, controls most of the very markets the United States seeks to acquire; but rather in the American Possessions, Canada, Mexico, South America, the Orient, and other countries which largely buy manufactured goods. (Table 6.) Gross value of products Exports of manufactures FIG. 142. Manufacturing industries of the United States. Totals (millions of dollars): products, 20,672 (Vol. VIII, Thirteenth Census); exports, 1,185 (Commerce and Navigation, 1912, IQI3, and U. S. Stat. Abs., 1913). It is in these same countries, moreover, where industry is relatively undeveloped and comparatively little capital has THE UNITED STATES IN THE MARKETS OF THE WORLD 207 been accumulated, that considerable investments of American capital have been made, especially in mines and railways, and still larger investments are certain in the future. These countries, therefore, despite the present preponder- ance of Europe in American trade, are the ones in which the United States has the greatest interest, as markets for American manufactures and as fields for the investment of American capital. 216. The Conservation of Natural Resources. The resources of nature are indispensable to support the life of man, yet most of them are exhaustible. The fisheries have long been declining; practically every merchantable tree in the United States has been counted; the highest grade Superior iron ores are largely exhausted, and the life of the remaining deposits is calculated at fifty years; the older natural gas and petroleum fields are clearly failing; and if the use and waste of coal shall continue to increase as during the last fifty years, the reserves of coking coals in the United States can hardly outlast the present century. Even the soil is suffering severely, not only from continuous cropping in staple crops like cotton, wheat, and corn, but perhaps even more from soil wastage, nearly a billion tons a year being swept into the streams and eventually carried into the sea. As Shaler puts it, "of all the sinful wasters of man's inheritance on earth, and all are in this regard sinners, the very worst are the people of America." Such being the situation, what can be done about it? Clearly, we cannot cease to utilize the resources of nature, for on them our life and our civilization depend ; but if private interests can be in a measure subordinated to the public interest, it is possible to check the waste of these resources. For one thing, by handling the remaining forests on scien- tific principles, and adopting a systematic policy of refores- tation, muck of the soil wastage may be avoided and the streams preserved for irrigation, navigation, and power purposes. (Figs. 8 and 143.) 208 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY Secondly, by substituting water transportation for carriage by rail, wherever practicable, the drain on the coal and iron mines may be greatly diminished. Rivers require no rails, nor do steamboats consume as much fuel per ton of goods moved as do locomotives. Thirdly, by exporting manufactured goods, which represent a large value in relatively small bulk, rather than foodstuffs, Courtesy of U. S. Forrst Service FIG. 143. Reforestation of cut-over lands; success/id natural seeding from long-leaf pine. raw materials or coal, the drain on both soil and mines may be lessened. It is indeed true that England's export of coal furnishes heavy outbound cargoes to offset the importation of foodstuffs and raw materials, when otherwise many ships would go in ballast. Full cargoes both ways tend to lower freight rates, which is one secret of England's success in foreign commerce. Nevertheless, every cargo shipped abroad hastens THE UNITED STATES IN THE MARKETS OF THE WORLD 209 the day of famine prices for coal at home. The need of conserving natural resources thus affords another and perhaps the greatest reason why the future prosperity of the United States depends on the export of manufactured goods. Fourthly, more economical methods may be used in manu- facturing. Thus, by using beehive coke ovens and not saving the by-products, coke making in the United States is a crude and wasteful process. Fortunes are lost not to speak of natural resources wasted every year in the clouds of gas arising from the Connellsville coke ovens; and little use is made in this country even of the coal tar obtained in the process, notwithstanding it is the source of aniline dyes and many other chemical products. These and other economic reforms depend partly on aroused public sentiment, partly on the spread of technical education, and partly on changes in the law which will bring the interest of the owner and the interest of the public more nearly into harmony. The problem as a whole is too vast and complex for discussion here 1 , but this much is clear: so long as the owner is taxed on the standing tree and the ore or coal in the mine, he will continue to make haste and waste, in order to get out what he can before the taxes consume his profits. On the other hand, if he were taxed only on the tree when cut and the ore or coal when mined, he would have every reason to use care and economy. The conservation of natural resources must therefore begin with a reform in the law of taxation. 1 See the reports of the National Conservation Commission, the Inland Waterways Commission, and the Proceedings of the White House Conference of Governor's (Washington, 1909). XV AMERICAN EXPANSION IN THE PACIFIC "The Pacific Ocean, -its shores, its islands, and the vast region beyond will become the chief theater of events in the world' s great hereafter," W '. H. Seward. 217. The Character of Alaska. Alaska (Fig. 129) corre- sponds in position and climate to the Scandinavian Peninsula. Along the sea in the southeast the temperature seldom goes below zero. At Sitka, for example, the winter average (32.5 F.) is practically the same as at Washington, D. C. The interior, however, is drier, with warm summers and very cold winters. The Coast Range of Oregon appears in Alaska in places as a string of islands, while the range representing the Cascades rises about one hundred miles inland. The Rockies also curve to the westward some distance south of the Arctic. 1 ' Most of the interior between the Alaskan and the continuation of the Rocky mountains is drained to the westward by the Yukon, a river larger than the Mississippi. Alaska nearly equals in size the region east of the Missis- sippi and south of the Great Lakes, while in length of coast line, it exceeds the United States. 218. Fisheries and Forests of Alaska. Furs first attracted the Russians to Alaska, and are still of some commercial importance. The catch has, however, so far declined that fur farms have been established on several of the islands, containing the rare black and silver fox. Fur seals, which frequent the Pribilof Islands at certain seasons, have been almost exterminated by Canadian and Japanese hunters, called "pelagic sealers," who shoot male and female indis- criminately on the high seas, leaving the young on the islands to perish miserably of starvation. The sea otter, yielding the most expensive of all furs, is now very rare. "Brooks' Geography and Geology of Alaska (U, S. Geological Survey). AMERICAN EXPANSION IN THE PACIFIC 2 1 1 Alaskan waters are among the most valuable fishing grounds in the world. The salmon pack is over half that of the United States; the catch of halibut is much larger than in the Atlantic, some being shipped even to New England; and im- mense cod and herring banks are almost untouched. (Fig. 144.) FISHERIES AND MINERALS Of ALASKA Coal SiW Copper t Tin Gold and Silver I'ased on U. S. (i< FIG. 144. Fisheries and minerals of Alaska. Heavy forests cover the coast east of Kodiak Island, where the southwest winds encounter lofty mountains. There is also a smaller and more scattered growth of trees on the slopes up to 2,000 feet elevation as far north as the Yukon. 312 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY These forests furnish timber for the mines. On the coast, where accessible to water transportation, they are also of probable commercial value. 219. Mineral Resources of Alaska. Gold has, however, proved the great magnet to populate the country, recalling the "days of '49'" in California. Quartz mining is carried on around Juneau, where the Treadwell mine feeds the largest stamp mill in the world; placer mining prevails in the Yukon, Fairbanks, and Nome districts. The gravels are commonly washed by powerful streams of water driven against them (Fig. 145) ; but steam shovels and gold dredges have also begun U. 8. Geol. Survey, Bulletin, Xo. 3'JS FIG. 145. Hydraulic elevator on Glacier Creek, Alaska. Water is pumped to higher level in order to give pressure for hydraulic mining, to be employed. (Fig. 120.) Tin is found on Seward Peninsula in commercial quantities; and there are immense copper deposits on Prince of Wales Island, and in the Copper and Susitna valleys, which may prove the richest in the world. Besides metals, Alaska has abundant coal, both near the coast and on the Yukon, ranging from anthracite through an intermediate class of coking bituminous coal to lignite. The 213 coal in the Matanuska and Bering River fields is the best on the Pacific slope. Gypsum is worked near Juneau (now the Courtesy of the Rer. Sheldon Jaoknon FIG. 146. Freighting with reindeer in Alaska. capital of the territory) , and marble on Prince of Wales Island, both conveniently located for shipment by sea. 220. Agricultural Possibilities of Alaska. Furs and gold have filled Alaska with a floating population in search of fortune; only agriculture can establish homes. Moreover, if foodstuffs must continue to be imported, only the cream of the mineral deposits can pay expenses. On the wide tundra or moss-covered plains in the north- west, beyond the Yukon, reindeer have been introduced by the Government as a means of saving the natives from starva- tion, now that game has become scarce. These promise to be of great value both for food and freighting purposes. (Fig. 146.) Unlike other domestic animals, they can "rustle" for their food, which they dig up from beneath the deepest snows. The grass-covered islands, and seaward slopes from Kodiak Island west, are admirably adapted for pasturage. The Agri- cultural Experiment Station has found that cattle and sheep both thrive there. The example of Norway, Sweden, and Finland, similarly circumstanced as to climate, indicates that agriculture should 11 214 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY be possible in Alaska. The sun shines in summer eighteen to twenty-two hours a day, setting at ten and rising before three on the lower Yukon (Fig. 171); and behind the Coast Range there is little cloudy weather, especially in the Tanana and Copper valleys. The temperature consequently reaches 90 F. with a summer average well above 50 F. The long hours of sunshine, combined with an unfailing supply of mois- ture from the thawing earth beneath, force vegetation to an extraordinarily rapid growth. It has been proved by experi- ence at various places along the Yukon that barley, potatoes, and all common vegetables will grow at least as far north as the Arctic Circle. 1 At Rampart, indeed, grain, including wheat, has matured every year since the Agricultural Experi- ment Station was established there. Alaska, with coal and food products, is an altogether differ- ent country from the "frozen waste" that some of the books still describe. To encourage settlement, Congress has made the homestead unit in Alaska 320 acres. 221. Commerce of Alaska. The exports (Fig. 147) of Alaska are chiefly gold, fish (mainly salmon), and furs; the imports, foodstuffs, machinery, and mining supplies, mostly from the United States. Between Alaska and the United States there is entire freedom of trade. The commercial centers are 45% 38% 5% 12% Gold 15.5 million dollars Salmon 13.1 ji-3 ' All others 4.1 Data from Report of Governor, 1914 FIG. 147. Exports from Alaska. Totals, five-year averages (millions of dollars): exports, 34.2; imports, 19.2. Skagway, at the head of Lynn Canal or inlet; St. Michael, near the mouth of the Yukon; and Nome, the principal town on Seward Peninsula. Skagway is reached from Puget Sound by a sheltered "inside" passage, behind the fringe of 'Especially at Holy Cross Mission and Eagle. See McLain, Alaska and the Klondike, and the Reports of the Alaska Experiment Stations (Department of Agriculture). AMERICAN EXPANSION IN THE PACIFIC 21$ islands, almost as calm as a pond. It offers the shortest route to navigable water on the Yukon, which is reached by a railway only 112 miles long, but with heavy grades over the mountains (2,880 feet). At Nome, the supply point of a rich gold-mining district, goods and passengers must be landed through the surf at heavy cost. Both Bering Sea and the Yukon River are as a rule icebound from October till June. Courtesy of The Mining World FIG. 148. Traveling by dog sled in Alaska. 222. Transportation in Alaska. Transportation is chiefly by water in summer, and by dog sleds (Fig. 148) in winter; for in Alaska the "freeze up" is the magic power which turns the marshy tundra into a solid road and makes of every stream a highway into the wilderness. The Government has built a pack trail from Valdez at the head of Prince William Sound to the Yukon, and a beginning has been made in constructing roads for wheeled vehicles; but the general lack, of wagon roads and the resulting cost of transporting supplies prevents many rich mines from being worked. There are two short mining railways on Seward Peninsula ; a third extending from deep water on the Tanana to Fairbanks 2l6 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY and the adjacent camps; and another built to haul fish, on the southern coast. Of more general interest and importance would be an all-American line from the south coast to navi- gable water on the Yukon System. Two such lines have been undertaken: one from Cordova up the Copper Valley and over Mentasta Pass (2,900 feet); the other from Seward by way of the Susitna Valley and Caribou Pass (2,300 feet). This route has been chosen for the government railroad authorized in 1914 to open up the coal and other resources of Alaska. Both terminal ports are always ice free, that of Seward being as deep and calm as an Alpine lake. The Alaskan islands, stretching farther away to the west of San Francisco than San Francisco is from Maine, contain many admirable harbors, notably Dutch Harbor, a port of call on the way to the Yukon and Nome. Strange as it may seem, these islands lie near the "great circle" route from Puget Sound to Japan, and, offering sites for coaling and naval sta- tions, they give the United States no mean advantage in the struggle for commercial and naval control of the Pacific. 1 223. The Hawaiian Islands. The natives of Hawaii came, according to their traditions, from Samoa. They were con- verted (1820) by New England missionaries, who founded the American influence that finally led to annexation (1898). There would thus seem to be truth in the adage that "trade follows the missionary and the flag follows trade." There are few sights in the world more beautiful than the Hawaiian Islands (Fig. 149), a group of emerald gems, rising abruptly from the deep sea, with towering volcanoes still marked at times by flashes of fire and pillars of smoke. Nine of the group are inhabited, having an area (6,449 square miles) nearly equal to N*ew Jersey. The latitude is that of Cuba; but the Japan current, which is cooler than the land, lowers the temperature several degrees (Honolulu, 74 F.), rendering it almost ideal, seldom lower than 52 or warmer than 92 F. 1 Sec Rear Admiral Bradford's article on Coaling Stations for the Navy (Forum, Feb., 1899). AMERICAN EXPANSION IN THE PACIFIC 217 The lowlands, being alluvial, are as a rule extremely fertile; but irrigation is often necessary on the lee or southwestern side of the mountains, where the rainfall at sea level is, on the average, only thirty-two inches. This is inadequate in a warm country, where evaporation is very rapid. The uplands are cooler, moister, and less fertile. As in the lesser Antilles, the ports and towns are mostly on the side sheltered from the prevailing northeast trade wind. 224. Natural Resources of Hawaii. The mountains are still partly forested, though wasteful lumbering and herds of wild cattle and goats roaming at large have ruined much valu- able timber. The adjacent lowlands have therefore suffered increasingly from drought, while the streams are less useful for irrigation. Recently the situation has grown so serious that several forest reserves have been established. Fishing is now largely in the hands of Japanese. The catch is consumed in the islands. Stock raising is of some impor- tance on the uplands, especially above the timber line (6,000 to 8,000 feet) where cattle, sheep, and horses all do well. Three of the smaller inhabited islands are private sheep and FIG. 149. The Hawaiian Islands. 2l8 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY cattle ranches. Owing to the rugged surface,, only a small part (less than 5 per cent) of the land is under crops. The great commercial crop of Hawaii is sugar cane (Fig. 150), grown mostly on the lowlands (under 500 feet), though on the windward slope it ranges up to 2,000 feet elevation. It is irrigated on the southern slopes but grows without irrigation on the northern. Rice and tar6, also irrigated, are the staple food crops. Taro is a root crop which takes the place of potatoes in the tropical islands of the Pacific. Other crops, that are becoming increasingly important, are pineapples, which flourish on dry lowlands ; cocoa and bananas (the bananas shading the cocoa), vanilla, and rubber, all need- ing a moist climate and giving the best results under 500 feet elevation; coffee, tobacco, and vegetables on the uplands. Coffee does best on the drier side above 2,000 feet elevation, while tobacco thrives in the cloud-belt on the windward slope. Sisal fibre is a promising crop. Pineapples, bananas, and coffee have already reached a commercial basis. Most of the pineapples are canned for export, the value of the shipments reaching nearly $10,000,000 in 1920. One of the canneries, consuming Courtesy of Professor H. W. Henshaw FIG. 150. Gathering sugar cane in Hawaii, 250 tons of fruit a day, is reputed to be the largest in the world, surpassing even the great canneries at Singapore. AMERICAN EXPANSION IN THE PACIFIC 319 225. The Population of Hawaii. The sugar industry has filled Hawaii with Asiatics (Fig. 151); and still the sugar Population of Hawaii Imports by countries Exports by articles Data from Reports of Governor of Hawaii, 1910-14 FIG. 151. Races and commerce of Hawaii. Population at Thirteenth Census, 191,909. Commerce, five-year averages (millions of dollars): exports, 45.7, practically all to the United States; imports, 30.6, mostly foodstuffs and manufactures. planters are not satisfied. Their laments about the "scarcity of labor" mean, what such laments usually mean the world over, a scarcity of people willing to work for a few cents a day (74). Such "scarcity of labor" as this is a sign of a rising standard of living and therefore of real economic progress. On the other hand, only upland crops such as coffee and tobacco can support an American population. There are estimated to be 350,000 acres at 2,000 to 5,000 feet elevation where coffee would thrive. The preponderance of Asiatics in Hawaii can hardly be viewed with indifference. In all countries the race which furnishes the laborers tends more and more to crowd out the ruling race ; for it is a fact observed in many lands that the so-called "upper classes" die out in time unless constantly recruited from the laboring classes or by immigration. Already the Asiatics in Hawaii have made their way into many occupations formerly confined to the whites. 226. The Commerce of Hawaii. Internal transportation is well provided for by highways, several short railways, and by coasting vessels. The several islands are connected by a wireless telegraph system, and the Pacific cable makes two COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY landings in the archipelago. Honolulu, the capital, is a modern city, with telephones, electric light, and electric cars. Hawaii enjoys free trade with the United States, which conse- quently constitutes almost the sole market for Hawaiian prod- ucts and furnishes the bulk of Hawaiian imports. (Fig. 151.) The importance of Hawaii for sea-borne commerce depends upon its unique position. It is the "crossroads of the North Pacific" and therefore a natural mid-ocean supply station. Its value is further enhanced by isolation; only small coral islands lie within a radius of 2,000 miles. (Fig. 195.) More- over, it has in Pearl Harbor (Fig. 152) an ideal location for a coaling and naval station. Naval vessels cannot cross the Pacific without recoaling; hence Hawaii in American hands guards the Pacific coast of the United States better than a dozen battle ships. 1 With the Panama Canal com- pleted, Hawaii becomes at once its western gateway. 227. American Samoa. The beauty of the Samoan Islands, clothed in the richest verdure to the mountain tops, the charm of their ever-balmy climate, the native courage, courtesy, and generosity of their people, have drawn from all beholders the most glowing tributes. Our youthful dreams of an island in the far southern seas where it is always summer and the burdens of life are laid aside, here seem to be realized. It was in Samoa that Robert Louis Stevenson, after wandering the world over, fixed his home and chose his last resting place; and his writings 2 have given it fame throughout the world. In the division of the islands (1898), Germany received the two larger islands, now occupied by New Zealand, while the United States obtained the five small islands at the east, 1 Mahan, Interest of America in Sea Power. ^Footnote to History, Vailima Letters, etc. FIG. 152. Honolulu and Pearl Harbor. AMERICAN EXPANSION IN TtiE PACIFIC 221 having an area of seventy-seven square miles and a population of about 6,100. The largest American island, Tutuila, is seventeen by five miles in extent. SAVU\ } \ / ISLAND" ^'^^ty&oa Say UPOLU ISLAND /] --..^ O C II T C "~~ QFU ISLAND ' 'F -*f& "t"' 3 ^-^ P A C Iff 0 Forest products 43 Mineral products 11 b 1=3 sS Imports by countries firyot OQqf 9* I 1 * / O/o 23fo * l_&jo From United States 830 million dollars Great Britain 106 ; All 1 others E 57 Data from Canada Year Book, 1913 FlG. 174. Commerce of Canada. Totals (millions of dollars'): export of home produce, 288 (49.9% to Great Britain, 37.8% to U. S.}; imports, 460, chiefly manufactures. of Canada are therefore chiefly food and raw materials, while the imports are largely manufactured goods. (Fig. 174.) In proportion to population, Canada is one of the best cus- tomers of the United States ; though Canadian products have been heavily taxed in American markets. (Table 4.) Canada fronts the United States for over 3,000 miles. On both sides of this artificial line are found the same race and language. The resources of the two countries are largely complementary. Thus New England needs coal from Nova Scotia; middle Canada needs coal from Pennsylvania. Moreover, the lumber and ores of Canada are becoming indispensable in the United States, while Canada requires the products of our factories. Two countries were never more clearly dependent on each other for the highest prosperity. CANADA AND NEWFOUNDLAND 253 The United States plainly missed its opportunity when it broke off the reciprocity treaty with Canada (1866). Canada now taxes American manufactures a third more than British goods; and Canadians are a unit in desiring either the present British connection or absolute independence. 259. Newfoundland. Newfoundland is the oldest British colony (1583). Having so far refused to join Canada, it is self-governing, subject only to Great Britain. The population is still small, though the island is as large (42,734 square miles) as Ohio. The eastern part of Labrador is also attached politically to Newfoundland. The exclusive fishing rights claimed by the French on a large part of the shore, which long hindered the development of the colony, have been given up (1904); but France still holds St. Pierre and Miquelon, which serve as retreats for fishing vessels. The surface of the island is broken, the coast line indented, and the climate raw and prolific in fogs on account of the Labrador Current, with its procession of icebergs. However, the climate is better on the west coast, where the valleys have some good farming land and heavy timber. The mineral resources are considerable, iron and copper ore being now mined. Fishing is still the leading industry, though agri- culture is receiving increased attention. The exports are chiefly fish and ores; the imports, foodstuffs and manufactures. The interests of Newfoundland incline to the United States, which offers a better natural market for fish than Canada; but a continued refusal to admit fish untaxed must eventually drive Newfoundland into the arms of Canada. A railroad crosses the island, connecting by steamer with Cape Breton. St. Johns, the capital, only 1,650 miles from Ireland, is thus in effect the eastern terminus of the railroad system of North America. XVIII MIDDLE AMERICA AND THE WEST INDIES 260. The American Mediterranean. The great inclosed basins of the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico, forming the American Mediterranean (Fig. 194), are exceeded in their extent and the richness of their bordering lands only by the Mediterranean Sea of the Old World and by the Sea of Japan. 1 261. Physical Features of Middle America. Middle America consists of Mexico and Central America, which are very much alike in topography, climate, and population. Mexico (Fig. 182) consists in the main of a lofty plateau (6,000-8,000 feet) inclosed between loftier mountains and traversed from east to west, in the latitude of Vera Cruz, by a belt of towering volcanoes. (Fig. 175.) The range traversing Lower California also reappears on the mainland northwest of Manzanillo. East of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, where the mountain system of North America really ends and a strait formerly connected the oceans, the general trend of the mountains both on the mainland and the Greater Antilles is east and west. Here, too, there are lofty plateaus, but separated by deep depressions in Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama, where other straits formerly connected the oceans. The climate is governed chiefly by elevation and exposure to the prevailing northeast trade wind. The climatic zones are thus vertically disposed, rising from tropical lowlands through all gradations of climate to peaks clad in perpetual snow. (Fig. 176.) Owing to the prevalence of the northeast trade wind and the nearer approach of the equatorial belt of calms and rains in summer, the rainfall is greatest, and is in fact excessive, on the Caribbean slope, especially in summer; it is least on the Pacific slope, and in winter. It also increases gradually toward the south. Yucatan and the plateau of 'Shaler, Sea and Land, ("The Formation and Preservation of Harbors," ch. 6). US4) MIDDLE AMERICA AND THE WEST INDIES 2 55 northern Mexico are, however, arid, like other tracts in the trade-wind zones which lack mountains to condense moisture. By reason of cooler climate, the lofty plateau containing the City of Mexico has been the seat of power, alike under the Aztecs and the Spaniards. In Central America most of the population and agriculture are confined to the similar lofty plateaus of Guatemala and Costa Rica, together with the narrow volcanic zone along the Pacific, which are relatively cool and somewhat sheltered from the trade wind. (Fig. 78.) Mexican Table-land. After Conkling FIG. 175. Profile view of Mexico. 262. The Inhabitants of Middle America. The Spaniards conquered (1521) but never effectively colonized Mexico or Central America. They merely reduced the natives to serf- dom, imposing themselves as a ruling class. They were, moreover, for the most part adventurers, who came without families and married Indian women. The Indian element thus retains an overwhelming preponderance, even in Mexico; while in Central America, except on the lofty plateau of Costa Rica, practically the entire population consists of Indians and half-breeds of various degrees, together with some negroes along the coasts. (Fig. 178.) This predominance of races fresh from barbarism doubtless goes far to explain the turbulence and corruption of most of these states. Such conditions have severely limited industry and commerce. Volcanoes and earthquakes are less destructive than perpetual revolution. In Mexico a despot arose strong and enlightened enough to enforce peace and favor commerce; but after Diaz came in- deed the deluge a series of violent and destructive revolutions. 256 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 263. Products of the Soil in Middle America. In point of size, Mexico about equals the southern section of the United States, while Central America equals the Atlantic states north of the Potomac. The products depend, however, less on the latitude than on the elevation and rainfall. (Figs. 78 and 176.) The first agricultural industry established by the Spaniards was cattle raising. This is still of much importance. The Mexican plateau north of 20 is, indeed, a natural range coun- try ; and so are the well-grassed plateaus in Central America wherever shielded from the trade wind. Hon- duras and Nicaragua are largely occupied by cattle ranches, while the higher plateaus in Mexico and Guatemala pasture sheep. The quality of stock is everywhere poor, owing to lack of care, for this is the land of manana to-morrow. The low-lying, hot country (tierra caliente) is fever-haunted ; but /Paramos\ above 9,000 feet Tierra Fria or \ Cool Zone \ Tierra Templada or \ m per ate Zone^ 3,000 - 6,000 feet\ nean temperature 72- 64 F. \ /Tierra Caliente or Hot Lands \ o -3,000 feet etoy races Exports by articles Imports by countries Data from Stateman'a Year Books, 1909-13 FIG. 178. Races and commerce oj Mexico. Totals: population, in 1910, 15,160,369; commerce, five-year average (millions of dollars): exports, /J5 (76% 1 U. S.); -imports, 91, chiefly coal, foodstuffs, and manufactures. private interests, consequently bought enough stock to control the principal railways reaching nearly all parts of the Republic 2 and proceeded to operate them as a single system. 267. Commerce of Middle America. The exports of Mexico and Central America are for the most part metals, hides, and crude products of the forest and plantation; while the imports are foods and manufactured goods. In Mexico, because of proximity, extensive American J So all in Guatemala, and all in Salvador except El Triunfo and La Union. The best are Amapala on the Gulf of Fonseca, Corinto, and Puntarenas. 2 This government "merger," called the National Railways of Mexico, includes, besides the Tehuantepec, which was built by the government, the Vera Cruz and Pacific, the Central, National, International, and Interoceanic lines. 262 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY investments, and the several trunk lines of railways connecting with American roads, the United States has the largest trade. (Fig. 178.) Europe, however, still supplies many lines of manufactures in Mexico, and has almost a monopoly in parts of Central America. The reason no doubt is, in large part, that Spaniards handle the trade of Mexico; and that the British handle the trade of Central America. The British also own many of the plantations, aside from the banana orchards; and landed property is everywhere the true basis of power. 268. The West Indies. The West Indies consist of several mountain ranges, partially submerged, which if revealed in their whole majestic height would equal the Himalayas. The outlying Bermudas and Bahamas are, however, of coral for- mation. The climate, except in these outlying groups, is thoroughly tropical, though all the larger islands contain temperate uplands, especially Haiti, which by a strange freak of fortune has become the black man's second home. Owing to the trade wind, nearly all the towns in the Lesser Antilles lie on the sheltered western shore. 269. The Inhabitants of the West Indies, Most of the natives on the islands speedily perished under the yoke of slavery. The ground was thus apparently cleared for a white laboring population. The cultivation of sugar cane, however, fastened African slavery upon the West Indies, as cotton did upon the southern part of the United States; and in many of the islands, especially the French, the whites have merged in a common mulatto population. 1 The West Indies are consequently, with the exception of Cuba and Porto Rico, and the little Dutch island of Saba, 2 as overwhelmingly African as Central America is Indian in population. 'Doubtless because in the West Indies, as in Mexico, a person hav- ing any white blood whatsoever passes for white, while the color line is drawn between the mixed-bloods and the full-blooded negroes or Indians. ^Inhabited by English-speaking Dutch boat builders and fishermen, who seem to thrive despite the tropical climate. MIDDLE AMERICA AND THE WEST INDIES 263 270. The British West Indies. For more than three cen- turies the West Indies have been "the grand arena of the war of nations." Every island consequently has a history as varied as a separate country. Being thus the prize of naval victory, most of them have been acquired by England through her overmastering sea power. The British possessions include the Bermudas, Bahamas, Jamaica with its depen- dencies, and the bulk of the Lesser Antilles extending like an arch from Porto Rico to Trinidad. (Table 4.) For nearly a century, however, the West Indies have been undergoing economic decay. Emancipation left the estates without efficient laborers; for the freed negroes generally ''squatted" on vacant lands, cultivating little patches of yams and sweet potatoes, and refusing to work regularly on the plantations. Then the competition of European beet sugar ruined the cane-sugar industry, except in Cuba; and even there it produced the insurrection which led to the Spanish- American War. Much land once worth several hundred dollars an acre has consequently reverted to jungle. 271. The Bermudas and Bahamas. The Bermudas are commercially dependent on New York, exporting early pota- toes and onions, besides lily bulbs. Their importance to England is strategic rather than commercial, consisting in their position near the American coast and their harbor, "difficult to enter, secure when entered." The Bermudas are conse- quently a coaling and naval station, heavily fortified, forming one of England's principal ocean strongholds. The Bahamas, being of coral formation, are low and there- fore rather dry. The leading exports are sponges, salt, and ambergris 1 from the sea, sisal and pineapples from the soil. Like the Bermudas, the Bahamas are a favorite winter resort for Americans. The harbor of Nassau, though shallow, has an admirable location on the Strait of Florida and very near the mainland. 'A peculiar substance from the sperm whale which commands a high price as an ingredient in perfumes! 264 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 272. The Lesser Antilles and Jamaica. In the West Indies proper, there are also some low islands, such as Barbuda, which, lacking mountains to serve as "rain condensers," pro- duce chiefly salt and guano, besides scanty pasturage. On most of the West Indies the planters are still trying to raise sugar cane; but only the island of Barbados makes it pay, through having a dense population and therefore abundant labor, and Trinidad, through the use of Hindu coolies. The most promising crops for small islands and small farmers, since they require neither expensive mills (for which adequate producing acreage is not available) like sugar, nor rapid trans- portation like fruit, are sea-island cotton on the plains, cocoa on the lower slopes (below 1,500 feet), and coffee on the moun- tains. Cotton has accordingly become important in St. Vin- cent, Antigua, and most of the smaller islands; as have cocoa in Trinidad and Grenada; coffee in Jamaica, which ranks next to Haiti in this crop; limes for the preparation of lime juice in Dominica and Montserrat; nutmegs in Grenada; and bananas, oranges, and cocoanuts in Jamaica. In addition to fruit and coffee, Jamaica exports pimento or allspice (native to that island), ginger, logwood, and annatto the latter only too familiar in the beautiful- golden tint imparted by its use to much creamery butter. The pitch lake of Trinidad furnishes much of the asphalt used in American pavements, and associated with the pitch are considerable oil deposits. 273. Principal Ports of the British West Indies. The British islands, like the French, have excellent roads and several short railways. They also contain a number of fine harbors. Barbados, though not well sheltered, is by reason of its location the headquarters of the British Royal Mail steamship line, which makes the circuit of the West Indies. Port of Spain, Trinidad, is likewise by reason of its location the transhipment port of the Orinoco Valley. Kingston Har- bor, Jamaica, is situated in the very center of the American Mediterranean, on the direct route from New York to the Panama Canal. Castries Harbor, St. Lucia, an ancient crater MIDDLE AMERICA AND THE WEST INDIES 265 with narrow entrance between towering rocks, is another fortified outpost of the British Empire. 274. The Island of Haiti. The island of Haiti, after Cuba the largest and most fertile in the West Indies, is divided between a French-speaking negro state (Haiti) in the west end, and a Spanish-speaking mulatto state, the Dominican Republic (Santo Domingo), in the east. Both were so dis- orderly and so deeply in debt that only the Monroe Doctrine has hitherto prevented the occupation of the island by some European power. The two republics have become practically protectorates of the United States, their customs revenues being administered by American officials, as a measure of protection against foreign creditors and domestic revolutionists. The forested mountains contain all the usual cabinet and dye woods (263), also ebony and satinwood. The forests are the largest natural resource of the island. Haiti has in addi- tion the best pasturage in the West Indies ; though the export of hides only about equals the export of beeswax. Many kinds of mineral deposits are reported, but their commercial value remains to be determined. The principal export crops are coffee in the west, cocoa in the east, and sugar in the south. Others are tobacco in the Puerto Plato district, and cotton from a tree growing wild. Banana plantations have been set out by Americans. The trade of the country is mostly handled by the United States. Aside from several short railways, the principal means of land transportation is the patient donkey. There are, how- ever, many good harbors. Bahia de Samana and Mole St. Nicolas, which the United States once sought to acquire for naval purposes, 1 are deep, safe, and defensible, the one facing the Mona and the other the Windward Passage. Other natural harbors are found at Puerto Plata and Cap Haitien on the north, and Port au Prince on the west, coast. These three are the principal centers of commerce. 1 Under Grant and Hayes, respectively. In 1869 the Dominican Re- public voted in favor of annexation to the United States, but the treaty f ailed in the United States Senate. 266 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 275. The French West Indies. The French West Indies consist of Guadeloupe, Martinique, and their dependencies, including the outlying islands of St. Barthelemy and half the island of St. Martin. It is a fact worthy of note that all the islands American, Dutch, and French between Culebra and Guadeloupe are English-speaking, while all the islands from Guadeloupe south are French-speaking, except Barbados. The leading exports of the islands are sugar, coffee, and cocoa. The French islands have fared somewhat better com- mercially than the English, as their products are protected in the French market. Yet they have suffered like all the others from the division of the West Indies among several European nations, which hinders inter-island trade, and from the lack of free trade with the United States, their natural market. The French steamship line and the French navy make their West Indian headquarters at Fort de France, on a broad but shallow bay. There is also a fortified naval and coaling station inclosed by small islands near Guadeloupe. 276. The American Virgin Islands. The American Virgin Islands consist of three islands near Porto Rico. They were acquired by the United States in 1917 by purchase from Denmark. Ste. Croix, the largest of the islands, produces sugar, while St. Thomas and St. John are interested in live- stock products, growing also bay trees for the preparation of bay rum. St. Thomas is "the keystone of the Antilleaa arch." Lying on the Ancgada Passage, the most direct route from Europe, it is the cable, coaling, and commercial center of the eastern Caribbean. Moreover, its harbor is secure. The United States tried in 1867 and 1902 to buy these islands, but negotiations failed. After the outbreak of the European War (1914) and the entrance of the United States into it (1917) a third attempt was successful (19 17). 1 277. The Dutch West Indies. The Dutch West Indies include two widely-separated groups, both English-speaking. !The first treaty, negotiated by Seward, was defeated in Congress (3867); the second failed of ratification by Denmark (1902). MIDDLE AMERICA AND THE WEST INDIES 267 One consists of St. Eustatius (which served as a depot of sup- plies for the Americans during the Revolution), Saba, and half of St. Martin all near Porto Rico; the other includes Curacao a,nd two adjacent islands off the Venezuelan coast. The latter group produces chiefly salt, phosphates, and goat- skins, besides a limited amount of gold. "Spotless Curacao," the cleanest place in the West Indies, is remarkably healthful as it lies outside the belt of heavy FIG. 179. Harbor of Curacao. The vessel has just come through the narrow entrance at the right, while beyond is a fort crowning the hill. coastal rains, and it has a splendid landlocked harbor, with deep water close to the shore. (Fig. 179.) This is the great center of transit trade with the ports of South America on the Caribbean. Moreover, naval authorities have pointed out that it commands all routes to Panama passing east or south of Porto Rico. 1 Now that the Panama Canal is open, all the West Indies, and more especially the islands of the two Dutch groups, lie no longer on a back eddy but on a main current of the world's commerce. 1 See Mahan, Interest of America in Sea Power, and Rear Admiral Brad- ford, in the Forum, Feb., 1899. XIX TROPICAL SOUTH AMERICA 278. South America as a Whole. On a globe South America appears^like North America shorn of its peninsulas, islands, and gulfs. It has, like North America, three moun- tain sytems, the Guiana Mountains resembling the Laurentian Highland; and two great rivers, the Amazon corresponding in position to the St. Lawrence, and the La Plata, to the Mississippi. (Fig. 181.) The interior plain in South America is, however, lower than in North America, while the Andes are both higher and steeper than the Rockies. South America, has, in fact, a larger pro- portion (42 per cent) of lowlands unjler 600 feet elevation, and a larger proportion (6 per cent) of highlands above 10,000 feet, than any other continent. In consequence of the vast extent of the lowlands, the Atlantic rivers are generally navigable for long distances. In this respect South America is more favored than any other continent. On the other hand, the great elevation and the abrupt slopes of the Andes render them an almost insuperable obstacle to commerce by land, while the practically unbroken coast line, especially on the Pacific Ocean, is not favorable to commerce by sea. 279. The Climate of Tropical South America. In respect to size South America is but little inferior to North America. Owing to its size and great differences in latitude and elevation, South America is a "country of all climates." The equatorial belt of calms and heavy rains crosses South America. On the eastern slope of the Andes near the equator it is said to "rain thirteen months in the year." On both sides of the doldrums, the subequatorial zones are well developed, being marked by belts of grasslands wherever the surface is level (llanos, campos). The trade winds, however, encounter- ing highlands as they move inland, are rain-bearing in place (268) 268 TROPICAL SOUTH AMERICA 269 of drying winds, as far west as the crest of the Andes. The only extensive trade-wind desert in South America is thus west of the Andes (s-3o) where the wind descends from the mountains. (44 and 51.) Being broadest near the equator, four-fifths of South America lies within the Tropics. * In the Andean region, however, there are numerous moun- tain-girt plateaus, like the one in Mexico, which are temperate or even frigid because of elevation. 1 They are also very fertile, being usually floored with waste from the neighboring moun- tains. These plateaus were the seats of the Inca and other native civilizations. There, too, the Spaniards, a mountain- loving people, largely fixed their abodes; for civilization seems to climb the mountain sides as you go toward the equator. For centuries, however, these plateaus were, and in large part they still are, inaccessible except on mule-back. This fact 65% 10% 25% , Indians and half-breeds Negroes Whites FIG. 183. Population of South America by races. has rendered them a "land of yesterday," where a crooked stick still serves for a plow, and commerce in the modern .sense is impossible. 280. The Inhabitants of South America. People as well as crops vary with the climate. Nowhere is this fact more strikingly shown than in South America. Nebraska differs little more from Nicaragua in all that pertains to energy, industry, and commerce, than Chile differs from Colombia, or Argentina from tropical Brazil. 'The average elevations of the chief Andean plateaus are: Caracas, 3, ooo feet; Bogota, 8,700; Quito, 9,500; Cuzco, 11,500; Titicaca or La Paz, 12,500; Cochabamba, 8,000. The mountains inclosing these pla- teaus consist of two main chains from the southern Tropic to the mountain knot of Pasto in latitude i N.; and three chains thence to Bogota, where the eastern chain subdivides, and sends off the Venezuelan coast range to the eastward, making four in all. 270 COMMERCIAL' GEOGRAPHY To the influence of climate is added the influence of race. (Fig. 183.) Wherever the Indians were sufficiently accus- tomed to labor to make valuable slaves, as they were on the Andean plateaus, the Spaniards became merely a ruling class which rapidly blended with the subject race, as in Mexico. The Andean countries are, therefore, almost solidly Indian in population. Along the Caribbean and in tropical Brazil, again, where the Indians were too weak or intractable to be useful as slaves, negroes were imported as in the West Indies; and the people are now an indescribable mixture of red, white, and black, with the black tending to predominate. Throughout temperate South America, on the other hand, the population is almost exclusively white. The pampas Indians, being hunters, were neither numerous nor useful as slaves; and there was no industry there in colonial days calling for negro labor. Argentina, Uruguay, and southern Brazil thus have even a smaller proportion of colored inhabitants than New England. In point of language, all South America is Spanish except Brazil which is Portuguese, and the three Guianas which use the languages of the home countries. In addition, educated people in all parts of America south of the United States almost universally understand and speak French, the language of the greatest Latin nation. 281. Grasslands of Tropical South America. The llanos and campos are natural cattle ranges. The Orinoco region, having river transportation, is already a serious factor in com- merce. On the Brazilian Plateau, on the western or dry side of the Atlantic mountains, stock raising is likewise the domi- nant industry south of 12 or even 10 S. latitude, especially in the great state of Rio Grande do Sul. The Andean plateaus, which reach 400 miles in width, and in many places rise above the timber line, are adapted to sheep, llamas, and alpacas. Some hides and wool from these animals, and from the wild vicunas and guanacos, are sent to the coast for export. TROPICAL SOUTH AMERICA 271 282. Forest Products of Tropical South America. With the exception of these grasslands, and the Pacific coast between latitude 5 and 35 S., which is arid, practically all of tropical South America bears heavy forests. In many places the jungles are so dense that the rivers are the only possible roads. The most valuable forest products are rubber, balata, and ivory nuts. Ivory nuts have a very hard, white meat which is often substi- tuted for animal ivory. There are also, in addition to the usual cabinet and. dye- woods (263), several other valuable forest products in this region. Piassava, a kind of rush, is employed for brooms. The wax of the carnauba palm serves for candles. Brazil nuts, known to commerce as "Para chestnuts," are extensively exported to Europe and North America. Tonka beans are employed in per- fumes. Brazil wood yields a brilliant red dye. Divi- divi pods are an effective tanning agent. Finally, FIG 184. :sj of Dept. of Agri Tapping a rubber tree. there are innumerable medicinal substances, including sarsa- parilla, several varieties of balsam, 1 cinchona, and cocoa. Cinchona or Peruvian bark yields quinine, a drug invaluable for malaria; and the coca tree yields cocaine, used in surgery. Both of these trees are native to the Andes, cinchona on the 'Chiefly balsam copaiba and tolu. 272 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY western and coca on the eastern slopes, where plantations have been established to supplement the wild supply. (Fig. 218.) 283. The Rubber Industry in South America. Rubber, which has become indispensable in almost innumerable manu- factures (107), is one of the greatest commercial staples of tropical South America, especially of the Amazon Basin, where it is still chiefly obtained from wild trees. (Figs 1 84 and 185.) It occurs in the sap, from which it is separated by coagulation. The best grade, known as Para from the place of export, comes from several species of trees (Heveas) growing where the annual rainfall is 100 inches and upward well distributed Coffee (exports) Cocoa Rubber (exports) Data from Year Book of Agriculture, 1912-13, and Statesman's Year Book, 1912-14 FIG. 185. Staple tropical exports of South America. Totals, five-year averages (millions of pounds] : coffee exports less re-exports, 2,271; cocoa crops, 502; rubber exports, 160. throughout the year, and the annual temperature is about 80. These flourish on lowlands and slopes up to 2,000 feet elevation. 1 Manicoba rubber, also called Ceara from a state in Brazil, comes from a tree related to the cassava plant. This tree is at home on stony or sandy soils where the rainfall is moderate. A third grade of rubber, Mangabeira, from a tree accustomed to a distinct dry season, reaches the market mainly through the port of Pernambuco. Finally, an inferior rubber, Caucho, is derived from still a different tree, native to Central America and the western coast of South America as far south as Peru. It is a lowland but not a swamp tree, and like the others named, cannot stand temperatures below 60 F. 'Freeman and Chandler, The World's Commercial Products, p. 282.^ TROPICAL SOUTH AMERICA 273 Balata, obtained from a tree native to the Caribbean slope, is a substitute for gutta-percha. 284. The Crops of Tropical South America. The staple food crops on the lowlands are rice and manioc or cassava, a root crop which takes the place of potatoes in this part of the Tropics. Both are also exported to some extent ; the manioc chiefly in the form of mandioca (manioc flour) or tapioca. A t medium elevations the food crops are, as in Mexico, corn and beans; while on the cold Andean plateaus, wheat matures up to 10,000 feet, barley, quinua (a cereal peculiar to the Andes), and potatoes to 13,000 feet. Some estates in Bolivia on the FIG. 1 8 6. Picking coffee near Sao Paulo. mountain sides produce the crops of all three zones; but in general the lowlands can obtain wheat from abroad more cheaply than it can be carried down the mountains on mule- back. The most important export crop is coffee (Fig. 186), which is grown on the middle slopes (1,000 to 1,500 feet elevation) around Rio de Janeiro and Santos, and again at higher eleva- tions (up to 6,000 feet) from Caracas to Bogota. Next in rank is cocoa, grown at lower elevations (under 1,500 feet) in Ecua- dor, in Brazil around Bahia, and also in the Caracas district. Brazil furnishes the largest portion though not the best grade of the world's coffee. Ecuador, where cocoa is indigenous, has the largest production of cocoa. (Fig. 187.) 274 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY Under the name of "valorization" of coffee, Brazil has estab- lished a government coffee trust, the intent and the effect being to compel foreign nations (that is, chiefly the United States, the principal market for low-grade coffees), to pay an artificial monopoly price for coffee. This emphasizes the desirability of developing the coffee industry in the islands belonging to the United States to prevent such extortion. FIG. 187. Gathering cocoa pods in Ecuador. Other crops of considerable value are cotton and sugar, exported from Pernambuco and also from the irrigated coast valleys of Peru in the same latitude. "Peruvian rough" cotton from the Piura Valley is especially adapted for mixing with wool. Tobacco is exported chiefly from the Bahia district in Brazil, the crop elsewhere serving local use. The bulk of the TROPICAL SOUTH AMERICA 275 Brazilian tobacco crop is grown in the great interior valley of the Sao Francisco. Large quantities of bananas and cocoa- nuts reach the United States from Colombia, and an American company has acquired extensive holdings of banana lands around Santa Marta Cesar. 285. Mineral Resources of Tropical South America. All three mountain systems abound in metals. The silver mines of Potosi and Cerro de Pasco for centuries produced fabulous sums; yet the surface has hardly been scratched, and the old dump piles still carry more silver than many paying ores in the United States. Tin is largely mined in the Oruro dis- trict of Bolivia (Fig. 219); copper at Cerro de Pasco in Peru, where silver is now a by-product; and manganese in Brazil. (Fig. 223.) Important gold fields have also been opened in Guiana, where tradition placed El Dorado, the Gilded Man. Diamonds came chiefly from Brazil before the discovery of the South African deposits, and Brazil is still an important source of colored stones, especially tourmalines. Emerald deposits near Bogota, which originally led to the Spanish conquest of that section, still supply most of the world's emeralds. Pearl beds also occur near the Venezuelan coast. Coal and iron, the foundations of modern industry, do not fit into the plan of life in tropical South America, where people are still in large measure children of nature, content to exist on the spontaneous products of the earth. Important coal fields, however, exist in southern Brazil ; smaller areas occur along the Caribbean and in all the Andean states. Near Bogota, where coal, iron, and limestone lie side by side as in Alabama, only a little iron is smelted. Petroleum wells are in operation near Payta, and crude oil serves as fuel on some of the railways in Peru. The oil field is said to extend along the sea for a hundred or more miles. Asphaltum, formed by petroleum long exposed to the air, is very abundant in Venezuela. Monazite, used in Welsbach gas mantles, is exported from Brazil, and guano from arid islands adjacent to Peru. 276 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 286. Manufactures in Tropical South America. In view of the primitive mode of life, most common articles are made by hand, for example, pottery and leather goods. Panama hats, so called because shipped through Panama, are plaited by Indians in Ecuador from the leaves of a screw pine. Some cotton mills, however, are at work in Peru and Brazil. The latter country has tried to start other industries, such as flour milling and shoe making, by means of a high protective tariff which raises the prices obtained by manufacturers. FIG. 1 88. Llamas in Peru, waiting for their loads. In each of the mountain systems there is enormous water power waiting to be harnessed. For example, the descent near La Paz, the commercial center of Bolivia, is 10,000 feet in a few miles. Water power is naturally most abundant along the mighty eastern wall of the Andes, but this region is at present almost uninhabited. 287. Internal Transportation in Tropical South America. Only a neglected and dangerous mule path, where a mounted TROPICAL SOUTH AMERICA 277 postman is said to have been drowned in mud, connected (until 1908) Quito, the capital of Ecuador, with its port of Guayaquil. This is a fair sample of transportation facilities away from the rivers and railways. In Peru and Bolivia, the llama (Fig. 188), donkey, and mule are the usual beasts of burden from the railways back into the interior. The Pacific streams, being short and rapid, are useless for navigation. The Orinoco on the other hand is navigable to Cabuyaro, less than eighty miles in a direct line from Bogota'; and the Amazon is navigable for seagoing vessels to Iquitos in Peru, while smaller vessels reach a point (Pongo de Manse- riche) within 450 miles of the Pacific. Two-thirds of South America lies in the valleys of the Orinoco, Amazon, and La Plata, and these valleys are separated by barely perceptible water partings. It is in fact possible at high water to pass by boat from the Orinoco system into the Amazon. In numerous places, short railways run inland from the ports to bring out the crops ; and in the chief coffee districts around Rio de Janeiro and Caracas these lines form connected systems. In Ecuador, a railway now extends from Guayaquil to Quito, and in Peru two railways cross the western Andes above the clouds. 1 The Lima-Oroya line is the highest standard gauge railway in the world (14,666 feet); and the Mollendo line con- nects with steamers on Lake Titicaca, a sheet of water nearly the size of Lake Erie, and these again connect with a railway for La Paz. All the north and south lines on the Andean plateau form links in the great Pan-American Railway between New York and Buenos Aires, which is in the way of becoming an accomplished fact. 2 Bolivia has undertaken to unite the several lines- on the plateau, and also to connect La Paz with the navigable Beni, while Brazil has built a line around the 'Another is projected to run from Payta, Peru, over the lowest pass (7,1 70 feet) in the central Andes, to Pongo de Manseriche (about 450 miles), the head of navigation on the Amazon. 'Pepper, Report on the Pan- American Railway, shows that in 1903 only 4,700 miles were lacking, and that many links were building. 27 8 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY falls of the Madeira, in order to open another outlet for the commerce of Bolivia the landlocked Tibet of South America. 288. The Principal Ports of Tropical South America. The Caribbean coast of South America is somewhat broken by spurs of the Andes projecting into the sea. The leading ports on the Caribbean are Georgetown in the Guianas ; La Guaira, which is the port of Caracas, on an artificial harbor; Puerto Cabello, the port of Valencia, on a fine natural harbor; 1 and finally, Barranquilla and Cartagena, the rival outlets of the Magdalena River, which forms the great highway FIG. 189. View of the harbor of Rio de Janeiro, show ing its landlocked character. into the interior 2 of Colombia. Both rely on railways to get goods to and from the river, as the delta is not navigable, but Cartagena has the only safe harbor. 3 'Others are Quanta, the port of Barcelona; Tucacas, the port of Barquisimeto; Maracaibo, which is, however, cut off from the sea by a shallow bar ; Santa Marta, the port of a banana district ; and Ciudad Bolivar, on the Orinoco. 2 As far as La Dorada, some 600 miles up; and again on the upper river above Honda. The rapids above La Dorada are passed by rail; and another line connects the head of navigation on the upper river with Bogota. 3 Cartagena is on the coast. ; Barranquilla is on the river. Barranquilla ships goods by rail to Sabanilla (Port Colombia) . an exposed road- stead where they are transferred to vessels. TROPICAL SOUTH AMERICA 279 On the Atlantic coast there are deep bays at Bahia, the ancient capital of Brazil, and at Rio de Janeiro, the capital and metropolis of Brazil and the second city in South America. (Fig. 189.) Bahia is the terminus of a railway which con- nects with the navigable Sao Francisco River above the falls. Pernambuco is fairly sheltered by a coral reef, whence is derived its other name Recife. Santos, a river port, is the principal shipping point for coffee, by virtue of its position near the coffee district; and it may in time supplant Rio as the commercial center of Brazil. These four are the chief Brazilian seaports. On the Amazon there are two important rubber pprts, Para (Belem) and Manaos, the latter a thousand miles inland like Montreal. Ceara also ships some rubber. On the Pacific the only considerable inlet is at Guayaquil, where a bay breaks through the coast range. Another small bay at Buenaventura became the natural outlet of the densely- peopled Cauca Valley, when the railroad was completed from Buenaventura to the Cauca River The other harbors on the Pacific are merely roadsteads very imperfectly sheltered by small islands or projecting points of land. Such is Callao, the port of Lima and the chief port of Peru. Islands of any considerable size are conspicuous by their absence on the Pacific coast, the only group being the Gala- pagos (3,170 square miles). 1 These are of volcanic origin and barren near the sea but inclose several deep, well-sheltered anchorages, and are said by naval authorities to offer the only feasible site for a coaling and naval station on routes from south of the equator to the Panama Canal. 'Here Captain Porter made his headquarters for a time during his famous cruise in the "Essex" (1813). A colony was later established (1832) by an American, named Vilomil, from Louisiana. During the Harrison administration, Mr. Elaine tried to secure a coaling station on the Galapagos Islands. Though claimed by Ecuador, these islands are practically unoccupied. XX TEMPERATE SOUTH AMERICA 289. Physical Features of Temperate South America. Temperate South America embraces most of the four southern countries. The three southern states of Brazil also have more in common with Argentina than with tropical Brazil. The temperate region cast of the Andes is a vast plain, except in southern Brazil, which is an elevated plateau traversed by low mountains. Chile, comprising the southern Pacific slope, is equal in area to all the Atlantic states north of the Carolinas. It consists, like California, chiefly of a great valley; but the Chilean Coast Range, unlike the Calif ornian, is pierced by many rivers which open pathways for railroads from the interior to the sea. (Fig. 181.) 290. Climate of Temperate South America. Being in the southern hemisphere, the climate is hot toward the north, cold toward the south, and midwinter in Argentina is mid- summer in the United States. Chile is thus a reversed copy of the Pacific coast of North America from Lower California to Alaska, while Argentina corresponds to the region from central Mexico to Hudson Bay. The tapering form of the continent with a cold ocean current on the west and a warm current on the cast, narrows the belt of temperate climate to practically ten degrees of latitude (30 to 40) . For this reason Ruenos Aires, in the latitude of Memphis, has substantially the climate of New Orleans, while Valdivia, not far from the lati- tude of vSan Francisco, has the climate of Sitka. Abundant rainfall (forty inches or more) is brought by the prevailing trade wind in northeastern Argentina, and also by the prevailing westerlies in Chile south of Concepcion; but most of Argentina south of 35 (that is, in the zone of pre- vailing westerlies), since it lies in the lea of the Andes, is too dry for tillage, and in parts too dry even for pasturage. (.Fig. 15.) South of 40 however, where the mountains are (a So) TEMPERATE SOUTH AMERICA 281 lower and the west winds stronger, there are some grasslands and even patches of timber in the lake district along the eastern base of the Andes. 291. Forests of Temperate South America. As a result of this distribution of rainfall, there are two important forest areas in temperate South America: Paraguay and northern Argentina, where the forest is subtropical in character; and southern Chile, south of Concepcion, which is pine-clad. The most valuable subtropical wood is quebracho, whose bark is a powerful tanning agent, while the wood itself rivals teak in durability. Chile also exports considerable gum (goma bred) used in mucilage. In spite of these forests, pine lumber is largely shipped from North America to Chile. In the colder districts, both on the Andean plateaus and toward the south of Chile, is found the chinchilla, a small animal yielding a valuable fur. 292. Stock-raising in Temperate South America. South of about 30 S:, the rainfall on the plains east of the Andes Mountains is insufficient to support forests. These plains in Uruguay and Argentina are natural grasslands, or pampas. The chief industry is consequently the raising of stock, espe- cially cattle. In recent years the dairy industry has made considerable progress in Argentina, where improved breeds of cattle have been introduced. Argentina also ranks high in the number of sheep, though they are rather of the mutton than the wool type. (Fig. 39.) Both in Uruguay and Argen- tina the Spanish element, true to its traditions, prefers pas- toral pursuits, expecially as refrigerator ships have made the stock industry very profitable. Considerable American capital is also invested in the grazing and meat-packing industries. 1 In central Chile the foothills and the higher mountain val- leys serve as pastures. South of Puerto Montt, in the belt of stormy westerlies, where the weather is so cloudy that even barley will not ripen, sheep are the main resource, supple- mented by lumber, fish, and chinchilla fur. For the same reason, the Falkland Islands are mostly sheep runs. 282 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 293. Crops of Temperate South America. Mate* or Para- guay tea is the most important product of a large district where Paraguay, Argentina, and Brazil meet. It is the leaf of an indigenous tree, which grows wild, and is extensively used throughout South America in place of coffee or tea. Other products are oranges and tobacco in Paraguay, and sugar cane around Tucuman in northern Argentina. West of about 64 in Argentina, the rainfall is less than twenty inches, as in the Great Plains region of the United States. The same condition also exists in Chile north of about 35, just as in southern California. Agriculture in these dis- tricts is consequently limited in the main to irrigated areas. On the Andean foothills, both in Chile and Argentina, between 30 and 35, irrigated vineyards and orchards have been planted, largely by French and Italians. During the season special fast fruit trains run from Mendoza to Buenos Aires. 43% 10% 15% 11% 15% Argentina United Boumania Russia All others States 116 million bushels 43 41 30 40 Data from Year Book of Agriculture. 1912-13 FIG. 190. Exports of corn including corn meal. Total, Jive-year average: 270 million bushels. Outside these arid belts, field crops have made considerable progress, both in Chile and Argentina, though little in Uru- guay, notwithstanding it is the best watered. The most important are wheat, corn (Fig. 43), and alfalfa, the latter a forage crop which is fed to stock. Potatoes and barley are also grown in Chile, and flaxseed in Argentina. (Fig. 97.) The principal grain-growing district lies east of Cdrdoba in Argentina, between 30 and 35 of latitude. The export of wheat and corn (Fig. 190) from this region is a large item in international commerce, though only an insignificant part of the arable land has passed under the plow. In the future, when the food products of the United States are mostly consumed at home, Canada, Argentina, and Siberia will be the granaries of the world. TEMPERATE SOUTH AMERICA 283 Agriculture is still, however, for the most part carried on by recent European immigrants; in Uruguay, where there are few immigrants, there is little agriculture. The great- est obstacle to its rapid development is the aristocratic organization of society. Throughout Latin America a few wealthy families own all the good land and hold the mass of the people in utter subjection, ruling their estates like feudal lords. 294. Mineral Products of Temperate South America. Several gold and copper mines are in operation around Rioja; the south Brazilian coal field extends into Uruguay; and another coal field, associated with petroleum, lies along the eastern flank of the Andes near Mendoza. As yet, however, owing to the distance of these deposits from the centers of population, and the lack of transportation facilities, the mineral output of Uruguay and Argentina is insignificant. Chile, on the other hand, abounds in minerals, which furnish her chief exports. The principal copper-producing district in South America (Fig. 138) lies along the base of the Andes, especially between Copiapo and Santiago, the ore in places carrying also gold and silver. Coal fields line the coast for a hundred miles around Coronel, the chief coal port. This coal is the best hitherto mined in South America, and lies near deposits of iron ore. It is still true, however, that Chile burns more coal than she mines. Finally, by the war with Bolivia and Peru, Chile acquired (1884) the Atacama Desert, which is amazingly rich in nitrate salts. The success of Chile in this war was no doubt due to the character of her people, recruited from the northwestern provinces of Spain and inheriting their "energetic and warlike temperament." Peru on the other hand was settled mainly by a softer stock from Andalusia, and it lies within the Tropics. The nitrate trade made Chile rich and powerful. But her statesmen, realizing that the nitrate will soon be ex- hausted, are promoting other industries in order to put Chile on a sounder basis, 284 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 295. The Nitrate Industry. Of the three elements often lacking in soils (117), nitrogen is, next to phosphorus, the element most easily exhausted and most difficult to restore. This fact explains the great importance to the world of the Chilean nitrate of soda deposits. They probably represent fossil guano deposits which have been preserved through the ages by the dryness of the climate. The industry is carried on by foreign, largely English, capital and native labor, and is controlled by a "trust" which effectively eliminates competition and maintains prices at the point of maximum net profit to the producers. An export tax on nitrates is the chief source of revenue for the Chilean government. The bulk of the nitrate exports goes to Europe, where the soil is farmed intensively. This trade, giving cheap return freight on goods from Europe, is one cause of European predominance in South American markets. 296. Manufactures of Temperate South America. Tem- perate South America, like the tropical section, is still in the "extractive" stage of industry; that is, engaged in furnishing food .and such raw materials as wool, hides, and minerals. Manufactures have, however, made some progress, employing chiefly native raw materials. Examples are: the preparation of beef extract at Fray Bentos in Uruguay, and of tasajo or jerked, beef; likewise the grinding of wheat, the refining of sugar, the tanning of leather, and the weaving of coarse woolens in various cities. Chile, moreover, having coal near the sea, and mam'' swift rivers descending from the Andes, enjoys marked advantages for manufacturing. She has, already, modern steel works at Corral near Valdivia, where iron ore occurs, and copper smelters at Coronel. In addition, there are chemical works producing iodine and borate of lime, in connection with the nitrate industry, 297. Internal Transportation in Temperate South America. The La Plata svstem offers several thousand miles of river TEMPERATE SOUTH AMERICA 285 navigation. The Uruguay River is, indeed, broken no great distance inland at Salto (the Falls); but the Paraguay is navigable to Cuyaba in Brazil, forming the only outlet of a vast region. It is especially important for the shipment of wheat from Argentina. The level surface of the pampas favors railroad construction. In Argentina, especially, the railroad system is already exten- sive and rapidly growing. One trunk line traversing a tunnel under the Uspallata- Pass 1 , connects with the Chilean rail- roads, thus saving ten days over the route by sea between Buenos Aires and Valparaiso, though the grades are heavy and a difference in gauge compels transhipment. Another road extends southwest to the foothills of the Andes, toward the lake district of Argentina, where a low pass 2 opposite Valdivia offers another and easier route to the Pacific. A third line, undertaken according to a treaty with Bolivia, climbs the Bolivian Plateau from Jujuy, Argentina, and will even- tually connect with the Antofagasta line at Uyuni, thus forming a link in the Pan-American Railway. 3 Smaller railway systems exist in Uruguay and Paraguay, now connected with the Argentine system. The railways of Chile are for the most part short lines run- ning down the river valleys from the Andes Mountains to the sea; but a longitudinal railway has recently been completed from Puerto Montt, north along the coast through Iquique and to Pisagua. The line from Antofagasta crosses the western divide of the Andes to the Bolivian Plateau; at the same time a more direct line has been opened (1912) from Arica to La Paz. This is intended to maintain control of Bolivian com- merce in spite of the Argentine line ; and its commercial value will be increased by the Panama Canal. Whatever nation Uspallata Pass, 12,464 feet elevation. The line is 893 miles long from Buenos Aires to Valparaiso, reaching an elevation of 10,365 feet. 2 The Bariloche, only 2,760 feet elevation. 3 Reaching the plateau through Tres Cruces Pass, elevation 12,215 feet. Part of the way cogged rails have to be used. 286 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY dominates the Bolivian Plateau will have made a long stride toward a controlling position in South America. 298. The United States of South America. The map of South America is not fixed for all time; for with every day that passes the present political condition, based on the diffi- culties of travel and transportation before the days of steam, becomes more of a burden to commerce. The marshy and torrid valley of the Amazon, and the towering masses of the Andes, do indeed form natural boundaries; but the political divisions existing in temperate South America, east of the Andes, are wholly unnatural. Railways are the advance agents of conquest, commercial and, in the end, political. The recent extension of the Argentine railways with the systems in the adjacent countries must, therefore, tend to draw at least Paraguay and Uruguay into the Argentine sphere of influence. Neither of these countries has, in fact, any present reason for separate existence, and both would profit commercially by inclusion in Argentina, the true United States of South America. 299. The Chief Centers of Commerce in Temperate South America. The Atlantic coast is sandy south of Santos and lacks first-class natural harbors. Rio Grande do Sul and Porto Alegre, the ports of southern Brazil (both situated on a great lagoon) are cut off from the sea by a bar carrying only a few feet of water. The La Plata estuary is wide, shallow, and entirely unprotected by nature; here, however, centers most of the foreign commerce. Monte- video is the natural outlet of the country between the Uruguay River and the sea, being separated by a wide estuary from Argentina. Buenos Aires (Fig. 191), by far the largest city in South America, and exceeded in size by only three in the United States, is the chief port of Argentina. It has a fine artificial harbor, and the completion of additional railway lines to Chile and Bolivia will render it the commercial center of nearly all temperate South America. An "out- port" has also been built at La Plata for the larger vessels. The principal river ports are Rosario in the wheat belt, TEMPERATE SOUTH AMERICA 28 7 accessible to ocean vessels of moderate draft, and Asuncion in Paraguay. Bahia Blanca, on the best natural harbor in Argentina, also has a rapidly-growing trade with Europe. Most of the commerce of Chile (Fig. 192) passes through three ports: Iquique, the principal nitrate port; Antofagasta, one of the Chilean ports of Bolivia; and Valparaiso (Paradise Valley), the port of the capital, Santiago. All are exposed road- steads, often storm-swept. 1 The fiord-like southern coast of Chile has many harbors but, owing to the broken surface and FIG. 191. Modern wheat elevator in Buenos Aires. unfavorable climate, the land is relatively unproductive. Punta Arenas, in the Strait of Magellan, is however an impor- tant coaling station. Great Britain, with her usual foresight or good luck, secured in the Falkland Islands a site for another coaling station adjacent to the Strait of Magellan. 300. Commercial Relations of South America. South America exports chiefly coffee, rubber, wool, hides, metals, and other raw materials, besides foodstuffs; and imports 'In 1903, for example, the fine steamer "Arequipa" was lost in Val- paraiso Harbor with nearly a hundred on board, 288 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY mostly manufactured goods, especially textiles and steel wares, such as are made in the United States, also foodstuffs in the tropical, section. 56% 26% 2V. H% Exports by articles Imports by countries. Coffee Rubber I All 181 million dollars 83 ' 3 others 47 From 0) *> _. - Great Britain Germany 43 United States f~ '- J>: - ~i All others 13 C8 million dollars fc 5 CU 09 Data from Consular Reports. Ann. No. '21 c. Commerce of Brazil. 22% Exports by articles... Imports by countries.. "3 Animals and animal Wheat % ^ All others products c " 161 million dollars 00 77% From Great Britain Germany United States >> 2 ^ All others 109 million dollars GI Data from S. Y. B . 1912-14, Pan. Amer. Union, 19H-1 I b. Commerce of Argentina. Exports by articles. Mineral products 100 million dollars 31% From Great Britain Germany Vr.ited States g U l_ r All others 36 million dollars 15 ^ < - 11 Data from Pan. Amer. Union, 1913, H. V. B., 101 4 c. Commerce of Chile. FK,. 192. Commerce of Brazil, Argentina, and Chile. Totals, five-year averages: Brazil, exports 324 (/5% to U. S.); imports 261, largely coal, lumber, flour, manufactures. Argentina, exports 352, largely to Europe; imports 3Q7, mostly textiles, railway plant and agri- cultural implements. Chile, exports 128, largely nitrates; imports 114, mostly textiles, steel, iron. The United States had failed to make headway against Eng- land or Germnnv in South America before the war. This is TEMPERATE SOUTH AMERICA 289 shown by the fact that the share of the United States in South American trade, except on the Caribbean, was not much over a FIG. 193. Steel pier at Balboa, the Pacific terminus of the Panama Canal. tenth of the total. (Fig. 192.) Moreover, the trade of the United States in South America developed relatively little in the thirty years before the World War, and during that time the United States bought in South America nearly two billion dollars' worth of goods more than it sold there. In fact, the United States sold in 1912 more than twice as much to Canada as to all of South America. (Tables 4 and 6.) One reason is geographic. South America should right- fully be called East America, from the fact that it lies entirely cast of Florida. A sailing vessel from Hamburg, coming with the northeast trade wind, has an advantage of some ten days over a ship from New York. Another reason is that senti- ment in South America favors Europe, owing to the many European firms and the millions of European immigrants settled there. Again, American business methods were at fault. Catalogues in English were sent in place of agents, and to places where English was unknown; goods were put in 290 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY large boxes for districts where pack mules were the only means of transportation; no credit was given, because there was in most places no American bank or agency to report who was worthy of credit; and American consuls sometimes lamented the loss of promising markets by downright fraud on the part of the sellers. Finally, American manufacturers had been so busy making goods for the home market, where they enjoyed a practical monopoly through the protective tariff, that they felt little inclination to enter foreign markets, where they would have to sell their goods at competitive prices. In striking contrast to such methods has been the procedure of German exporters. They organized the German Trans- oceanic (Deutsche Ueberseeische) Bank of Berlin, with branches throughout Central and South America; and they flooded the country with German agents. These were invariably men of good commercial education, speaking fluently the language of the country and thoroughly posted as to the social customs and exacting etiquette of the Latin-Americans. They did business on a marvelously small margin, giving long credits and pushing German goods always and everywhere. On account of location, Brazil and all the Atlantic countries will probably remain commercial dependencies of Europe. On the Pacific coast, however, the Panama Canal has canceled the geographic advantage previously held by Europe, since it brings American ports much closer than any European port. (Fig. 193.) Even the acquisition of the Panama Railroad by the United States sufficed to break up a combination which kept rates across the isthmus so high that American goods could reach Peru more cheaply by way of Germany and Cape Horn than by way of Panama. Finally, the Pan-American Railway, following the ancient highway of the Incas through the densely-peopled Andean plateaus, will in a measure tend, when completed, to draw the whole of western and of temperate South America within the commercial domain of the United States. 29 : Longitude East 100 from GneeKiaicTi 120 FIG. eama. Copyright, iqio, by Rand McXally & Company THE PHILIPPINES SCALE Revised, Copyright, iqoq, h Rand McNally & Company FIG. 196. The Philippine Islands. XXI OCEANIA AND AUSTRALASIA 301. The Ocean World. The greatest of all oceans did not prove an effective barrier to the migrations of men. Long before the first European had crossed that wilderness of waters (Magellan, 1521), the natives of the Pacific isles sailed the seas with no more fear than the Indians roamed the western plains. The existing races of Oceania, except the whites, came from the west. In the eastern islands are now found the Christianized Polynesians; from Fiji to Flores, the cannibal Melanesians (blacks) ; from Flores north and west, the Moham- medan Malays. Many people, however, believe that the mysterious monuments scattered over the Pacific, such as the huge images of stone on Easter Island, the remains of a temple on Ponape in the Carolines, and the massive stone pillars on Tinian north of Guam, represent a lost race or at least a lost civilization, destroyed by encroachments of the sea. In any event, the land in the Pacific has beyond question been slowly sinking for ages. Borings on the Ellice group have gone down over 1,000 feet without finding the bottom of the coral rock; yet it is an undoubted fact that the coral polyp can live and work only near the surface. Moreover, the large islands, such as New Zealand and New Guinea, are shown by their geological structure to be fragments severed from the adjacent continents. It is further evident, from the plants and animals inhabiting the islands, that the first break between Asia and Australia occurred at the deep strait which now separates Bali and Lombok. The innumerable small islands of Oceania are of two dis- tinct types: "low" and "high," the one of coral and the other of volcanic formation. They lie for the most part in a few chains roughly parallel to the shores of the continents, each chain being the tip of a gigantic wrinkle in the earth's crust. 2 92 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 302. The Partition of Oceania. Excluding the islands from New Guinea west, which are mostly Dutch and properly go with Asia, Oceania is now divided among three nations besides the United States. Only the New Hebrides remain under joint French-English control. (Fig. 195.) After annexing Australia (1788) and New Zealand (1840), England adopted the Cobden theory that Free Trade would soon render colonies useless. This dream enabled France and Germany practically to take their pick of the remaining islands, for the United States, as Captain Mahan says, "had not yet begun to sit up and take notice." The French dominions spread from three centers: Tahiti (1838), Uea, or Wallis (1844), New Caledonia (1853). Several islands were acquired with express reference to the future Panama Canal. 1 Tahiti, lying on the direct' route between Auckland and Panama, is a French coaling station and port of call corresponding to Hawaii in the north Pacific. Germany annexed the Marshall group and part of New Guinea (1885). By the purchase from Spain of the Caroline and Marianne islands (1899), and the partition of Samoa (1900), she acquired a solid block of possessions with excellent harbors (228) and commanding all routes across the western Pacific. Germany held these islands until the World War. Then under the Peace Treaty the Caroline, Marianne, and Marshall Islands were made mandatory to Japan, Samoa to New Zealand, and New Guinea to Australia. \.>, >. 303. The Commerce of Oceania. The principal commer- cial products of the "low" or coral islands are copra, and vari- ous substances from the sea, especially pearls and pearl shells, tortoise shells, shark fins, and trepang (beche-de-mer) , a hideous sea slug. The last two are much prized by the Chinese. These low islands, being in many cases the resort of myriads of sea birds, have yielded much guano, a valuable nitrogenous fertilizer. Some of them alsc contain immense phosphate 1 Especially the Marquesas group where Captain Porter raised the American flag (1813), and Clipperton Island near the Mexican coast. OCEANIA AND AUSTRALASIA 293 deposits, originally derived from guano, and large shipments of phosphates from these islands have recently begun. The volcanic islands, being lofty, are well watered even in the trade-wind belt. In addition to cocoanuts, sugar cane and bananas are grown in Fiji, cocoa (cacao) in Samoa, vanilla and fruits in Tahiti. These islands are all capable of commercial development. They trade mainly with Sydney, Auckland, and San Francisco. The continental islands have a still wider range of interests. New Caledonia, lying just within the Tropics like Hawaii, is relatively cool and dry. Its annual rainfall, in fact, is only forty-six inches. New Caledonia consequently has a consid- erable white population, including some convicts as the island is a penal station and produces coffee, cattle, and tobacco. In addition, there are mines of nickel, chrome, and cobalt ores, which constitute its chief exports. New Guinea on the other hand, is only partially explored because of its deadly climate and cannibal inhabitants. The forests, how- ever, furnish sandalwood and rubber. In the English section gold is mined, and some land has been planted to cocoanuts, rubber, and sisal. The principal commercial centers of Oceania, besides Hawaii, are Yap in the Carolines, which has cable lines to Menado, Guam, and Shanghai; Tahiti in the Society group and Numea in New Caledonia, both belonging to France; Apia in Samoa is controlled by. New Zealand ; and Suva in the Fiji Islands, a British possession. Numca is a modern city with electric lights and street cars, and a railway to Paita. 304. British Australasia. Australia and Tasmania are federated like Canada, while New Zealand remains separate like Newfoundland. The three constitute British Aus- tralasia. The people are almost exclusively of British descent, and they enjoy practically complete self-government. In conse- quence, their free and devoted loyalty, like that of Canada, is something unique in history. During the Boer "War, for 294 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY example, they sent troops'of their own accord, and again in the World War the Anzacs, as the Australian soldiers were called, came to her help and fought at their own expense. 305. Surface and Climate of Australasia. In respect to lati- tude, Australasia corresponds to North America from Panama to Portland, Me. Australia lies mostly in the trade- wind zone (51), and its surface is shaped much like a saucer. The mountains near the eastern shore thus condense most of the moisture from the southeast trade wind on the seaward slope. - This same wind, however, descending toward the interior, is a drying wind, which leaves three-fourths of the continent too dry for agriculture and much of it too dry even for stock raising (44). Thus originates the "Dead Heart of Australia." There are, moreover, violent fluctuations in the rainfall from year to year, which sometimes cause widespread crop failures. The tropical section has, however, a regular rainy season in summer when the equatorial belt of calms and rains moves south; while Tasmania and New Zealand, lying in the zone of westerly winds, have a temperate oceanic climate much like that of England. 306. Forests and Fisheries of Australasia. New Zealand is heavily timbered on the western slope, where the rainfall is most abundant. Kauri pine is the finest native wood, and Kauri gum, obtained from the earth where forests formerly stood, is an important export. The Australian forests contain durable varieties of eucalyptus, but little pine. They have been much reduced by ring barking the trees to provide pas- turage for stock. This policy has in the large run proved suicidal, as the grass soon deteriorates in that climate without forest protection. The commercial fisheries are along the northern coast, especially around Thursday Island. They yield, as in Oceania, chiefly pearls, pearl shells, and trepang. 307. The Stock Industry in Australasia. Australia is rather pastoral than agricultural. (Fig. 198.) Moreover, being a OCEANIA AND AUSTRALASIA 295 country of floods and droughts, made worse by destruction of the forests, the losses in dry seasons are enormous. It is estimated that 40,000,000 sheep perished during the great drought of 1901-2. Sheep are most numerous in New South Wales, horses and beef cattle in Queensland, and dairy cattle in Victoria, where the pastures are better watered. The chief product is wool. (Figs. 197 and 198.) Both sheep and cattle thrive in New Zealand. The sto.ck industry profits from milking machines and from refrigerator ships which land butter and meat in London in prime condition. There is also a large trade in provisions with India, and all southern Asia. FIG. 197. Ox teams hauling wool to market, Darling district, Australia. Rabbits, once a national pest, are also exported frozen, by the shipload. Victoria alone has utilized 20,000,000 of them for meat and fur in a single year. 308. The Crops of Australasia. In Australia, the great enemy of agriculture is drought. Tillage of the soil is practi- cally confined, in the temperate section, to the eastern slope, and to the region of westerly winds south of latitude 35. The largest acreage of plowed land is under cereals; but by reason of the capricious climate, Australia is not a reliable exporter of grain. (Fig. 198.) In dry years heavy imports of wheat are necessary. Oranges, olives, and grapes are also extensively cultivated around the cities of Sydney and Adelaide. Australian raisins 296 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY and wine compete sharply with like products of California. In the tropical section north of Rockhampton, which is a thinly-peopled frontier district, there is some production of sugar cane, corn, and fruit, especially bananas. Cotton cul- ture has also begun. The plantations there are still Avorked to some extent with colored contract labor; but the temperate South insists that" all Australia must be a white man's country," and further colored immigration is practically prohibited. In Tasmania and New Zealand, which are cooler and moister, oats, barley, and potatoes are grown, besides all tem- perate fruits. Tasmania has become an important source of apples for the London market during the northern winter. New Zealand has also a native swamp fiber, called phormium or New Zealand flax, which is of some commercial importance. 309. Mineral Products of Australasia. The discovery of gold (1851) quickly populated Australia as it did California, and Australia continues to be one of the great gold fields of the world. (Figs. 138 and 198.) The district near Melbourne, where gold was first mined, is still important, though western Austra- lia now has the largest output. New Zealand also produces gold, largely from placer deposits worked by means of floating dredges. The tin-producing belt of the Malay Peninsula is apparently continued through eastern Australia to Tasmania, accom- panied by copper. (Fig. 219.) The famous Broken Hill mines produce silver, lead, and zinc. Australia ranks with Chile in the production of copper, and next to Canada and the United States in silver. (Fig. 138.) Iron occurs both on the mainland and in Tasmania. Coal of good quality is widely distributed, but the chief output is around Newcastle and in New Zealand. Being convenient to water transportation, it is shipped to all parts of the Pacific, especially to Chile and the United States. 310. Manufactures of Australasia. Australasia is still, like South America, occupied chiefly in furnishing food and raw materials. OCEANIA A.VI) AUSTRALASIA 297 It is true, however, that protective tariffs have been enacted to stimulate industry; and that manufactures connected with meat, wool, and leather "have obvious advantages. An efficient agent is at hand for tanning in the native black wattle. Smelting works near the Newcastle coal field, especially at Littegow, are also advantageously situated, though little use has been made of native iron. 311. Transportation in Australasia. The interior of Aus- tralia is largely a closed basin draining into salt lakes. The rivers are mostly short and rapid; even the navigable Murray is almost dry at times. The Great Barrier Reef, however, provides sheltered coastwise navigation on the east for over a thousand miles. Internal transportation consequently depends on railroads. These are chiefly owned by the several states, and form a connected system only in eastern, southern, and western Australia. Moreover, several of the states have different gauges, thus compelling passengers and goods to change cars at the state boundaries. A north-arid-south, transcontinental railway is being built by the Commonwealth of Australia from Adelaide to Port Danvin, and an east-and-west line from Adelaide to Perth was completed in igij. In New Zealand and Tasmania trunk lines already traverse the islands from north to south. 312. Commercial Centers of Australasia. The shape of Australia is singularly massive, and vast stretches of coast lack any indentation capable of sheltering a ship; yet there are several harbors which have no superiors in the world. As a result of this coastal formation, many commercial cities are river ports a few miles from the sea, l and the sea- ports which do exist have received distinctive names. Thu^ Port Phillip is the harbor of Melbourne, Port Jackson of Sydney, Port Curtis of Gladstone, Port Hunter of Newcastle. Port Darwin is the harbor of Darwin (formerly Palmerston). 1 The principal river ports, with their distances from the sea, are: Hobart, 12 miles; Launeeston, 40; Brisbane, 17; Rockhampton, T,^; Perth, 12. 298 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY The former metropolis was Melbourne, in the most fruitful part of temperate Australia; but this rank is now held by Sydney, located on the finest harbor in the world, which is the terminus of many steamship lines. These are the two great commercial centers of Australia. Both are of astonishing, in fact abnormal, size for so young and so sparsely-peopled a country. Other important commercial cities are Newcastle, the principal coal port; Brisbane, the leading port in Queens- land; Adelaide, in South Australia; and Fremantle, on an artificial harbor near Perth, in West Australia. The first and last ports of call are Fremantle on the southern, and Thursday Island on. the northern, route to India and Suez. Albany occupies a similar position on the route to the Cape of Good Hope. Port Augusta, at the head of Spencer's Gulf, is on the east-and-west transcontinental railway, and Port Darwin in the north will become important when connected with it. The principal ports in Tasmania are Hobart in the south and Launceston in the north, both on tidal rivers accessible to sea- going vessels. In New Zealand the chief commercial centers are Auckland, where the routes from Sydney and from San Francisco converge, and Wellington , on the strait separating the two main islands. Both have harbors that are deep, safe, and spacious. Auckland, by reason of its position, will naturally become the main port of call between Sydney and Panama. 313. Colonies and Commerce of Australasia. Both Aus- tralia and New Zealand, though rather young to aspire to motherhood, have colonies. Australia administers British New Guinea (Territory of Papua) and other British islands west of Fiji. New Zealand has taken over most of the British islands east and northeast of Tonga. 1 The foreign commerce of Australasia consists mainly in the export of wool, metals, meat and other animal products, and 1 These embrace the Cook Islands, nine in number, also Niue, Palmers- ton, Manahiki, Rakaanga, Danger, and Suwarrow islands; total area 280 square miles, population, 13,000. The last named, though a coral atoll, has a deep lagoon harbor, commodious and perfectly sheltered. Practi- cally all of these islands were formerly occupied by Americans under the Guano Act (227). OCEANIA AND AUSTRALASIA 299 the import of manufactured goods. The bulk of the commerce is with Great Britain. (Fig. 198.) One reason for this fact is that the Isthmus of Panama until recently forced goods from New York to go by way of the Suez Canal or around Cape Horn. Crops Exports by classes Imports t>y countries Data from Official Year Book, 1914 FIG. 198. Crops and commerce of the Commonwealth of Australia, five-year averages. Land in crops, 11.5 million acres, or 0.6% of area. Com- merce (millions of dollars): exports, 339, chiefly (<5/%) to Great Britain and British possessions; imports, 298, largely textiles and metal maniifactures. Another reason is the fact that most of the capital invested in Australia is English. Finally there is the political relation to Great Britain which has caused British goods to be admitted at lower tariff rates than other goods. In this case, trade unmistakably does follow the flag. XXII JAPAN AND CHOSEN (KOREA) 314. The Empire of the Rising Sun. Asia (Fig. 201) is larger than North and So; ;h America combined, and its population embraces more than half the human race. Fringing the eastern coast of Asia are many islands,' the tips of a growing mountain system, which largely shelter from the Pacific surges a series of inland seas. These islands, from Kamchatka and Sakhalin (latitude 50) as far south as the Philippines, constitute the Empire of Japan. (Fig. 199.) FIG. 199. Japan. By reason of this position with reference to Asia, and despite a great difference in climate, Japan is the Great Britain and the Sea of Japan is the North Sea, of the Far East. The Japanese, though speaking a Mongolian tongue, differ radically from the Chinese and Koreans, partly because of mixture with some other race, presumably the Malay, and still more because of their insular environment. The sea is a (30) ^^^^^nn * -i;J**L5^'uterf ai;!c TWjVes /u DMC !ir/i Knilways . Canali Railways projected Navigable rivers... Steamship lines- .- Longitude~Eas/GQ from Gretutvick Revised, FIG. 201. 'ape l)eshnef Copyright, 79/0, iy Jfad McXally & Comptnv JAPAN AND CHOSEN 3* Carrier of new ideas no less than of new commodities. The Japanese thus aspire to become in fact what their position and character tend to make them the English of the East. Modern Japan began when Commodore Perry with an American fleet opened the country to commerce (1854). Soon the Mikado, 1 who had been stripped of power by the feudal nobles, regained his authority (1868), induced the feudal lords to resign their prerogatives (1871), and freely opened Japan to modern civilization. To-day Japan, equipped with a powerful army and navy, an elective parliament, efficient public schools, and a ruling class educated in all modern arts and sciences, ranks with the Great Powers of the world, even successfully disputing with Russia the Empire of the East. There is no other example in history of such marvelous progress. 315. Surface and Climate of Japan. The surface is generally mountainous, and the coast line very broken. As the land is unstable, apparently rising slowly, earthquakes are frequent; and probably for the same reason, volcanoes are numerous. The main islands correspond in latitude to the Mississippi Valley. The climate is, however, warmer toward the south on account of the Japan current than the latitude would indicate; and at the same time colder toward the north, especially in Yezo (Hokkaido) , because of a current descend- ing from Bering Strait. Taiwan (Formosa), the southern Riu-kiu, and the Benin islands are tropical. The rainfall is heavy (80 inches) , especially on the south coast and in summer when the monsoon wind blows toward the continent (51). 3 16. The Fisheries of Japan. Nowhere else except in China do fish play so large a part in the life of a great nation. More than 3,000,000 people live by fishing; for all, fish and rice are the staple foods. Recently salmon canneries have begun work. 'Descended, according to Japanese accounts, from the oldest royal house in the world, which is reputed to have reigned since 660 B. C. that is, since three centuries before Alexander the Great. COMMERCIA L GEOGRA PH \ ' Fish also serve extensively as a fertilizer. Japan surpasses even the United States in scientific fish culture. By the treaty with Russia (1905), Japan has also acquired extensive and very valuable fishing rights along the Siberian coast. 317. The Forests of Japan. Forests still cover the upper slopes, cedar serving for shipbuilding, cypress for furniture and ornaments. Yezo has also great oak forests. For most purposes, however, bamboo is employed. (Fig. 203.) Peculiar to eastern Asia are the wax tree, producing an oil used in place of animal fat; the lacquer tree, yielding a fine and very durable varnish; the paper mulberry; and the camphor laurel, which is now found chiefly in Taiwan. Camphor is, next to turpentine, the most important commercially of the essential oils obtained by distil- lation. It is used mainly in the manufacture of celluloid. The camphor trade is now a government monopoly. 318. Agricultural Products of Japan. In Japan, as in south and central China, most farms are under two acres in size, owing to the density of popula- tion on the arable lands. The soil is tilled by hand, with mde spades and hoes, but so carefully that the country is a JAPAN A.\'D CHOSEN 33 vast garden. This method of cultivation leaves very little room for live stock. Meat and dairy products are therefore comparatively little used. Until very recently milk, which is now coming into use, was regarded by the Japanese (as cheese still is by the Chinese) with a sort of horror. The principal food crop is rice, grown on all low- lands and many of the hillsides, as far as they can be ter- raced, to latitude 40. However, the crop is insufficient for domestic use, as the population of FIG. 204. Copyright, 1904, bj B. L. Siogley Japanese threshing machine in full swing. Japan exceeds 50,000,000 in a country smaller than Cali- fornia. Moreover, only 15.7 per cent of the soil is arable. Considerable rice is, however, exported, while cheaper grades are imported for domestic use. There is also a limited crop of barley, wheat, and rye, which are not infrequently rotated witli rice on the same soil. Grain is usually cut and threshed by hand. (Fig. 204.) Soy beans, being rich in nitrogen, serve as a partial substitute for meat. Plums, persimmons, figs, and oranges are the common fruits. Raw silk (Fig. 206), largely from the Tokyo district, and tea from southern Japan and Taiwan (Formosa), are the principal agricultural exports. (Fig. 205.) Formosa tea is reckoned the best in the world. Tobacco and hemp are also common crops for local use, and sugar cane is of some importance in Taiwan. 34 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 319. Mineral Resources of Japan. Japan has a variety of mineral resources, though the annual output is far inferior in value to the farm products. The principal, in fact the only important, export minerals are coal and copper. Coal of fair quality occurs in several fields from southern Sak- halin, but recently recovered from Russia ( 1905 ), to Taiwan. Yezo alone is said to con- tain two-thirds as much coal land as Great Britain. In addition to copper, Copyright, 1901, by B. L. Slngley FIG. 205. Gathering tea near Kyoto, Japan. which was the lead- ing metal of Old Japan, there is now a small output of silver, lead, antimony (used in type metal), and manganese. Iron ore is present but as yet is not extensively mined. Petroleum fields have been opened in the north which partially meet the domestic demand. Sulphur is abundant owing to the numerous volcanoes. 320. Handicrafts of Japan. Hand work reached its greatest development in countries long settled and densely peopled, like Japan, China, and India, where the hard struggle for existence early taught industrious habits. Nowhere did hand work reach greater perfection than in Japan, whose people are distinguished not only for cleanliness, politeness, and courage, but also for an artistic instinct that gives their wares a peculiar grace and beauty. JAPAN AND CHOSEN 305 Among the handicraft products in which Japan excels are fine strong paper used extensively in place of leather, oil- cloth, and glass; matting of varied design; porcelain, which was originally a Chinese invention ; lacquered and enameled goods; and fine metal work in gold, silver, bronze, and steel. Japanese swords, for example, are reckoned superior to the best from Damascus. These art crafts reach their highest development at Nagoya and the ancient capital, Kyoto. 321. Modern Manufactures of Japan. Japanese matches, made with native sulphur, have supplanted the Swedish product in east Asia. The tobacco industry, a government monopoly, also supports an export trade. Japanese sword- smiths, turning their skill in metals to the arts of peace, now make fine clocks and surgical instruments. The shipbuilding yards at Nagasaki employ both wood and steel ; and there are Courtesj of Rear Admiral H. \Yelx.er FIG. 206. Reeling silk from cocoons in Japan. large iron works at Wakamatsu, belonging to the government. These, however; have often been run at a loss. 3o6 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY The most important modern industry is the manufacture of textiles, especially of cottons, which form an important export. The cotton factories employ mostly women and children, paying them ten to fifteen cents a day. It is this cheap labor that enables Japan to compete with Europe in the markets of China. Hemp spinning and the making of fish nets also occupy several factories, as well as many people in their homes, though less than before the introduction of cotton. Cotton and hemp are combined in Ozaka carpets. Silk and even woolen mills are likewise at work, the latter using imported materials. Modern manufactures center at Ozaka, the "Fall River of Japan," with the port of Kobe, both having water pow r er and ready access to coal. Within one hundred miles of Ozaka are found a third of the population of the empire and all the large cities except Tokyo and Yokohama. At Ozaka is a permanent Commercial Museum of Japanese wares. Ozaka, Tokyo, and Kobe also have Commercial High Schools. 322. Transportation and Trade Centers of Japan. Human porters and pack horses are the usual modes of conveyance in the country, while jinrikishas drawn by men are used in the cities. The rapid extension of railroads, however, lias revo- lutionized long-distance transportation r making possible an unparalleled expansion of foreign trade. Even Taiwan, recently a tropical wilderness, now has a trunk line of railway traversing the island. The indented coast line provides manv superb harbors. The Japanese are thus naturally a seafaring folk, who are not inaptly called "the Vikings of Asia," and they have served a long apprenticeship as deep-sea fishermen. They aim at nothing less than control of the carrying trade on the Pacific. To that end, the government grants heavy shipping subsidies. Already the Japanese own and officer steamship lines to North and South America, Australia, and. all parts of the Orient. They have almost a monopoly in Korean ports, while in Chinese waters they made such progress that they now stand next in tonnage to the English. JAPAN AND CHOSEN 37 Toward America, the principal commercial city is Yoko- hama, situated a few miles from Tokyo on a large bay where an artificial harbor was necessary, as at Manila. In the north, Hakodate is a coaling and fishing port. Toward China, the chief coaling and naval station is Nagasaki, which has coal on its very shores. Nagasaki is also becoming a trans- shipment port for Siberia, Chosen, and northern China. Com- merce in heavy commodities, however, seeks the port lying farthest inland; hence Kobe, on a splendid landlocked harbor near the head of the" great Inland Sea of Japan, commands Crops Exports by articles Imports by countries Data from Commercial Relations of U.S , 1912, and Statesman's Year Books, 1912-1.", FIG. 207. Crops and commerce of Japan. The cultivated land in Japan, exclusive of Taiwan and Karafuto (Sakhalin,) is 16.2 million acres or 17' 'c of area, th<; rest being mountainous. Commerce (millions of dollars): exports (five-year average), 241, chiefly to U. S. (jo'r), China (20%), and France; imports (1912), 308, largely raw cotton, rice, and manufactures. the bulk of the China trade. It is, in fact, the chief comrner*. ial center of Japan. The future of Japan thus unmistakably lies in Asia. In Taiwan the mountains meet the sea in a series of towering cliffs, and natural harbors are lacking. Kelung, which has a good artificial harbor, is the chief shipping port. 323. The Commerce of Japan. Japan exports largely raw silk, teas, and minerals, besides artistic handiwork; but also more and more factory products, notably cotton and silk goods. On the other hand, Japan imports mainly food and raw materials, especially cotton from India. (Fig. 207.) 38 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY The fact is that the overburdened land cannot support the teeming population -, which is still increasing at the rate of nearly a half million a year. The Japanese must, therefore, either acquire new lands to cultivate, or new markets for manufactured goods, or they must starve. This grim neces- sity, underlies their rapid development as a manufacturing and commercial nation. It also explains their heroic battle against Russia in Manchuria (1904). 324. "The Hermit Nation." The people of Chosen (Korea) , finely developed physically, have been known for centuries as the "oxen of the East," submitting without a murmur to every sort of oppression from their rulers; and their government has long been a corrupt and powerless oriental despotism. As a result of the Russo-Japanese War, Chosen (about the size of North and South Carolina and having a population of perhaps ten millions) became a Japanese protectorate and was later formally annexed to Japan. Rich in natural resources and thinly peopled compared to Japan, Chosen is by virtue of its position the natural field for Japanese expansion. 325. The Products of Chosen. .Corresponding in latitude to the Atlantic coast from Boston to Charleston, S. C., Chosen has a temperate climate and fertile soil, though the surface is somewhat mountainous. The uplands bear valuable forests both of pine and hard woods, especially along the Yalu River; and the forests abound in fur-bearing animals such as the Korean tiger, fox, and squirrel. In the main, however, Chosen is an agricultural country. In the broad valleys the usual temperate crops are grown ; toward the south also rice, cotton, beans, and tobacco. Rice alone amounts to nearly half the exports. Another crop is ginseng, a worthless root much prized by the Chinese as a cure-all. Live stock and animal products are also of some importance. The mountains are rich in minerals, including copper, coal, and iron. Only gold, however, is extensively mined, chiefly by Americans. The sole manufactures for the market are paper and straw hats, both made by hand. JAPAN AND CHOSEN 309 326. Trade Routes of Chosen. The east coast rises steeply from the sea in forest-covered mountains. There is, however, one spacious bay on which Wonsan (Gensan), the port of an important mineral district, is located. The western slope, on the other hand, is gradual, and five of the rivers are navigable in their lower reaches. For land transportation crude carts and sleds are used. (Fig. 208.) The principal commercial port 1 FIG. 208. Korean oxen and sleds. on this coast, and indeed in allChosen.is Chemulpo, which has both river and rail connection with the capital. This railway crosses the peninsula to Wonsan. In the south the principal port is Fusan, situated on a deep bay where the Korean Strait is narrowest (120 miles). Ferryboats from Japan there connect with the trunk railway, which traverses Chosen and Manchuria, bringing Tokyo within twelve days of Paris by rail. 1 Another having a much better harbor is Chinnampo, the port of the Phyongyang district. XX III THE CHINESE REPUBLIC 327. "A Cycle of Cathay." China is the oldest nation in the world. Rome seems ancient to-day; but when Rome 1 was still a place without a name, China already looked back on more centuries than have since elapsed. Measured by all material standards, moreover, the Chinese Republic is most impressive. It is a third larger than the United States. Its population, in round numbers 400,000,000, is more than a fourth of the human race. Finally the Chinese thrive in conditions where no other race could exist, and surpass all nations in patient endurance of labor. But before the shock of arms, the colossus crumbles. Ancient renown, numbers, wealth, and industry are alike powerless to save a nation from that searching and remorseless test of efficiency. The difficulty seems to be that China acquired her national characteristics in the many ages during 'which she was effectually isolated by seas, mountains, and deserts, forming a world in herself. As a result, China is like a house built of bricks without mortar. Her people, though rating life of little worth, are not brave in battle, and the family tie is so strong among them that public spirit or national patriotism can hardly be said to exist. China thus appears badly equipped for the modern struggle for existence of nations. After the overthrow of the alien Manchu dynasty by men educated abroad, a nominal "republic" was indeed set up, but this quickly fell under the absolute rule of the first president and then under a virtual Japanese protectorate (1915). 328. Physical Features. The Chinese Republic extends from the latitude of Jamaica to that of Labrador, and has a corresponding variety of climate. (Fig. 209.) Eastern China consists in the main of three great river valleys, while between them the mountain ranges spread out (310) THE CHINESE REPUBLIC 311 like a fan toward the east, thus admitting the rain-bearing monsoon winds of summer to the interior (51). -Central Asia, however, is. an enormous plateau, arid because far from the sea and shut off from it by mountains. Tibet, inclosed between the Himalayas and parallel ranges, resem- bles the Andean plateaus, but is even loftier. Mongolia and East Turkestan, on the other hand, are comparatively low (2,000-3,000 feet) and slope toward the center, being no doubt FIG. 209. kfjjr China. the bed of an ancient sea. In this. region crops can be grown only on irrigated lands near the foot of the mountains. The fertile yellow loess of the upper Hwang-ho, brought by the westerly winds of winter from central Asia, and the rich volcanic soil of the upper Yangtse-kiang, are cultivated as high as 8,000 feet. The lower river valleys are even more fertile; but they are largely below the river level and subject 14 3 I 2 COM M ERCIA L GEOGRA PH Y to disastrous floods despite, or rather because of, the system of dikes; for the sediment, being deposited only in the river bed, finally raises the river bodily above the surrounding coun- try. It is this process of putting the river on stilts that has made the Hwang-ho 1 "China's Sorrow." 329. Chinese Fisheries and Forests. In China, as in Japan, fish and rice are jointly the staff of life. Forty millions are believed to live in large part by fishing, plying their trade by day and night with seines, lines, cormorants, and every imaginable device. The trade in fish is, however, mostly local. Rice FIG. 210. Commercial staples of eastern Asia. Totals: rice, 1 ,66 g million hundred weight in i(jo6; tea, ijofi million pounds in 1906; raw silk, 75.5 million pounds in 1908. The forests have been almost entirely cut away, with dis- astrous results to soil and water ways, except in Manchuria, where there are both pine and hard woods. The Yalu River brings down some logs to sawmills near the sea. The common people use the bamboo for almost every conceivable purpose. "China wax" is a substance of some commercial value for candles, deposited by an insect on a species of oak in southern China. Wood oil, obtained from nuts, is used in varnish. 330. Chinese Agriculture. It was fitting that the Emperor of China should open every planting season by himself plowing 'The Hwang-ho has changed its course no less than eleven times in twenty-five centimes, the last time (1852) moving its mouth over 300 miles. A minor outbreak (1887) drowned at least a million people. The sainc system of dikes or levees is in operation on the lower Mississippi and bids fair in time to have the same results. In Egypt, on the other hand, the floods are allowed to overspread and fertilize the land. THE CHINESE REPUBLIC 313 a furrow, for most of the people dwell in villages and live from the soil. The list of great cities is indeed imposing; but the proportion of urban population is, after all, trifling. From the Yangtse Valley south, rice is by far the most im- portant food crop; though other cereals and beans are some- times grown in winter. (Fig. 210.) Southern fruits abound, particular- ly oranges. Sugar cane and cassia, a kind of cinnamon, are at home in the Si-kiang Valley. Ramie, hemp, and in recent years cot- ton, are planted in small patches to be spun and woven by the women. Cotton is also exported to some extent, princi- pally to Japan. Ramie or China grass is preeminent for luster, fineness, and strength, but the extraction of the fiber is difficult and therefore expensive. In the southern uplands, much land was planted in tobacco and in opium poppies, 1 so much, indeed, that foodstuffs had to be imported. The principal hill products are, however, silk and tea, which originally opened China to foreign commerce. 1 The Chinese government has recently, however, endeavored, with more success than any one expected, to check the cultivation of poppies, in order to get rid of opium smoking which has become a national danger. FIG. 211. Coolies in a treadmill pumping water for flood-ing rice fields. 314 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY Since the earliest days China has been preeminently the Land of Silk. In recent years the tea crop has declined in conse- quence of export duties and the competition of the machine- cured tea of Ceylon. In general, the hot, wet summers enable southern crops to be grown far beyond their usual limits, rice and cotton, for example, almost to the latitude of Chicago. In northern China and Manchuria, the usual crops are beans and cereals, especially wheat and millet. Niuchwang (New- chwang) is the greatest bean market in the world. Manchuria and Mongolia east of the Khingan Range probably rival the United States in amount of land adapted to spring wheat. FIG. 212. Plowing by man power in China. Much of this is still under grass, being held by Manchu chiefs who pasture vast herds upon it: but Harbin, on the navigable Sungari where the railway forks to Vladivostok and Port Arthur, is already a great milling center. Modern flour mills have also been established as far south as Shanghai. China proper is so frightfully overcrowded with people try- ing to live by agriculture (Figs. 2 1 1 and 212) that domestic ani- mals are scarce, except poultry and hogs. Moreover, Buddhism discourages the eating of meat; though this does not prevent it in Tibet and Mongolia, where lack of water severely limits crop growing. Dairy products arc consequently of little importance, though eggs arc abundant and cheap, being THE CHINESE REPUBLIC . 315 largely exported. Vegetable oils are commonly used in place of butter. The chief sources of table oils are sesame, a plant much cultivated by the ancient Babylonians, and (strange as it may seem to those who remember youthful experiences) the castor plant. In the north, soy beans are also pressed for oil, the bean cake afterward serving as a fertilizer. In central Asia, unlike China proper, there are many sheep and goats, besides some horses and camels, though few cattle. The exports are chiefly wool and skins. In Tibet the yak is important as a burden bearer; and a species of deer is found which yields musk, well known as a perfume. 331. Mineral Resources of the Chinese Republic. Chinese civilization is based on the soil, European civilization on the under-earth. Mining has been almost impossible in China lest, as the people ignorantly feared, the "earth-devils" be let loose. Yet China is rich in many, and enormously rich in a few minerals. The plateau of Yunnan in the southwest contains copper, silver, lead, tin, gold, antimony, and vast sulphur beds. The same minerals exist in the Shantung (eastern) and Shansi (western) mountains; but the special wealth of these districts is in coal and iron. Shansi alone contains, according to some reports, twenty times as much anthracite coal land as the United States. Coal underlies, in whole or in part, a number of the other provinces of China, besides Manchuria. Although the latest investigation 1 has much reduced the previous esti- mates of the Chinese coal reserves, it still appears that China has great coal fields, some of them near large deposits of iron ore. 332. Chinese Manufactures. Until recent years, Chinese manufactures were household or at most neighborhood indus- tries. Deserving of mention, besides the textiles woven in the homes of the people, are the copper and bronze goods of Yunnan; the porcelain of Kingtechin; the "India" ink of Nanking; the carving in jade, ivory, and wood of Canton; 'Bailey Willis, Mineral Resources of China (Economic Geology, 1908). the paper, straw, matting, and bamboo goods, fans, and fire- works of innumerable cities. The best Chinese wares, though possibly less artistic, are often more solid and durable than the Japanese. The introduction of modern machinery in such a densely- peopled country throws millions out of the employments which they and their fathers have followed for many genera- tions. Nevertheless, power machinery has been introduced in the cotton and other mills at Shanghai and vicinity and in the iron industry near Hankow, where coal and iron lie close together. Machinery is also slowly making its way into other industries. Not a few observers, beholding the numbers and endurance of the Chinese, are haunted by the specter of the "yellow terror," fearing that they will possess by industry, and perhaps eventually by arms, the greater part of the world. But an unmilitary people cannot become military by learning the manual of arms; nor can the Chinese adopt modern machinery yet permanently keep their present low standard of living, which now enables Chinese cheap labor to defy competition. 333. Transportation in China. Transportation is chiefly by water, for which the great rivers, except the sandy Hwang-ho, FIG. 213. Coolies with loads and resting sticks. THE CHINESE REPUBLIC 317 afford excellent facilities. Canals are also numerous. The Grand Canal, built in the seventh century and restored by Courtesy Popular Mechanics FIG. 214. Chinamen bringing goods to market on sailing wheelbarrows. Kublai Khan (1289), connects the Yangtse-kiang with the Pei-ho at Tientsin (700 miles). It served originally to carry the rice tribute of the southern provinces to Peking, but it is now almost useless in its northern half and cannot com- pete either with railways or with steam transportation by sea. On land, porters, wheelbarrows, and sedan chairs are used (Figs. 213 and 214); but animal power is employed in Manchuria and northern China, where the cold winters render the country passable for carts. The caravan trade across Mongolia is by camels, though recently an automobile line has been established. Owing to the fact that ocean carriage in- jures tea, much of the tea for Europe is still conveyed by land. The first locomotives in China were worshiped as dragons ; the first railway (1876) was bought up by the authorities and destroyed. But all that is changed. The Chinese govern- ment, indeed, for a time went to the other extreme, granting to the Russians in Manchuria, the Germans in Shantung, the French in Yunnan, and other nations elsewhere, exclusive railway and mining rights that endanger the very integrity 3I COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY and independence of the Chinese Republic. Recently, realiz- ing this danger, the government has adopted the policy of building railways itself with Chinese capital. The principal railways already open are: (i) the exten- sions of the Siberian line across Manchuria to Vladivostok and Port Arthur; (2) the line connecting this Manchurian system with the Chosen railway and with Tientsin, completing the all-rail route from Paris to Peking; (3) the Peking-Hankow line (755 miles) which will be extended to Canton, forming the great north and south trunk road ; (4) another trunk line from Tientsin to Nanking, paralleling the Grand Canal; (5) the Peking-Kalgan line, which will be continued to Urga, along the ancient caravan trail. 334. Centers of Commerce in the Chinese Republic. In the absence of railways, the location of commercial centers was determined, until recent years, exclusively by the water ways and caravan routes; consequently only the river ports are of first-class importance. Canton, the largest city and formerly (until 1842) the only open port, is still the chief silk market. The three rivers which lead into the interior from Canton carry a heavy traffic and open paths for future railways. Some miles below the city, however, a bar with only sixteen feet of water over it shuts out large sea-going vessels. From Canton to the Yangtse-kiang the harbors are good but not commercially important. Swatow, Amoy, and Foo- chow. indeed, do a respectable business, but they are cut off from the interior by mountains nearly parallel to the coast. This section is largely under Japanese influence from the near-by island of Taiwan, long known as Formosa. The Yangtse-kiang Valley is the heart of China ; Shanghai near the mouth of the Yangtse-kiang, is the New York of China. (Fig. 215.) Even goods destined for northern ports, like most of the American exports, are trans-shipped at Shanghai. It has, however, rather shallow water (twenty feet), being situated some fourteen miles up a tributary of the THE CHINESE REPUBLIC 319 Yangtse-kiang where the banks are less swampy. The out-port of Wasting is therefore growing rapidly. Another important Yangtse-kiang port is Hankow 1 , 680 miles from the sea but accessible to seagoing vessels, and situated at the focus of tributary water ways. It is the greatest tea market, and the second city of China in population. In the north commerce centers about the Gulf of Chihli, though only the Shantung and Liautung peninsulas contain good harbors. Tientsin, the fourth city in China, is the river port of Peking. By virtue of its position near the head of the FIG. 215. Native part of the water front at Shanghai. Gulf of Chihi, Tientsin has become a center of commerce second only to Shanghai, notwithstanding there is a thirteen- foot bar at the river mouth. Peking commands the rail and caravan route through Mongolia to Siberia and Europe by way of the Nankou pass, 2 Kalgan, and Urga; and also the route into Manchuria between the Great Wall and the sea at 'Other Yangtse-kiang ports are Chinkiang, at the entrance of the Grand Canal; Ichang, 1,050 miles inland at the head of navagation for large, and Chungking (1,500 miles) for small steamers. Junk traffic goes still higher up the river. 2 A narrow defile barred with huge gates and rising from 4,000 feet at Nankou to 5,000 at Kalgan- 320 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY Ninghai, now traversed by a railway. Harbin is a new railway center in Manchuria. Newchwang 1 on the navigable Liau-ho (19 feet) is the native port of Manchuria; though foreign commerce has increasingly shifted to the ice-free port of Tairen (Dalny), 2 built by the Russians and now held by the Japanese. In like manner Chifu, a native port in Shantung Peninsula, has been largely superseded by the port of Tsingtau, built by the Germans and connected by rail with the interior. 335. Merchant Guilds of China. Trade in China is con- trolled by powerful merchant guilds. These enforce so rigid an observance of contracts by members that a .Chinese mer- chant's word is as good as his bond. Such a reputation is one of the principal assets of Chinese merchants in the Far East. This condition is the exact opposite of that which obtains in Japan, where public officials are usually honest but the mer- chants are often unreliable. On the other hand, the Chinese merchant guilds mercilessly pursue and boycott non-members. No foreign house, there- fore, can hope to establish itself until it has made its peace with the native guilds. This means the employment of Chinese as compradors or native managers; and while they live up to the letter of their contracts, they one and all pocket a percentage known throughout the Orient as a "squeeze"- on all the business they transact. In many cases, the compra- dor has come to be the real owner of the business and tolerates the presence of the nominal foreign owners merely to secure the protection of foreign consular courts against the black- mailing exactions of the native courts. 336. The Commerce of China. The principal exports of China are silk, tea, cotton, and other raw materials; while the imports are largely cotton manufactures, opium, kerosene, and foodstuffs, especially sugar, rice, and fish. (Fig. 216.) thirteen miles up the Liau-ho. It is also called Yingtse and Yinkow. There is another Me wchwang, thirty miles up the river, of little commercial importance. 2 Renamed Tairen by the Japanese. THE CHINESE REPUBLIC 321 The bulk of the commerce is still with Great Britain and British possessions; though before the World War many, if not a majority, of the mercantile houses were German, and the German Asiatic Bank of Shanghai, with branches in other Asiatic cities, had great commercial power. American interests in the Far East began when the good ship "Empress" first carried the American flag to China (1784) ; but their development has been hindered by the same causes as in South America (300). The Chinese Republic, rich by nature and densely peopled, is the greatest potential market in the world; and the United States, fronting it across the Pacific, _18% 72% 9% 5%4%3%3% 46% Exports by articles 'Imports by countries Raw silk 45 million dollars Beans and beancake 30 Tea 3 = c All others J18 ?J 37% 78% 77% 9% 8% 77% From Hong-kong 99 million dollars Japan United Kingdom 56 India 28 - ^w 535 AH others 55 Data from Commercial Relations of U.S., 1912 FIG. 2 1 6. Commerce of China. Totals, two-year averages (millions of dollars'): exports, 255, mostly to Hong-kong (28%), Japan (13%), France, and United States; imports, 322, the largest items being cotton goods, rice, flour, and fish, railway equipment, opium, and kerosene. The imports from Hong-kong are chiefly of British origin. is nearer by sea, and for this reason has a more vital interest there, than any nation of Europe. China is, moreover, the greatest consumer of cotton goods, while the United States is the greatest producer of cotton. The prosperity of the United States in the future thus largely hinges on the main- tenance in China of the "open door" that is, a fair field and no favors, alike for all competing nations and on the ability of American merchants to hold their own in international competition. 337. Foreign Possessions in China. The island of Macao at the mouth of Canton River was early granted to the Portuguese (1586). Having a harbor too shallow for modern vessels, the city is now greatly decayed. It once had the 322 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY opium trade by way of the Si-kiang River from the poppy region of Yunnan. It is also the gambling den of Asia. Hong-kong, an island near Canton, was ceded much later (1842) to the English, who also acquired (1898) a lease of the adjoining peninsula. At Hong-kong is a splendid harbor where English administration has created from nothing in half a century the greatest commercial port in Asia, and one of the gfeatest in the world. (Fig. 217.) It is an absolutely Courtesy of Jrreir FIG. 217. Hong-kong Harbor. free port, without a custom house. Through it passes most of the commerce of southern China, Indo-China, and the Philippines. (Fig. 291.) After the Chino- Japanese War, Germany suddenly landed sailors and seized (1897) Kiaochow Bay, alleging as a reason the murder of- two German missionaries. A lease for ninety-nine years was subsequently obtained of a small dis- trict (208.4 square miles) around the bay, together with exclusive railway and mining rights in the huge province of Shantung. The harbor (Tsingtau or Chingtao) is deep, land-locked, always ice-free and now connected by rail (279.6 miles) with the city of Tsinan on the Hwang-ho. Tsingtau thus has decisive advantages over Chifu, and indeed over all northern ports. It lies, moreover, on the steamer track to the Gulf of Chihli or Chosen. The Germans consequently hoped to create at Tsingtau a mart that should rival Hong- kong. It is already the chief market for straw-braid \vares, one of the principal native manufactures. THE CHINESE REPUBLIC 323 At the close of the Chino-Japanese War (1895), Russia in conjunction with France and Germany expelled Japan from Port Arthur in order to "preserve the integrity of China." Russia then proceeded to obtain possession herself of Port Arthur and, in effect, of all Manchuria. The Japanese subsequently recovered Port Arthur by force of arms (1905), while by the terms of peace Manchuria was to be restored to China. Manchuria was, however, practically divided between Japan and Russia, the latter retaining the lion's share. In Kashgar, moreover, the Russian consul with his guard of Cossacks was the real power ; * and in Mongolia Russia held a mining monopoly, a franchise for a railway from Kiakhta to Urga, and had opened at Urga, the capital of Mongolia, a branch of the Russo-Chinese Bank guarded by Cossacks, with Russian forts and barracks. Such conditions were the usual forerunners of annexation. In order to offset Port Arthur and Kiaochow, England secured a lease (1898) of Weihaiwei, a naval station in Shan- tung Peninsula. France at the same time obtained a lease of Kwangchowwan Bay in the south, and a cession of two islands commanding the harbor. The d,i vision of China thus appeared to be well under way; but it was checked and may in the end be prevented by the open-door policy of the United States. Japan, however, aspires not only to be the Schoolmaster of Asia, but also to control its commerce. 1 American Geographical Society Bulletin, Dec. 1905, p. 705. XXIV SOUTHERN ASIA 338. Malaysia. The East India islands, between New Guinea and the mainland of Asia, are equal in extent to Europe outside of Russia, and support a population of many millions. All this mighty colonial domain, except the Portuguese end of Timor, the British part of Borneo, and the Philippines, belongs to Holland. The inhabitants are Malays, possibly a cross between Hindus and Mongolians, who mostly became Moham- medans after the Arab conquest (1478). Malaysia includes also the Malay Peninsula, of which the larger part is British. The soil is in large part of volcanic origin, abundantly watered and fertile. 339. Agricultural Products of Malaysia. Java, containing fully three-fourths of the population of the Dutch East Indies, is perhaps most widely known for its coffee. This is grown at medium elevations (2,000-5,000 feet). In recent years, however, coffee has lost ground in favor of tea and cinchona (Fig. 218), both grown at higher levels. Java also ranks high in 86% 6% 5% 3% 08 8 E Java 14,726 thousand Ibs. 3 || ni ' I)U from u:u Report:, June, 1904 FIG. 218. World's production of cinchona bark. Total. 17,106 thousand pounds. cane sugar (Fig. 278) and next to Bengal as a source of indigo, both being lowland crops. Sumatra is especially noted for tobacco and pepper. The Moluccas are still, as they were when Columbus set sail in search of them, and chanced upon America, the spice islands; though the spice trade has relatively declined in modern times, owing to the use of fresh meat and green vegetables. In addition, many of the islands, as well as the Malay (324) SOUTHERN ASIA 325 Peninsula, export sago, tapioca, and copra. In recent years rubber plantations, mainly of Para trees, have also become important. Buffalo, goat, and cattle hides are largely exported. 340. Other Products of Malaysia. Most of the land, even in Java, is still forested, and jungle products are of great value. These include dammar and copal resin, used in varnishes; benzoin, a resin burned as incense; gutta-percha, rattan, tree cotton (kapok), a tanning extract called gambier, and the "edible . birds' nests" of Borneo. The sea yields pearls, tortoise shell, and trepang. The mineral resources comprise petroleum and coal, especially in Sumatra and Borneo; also the principal tin deposits in the world, extending through the Malay Peninsula, Banka, and Billiton. (Fig. 219.) Sumatra oil has become an article of 48% 14% 8% 16% 8% 6% Malay States 54 thousand tons Dutch East Indies 16 Other Asia 9 Bolivia 18 Australia 9 g 5 t- 5 f>at from Mineral I: FIG. 219. World's production of tin. Total in I pop: ii 3 thousand short tons. export. Owing to the neighboring tin deposits, Singapore has the largest tin smelters in the world, and many canneries, especially of pineapples. 341. The Commerce of Malaysia. Mining and commerce are mostly carried on by Chinese, who are crowding out the less energetic natives, especially in the British possessions, where many natives of Southern India also settle. Java is traversed by a trunk line railway, with various branches. There are also short lines in Sumatra and a trunk line in the Malay Peninsula. The metropolis of the Dutch East Indies is Surabaya, on a fine harbor in eastern Java. The capital, Batavia, adjacent to a new artificial port (Tanjong Priok). is also an important commercial city. Singapore, a British possession, with a harbor of ample depth commanding the gateway connecting the Indian and Pacific oceans, is regularly visited by some 326 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY fifty lines of steamships. Like Hong-kong, it is an absolutely free port, without a custom house; and it is the greatest coaling and transhipment port in the Far East. As the exports are mainly raw materials and condiments, the imports are naturally manufactures and foodstuffs. The share of the United States in the commerce of the East Indies, both Dutch and English, is insignificant and, aside, from the petroleum trade, it consists chiefly of American purchases. 342. Indo-China. Indo-China is aptly named, the people being of Mongolian origin, while their religion (Buddhism) and civilization came from India. Only Siani remains for the present independent, serving as a buffer state between French Indo-China 1 and Burma, the latter now a part of British India. Siam and French Indo-China are largely rugged and forest - clad, impenetrable except along the water ways. The popu- lation is therefore mainly settled in the lower river valleys, where the soil is exuberantly fertile, but the damp tropical climate "repays careful avoidance" by Europeans. 343. Products and Commerce of Indo-China. By far the most important commercial crop is rice, grown on the deltas of the great rivers. (Fig. 220.) Other plantation products are 41% 15% 19% 9% 16% India 1,!>33 million ilis. Siam 1,830 French Indo- China -.255 Malay Fen. 1,140 All others 1.982 Data from Year Books of Agriculture, 1911.'-):! FIG. 220. Sources of rice exports. Total, five-year average (millions of pounds}, 12,140. pepper from Siam, and tea from French Indo-China. Next to rice, however, the leading export is teak timber, which is proof against the attacks of ants and marine worms. Minerals of many kinds abound, but few are worked, except coal along the Songkoi River. There are, moreover a number of rice and lumber mills, 'Comprising Cochin-China, acquired 1850; Cambodia, 1803, Tong- kmg, 1873; Annam, 1883; Laos, 1893. SOUTHERN ASIA 327 Transportation depends in general on the rivers, 1 though several short railways are open and others are projected. The most important line follows the Songkoi to the Chinese frontier and now extends to Yunnan. This is part of a French plan for the commercial conquest of southern China. The chief commercial centers are Haifong on the Songkoi River; Saigon on deep water connecting with the Mekong in the French possessions; and Bangkok on the Menam, in Siam, which is largely under British influence. Hanoi, the capital of French Indo-China, is accessible to large river steamers. 344. India and Ceylon. India is, like China, a world in itself, containing more people than North and South America, Australia, and all the islands of the Pacific. Yet India has no unity except that imposed by British rule. It is, in fact, a museum of races, languages, and religions. 2 Religious wars have filled India like Java with splendid and melancholy ruins of past greatness; and to-day the strong hand of Great Britain with difficulty restrains the mutual hatred of Brahmins and Mohammedans, which frequently breaks out in massacres of one another. Should England retire, therefore, some other strong power would promptly step into her place. A fourth of India is still ruled by several hundred native chiefs who swear allegiance to the King of England who is also Emperor of India much as feudal vassals were wont to do in the Middle Ages. In addition to the feudatory states, Nepdl, Bhutdn, and Baluchistan are British protectorates attached to India. Tibet, nominally Chinese, is virtually a British, as Mongolia is a Russian, sphere of influence. Ceylon, on the other hand, is a British colony independent of India. 'The Songkoi is navigable beyond the Chinese frontier; the Mekong to Khong, where a railway goes past the rapids; and the Menam to the main forks. The lowlands are also traversed by a net- work of canals These largely take the place of streets in Bangkok, the "Venice of the East." ' 2 Embracing the black, white, and yellow races; upwards of a hun- dred native tongues, and six religions besides Christianity, that count their adherents by millions. The most numerous are the worshipers of Brahma, over 200,000,000; and the Mohammedans, over 60,000,000, 328 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 345. Surface and Climate of India and Ceylon. India bears some resemblance to Italy, having a great plain in the north and a mountainous peninsula toward the south. Ceylon, moreover, corresponds in position to Sicily, but contains a core of very lofty mountains. The temperature varies with the elevation, from the deadly tropical swamps of the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta to the Himalayas (Abode of Snow). The moisture is governed by the winds. In winter during the northeast trade, some rain falls on the east coast from Courteij of the Fm FIG. 221 Elephants hauling teak logs in Burma. Madras south; but the very life of India depends upon the southwest monsoon, generated by the heat of the continent in summer. The rainfall is heaviest in the east, uncertain in the center, and least in the Indus region, on account of Africa and Arabia, which by their intense heat in summer break the force of the monsoon blowing toward India. Irrigation is extensively practiced, especially in the west and northwest. 346. Animal Products of India and Ceylon. Pearls are found in the shallow waters near Ceylon. Domestic animals are very numerous, including buffaloes for plowing and ele- phants for work in the jungles (Fig. 221) ; but all the native SOUTHERN ASIA 329 religions except Mohammedanism taboo the eating of meat. Stock-raising for the market is therefore a separate business only in the dry Mohammedan west. Hides and wool, how- ever, figure among the exports. 347. Forests of India and Ceylon. Valuable timber is plentiful only in a few districts, teak (Fig. 221) chiefly in Burma, deodar (a giant cedar) on the Himalayan foothills, and in the lee of the western Ghats, where also are found sal for building and sandal wood for furniture. The omnipresent bamboo serves all purposes among the natives. The forests also yield many tanning substances, the most important being cutch (catechu) and myrobalans, besides wild silk and gum-lac, a substance deposited on trees by insects. From this substance shellac, used in sealing wax, also as a dye and in finishing woodwork, is derived. 348. Cultivated Products of India and Ceylon. Tropical fruits are of prime importance in the daily life of the people. The cocoanut on the coasts and islands, 1 the date palm in the dry west, furnish both food and fibers. Ceylon also exports large quantities of cocoanuts, copra, cocoa oil, and coir, the fibrous husk of the cocoanut. The mango and the plantain (banana) are the main support of the peasants in many districts between harvests. The cereals for local use are rice in Burma and the moist east; millet in the dry west. India leads the world in the production of jute, of which it has a virtual monopoly, indigo, and oil seeds chiefly linseed, rape, sesame, and castor beans. India also leads in the 59 % 27% 8% 8% Japan CO India and Ceylon China and s 442 million Ibs. 201 Taiwan no 5 Data from Year Book of Agriculture, 1912-13 FIG. 222. Sources of tea exports. Total, five-year average (millions of Ibs.), 748. export of tea (Fig. 222), grown on the uplands of Ceylon and the Himalayas, and ranks next to the United States 'Ceylon has twice as much land in cocoanuts as in tea. Cocoanuts are also the chief product of the Andaman, Nicobar, Laccadive, and Maldive islands, all attached to the government of India. 330 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAl'HY in cotton. (Fig. 84.) Rubber culture has also taken root in Ceylon as in Malaysia on the lowlands. Since the Russo- Japanese war, which raised the price of camphor, plantations of the camphor laurel have been established in Ceylon, frequently interplanted with tea. There is, in addition, a considerable export of wheat, here a winter crop, from the western provinces. (Fig. 43.) In the extreme south some coffee is grown, together with spices cinnamon, pepper, ginger, and nutmegs. The growing of poppies for the manufacture of opium has been a leading industry, but the 43% 36% 11% 5% 5% India Russia Bra/.il a a 1 670 thousand tons 573 171 S 50 l r ~ O < Data from Mineral Kesourcea of U.S., 1913 FIG. 223. . World's production of manganese ore. Total in ipn, 1,572 thousand tons. 72% 81. in Ceylon United Austria All 2,642 thousand dollars States :1 others 294 Data from Mineral Resources of U.S.. 1912-13 FIG. 224. Value of graphite mined. Total, four- year average, 3,649 thousand dollars. government of China, where most of the drug is marketed, has recently taken a strong stand against the opium traffic. 349. Mineral Products of India and Ceylon. India is not, on the whole, rich in minerals. It is, however, an important producer of manganese and mica. Since the Russo-Japanese War, indeed, India bids fair to become the principal source of manganese. (Fig. 223.) Gold is also mined near Mysore, the works being run by electricity. Burma is the chief source of rubies, now more costly than diamonds, and of jade, a stone greatly prized by the Chinese. Ceylon is the source of much of the world's graphite. (Fig. 224.) Mineral fuels are also present, petroleum being obtained in Burma and piped to Rangoon, while coal is mined near Calcutta. The coal fields are large but most of the coal is of poor quality and not adjacent to iron or limestone. SOUTHERN ASIA 331 350. Manufactures of India and Ceylon. The traditional manufactures are hand-made textiles such as cashmere shawls, and handicraft work in metal, ivory, and leather. 61% 19% 9% 6% 5% 10% I ndia 4.2 million balet Great Britain 1.6 & = t- U.S. .5 France All others .8 Dit furnished by Bureau of Statistics, Dept. of Africultur* FIG. 225. Jute manufactures, as shown by consumption of raw material. Total in 1905: 8,235,726 bales of 400 pounds, all grown in India. Pow r er machinery has now been introduced for cotton at Bombay, jute and paper at Calcutta, leather at Cawnpur, and - iron in Bengal. In fact India, having the raw material at hand and cheap labor, leads in jute manufacture. (Fig. 225.) There is even some export trade in cotton and jute goods, especially of coarse cottons to China. (Fig. 226.) As yet, however, India is almost exclusively agricultural, nearly all the people (95 per cent) living in small farming villages. 351. Commerce of India and Ceylon. Water ways are fairly abundant. "Mother Ganges" is the great highway of Central India, being easily navigable to Cawnpur. The Brahmaputra is used to Assam; the Irawadi to Bhamo (800 miles), though large river boats stop at Mandalay. The Indus, however, is so shifting that steamer traffic has ceased, and the Deccan rivers are broken by numerous rapids. Land transportation has been revolutionized since the Mutiny (1857), in part for military reasons. There is now a network of excellent wagon roads and of railways, the latter embracing two-thirds of the railway mileage in Asia. From the railway termini caravan routes reach Persia, Afghanistan, southwestern China, and also the broad mountain valleys of Tibet, since the Lhasa expedition (1904) opened that country to commerce. The coast is deficient in harbors. Calcutta, the metropolis, is a river port constantly endangered by the pace and volume of the Ganges; Madras, the third city in size, and Colombo at, 332 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY the crossroads of the Indian Ocean, have artificial harbors. The best harbor is that of Bombay, the second city, which is sheltered by islands. Owing to its position, it has profited greatly from the Suez Canal. Karachi, a new port near the Indus, is the outlet of the Punjab, as Rangoon on the Irawadi is of Burma. Portugal still holds Goa and other stations on the west, France has Pondichery and other towns chiefly on the east coast melancholy relics of Indian empires that have passed away. 352. The Plateau of Iran. From the Indus to the Tigris and northward to the Caspian stretches a great plateau, rimmed with mountains, and mostly arid because not exposed to 1% 7% 7% 6%4%4% 15% Raw cotton Rice Oil seeds Jute Jute (mfg 1 d , 3 I Tea - z "a |A11 others "23 mr dollars 78 GG ~ ^ .3 J ' 5 63% 6% 31% From Great Britain 397 million dollars ^ ~ All others 149 Exports by articles Imports by countries. Statesman's Year Book. 1909-1 1 FIG, 226. Commerce of India. Totals, five-year averages (millions of dollars): exports, 711, largely to Great Britain (25%), China, and Germany; imports, 472, the largest items being cotton goods, sugar, iron and steel, and other manufactures. the full force of the southwest monsoon. This plateau contains Afghanistan, Baluchistan, and Persia. The Persians are in part of Aryan descent, but most of the inhabitants of the Iranian Plateau are related to the Turks; and all are fiercely Mohammedan. In Persia, however (shades of Darius and Xerxes!), a parliament has been established (1906) in imitation of Japan. The Shah, indeed, soon proceeded to cannonade the parliament, but lost his throne in consequence. 353. Products of the Iranian Plateau. Though so unprom- ising to the eye, most of the plateau furnishes pasturage for camels, sheep, and goats. The pastoral exports comprise wool, hides, and lamb skins, the last named valued as furs. SOUTHERN ASIA 333 Moreover, the irrigated districts in the valleys and along the foot of the mountains are highly productive, like the lovely vale of Shiraz, renowned in Persian poetry for roses and wine and nightingales. The agricultural exports embrace dried fruits and nuts (chiefly raisins, almonds, pistachios), raw cotton and silk, opium, rice, 1 and gums, especially assafoetida. The latter is a villainous-smelling substance used in medicines, and also eaten in India. Recently fresh fruits have begun to be exported from Baluchistan to India, daily fruit trains leaving from Quetta during the season. Other commercial products are pearls from the Persian FIG. 227. Persian traders with pack camels. Gulf, sturgeon from the Caspian rivers, and the finest tur- quoises from Nishapur. The other mineral resources, though rich and varied, are undeveloped. The native wool and silk, however, are extensively woven into rugs on hand looms and dyed with native vegetable dyes. 2 1 Rice is the principal cereal, growing up to 4,000 feet in this lati- tude, while cotton matures up to 6,500 feet, and wheat and barley to 9,000 feet. 2 Mainly indigo, madder, safflower, and senna, which are believed to fade much less than aniline dyes. Some senna is exported. The centers of rug manufacture in Persia are Tabriz, Sultanabad, and Meshed. Brocades are also made at Tabriz, shawls at Kerman, woolen felts at Ispahan. 334 COMMERCIAL. GEOGRAPHY These oriental rugs are exported chiefly to the United States. The imports, both of Afghanistan and Persia, are mainly cotton goods and other manufactures, besides sugar and tea. The bulk of the imports are supplied by Great Britain, the Persian Government now being under British control. 354. Trade Routes of the Iranian Plateau. Wagon roads now extend from the Russian frontier well into Persia, and from India to Kabul and Kandahar. (Fig. 227.) Most of the trade with India goes by the Quetta Railway or else by caravan through the historic Khaibar Pass, which has echoed to every invasion of India by land except that of Alexander the Great. x Other trade routes begin at Trebizond and various ports on the Tigris and the Persian Gulf. z ( Afghanistan is in form, and Persia in fact, a buffer state between the British and the Russian possessions in Asia. Afghanistan has no relations with other nations except through Great Britain. In Persia, the northern two-thirds were recog- nized as within the Russian, and the southern part as within the British, sphere of influence, while the center was a neutral zone. The northern zone was partly occupied by Russian troops, and Russian settlers were pouring in by thousands. Russian influences had also expelled an American director of public finance, who had been called in by Persia and who threatened to put Persia in a position to oppose Russian aggression. International rivalry has hitherto blocked the construction of through railroads, though a Russo-Indian railroad is a possibility of the future. Except for political complications, the best route for an Indo-European railway would seem to be through Khaibar Pass and the great valley of Herat, "whose history is the history of Central Asia." ^Another Indo- Persian trade route starts from Xushki, beyond Quetta, whieh was reached by the railway in 1906. -Bushire, Bender Abbas, and Lingah, all exposed roadsteads, on tin- Persian Gulf; Bagdad and Mohammera, where lateral valleys open from the east, on the Tigris. XXV WESTERN ASiA "Where the Turks are, there also are the wolves." "Where the Turk's horse treads, no grass grows." Popular Proverbs. 355. Why Western Asia is of Special Interest. In Turkey, far more clearly than in China, a religion and a civilization have been weighed in the balance and found wanting. The region between the Persian Gulf, the Black Sea, and the Mediterranean, more than any other in the world, is historic ground, sown with ruins that impress even the most careless beholder. Here rose and fell mighty empires whose trade sup- ported the princely commercial cities of Phoenicia and Meso- potamia. Here and in Egypt were developed the practical arts which still form the basis of our civilization. Moreover from the days when, according to Homer, Hector and Achilles fought beneath the walls of Troy, western Asia has been the theater of a never-ending conflict between the East and the West. Conquered by Alexander, ruled for cen- turies by Rome, and Christianized as far east as the Tigris, this region was finally overrun by horde after horde of nomads Arabs (A. D. 635), Turks (1071), Mongols, and Tartars who destroyed villages and cities, rendering agriculture impossible in order that their flocks might have pasturage. So thorough was their work of destruction that only in the islands and in the mountainous districts, such as Lebanon and Armenia, do the native Christians still predominate. 356. The Decay of Islam. To-day, however, European civilization, armed with steam and electricity and mail-clad fleets that replace the mail-clad warriors of crusading days, is mighty, while Mohammedan Asia is weak. Only the inability of European nations to agree so long suffered the Turk to deso- late and pollute with robbery and murder one of the fairest lands in th.3 world; only the successor of the Turk remains to be chosen. <33S> 33 6 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY Seeing the handwriting on the wall which foretold the doom of Turkey unless regenerated, and inspired by Japan's example, a reform party among the Turkish army officers indeed forced the Sultan (Abdul Hamid II) to proclaim a constitution (1908), and then dethroned him. But if there is no god but Allah and Mohammed is his prophet and the Sultan is his Vice Regent on Earth, what place is there for a Parliament in any Mohammedan country? 357. Arabia. Arabia is a third the size of the United States. Though usually conceived as a sea of sand, the center of Arabia is occupied by a plateau (the Nejd, 5,000 feet elevation) "with long, undulating slopes covered with pasture, and deep, narrow valleys in which lie irrigated gardens and plantations." This plateau is the true home of the Arabs, whence they spread as far as Spain and Java, destroying and founding empires. In the Nejd they maintained their independence of the Turk, who ruled the Red Sea coast. The Nejd is likewise the home of the peerless Arabian horse and the camel, which have been no mean factors in the spread of Arabian dominion. 358. Products of Arabia. The coast of Arabia is rimmed with lofty mountains 1 which condense the moisture of the winds passing over them into heavy rains and even snows, especially in the southwest the Arabia Felix or Araby the Fortunate of the ancients. This region exports Mocha coffee, grown on the terraced and irrigated moun- tain slopes, besides sheep and goatskins. The shipping ports are Aden and Hodaida, whence a railway has been sur- veyed inland to the important city of Sana. 2 The Hadramut Valley in the south is famous for fragrant resins which are burned as incense (myrrh, frankincense). These were among the earliest and most valuable articles of commerce. Oman in the southeast, independent of Turkey but a virtual British 'Exceeding 10,000 feet in places. An elevation of 10,000 feet in latitude 15 gives an average temperature like that of St. Paul, Minn., in latitude 45. 2 About 200 miles inland, at an elevation of 7,500 feet which gives a temperate climate. WESTERN ASIA 337 protectorate, produces dates for export; and the Bahrein Islands, a British possession, have important pearl beds. 359. The Commerce of Arabia. The Arabs with their "ships of the desert" early became great caravan traders. They were also early driven by their location and necessities to fare in ships across the sea. Since prehistoric times they have had close relations with eastern Africa to the Zambezi, and southern Asia to Java. Before the discovery of the Cape route to India, they entirely controlled the commerce of the Indian Ocean. Since the opening of the Suez Canal, the ports of Maskat and Aden have again become distributing points for the commerce of the adjacent parts of Asia and Africa. Aden,' situated on a splendid crater harbor, the best within a radius of a thousand miles, is a fortified British coaling and naval station, commanding the approach to the Suez Canal. Mecca, where Mohammed was born, is the center of the Mohammedan world, which each devout believer faces at prayer and is bidden to visit at least once during his lifetime. These pilgrimages have given rise to a great fair at Mecca, like those of Ei 1 rope in the Middle Ages. A railway has been sur- veyed between Mecca and its port of Jedda, and another has been constructed from Damascus through Medina on the way to Mecca. The exports of Arabia are chiefly coffee, hides, dates, and fragrant resins; the imports are cotton goods and other manufactures. Curiously enough, and for no apparent reason except the preference of the natives, American cotton goods, which do not compete successfully with British cottons in Mexico or South America, are extensively sold at Aden for use in Arabia and Africa. 360. Asiatic Turkey. Turkey-in-Asia embraces three natural divisions, exclusive of Arabia. Along the Mediterranean is a narrow plain, backed by a belt of hills culminating in the twin mountain ranges of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon. Between these ranges runs a remarkable 338 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY "rift valley," caused by a great fracture of the earth's crust, which is occupied by the Jordan, the Dead Sea, and farther south by the Red Sea. This coastal region is Syria. (Fig. 228.) East of the coastal region is a broken plateau averaging 2,000 feet elevation, and sloping eastward into a lowland which is traversed by the Euphrates and Tigris rivers. This ' lowland is Mesopotamia. (Fig. 228.) Toward the north is a broad and lofty plateau (3,000-8,000 feet high), edged with loftier mountains. This plateau is FIG. 228. Syria and Mesopotamia. Anatolia or Asia Minor. (Fig. 201.) Toward the east it con- nects with the Plateau of Iran. It was by this plateau route, which offered an unobstructed passage for their flocks, that the Turks and other nomads came from central Asia. In latitude and climate, Syria corresponds to southern California, Mesopotamia to Arizona and New Mexico, Ana- tolia to northern California and the great plateau stretching eastward a thousand miles to Colorado. Asiatic Turkey, excluding Arabia, was about half the size of the United States west of the Dakotas. WESTERN ASIA 339 The prevailing language is Arabic south, and Turkish north, of the Orontes, though Armenian is spoken in parts of the northeastern mountains, and Greek in Cyprus and the other Turkish islands as well as along the coast of the Aegean. Since the Crusades, however, the language of intercourse with for- eigners has been French or the mongrel dialect called Lingua Franca. 361. Stock and Forest Products. The wealth of Turkey was largely in its flocks, especially sheep eastward of the Jordan where the shepherds of old "watched their flocks by night." Angora goats abounded on the lofty plateau of Anatolia. The fleece of these goats, called mohair, is longer and whiter than wool. The principal beast of burden was the camel. Wool, mohair, and hides were collectively the largest export. Forests occur on the seaward mountain slopes, especially along the Black Sea, but only in remote districts, as the forests have been largely destroyed to furnish firewood and charcoal. The exported forest products embrace the acorn cups of the valonia oak, and galls or excrescences from another kind of oak, both used for tanning; gum tragacanth, used in calico printing; and mastic, a gum used for chewing. The licorice plane also grows wild, and the roots are largely exported to the United States. 362. The Need of Irrigation. In this region by reason of the summer drought, which increases in severity in the sub- tropical zone toward the south (190), as in California, agri- culture as a rule depends on irrigation. This fact goes far to explain the striking vicissitudes of fortune which western Asia has experienced; for if the artificial water supply be interrupted even for a. year, the sands of the desert hasten to reclaim their own. Thus the hill country of Palestine, which the Hebrews found "flowing with milk and honey," and where every man could sit "under his own vine and fig tree," is now but a wilderness of barren rocks, the soil hav- ing been washed away after the forests were destroyed. And the words of the prophet who foretold that Babylon should 34 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY i become a den of wild beasts have been literally fulfilled; for the irrigation system having gone to ruin, the floods of winter have turned vast tracts of Mesopotamia into a fever-breeding marsh, dotted by low mounds marking the sites of splendid cities, while beyond the marsh all is desert. 363. Farm Products. Cereals, consisting chiefly of barley and wheat, are grown in the plains region of Syria along the sea; 1 also, between the ranges of Lebanon and in the edge of the Hauran plateau east of the Jordan ; likewise in the moister parts of the Anatolian plateau, especially around Sivas. Barley is an article of export, but the wheat crop is insuffi- cient for domestic use. The staple commercial products are raw silk, subtropical fruits, opium, tobacco, and cotton. The Beirut and Brusa districts are especially noted for silk, Mesopotamia for dates, Jaffa for oranges and lemons, Haifa for olives, Latakia and Samsun for tobacco, Smyrna for opium, raisin grapes, and figs, Cyprus for carobs. These are pods growing on trees and said to be the "locusts" on which vSt. John subsisted in the wilderness. In recent years (since 1902) American machinery has invaded these ancient lands, where grain through all the ages had been reaped by hand and threshed by oxen driven around in a circle. (Fig. 95.) The first reaper created the greatest sensation since Mohammed preached his new religion, and nearly caused a riot among the Arabs, who complained that it left nothing for them to glean. Threshers, steam plows, and oil motors for irrigation purposes have also made their appearance on a few great estates. 364. Other Products. In the islands, 2 which were nomi- nally Turkish, sponge fishing was the leading industry. Almost the entire population of the smaller islands follows the sea as sailors or fishermen. 1 Including the historic plains of Esdraelon, Sharon, and Philistia. 2 Cyprus, "administered" since 1878 by Great Britain, was formally annexed in 1914. Rhodes and eleven other islands, seized during the Turko-Italian War (1911), are still held by Italy. All of these are Greek in population and Christian in religion. WESTERN ASIA 341 The mineral resources are rich and varied but largely unde- veloped, as in Persia. Thus, extensive oil fields have been located in Mesopotamia, 1 and coal, adjacent to iron, underlies parts of the Anatolian plateau. The minerals actually mined are asphaltum on the Jordan, copper and silver near Kharput, chromium, antimony, and emery in the Smyrna district. Turkey is the largest producer of chromium ore. The manufactures are principally hand-made textiles, leather, and copper goods. The industrial center for these is Damascus, located where the Barada, after cutting a gorge through the Anti-Lebanon range, irrigates a valley of sur- passing fertility. Beirut and Brusa carry on the silk industry in primitive fashion. Smyrna is noted for rugs and carpets, though Turkish and Kurdish rugs, being now dyed with aniline colors, are not in good repute. The "Smyrna" rugs sold in the United States, however, are mostly made in Philadelphia. 365. Commerce. Asiatic Turkey exported chiefly raw materials, besides fruits and rugs, and imported mainly cot- ton and woolen manufactures, together with foodstuffs such as sugar, wheat, and rice. The present commerce of the country is, however, no meas- ure of its resources. The geographic conditions that made possible in this region such prosperous nations in ancient times have not ceased to exist. For example, there is no doubt that Mesopotamia, where wheat was probably native, would again become under European control one of the gran- aries of the world. It is the human factor here, as throughout the Orient, that limits commerce. The greatest enemy of Turkish commerce is the Turk. Moreover, western Asia formed in ancient times the great "highway of nations" ; and through its gateways, once railways are built, there will again pour the commerce of two continents. 'The ancient Greek legend of the Chimera, a fire-breathing mon- ster, seems to have originated from a column of burning natural gas <>n the coast of Asia Minor north ot Cape Khelidonia. (Mineral Indus- try, 1902.) 342 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY Already the Bagdad Railway is advancing from the west, "scattering before it the Arabian locusts which have so long held possession of these plains." 366. Trade Routes of Western Asia. Commercial centers in Mesopotamia have always arisen opposite passes in the Persian mountains. The gorge of the Diala, the famous "Median Gate" to Persia, determined the location of ancient Babylon and a whole dynasty of great cities Seleucia, Ctesiphon, Bagdad in suc- cessive ages. (Fig. 3.) Thence the shortest overland route to the Mediterranean leads through the edge of the Syrian desert by way of Damascus to Beirut or Haifa, on artificial harbors not far from the sites of ancient Tyre and Sidon. From Damascus a narrow gauge cog railway goes over the Lebanon range (5,200 feet) to Beirut, and a standard gauge railway, longer but with easier grades, reaches Haifa through Yarmuk Valley and the plain of Esdraelon, which has been trodden by caravans and armies in all ages. 1 Northward from Damascus, another line traverses the plain to Aleppo; while southward the railway toward Mecca was built by the Sultan to carry the pilgrim traffic and insure to himself a firmer grip on the headship of the Mohammedan world. Damascus, the oldest existing city in the world, has thus become the railway center of modern Syria. The valley of the Zab Ala likewise determined the location o" ancient Nineveh and modern Mosul, which occupies almost the same site. Thence another trade route, in use for ages, runs westward through Aleppo, the Damascus of the North, and the Orontes Valley, to the Mediterranean. The modern port of this region is Alexandretta, having the only good natural harbor in Syria, and easily accessible from the interior through the defile called the Syrian Gates. Alexandretta has 'Along the River Kishon. The Litani (Leontes) Valley, nearly opposite the Barada Gorge, was used by ancient Tyre and Sidon to avoid the climb over Lebanon; but the coast near the Litani is now harborless. Haifa and Acre are on the same bay, sheltered toward the south by Mount Carmel. WESTERN ASIA 343 therefore an excellent site for commerce, whenever railways shall restore overland trade to its former importance. These two caravan routes the one through Damascus, Bagdad, and southern Persia, the other through Alexandretta, Mosul, Teheran, Herat, and Kabul mark the natural routes for a "Southern Pacific" and a "Central Pacific" to India and China, which must some day parallel the "Northern Pacific," already built by Russia across Siberia. The principal commercial ports in Asia Minor are Trebizond and Samsun on the Black Sea; and Smyrna, having the best natural harbor on the ^gcan. Smyrna has now three rail- ways inland, one connecting it with the Bagdad line. This railway, begun by Germany, starts on the Bosporus opposite Constantinople, at the new port of Haidar Pasha, where a car ferry lands trains from Europe without change of passen- gers or freight. The southern or main line of the Bagdad Railway, descends from the plateau 1 near Adana, rounds the head of the Iskanderun Gulf to Alexandretta and reaches the Euphrates at Jerablus; and is completed to Busra, except for the Mosul section between Nisibin and Samara. From Jerablus (ancient Carchemish) near the head of light draft navigation on the Euphrates, the Bagdad road traverses the fertile belt along the foot of the plateau to Nisibin, and follows the Tigris through Bagdad and Busra, the head of navigation for small sea-going vessels, toward a deep-water port on the Persian Gulf, where a great commercial city is destined to arise. ^Through the Cilician Gates, elevation 3,500 feet, a defile famous in history. XXVI AFRICA 367. The Right of Conquest. Nations come and go like leaves on the forest trees ; the earth remains. It would seem, therefore, that no nation can have a per- petual title-deed to any part of the earth. It belongs to man- kind. At all events, few will seriously maintain that the rest of the human race must forever be denied access to the riches of a land because the inhabitants, perhaps a few naked savages whom chance has placed there, will neither develop the resources of the country themselves nor suffer others so to do. The European conquest and partition of Africa, though far from justifiable in many of its methods and incidents, is therefore on the whole a justifiable process, carrying light into dark places and placing immense natural resources at the disposal of mankind. 368. The Inhabitants of Africa. Africa south of the Sahara was the original seat of the negro race. In the region north of the Sahara the first inhabitants (Berbers) were of Caucasian stock; later came the Arabs (A. D. 640) who were also originally Caucasians. But the slave trade has introduced so much negro blood along the Mediterranean that Shakspere was right in representing the Moor Othello as colored. The pastoral Arabs, at home in the desert, have now estab- lished the faith of Mohammed over all the grass-bearing plateau as far as Zanzibar in the east, and almost to the Gulf of Guinea in the west, stopping only at the edge of the steaming, forested lowlands. The map of Africa to-day resembles that of America in the seventeenth century, showing the same patchwork of colonies without natural boundaries. (Fig. 230.) These colonies are mostly the children of accident and diplomacy, incapable of withstanding the first shock of arms. (344) 344 FIG. 232. The "shaduf", a method of irrigation used in Egypt since the early Pharaohs. 346 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 369. The Continent of Africa. Africa, though no longer a land of fable and mystery, is still the "Dark Continent" in point of civilization, because the least accessible and the most tropical.' It has proportionately the least coast line; and being for the most part an elevated plateau, the rivers are nearly all broken a short distance inland, where they plunge over the edge of the plateau. This has hindered navigation. Africa is the most characteristically tropical because the equator crosses almost the center of the continent. Africa alone thus has a complete series of climatic belts, from North Temperate to South Temperate (48). As in South America, however, the great elevation of the plateau above sea level carries a fairly temperate climate far within the Tropics ; especially along the backbone of the conti- nent, extending from Abyssinia to the Cape of Good Hope. 370. Natural Resources of Egypt. Egypt is, in the words of Herodotus, "the gift of the Nile." The river, swollen by summer rains in equatorial Africa, both waters and fertilizes its valley, stretching like a narrow ribbon of green through the wide, thirsty desert. For this reason the ancient Egyp- tians worshiped the life-giving river as a god. The resources of Egypt are thus almost exclusively agri- cultural. Land flooded by the river bears one crop, land diked and perennially irrigated (Fig. 232) bears three crops a year: in autumn, maize and millet; in winter, wheat, barley, beans, and clover; in summer, cotton and rice in the delta, sugar cane and dates in the valley, with figs in the Fayum, an old lake basin. Cotton, having a long fiber resembling Sea Island, is far and away the principal export. On the upper Nile, from Berber south, there are forests, due to the heavier rainfall nearer the equator. These forests yield various gums, especially gum arabic, used in mucilage. This has, however, been partly supplanted by an artificial gum (dextrine). There is evidence that the ancient Egyptians obtained gold and other metals from the same region. 348 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY The only extensive manufacture is the rolling of cigarettes from imported tobacco. Hand labor is largely employed. 371. The Renaissance of Egypt. Since a mutiny in the Egyptian army compelled European interference (1882), in order to protect the Suez Canal, Egypt has been virtually a British possession and a few years ago (1914) was declared a British protectorate. In the Sudan, however, from Wady Haifa to Fashoda, the Egyptian and British flags fly together. The effects have been revolutionary. A few European officials, chosen from among several nations, have 1 been able, by means of honesty and econ- omy in handling public money, to reduce taxation and abolish forced labor the means by which the pyra- mids (Fig. 2 3 3) were built and all subse- quent works exe- cuted yet at the same time to pay off much of the public debt and to carry out irrigation projects of com- Copyriirlit, 1906, Keystone Vlc FIG. 234. Downstream face of A ssuan Dam with gates open. manding importance. These, indeed, bid fair by increasing both the area irrigated and the effectiveness of irrigation, to double or even treble the productive powers of Egypt. The great dam at Assuan (Fig. 234) is worthy to rank with anything ever done in this land of titanic achievements. Already Egypt probably exceeds in population and prosperity the palmiest days of the ancient Pharaohs. AFRICA 349 372. The Commerce of Egypt. The Nile Valley is the only natural highway from central Africa to the Mediterranean. Navigation is, indeed, broken by six cataracts, but a lock and canal at Assuan now carry the head of navigation toWady Haifa, and a railway extends southward to Khartum. The foreign commerce of Egypt passes chiefly through Alexandria, thus justifying the foresight of its founder. The metropolis of Egypt and of Africa, however, is Cairo, standing near the site of ancient Memphis, at the head of the delta where the railways now converge to enter the narrow valley. Cairo also has canals to Alexandria and to the Suez Canal. Port Said, at the entrance of the Suez Canal, is rising into prominence as a coaling and transhipment port. Port Sudan, a new harbor near Sawakin on the Red Sea, with a railroad to Berber on the Nile, is the outlet for the commerce of the upper Nile Valley. 373. The Suez Canal. The most important artificial water way in the world, measured by its commercial and political effects, is the Suez Canal. 1 It effectively opened India and the Far East to European commerce. It restored to the Mediterranean countries, at the expense of London and other Atlantic ports, much of the prosperity which they enjoyed before Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope. It brought the English to Egypt; and it compels the English, or some other European nation permanently to garrison Egypt in order to safeguard the com- merce of the world. 374. Other North African States. Libya (Tripolitania and Cirenaica) was conquered by Italy from Turkey during the war of 1911-12. Tunis is a French protectorate. Algeria is considered a part of France. 2 Morocco, though nominally an independent empire, has become, since 1912 a French 1 0pened 1869; 87 miles long, of which 21 are through lakes; passable by vesssls drawing 31 ft. Deepening (to a uniform depth of 40 ft.) is in progress. 2 The dates of acquisition are: Algeria, 1830; Tunis, 1881; Morocco, recognized by Great Britain as a French sphere of influence in 1904, and by Europe as a French protectorate in 1912. 350 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY protectorate, though Spain occupies Ceuta and a zone along the Mediterranean. The native states having all ended in corrupt and feeble despotisms, France seems by reason of her position and power to be the natural heir of the Arab and the Turk in North Africa. In Tripoli the Sahara meets the sea along a low, sandy shore; elsewhere, the lofty Atlas range intervenes, rising in two distinct terraces. As in Syria and southern California, rain comes in winter from the west winds, while the summer Courtesy of Clrence T. Johnston FIG. 235. Arab plowing in North Africa a typical team. is almost rainless. Irrigation is therefore indispensable to continuous cropping (Fig. 235), though in many districts grain can be grown in winter every other year without irrigation, as in the Great Basin region of North America. The best watered, and therefore the choicest, part of North Africa is Morocco, which lies the most exposed to the west winds. North Africa is well adapted to white colonization. Algiers, indeed, lies in the latitude of St. Louis, Mo. There are already over half a million European settlers, largely Italians in Tunis, French in Algeria, French and Spaniards in Morocco. AFRICA 351 375. Products of North Africa West of Egypt. North Africa is in the main a grazing country, pasturing sheep and goats. The arid plateau on the second rise above the coastal plain, however, grows esparto grass (alfa), used in European paper mills; and the mountains rising above this second terrace bear the cork oak. The lands in the valleys and along the foot of the mountains produce cereals, chiefly barley and wheat, also beans, chick-peas, and subtropical fruits. Almonds are especially abundant in Morocco ; figs and grapes in Algeria; olives and dates in Tunis. The tobacco crop, though large, is not of high grade. In the French possessions, early vegetables for the French markets, poultry, and bees have acquired some importance. The coastal waters produce sponges and tunny (tuna), huge fish many times the size of a man. The mineral resources are valuable. Zinc, iron, and phosphate of lime are already largely exported. Manufactures comprise Morocco leather, Fez caps, carpets, and blankets, nearly all hand work. 376. Commerce of North Africa West of Egypt. The principal exports are foodstuffs and raw materials, while the imports are manufactures, especially cotton goods, besides coffee and sugar. tn addition, the exports comprise ivory, ostrich feathers, gum arabic, and goatskins, which caravans bring across the Sahara as they have done for ages past. This transit trade centers at the port of Tripoli, whence the route across the Sahara is shortest and least obstructed by mountains. In the French possessions, railways penetrate to the edge of the Sahara, while a trunk line parallels the coast. At every step, moreover, on roads, harbors, and cities, one sees the impress of France. The transformation which she has wrought here is most impressive. The principal ports are Tunis near ancient Carthage, now accessible by canal to seagoing vessels; Bona in eastern, Algiers in central, and Oran in western Algeria; and Tangier in Morocco, near the Strait of Gibraltar, 35 2 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY The Sahara, lying in the trade-wind belt, is barren wher- ever level. But oases, crowned with date palms and densely peopled, are found in depressions wherever the ground water reaches the surface; and also along the foot of ridges lofty enough to produce rainfall. These highlands (Tibesti, Air, Aderar), resembling the Nejd in Arabia, support a popu- lation of several millions; and the area of cultivation can be greatly extended by driving artesian wells as the French have begun to do. The commercial products, besides dates, are salt, ostrich feathers, camel's hair, and gum arabic. 377. The Sudan. The Sudan is a belt of grasslands over 600 miles wide (approximately 2o-io N.), having summer rains but rainless winters like the llanos of South America. The Sudan is fertile and not unhealthful. It is by all odds the most promising part of tropical Africa, with a population of many millions, and several cities containing 70,000 to 100,000 inhabitants. The camel-owning Arabs, crossing the Sahara, have subjugated the cattle-owning and agricultural negroes of the Sudan up to the edge of the great equatorial forests, and established various well-organized Mohammedan empires, notably Sokoto and Bornu. These are now con- trolled by France or England. Classified according to the principal means of support of the people, the Sahara proper is a camel zone, containing also the wild ostrich ; the northern half of the Sudan is a cattle zone, while the southern half is a millet zone, raising also cotton, indigo, and tobacco. This region is the chief reliance of France and England in their attempt to become independent of the United States in the supply of raw cotton. Finally, the forested country to the south is a banana zone. The points of departure for Mediterranean caravans are Timbuktu, on the northern bend of the Niger, and Lake Chad. A railway, however, now connects the upper Niger, above the falls, with the head of navigation (Kayes) on the Senegal, thus opening the western Sudan, as the railway from the Nile to the Red Sea has opened the eastern Sudan, to direct AFRICA 353 European commerce. Another railway extends from the coast to Kano, the principal trade center in Nigeria. 378. The Horn of Africa. The horn of Africa, east of the Egyptian Sudan, is chiefly a plain, arid because the monsoons, which are governed by Asia (51), blow parallel to the coast. This plain is consequently peopled only by wandering shepherd tribes. It is now divided among three European nations. 1 From this plain rises abruptly the lofty volcanic plateau of Abyssinia, the Switzerland of Africa. In this mountain fastness the Abyssinians, of mixed Arab and negro descent but Christian since the fourth century, have bade defiance alike to Mohammedans and Europeans. All products from tropical to cold temperate can be grown at different elevations, but the pastoral mode of life prevails. The difficulty of transportation limits exports to articles of small bulk, such as gold, ivory, civet (perfume), beeswax, and coffee. Abyssinia is believed to be the original home of the upland coffee tree. The imports are largely cotton goods, of which the United States supplies a large share, as in Arabia. The railway inland to the plateau causes trade to pass mainly through the French port of Jibuti. 379. "The World of the Great Forest." Equatorial Africa (ioN.-ioS.), receiving heavy rains from the ascending air currents, is densely forested, particularly in the region of the Atlantic slope. It is peopled, especially in the lowlands, by frag- ments of beaten tribes who have found refuge in "the great almshouse of the Tropics," where Nature is so lavish of her bounty that no incentive remains for labor. The climate is such that West Africa is commonly called by the natives "the white man's grave." Politically, this region is cut up into a large number of colonies ruled by five different nations of Europe, besides Liberia which is nominally independent. The most valuable products are ivory, which has been for Africa all that the fur trade was for America, and forest 1 Italy has two sections of the coast, with the port of Massawa; England, the coast around Berbera; France, Obok at the entrance of the Red Sea, with the port of Jibuti. 354 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY products especially palm oil, palm kernels, and shea nuts on the west coast, rubber from a giant creeper, copal resin, camwood yielding a red dye, mangrove bark for tanning, and cola nuts, the last named furnishing a powerful stimulant. The principal export crops are oil seeds (peanuts, sesame, castor beans) on the Senegal ; lowland or Liberian coffee in the west, and upland coffee in East Africa; cocoa on the slopes of Kamerun volcano; and cloves on Zanzibar and Pemba, which supply most of the cloves of commerce. There are also large plantations of other products, especially of cotton, rubber, and sisal. Gold-bearing sands occur in the rivers along the "Gold Coast," and tin is found in the Bauchi Plateau. 380. The Commerce of Equatorial Africa. Commerce mainly follows the water ways 1 in West Africa, especially the Niger and the mighty Congo, the Amazon of Africa, which drains the basin of a former inland sea. There are, however, several railways, including one around Stanley Falls, on the Congo. Another line will connect the Congo with the Nile. East Africa, on the other hand, where the lowlands are narrow, depends entirely on land transportation. A railway now connects the fine port of Mombasa with Victoria Nyanza, next to Superior the largest lake in the world; and another line extends from Dar-es-Salam to Lake Tanganyika. The lofty plateau of East Africa, largely covered with grass or small scrub and having a climate almost temperate, because of altitude, even under the equator, is the natural route of the proposed Cape-to-Cairo Railway, just as the Andean plateau is of the Pan-American. 381. "White Man's Africa." South of 10 S., the high plateau (3,000-7,000 feet elevation) spreads out west- ward, occupying almost the entire width of the continent. This section has been called "white man's Africa," being well 'The West African rivers are navigable as follows: Senegal to Kayes, 460 miles; Gambia, 220; Niger to Rabba, 450; Benue almost to source; Congo to Boma and again from Stanley Pool to Stanley Falls, offering with its tributaries 7,000 miles of navigable waters. AFRICA 355 suited for settlement by Europeans. (Fig. 230.) The Boers show what manner of men the high veldt (plateau) produces in temperate South Africa. Politically, most of South Africa is British, and forms a self- governing federation like Canada. In southern Africa the Portuguese also have large possessions. The white population is, however, predominantly Dutch in blood. The colored popu- lation, which outnumbers the white probably ten to one, has been further recruited by Hindus imported to work the FIG. 236. The market place at Johannesburg. plantations, and by Chinese to work the mines though the latter are being gradually sent back to China. 382. Products of the Soil in South Africa. The zone between 10 and 20 S., including most of Rhodesia, is a belt of grassland corresponding in latitude and climate to the Sudan. Some coffee is grown on the seaward slopes, and cotton is a promising crop on the plateau. Farther south, 3S 6 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY on the Natal lowlands, the chief export crop is sugar cane, while the uplands grow some tea for local use. South Africa receives summer rains chiefly from the south- east trade wind, only the southern tip having rain in winter from the westerly winds. As in Australia, the mountains on the eastern shore condense the moisture on their seaward slope, leaving most of the interior too dry for agriculture. South Africa, therefore, is in the main a pastoral country, raising chiefly sheep and goats, with cattle on the richer pastures of the north and east. Ostrich farming is also a large industry. The zebra, immune against the tsetse fly but long reputed untamable, is both ridden and driven. In the agricultural zone, consisting of a strip perhaps 100 miles wide across the south and another 300 miles wide along the east, cereals are grown, but much food must be imported. The climate is very favorable to fruits, which command better prices because they ripen during the northern winter. The bark of a tree, the black wattle, native to Australia, is largely exported for use in tanning. 383. Other Resources of South Africa. South Africa near the Zambezi has been identified by some, on account of its ancient ruins, as the Ophir of King Solomon. The Kimberley mines now supply nearly all (98 per cent) of the world's diamonds. Other diamond deposits have also begun to be worked in sections of Southwest Africa. The Transvaal, near Johannesburg, and Rhodesia contain the largest known deposits of gold. (Fig. 138.) South Africa is also rich in copper, lead, and zinc, especially at Broken Hill; while coal, iron, and limestone lie side by side on both flanks of the Drakenberg Range. Coal is mined in Natal and the Transvaal, also in the rich Wankies Field near Victoria Falls. Oil fields exist in Angola, and large guano deposits in the arid parts of Southwest Africa. Water power is also available along the edge of the plateau, especially at Victoria Falls, where the Zambezi, 2,000 yards wide, falls 450 feet and is estimated to afford twice the AFRICA 357 power of Niagara. It, however, varies considerably with the seasons, shrinking in winter and rising in summer. 384. Trade Routes and Trade Centers of South Africa. The one natural waterway is the Zambezi, navigable to Tete (260 miles); while a tributary is navigable, except for one break, to Lake Nyassa. The principal railway net is in Southeast Africa. A trunk line extends from Cape Town well across the Zambezi, with several branches to the eastern coast. This is a part of the projected Cape-to-Cairo line, which is likely to be an accom- plished fact long before the Pan-American Railway is com- pleted. At Victoria Falls the Zambezi Valley narrows so as to be spanned by a bridge, the loftiest in the world, thus avoiding the steep grades and deadly climate of the lower Zambezi. The railways on the west coast are as yet short, disconnected lines; but a through line is building from Lobito Bay, 1 which will save three or four days for passen- gers and mail between London and Johannesburg. The ports on the south are Cape Town, Port Elizabeth, the leading grain port, and East London, all having either exposed or artificial harbors. As trade follows the lines of least resistance, it has largely shifted to ports 2 nearer the principal market at Johannesburg, the commercial center of the gold fields (Fig. 236); especially Durban, on a landlocked harbor now accessible to large vessels, and Loufenco Marques, on Delagoa Bay, sometimes called "the key of South Africa." The outlet of Rhodesia is Beira, another Portuguese port. The Cape was first occupied by the Dutch, and seized by the English during the Napoleonic wars, as a station on the *The contract provided for the building of 870 miles, to the Katanga copper district, by 1911, but it has been delayed. 2 The road from Durban enters the Orange Free State through Van Reenens Pass (5,500 feet), and the Transvaal through Laings Nek, the scene of many battles. A second and more direct railway (337 miles) has been undertaken from Lourenc,o Marques to Johannesburg. The Beira line to Salisbury is 350 miles long and connects at Buluwayo with the Cape line. 358 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY way to India. Despite the Suez Canal, the great naval station at False Bay is still a vital link in the British Empire. 385. The Commerce of South Africa. The commercial importance of South Africa arises mostly from its exports of gold and diamonds, and, to a lesser extent, from wool, mohair, hides, and ostrich feathers. (Fig. 237.) The principal imports are textiles and other manufactures, besides foodstuffs. South Africa, being practically as near by water to the United States as to Europe, is a market of great promise for American commerce. Three-fourths of the commerce of Africa originates in the temperate sections at the extremes of the continent, which 59% 16% 25% r Exports by articles. Imports by countries Gold Diamonds All others 174 million dollars 16 72 57% 77% 9% 9% U% Great Britain 105 million dollars British posscs- 19 I S a *' s All others 26 Data from Statesman's Year Book, 1910-14 FIG. 237. Commerce of Union of South Africa. Totals, five-year averages (millions of dollars): exports, 292, nearly all (90%) to Great Britain; imports, 182, mostly (74%) manufactures. illustrates the effect of climate; and nine-tenths of American commerce with Africa is carried on with the British posses- sions, which illustrates the effect of language and customs. 386. African Islands in the Atlantic. The Atlantic groups associated with Africa have fertile volcanic soil, but irrigation is usually needful in the lowlands. The Madeira Islands, enjoying a climate of perpetual spring, export chiefly wine and southern fruits. The Canaries the Insulae Fortunatae or Fortunate Isles of the ancients produce early vegetables, butter, and eggs, largely for the steamer trade ; also a dye moss called orchilla (litmus), dyeing blue, and the cochineal insect, grown on a species of cactus and yielding a red color. The Cape Verde group, a tropical colony" with a colored population, raises quantities of castor beans. The islands in the Gulf of AFRICA 359 Guinea grow cocoa and coffee, using negro "contract" labor that is slave labor in all but name. Ascension and St. Helena the scene of Napoleon's captivity are practically barren and useless since the nibbling goat has destroyed the forests. The chief value of the Atlantic islands 1 lies in their excellent harbors Funchal, Las Palmas, and St. Vincent admirably placed to serve as cable, coaling, and supply stations on the routes to South America and South Africa. For this reason they are jealously watched by the great commercial nations. 387. African Islands in the Indian Ocean. The islands in the Indian Ocean 2 are partly volcanic and partly coralline, while Madagascar is a fragment of some continent, possibly one which extended to India and Australia. The native population is a mixture of negro, Arab, Hindu, and Malay. In Mauritius, where Hindus and Chinese were imported as laborers, they have gotten hold of the landed property both in town and country, and have largely ousted their former employers. The products of Madagascar are gold, cattle from the lofty temperate plateau, and forest products from the slopes, especially rubber, raffia (a palm fiber), and beeswax. On the lesser islands the staple crops are sugar cane, vanilla, and cocoanuts. Mauritius also produces aloe fiber, which resem- bles sisal fiber. The principal commercial port in Madagascar is Tamatave, the outlet by rail of the lofty interior plateau. 1 Politically, the Madeira and Cape Verde islands, also St. Thomas and Principe, are Portuguese; the Canary Islands, Fernando Po, and Annobon are Spanish; Ascension and St. Helena are British. 2 British, except Reunion, Madagascar, and the islands to the west- ward of Madagascar, which are French. Most of the whites are, how- ever, of French descent and language. In Madagascar the Hovas, the ruling race, were mostly converted by English missionaries before the French conquest. XXVII THE BALKAN PENINSULA AND ROUMANIA 388. Surface and Climate of Europe. Europe is merely a peninsula of Asia, and in both continents the principal moun- tains run from east to west (128). An older mountain system (in part, a much eroded plateau) traverses the British Islands and the Scandinavian Peninsula. A younger mountain system, or series of systems, extends across the south, includ- ing the Pyrenees, Alps, Carpathians, and Caucasus mountains, which are continued still farther eastward by the Hindu Kush and Himalayan ranges. Between the older and the younger upland regions extends the great North European Plain, which rises but little above sea level. (Fig. 239.) Adjacent to Europe lie three great inland seas the Medi- terranean, Black, and Baltic. The North Sea is also, in effect, inland ; and there are numerous lesser gulfs and bays, separated by projections of the land. As a result, there is said to be no place in Europe a thousand miles from salt water. Latitude alone would render the larger part of Europe frigid. Nearly all of it lies farther north than New York, and all but the Mediterranean peninsulas lies farther north than Minneapolis. The east and west trend of the moun- tains, however, sharply differentiates the climate of the Medi- terranean region from that of the northern plain (128); and at the same time it permits the moderating influence of the Atlantic to be borne far inland by the prevailing westerly winds. There are consequently three climatic regions. The Mediterranean is of the mild subtropical type, with winter rains (^52). The west European region, north of the Pyrenees and Alps, is never very hot nor very cold, but is usually very moist, with the heaviest rainfall in winter just as in Wash- ington and British Columbia. The east European region, comprising chiefly Russia, is marked by greater extremes of heat and cold and is rather dry, with the most rainfall in (360) Cfflriflil, 1910. t Bend XtXtttt t Ce. 360 Sir A F J JO) Longitude West of Greenwic, m FIG. 239. 1 Statute Miles to one inch Hallways Navigable rivers - pe, 1914. Copyright, iqi$, by Rand Mc.Vally & Company THE BALKAN PENINSULA AND ROUMANIA 3 6 * summer, resembling the Dakotas. North of the Alps, the climate thus varies more from west to east than from south to north. (Fig. 241.) 389. Why Europe is Civilized. Europe is the true father- land of civilization. To it the younger nations in America, Australia, South Africa, and the islands of the sea look back as to their old home. The elements of material civilization were, indeed, derived from the Orient ; but the development of the arts that adorn FIG. 241. Rainfall of Europe. and the inward graces of character that ennoble human life took place on the soil of Europe. This it was that came to pass in ancient Greece and rendered it the fountain head of culture for the western world. The rapid advance of Europe in civilization, outstripping lands like Egypt, Mesopotamia, India, and China that had a start of thousands of years, was largely a matter of Hi 362 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY climate (which compelled the accumulation of resources for winter) and of surface features. It was in fact due in no small measure to the wealth of Europe in seas, gulfs, and peninsulas, which carry both the climatic and com- mercial influence of the ocean far inland. This was even more clearly the case in Greece (35). The civilization of Europe also owes much to race and religion (57.) A Mongolian Europe would doubtless be in manyrespects another China, and a Mohammedan Europe but a larger Turkey, sunk in squalor and decay. FIG. 242. Balkan Peninsula and Roumama. 390. The Peoples of Europe. The diversity of the land is reflected in the people. Nowhere else are there so many civilized nations and cultivated languages in so small an area. The population is also very dense. Thus Europe, only a trifle larger than the United States and Alaska, contains twenty-one independent nations, besides five actual or virtual protectorates (Luxemburg, Liechtenstein, San Marino, Andorra, Monaco); in all, twenty-six states more or less sovereign. (Fig. 239.) Their combined population is in round numbers 400,000,000, practically the same as China. Measured by language, most of the European peoples are 363 Aryan, like the ancient Persians and the northern Hindus. They fall into six groups. (Fig. 229.) In the south are the Latin nations the Portuguese, Spaniards, French, Ital- ians, and Roumanians all speaking dialects derived from the tongue of ancient Rome. In the northwest around the North Sea are the Teutonic nations, Scandinavians, Germans, Dutch, Flemish (in northern Belgium), and English. In the east are the Slavic peoples, Russians, Poles, Bohemians, Serbians, Bulgarians, and others. Also Aryan by speech, though belonging to neither of these groups, are the Greeks, and Albanians in the Balkan Peninsula; the Celts in Ireland, Wales, Brittany, and the highlands of Scotland; finally the Lithuanians on the Baltic. Outside the circle of Aryan peoples are the Basques in the Pyrenees, of unknown relationship; also the Turks, Hunga- rians, Tartars, Lapps, and Finns, all of Mongolian speech and Asiatic origin. 391. Why the Balkan Peninsula is Undeveloped. The Balkan Peninsula (Fig. 242) contains Greece, the cradle of European civilization; Macedonia, the home of Alexander, who carried this civilization to the gates of India; and Con- stantinople, the Imperial City where it survived the dark and stormy night of the Middle Ages. Yet the Balkan Penin- sula is to-day the most barbarous and commercially the least developed part of Europe. One reason is that its valleys open toward the barbarous East. It is thus exposed to invasion from southern Russia and western Asia. By these routes came Slavs, Bulgarians, and Turks, who between them destroyed the Eastern Empire. Another reason is that the mountains render transportation difficult. Moreover, they separate the peninsula into distinct districts now occupied by different races, languages, and religions, whose constant strife has rendered economic progress all but impossible. Besides the Turks, who are largely outnumbered in European Turkey by Christians, the inhabitants of the Balkan Peninsula 364 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY comprise: (i) Greeks, living on all the coasts and islands in addition to Greece; (2) Albanians, in part Mohammedan, along the Adriatic; (3) Serbians 1 in the west and Bulgarians 2 in the east, both Slavic peoples; (4) Roumanians (that is, Romans) in the mountains of northern Greece and Serbia, as well as in Roumania and Hungary. 3 The Christians are almost solidly Greek Catholic except along the Adriatic, where they are in part Roman Catholic. The bond of union between the widely-sundered Greeks is now, as in ancient times, the sea; and Greek, far from being a "dead language," is next to French the principal commercial language of the eastern Mediterranean. 392. The Agricultural Products of Greece. Greece, like southern California, is almost rainless in summer, when the northeast trade winds begin farthest north. Irrigation is therefore needful for agriculture, especially toward the south and east. Greece is consequently in large part a pastoral country, raising sheep and goats. Mount Hymettos, however, is still famous for honey; and the mountain slopes, though now largely stripped of timber, and consequently of soil, bear patches of valonia oak, used for tanning. The island fisheries also yield excellent sponges. The plains and valleys, though small, are fertile and have been in all ages the centers of population. Ancient Athens was embowered in olive groves which yielded her chief article of export, and olives are still important throughout Greece. Here, as in other Mediterranean countries, pasturage dries up in summer unless irrigated. Dairy products are consequently expensive, and olive oil is commonly used in place of butter. It likewise takes the place, to some extent, of meat in the diet 'Inhabiting from the Balkans to the Adriatic, south of the Drave River that is, a region several times the size of Servia. ''Named from a tribe of Finns who settled there and adopted the Slavic tongue. 3 Thus showing that the eastern as well as the western provinces of the Roman Empire must have adopted the Latin tongue before the barbarinn invasions, except where Greek prevailed. See Partsch, Central Europe, p. 128. THE BALKAN PENINSULA AND RdUMANIA 365 of the people. The main support of modern Greek commerce, however, is the "currant," a small seedless grape grown chiefly in the Patras district. In addition, southern Greece produces wine, figs, and raw silk. In central Greece the land formerly occupied by Lake Kopais, now drained, is planted with cotton. Thessaly, the dry bed of a great lake which finally secured an outlet through the famous Vale of Tempe, grows wheat, corn, and barley. The plains of Macedonia also grow grain and excellent "Turkish" tobacco, while the Greek islands produce wine, olives, oranges, and carobs. 393. Other Products of Greece. The mineral resources of Greece are varied and more developed, because near the sea, than elsewhere in the Balkan Peninsula. The silver-lead deposits of Laurion, which built the Athenian navy, thereby founding the political power of ancient Athens, are still pro- ductive. Iron, manganese, zinc, antimony, and chrome are also mined. Naxos yields emery; Eubcea, magnesite; and Paros, the finest marble. In Macedonia are the gold and silver deposits which once furnished the means for the conquests of Philip and of Alexander the Great, though their present value remains to be determined. Coal, except for a little lignite, is lacking. Nevertheless Greece, like Switzerland, is making some headway in manu- factures, using water power at Vodena, and imported coal at Piraeus, the chief manufacturing center of Greece, to operate cotton, paper, and flour mills. Railways from Athens penetrate and circle the Pelopon- nesus (Morea), extending to Kalamata. Another line from Athens through Larissa (once the home of Achilles) will con- nect with Salonica, making Piraeus a rival of Brindisi for the mail and passenger traffic with the Far East. The trade of Old Greece largely centers at Piraeus, the port of Athens, and at Patras. Both profit from the Corinthian Canal (1893), which saves twenty hours, though many ships avoid it because narrow and beset by strong winds and 366 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY currents. (Fig. 243.) Volos is the port of Thessaly, as Kala- mata is of southern Greece. In the islands Hermoupolis or Syra, a free port with a splendid harbor, is an important coaling and fishing station. Corfu occupies a similar position in the Adriatic. In New Greece the principal port is Saloniki, on a deep bay FlG. 243. Vessel traversing the Corinthian Canal. at the head of the ^Egean, the natural outlet of the Balkan Peninsula toward the Suez Canal. 394. The Commerce of Greece. The United States has direct steamship connection with Greece and is a large pur- chaser of the principal Grecian exports currants and ores. Other countries supply most of the Grecian imports, which are mainly foodstuffs, raw cotton, and manufactured goods. THE BALKAN PENINSULA AND ROUMANIA 367 395. Serbia and Montenegro. After the peace of Versailles (1918) Serbia and Montenegro became integral parts of the Serb-Croat-Slovene State (Czecho-Slovakia). Montenegro consists largely of mountain pastures, which support sheep and goats, with some cattle. It has, however, a few miles of seacoast on the Adriatic. Serbia was originally forested with oak, and the acorns fed immense herds of swine. This condition still exists in remote districts, and the forests there also furnish lumber for staves. In the main, however, Serbia is now a region of upland pas- tures, supporting sheep and cattle. Agriculture has made some progress in the valleys, especially along the Vardar and in the rich upland basin around Monastir, which fell to Serbia after the war with Turkey (1913). All the common grains are grown, besides plums for prunes and brandy. The mountains are said to abound in metals, and there is a small output of coal. Manufactures are mostly household industries carried on by hand as in western Europe during the Middle Ages. 396. Bulgaria. Bulgaria comprises chiefly the two slopes of the Balkan Mountains (which have ever formed the Bulgarian stronghold in times of trouble) together with the adjacent valleys. In the division of Turkey, Bulgaria also secured the Rhodope range, with the ^Egean coast between the Mesta and Maritsa rivers but lost the latter in the World War. The uplands are largely under natural grass, as in Serbia, and animal products are important exports. The first place, however, is held by grain, chiefly wheat, grown in the broad Danube Valley. The southern slope of the Balkans, which serve like the Alps as a climatic boundary, produces grapes, tobacco, silk, rice in the Maritsa Valley, and roses around Sipka or ' ' Wild Rose ' ' Pass for the manufacture of attar of roses. Silk production, formerly an important industry, declined be- cause of disease among the silkworms, but has been revived with considerable success. In Bulgaria, as in Serbia, minerals are abundant, though mostly unworked, except for a small output of coal. The principal factory industry (and that but 368 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY little developed) is the weaving of woolen goods by water power along the foot of the Balkans. 397. Turkey in Europe. Turkey in Europe was reduced, as a result of the Balkan War (1913), to the wide plain east of the Maritsa (ancient Thrace), Gallipoli Peninsula, and the rugged peninsula containing Constantinople. All but this last was lost as a result of the World War (1914-18). Most of the population in the Thracian plain, and all of it in the islands, is Greek, since the Turks are still by preference pastoral, keeping sheep and goats on the hill pastures. The rugged surface practically limits agriculture to the plain of the Maritsa. The soil there is worked in primitive fashion, chiefly by the Greek population, producing for export wheat, opium, raw silk, and tobacco. There are also valuable fisheries, especially in the Sea of Marmora. The export manufactures are chiefly carpets woven by hand leather goods, and attar of roses. 398. The Commerce of Turkey. Turkey in Europe, as in Asia, exports chiefly raw materials, besides rugs and dried fruits; and imports mainly manufactured goods. Constantinople, which has a splendid harbor on the Bosporus, occupies a position of commanding importance, both strategic and commercial. The chain of lofty mountains stretching from the Atlantic eastward across Europe is broken only in two places in France by the gap between the Pyrenees and the Alps, and at Constantinople by navigable water giving direct access to the Black Sea, and thus to the vast north European and north Asiatic plain. What this position would mean under decent government passes imagination. Con- stantinople, moreover, has one railway running along the coastal plain to the west and another extending to the Danube by way of the Maritsa-Morava Pass (5,400 feet). This line of communication is the route of the Orient Express from Paris. (Fig. 239.) Adrianople, at the head of navigation on the Maritsa, com- mands the valley leading up to the Sipka (Shipka) Pass across THE BALKAN PENINSULA AND ROUMANIA 369 the Balkans. It is therefore a fortress as well as a market. In all ages the great "diagonal furrows" formed by the Vardar and Maritsa valleys have been the chief routes both of com- merce and of war. 399. Roumania. Roumania, another independent country, is the strongest of the states which have arisen on the ruins of Turkey. Embracing the northern part of the Danube Valley, together with Transylvania, Bukowina and two thirds of the Banat, it is one of the granaries of Europe. The principal crops are corn, wheat, and other small grains, besides flax and colza seeds for oil. In the export of corn Roumania ranks next to the United States. (Figs. 190 and 277.) Grapes and plums also occupy some land. The region east of the Danube is a pastoral plateau, supporting sheep and cattle. The Carpa- thians furnish timber, also great quantities of salt and petro- leum. The oil wells are largely run by water power, and pipe lines extend to the Black Sea at Constanza (Kustenji). Manu- factures are chiefly flour and lumber. 400. Danubian States. The Danube countries are commer- cially much alike. They all export chiefly pastoral and agricul- tural products; Roumania also exports petroleum. They thus compete in European markets with American farm products. The imports mainly are textile and metal manufactures, trade for the most part being with Central and Northern Europe. The great highway of commerce is the Danube, though it is icebound for two months. As far as the Iron Gate, where the river has cut through the Carpathians and a canal was built around the rapids, the Danube was under the control of an International Commission. The pre-war powers of this com- mission has been revived and the Upper Danube is controlled by a new International Commission. The trunk-line railway from Paris, crossing the river at Belgrade, the commercial center of Serbia, follows the Morava Valley to Nish, where it forks to Saloniki and Constantinople. The eastern or Constantinople line traverses the plateau on which Sofia, the capital of Bulgaria, stands at the focus of 37 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY mountain valleys. The chief railway over the Balkans also passes through Sofia. 1 Bukarest, the capital of Roumania, is a natural railway center in the middle of a wide plain. The principal river ports are Rushchuk, connected also by rail with the sea, and Braila; the larger seagoing vessels, how- ever, stop at Galatz. The Black Sea ports are poorly shel- tered by nature. Varna is an exposed anchorage; Burgas has (since 1903) an artificial harbor, like Constanza (Kustenji). Greece now has the sheltered harbor, Port Lagos, on the ^Egean, which was to have been connected by rail with Sofia and made the principal Bulgarian outlet by sea. Constanza, where Trajan's wall from the Danube formerly reached the sea, has become of European importance since the river was bridged to give railway connection with western Europe. The Germans in particular were making it a stepping stone for their expected commercial conquest of the Levant until defeated in the World War. 1 Following the gorges of the Isker and Struma, but not yet completed to Saloniki. The Isker is the only river piercing the Balkans, though a railroad has now been laid over the Trjevna Pass (3,360 feet), in spite of the abrupt slope on the south. XXVIII OTHER MEDITERRANEAN PENINSULAS 401. Italy. Venice is farther north than Minneapolis, and Rome is in the latitude of Chicago. The startling differ- ence in climate is due largely to the sheltering wall of the Alps along the north of Italy. (128, Fig. 244.) The Po Valley, once an arm of the sea, is fertile and well watered. Peninsular Italy, on the other hand, has thin and stony soil except in a few small plains, and it lies in the zone of summer drought (52). A similar difference exists in the people. The north Italian barely understands the speech of the south Italian, and is much the better educated. Such unequal yokefellows have created many difficulties since the union of Italy (1871). 402. Forest and Animal Products in Italy. "Man traverses the earth and a desert results."- This hard saying, referring to the effects of deforestation, is nowhere better illustrated than in Italy, where the forests of Roman days are now represented chiefly by "macchie" scattered shrubs of a semi-desert character. The cork oak, however, is still found in Sardinia, also sumac and the licorice plant in the south, while chestnut plantations are widely distributed at moderate elevations. Boiled chestnuts are a staple food. Goats graze in the mountains; sheep on the dry plateaus, especially in Apulia; cattle in the moister plains west of the Apennines, like the Roman campagna, and on the rich irri- gated meadows of the Po. Imported cattle are fattened there, and Parmesan cheese is famous. Even more important are poultry and eggs for northern markets. 403. Crop Products in Italy. The north is the more pros- perous because considerable districts are irrigated by unfailing Alpine streams. The food crops are wheat or barley in winter, corn in summer, rice on the irrigable lowlands, and beans as a substitute for meat. The staple food of the (371) 372 COMMERCIAL GEOGRA PH Y common people is polenta, a sort of cornmeal mush. The industrial products are raw silk, chiefly from the Po basin, flax around Cremona, and hemp around Bologna ; also, in recent years, sugar beets. Nowhere has the beet-sugar industry grown more rapidly, since imported sugar has been heavily taxed. FIG. 244. Italy. South of the Apennines, where the climate is subtropical, the commercial products are chiefly wine and olive oil, of which Italy is the largest producer; south of Naples and in Sicily, also "English" walnuts, figs, almonds, citrons, oranges, and lemons. Chick-peas and wheat are also grown in southern OTHER MEDITERRANEAN PENINSULAS 373 Italy, especially durum or macaroni wheat, though a crooked stick still commonly serves for a plow as in Vergil's day. 404. Other Resources of Italy. The Italian fisheries are especially rich between the islands and the mainland. They yield sardines and anchovies which are both tinned in oil, besides tunny and coral, the latter used in ornaments. Most of Italy is of recent geological age and poor in min- erals; but the islands of Sardinia and Elba, with parts of the mainland, are fragments of a very ancient land (Tyrrhenia) now mostly sunk beneath the sea, which are rich in ores of nearly all the metals, especially zinc, lead, and iron. In addi- tion there are large sulphur deposits in Sicily, marble at Carrara, borax in Tuscany, besides small deposits of petroleum and lignite in the Apennines. . Sicily furnishes a large part of the world's sulphur. (Fig. 90.) 495. Manufactures of Italy. The lack of abundant coal has limited manufactures in the main to artistic hand work; but this lack is now being made good in part by the Alpine streams, which are increasingly used to generate electricity. The principal use of power machinery is in the textile industry. The materials used are chiefly silk at Milan, cotton at Genoa, wool at Turin and at Biella in the Alps. Iron is worked to some extent at Terni, near lignite beds, and at Savona and Elba, which burn imported coal. Other manu- factures are macaroni from hard wheat, and soap from the poorer grades of olive oil. Tobacco, salt, and gasoline are government monopolies. Technical schools have been established in many districts, with an advanced school of commerce at Venice to hasten the industrial revolution. As yet, however, it is impossible, owing to the rapid increase of population in Italy, and the limited natural resources, to fill the multitude of hungry mouths; consequently hundreds of thousands of' Italians emigrate every year. Their remittances to friends at home are assuredly one of the chief resources of Italy. Southern Italy, indeed, largely lives on America. 374 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 406. Transportation Routes and Trade Centers, of Italy. Like Greece, though less completely, Italy is built in compart- ments separated by mountains and facing the sea; but, unlike Greece, Italy lacks natural harbors, except near the ends of the peninsula where the mountains descend abruptly to deep water. By virtue of its. position, Italy is the heart of the Mediter- ranean world. It has, moreover, been commercially regener- ated by the Suez Canal (1869), which again sent the main current of oriental trade through the Mediterranean; and by the Alpine tunnels, 1 which have in effect removed the com- mercial barrier of the Alps. In fact, the bulk of Italian commerce now goes by rail across the land frontiers. The Po system, supplemented by canals, is navigable to Valenza and the Italian Alpine lakes. Railways radiating from Milan, the greatest industrial center, extend along both coasts, and are connected by several transverse lines across the Apennines. The railways are fed in part by automobile lines running on highways built by the Caesars. Genoa, the chief port of Italy, 2 is also through the Alpine tunnels the Mediterranean outlet of Switzerland and the upper Rhine Valley. In fact, it is a rival of Marseilles for the com- merce of central Europe. (Fig. 239.) Leghorn (Livorno),on an artificial harbor, is the port of Florence and indeed, of all central Italy; 3 while Naples, on a beautiful bay under the ! The Alpine railways are as follows: CONNECTING OPENED PASS USED LENGTH MAIN TUNNEL ELEVATION OF RAILWAY Venice- Vienna 1854 Semmering 2,970 ft. Venice-Munich 1867 Brenner 4,470 ft. Turin-Lyons 1871 Mt. Cenis 7.6 mi . 4,380 ft. Milan-Zurich 1882 St. Gothard 9 . 3 mi. 3.785 ^. Milan-Geneva 1906 Simplon 12.3 mi. 2,3 X 3 ft- Trieste-Salzburg 1907 Hohe Tauern 5-3 mi. 3.999 ft. Italy is also connected along the coastal plain with Marseilles, and with Trieste. 'Opposite the Bocchetta Pass (2,550 feet) over the Apennines. 3 By way of the railways from Bologna and Faenza. OTHER MEDITERRANEAN PENINSULAS 375 shadow of Vesuvius, is the port of the fertile Campanian plain. Venice is built on islands in a landlocked lagoon which is now dredged for modern vessels and equipped with modern docks and elevators; and it is again after many days the outlet toward the Levant of northern Italy. It is also an important outlet of the upper Danube Valley over the Brenner Pass, though Genoa and Trieste now hold most of the trans- Alpine trade on which Venice once grew rich. Brindisi is the mail and passenger port of London, Paris, and Berlin for the Levant, India, and the Far East. In Sicily, Exports . 27% 12% 8% 7% 5% 41% Raw silk and silk waste Textiles f!s '3 j$ *~ All others 99 million dollars ai S " 18% 16% 12% 9% 9% 7% 3% 26% Imports United Kingdom Germany United States Q a i - a m 4J * a 1ft s I All others S3 dollars 77 60 a < 12S m \ n'a Temr Book, 1909 FlG. 245. The commerce of Italy. Totals in 1913 (millions of dollars): exports, 485; imports, 702. the meeting place of nations, which has been held in turn by all the rulers of the Mediterranean, the principal modern ports are Palermo (Greek Panormus) and Messina, the latter com- manding the strait where the ancients fabled that Scylla and Charybdis lay in wait for the unwary mariner. Though often destroyed by earthquakes, Messina has been as often rebuilt. 407. Commerce and Colonies of Italy. The exports of Italy comprise chiefly raw silk (by far the largest item), eggs, fruit, and other agricultural products, besides some cotton and silk manufactures. The imports are more varied, including raw cotton and other raw materials, coal, foodstuffs, and nearly all kinds of manufactures. (Fig. 245.) From these facts it is evident that Italy, while making progress in manufactures, is still predominantly agricultural. 376 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY The outlying possessions of Italy comprise Libya in North Africa and two stretches of arid coast in the Horn of Africa with the port of Massawa; the twelve islands lying near Asia Minor have finally been ceded to Greece. 408. The Iberian Peninsula. "Africa begins at the Pyre- nees." This saying of the French applies in a measure both to the people and the country. The original inhabitants resembled the Berbers of North Africa, and there is also a strong infusion of Moorish blood. FIG. 246. The Iberian Peninsula. Both Portuguese and Spaniards, except the Basques in the Pyrenees, now speak dialects derived from Latin. The surface of the peninsula (Fig. 246) resembles Africa in that it consists for the most part of a lofty table-land (over 3,000 feet), traversed by mountain ranges which drain the winds of moisture. The coast line is also similar to that of Africa, in that it lacks deep indentations. The climate on the OTHER MEDITERRANEAN PENINSULAS 377 plateau is one of great extremes, and the summers are almost rainless, especially in the south. The northern and western coasts are the best watered, and therefore the most thickly peopled, aside from the irrigated districts along the Mediter- ranean. 409. Forest and Animal Products in Spain and Portugal. The forests have mostly disappeared, under the combined attack of sheep, goats, and charcoal burners. Oak and chest- nut groves are, however, still found in the north, besides cork oak and carob trees on the southern mountains. Cork is an article of export, especially from Barcelona and Seville. The central plateau is pastoral rather than agricultural, having for the most part a rainfall of between ten and twenty inches. It is largely a range country for flocks of sheep, which migrate to the mountains in summer and to the lower lands in winter. Spain was long the home of the merino breed, noted for fine wool. The moister provinces of the northwest also pasture cattle; the oak and chestnut forests feed swine ; parts of the south raise fine horses of Arab breed ; and the mountains everywhere support goats, asses, and mules, which greatly outnumber horses. In recent years dairy products, poultry, and eggs have become commercial products in northern Spain. 410. Crop Products of Spain and Portugal. Agriculture is most successful in a zone along the shore, and in the vegas or plains of the Tagus, Ebro, and Guadalquivir. This agri- cultural belt is widest in the northwest, where temperate crops are grown, especially wheat and barley, besides chick-peas, onions, and sugar beets. Since the loss of Cuba, Spain has developed her beet-sugar industry sufficiently to meet the home demand. Other foodstuffs, however, are largely imported. The principal agricultural exports are wine, especially from Portugal and southern Spain, besides southern fruits largely from the irrigated huertas or gardens between Malaga and Valencia. The Spanish Peninsula ranks next to Italy in its crop of olives, which are perhaps most abundant about 378 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY Seville. It likewise exports almonds, grown on sheltered hillsides, raisins and "Malaga" grapes from Almeria, and oranges and onions from Valencia. Another export crop, especially around Valencia, is saffron, a dye stuff largely used in French silk mills. Similar to the Mediterranean coast in climate and products are the Balearic and Canary islands, which are considered part of Spain; and the Madeira and Azores islands, which are considered part of Portugal. 411. Other Products of Spain and Portugal. The fisheries yield the usual Mediterranean varieties sardine, anchovy, tunny besides lobsters on the rocky northern coast. The mines of Spain equipped the army of Hannibal which all but destroyed Rome; and the Spanish Peninsula is still the richest mineral region in Europe, especially in the great industrial metals. Iron ore of rare purity is abundant, especially near the northern coast. Copper is extensively mined at Rio Tinto, silver-lead at Linares, zinc in the northwest, mercury at Almaden. There are in addition large deposits of salt and sulphur; and the coal fields exceed in area those of France, Germany, Austria, and Hungary. Though located near iron ore, they are not much worked. The manufactures of Spain comprise, aside from purely local industries, chiefly tobacco goods (a government monopoly) at Seville; iron and glass along the northern coast; and textiles, leather, shoes, and paper at Barcelona, the principal industrial city in Spain. The people of Barcelona, speaking a language (Catalan) more French than Spanish, are very different from the proud, military Castilian of the plateau, or the guitar- playing Andalusian of the south; and they are far more re- doubtable competitors. In Portugal some cotton and other goods for the colonies are manufactured with imported coal, chiefly at Lisbon. 412. Trade Routes and Centers of the Iberian Peninsula. The plateau, rising abruptly near the sea, interrupts river OTHER MEDITERRANEAN PENINSULAS 379 navigation 1 and renders railroads very costly to build and operate. Moreover, the Pyrenees were uncrossed by rail 2 until 1912, when the first of three tunnels provided for by treaty was finished. However, all the railroads differ in gauge from the French, thus forcing both passengers and goods to change cars at the frontier. The railways naturally converge at Madrid in the center of the plateau. Since the loss of her American colonies, Spain faces com- mercially toward the Mediterranean, as Portugal does toward the Atlantic. The principal commercial ports are Barcelona on the Mediterranean, having a deep harbor commanding the broad Ebro Valley; Lisbon in the west, at the mouth of the Tagus; and Bilbao in the north, the leading iron port. Oporto also ships much wine (hence port wine) and Cartagena handles Spanish trade with Africa. 3 The Iberian Peninsula, jutting far into the Atlantic, is the final point of departure for many vessels bound to South Africa, South America, or the West Indies. Lisbon is thus in a measure the passenger and mail port of Paris, Berlin, and Vienna for the New World. 413. Commerce and Colonies of Spain and Portugal. As a result of the character of the country, the leading items of export from Portugal are wine and cork; while in the case of Spain they are minerals, wine, and cork. (Fig. 247.) In both, the imports comprise chiefly grain and manufactures. Spain established the first empire on which the sun never set ; but this empire has now shrunk to a few islands and pieces of coast in West Africa and in Morocco. The loss of the colonies, however, has proved a blessing in disguise, causing 1 Steam navigation is possible only to Santarem on the Tagus, Seville on the Guadalquivir, Tortosa on the Ebro (by the aid of canals) ; small boats, however, reach Abrantes, Cdrdoba, and Logrono. 2 Though offering lower passes than the Alps, as the famous pass of Roncesvalles (3,960 feet); also Perche (5,282 feet); Perthus (2,392 feet) the last two conveniently placed for Barcelona. 3 Other ports are Santander and Gijon, the port of the chief coal district, in the north; Cadiz, the outlet of the Guadalquivir Valley, in the south; Malaga, Almeria, and Valencia on the Mediterranean. 380 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY Spaniards to invest their money at home and thus develop the country. Andorra, a little republic in the Pyrenees dating back to Charlemagne, is under the joint protection of a Spanish bishop and of France. Portugal retains, besides fragments of her empire in India 37% 32% 6% 5% 20% Food and beverages 73 million dollars Minerals, metals, and mfg. 63 " & * 8_ 1 I = 33 5 -o " 1 1 Dogger -Bank, has thus become the greatest fishing port in the world. The seamen bred in the fisheries are the main factor, next to coal and iron, in maintaining the British merchant marine the real backbone of British commercial supremacy. 437. Mineral Resources of the British Isles. The tin of Cornwall drew the Phoenicians to Britain several thousand years before the Christian era. These tin mines are still in operation, though the adjacent copper veins are practically exhausted. There is also a considerable output of lead and zinc in Wales, and of iron ore chiefly around Middlesbrough and GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 401 Barrow-in-Furness. Much iron ore, however, is imported from Spain and Sweden to feed the British furnaces. The true wealth of Britain is in her coal beds, which, con- stitute her "Black Indies," richer by far than the India of Clive and Hastings. The coal fields lie chiefly on the flanks of the Pennine Range, which forms the principal divide in Eng- land; in southern Wales, where the coal is largely anthra- cite; and in the lowlands of Scotland. (Fig. 238.) Ireland has only a very little coal of inferior quality, and largely uses peat for fuel. Lack of coal is the great economic defect of Ireland, as of Italy. The British coal fields exceed in area those of all the rest of Europe outside of Russia. 438. The Rise of British Manufactures. Throughout the Middle Ages, Great Britain was almost exclusively a pastoral and agricultural country. At the close of that period, the extension of sheep runs, driving many tenants from the soil, was one cause that helped to plant the English race in America. Manufactures profited from the immigration of skilled artisans from France during the religious wars of the sixteenth century, and still more from England's conquest of a vast colonial empire during the seventeenth and eighteenth cen- turies. The demand for manufactured goods in these colo- nies doubtless had some connection with the series of great inventions in England for example, the spinning jenny and power loom which have revolutionized the industry of the world. They gave Great Britain a practical monopoly of production by machinery; and this monopoly was confirmed for more than a century by the use of steam, owing to the wealth of Great Britain in coal and iron. Napoleon I forbade trade with England, but was driven to violate his own edict in order to clothe his army. Only within the last generation has any nation been able seriously to compete with England in machine-made goods. 439. The Textile Industry. The textile industry was the first, and is still the most important, branch of British manu- factures. (Fig. 279.) Wool is woven chiefly on the eastern 40* COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY slope of the Pennine Range, at Bradford and Leeds and also in Scotland, both being sheep-raising districts containing large coal fields; cotton in the west around Manchester over another coal field, where the climate is moist (which decreases the breakages of thread in the processes of manufacture) and American cotton is easily accessible. Linen, again, is worked at Belfast in the flax-growing region; linen products (shirts, collars, cuffs) not far away at Londonderry; and silk in the midlands at Derby, where the water is suitable for dyeing. Dundee, being favorably located for getting flax from the Baltic, formerly manufactured linen almost exclusively, but turned to jute when the supply of Russian flax was cut off by the Crimean War (1854-56) and is now the principal center of jute manufacture in Europe. (Fig. 225.) In Ireland and the northern islands homespun cloth is still woven on hand looms. Finally, some localizations of industry are apparently due merely to an early start and acquired momentum for example, the manufacture of carpets at Kidderminster and Wilton and the manufacture of lace and hosiery at Nottingham. 440. Grain and Sugar Industries. Other industries employ- ing agricultural materials are the distillation of barley whisky in Scotland and Ireland, where considerable barley is grown; flour milling at Liverpool, where American wheat is landed; and sugar refining in all the principal ports which receive cargoes of raw sugar. The development of flour milling in west England, despite the damp climate (which renders more difficult the production of high-grade flour) has been sufficient to decrease the imports of American flour. It is no doubt due to the. fact that Liverpool is the greatest market in the world for wheat, receiving supplies at all seasons. 441. Mineral Industries. The iron industry began near great forests which furnished charcoal, but now persists only where coal is available. Blast furnaces for the smelting of ore are found chiefly in the Middlesbrough and Barrow-in- Furness districts, containing both coal and iron, and on the south Wales coal field, where Spanish ore is smelted. GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 403 Birmingham, near the ancient forest of Arden, is, however, the principal hardware center. From Birmingham west stretches the "Black Country," shrouded with smoke by day and lit with flashes of fire by night from the countless iron works. Sheffield specializes in cutlery, having excellent sand- stone for grinding. Ship building centers chiefly on the Clyde at Glasgow, and at Newcastle-on-Tyne and Belfast, all having easy access to coal and iron. Belfast indeed obtains coal by sea more cheaply than inland towns within fifty miles of the coal fields. Other metals tin, lead, zinc, copper are smelted at Swansea, near the Welsh coal field and accessible to the tin of Cornwall, though the ores are now mostly imported. Glass and pottery are also made on the coal fields : glass at Birmingham and St. Helens; porcelain at Derby, Worcester, and in the district around Stoke-upon-Trent, called "The Potteries." Chemical works are found chiefly in the seaports, accessible to imported materials. 442. Situation and Transportation Facilities. To the ancients, Britain lay at the edge of the world, bordered by the unknown "Sea of Darkness." The voyage of Columbus suddenly placed it in the center of the world. America was thus the making of England. Moreover, the "silver thread" of the Channel, preventing invasion by land, left England unburdened by a great standing army, and there- fore free to seek her fortune on the ocean. This advantage more than offset the even more central location of France. The coast line, deeply indented by estuaries and bays, favors maritime pursuits. Moreover, the high tides carry navigable depths well up the rivers. The rivers are connected by an extensive network of canals built during the two generations (1765-1830) before the intro- duction of railroads; but most of them are navigable only by small canal boats and many are controlled by railroads, which naturally permit no competition. The proportion of freight moved by water is thus only a fifth as large in Great Britain as 404 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY in France. The Manchester Ship Canal, 1 however, renders Manchester a seaport independent of Liverpool, and from it lines of steamships now sail to many parts of the world. It already ranks fourth among British seaports. Such is the superiority of ocean transportation that the migration of indus- tries to salt water, noticeable in various countries, can only be checked by thus, in effect, bringing the sea inland. The British highways are admirable, in striking contrast to their condition in the eighteenth century; and the railways, encountering few heavy grades, bring practically every part of the larger island within twelve hours of London. In Ireland the lines radiate from Dublin, which commands the principal eastern entrance to the central plain. 443. Seaports of Great Britain. The leading commercial ports are on the rivers which enter the sea nearly opposite each other, thus bringing the ports near together, for example, those on the Clyde and Forth, Mersey and The Humber, Thames and Severn. London, the metropolis, banking center, and long the greatest seaport of the world, was originally a Roman camp on the first hill encountered in ascending the river. This was a convenient point for crossing at first by ferry, later by bridge. London Bridge was thus in a sense the cause of London. The stupendous growth of London resulted from its position oppo- site the mouths of the Rhine and Meuse, at the natural gateway of southern England, and from its distributing trade in oriental wares before the Suez Canal was opened. It is still the prin- cipal world market for tea and wine. The largest ships, however, are now compelled to stop at Tilbury Docks, far below the city; and the great continental ports, especially New York, Hamburg, Rotterdam, and Antwerp, have out- stripped London in tonnage. (Fig. 291.) The other leading ports are Cardiff (with Barry Docks) on the Severn, exporting anthracite; Liverpool on the Mersey, the emporium for American and West African trade, especially 1 Length thirty-five and one-half miles; depth twenty-eight feet. GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 405 cotton, wheat, meat, and tobacco; Manchester reached by canal; Hull on The Humber, opposite the Weser, Elbe, and Kiel Ship Canal, and therefore the natural outlet for North Sea and Baltic trade; Glasgow in Scotland and Belfast in northern Ireland, w^hence the sea way is shortest to Canada and even to New York. Bristol, though crippled by shallow water, retains a trade in sugar, cocoa, and West India fruits. The principal passenger and mail ports are Dover, Folke- stone, and Newhaven toward France and Belgium; Harwich toward Holland; Holyhead on a projecting island toward Ireland; Queenstown, the outport of Cork, Fishguard, Plym- outh, and Southampton, toward America. It is now possi- ble for passengers landing at Fishguard to breakfast in New York on Wednesday, and in London on the following Monday. 444. The Character of British Commerce. Great Britain is the largest exporter of manufactures in the world (Fig. 257), and has been enabled by these exports to support at least three times as many people as could be fed from her own soil. Her imports, therefore, are for the most part foodstuffs and raw materials. British imports exceed the exports by more than a billion dollars a year because of British investments abroad, revenue received from tourists, the earnings of British ships, and the banking profits of London on international transactions. This excess of British imports consequently represents the tribute which the world annually pays to Great Britain. 445. Greater Britain. The British Empire has, in round numbers, four times the area and five times the population of the United States. (Table 4.) In Europe it includes, besides Gibraltar and Malta, the Isle of Man, and the Channel Islands, which are French- speaking; both enjoying a large measure of independence. Preeminent among the outlying possessions are Canada and Newfoundland, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa; all in the Temperate zone and enjoying almost complete rights of self-government. These are the "younger nations" on 406 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY whom during the Boer War, according to Kipling, England, in her need, "fawned for the men who could ride and shoot." India is a dependent empire ruled in the name of the king, as Emperor of India. Some of the older tropical colonies like Barbados and Ceylon have local legislatures with limited powers; but most of the lesser British possessions are either Crown Colonies under the control of the Colonial Secretary, like Hong-kong, or naval stations like Aden and St. Helena. 79% 13% 8% Exports by classes Manufactures 1,824 million dollars Coal and m 287 o (Home produce) 37% 37% 26% Food stuffs 1,298 million dollars Raw mater 1,296 , Manufactures and sundries 895 Exports by countries Imports by countries 70% 22% 1 '% 10% 6% 4% 37% To Other India possessions 282 619 United 5 g * 1 States 2 - eg JH 294 1 " ~ X j All others 1,056 7% 19% 18% 9% 6% 6% om QO'f 3% >^ From Other India possessions 229 C70 United e g .3 States eg SS $c 627 O .i, fl All others !'" 1,1110 Data from Statesman's Year Book. 1912-15 i?lG. 257. Commerce of Great Britian. Totals, four-year averages (millions of dollars): exports of home produce, 2,304; re-exports (transit trade), 520; total exports, 2,824; imports, 3,489. Large territories in Africa and Borneo are administered by chartered companies like those which originally colonized America. Still larger territories under British protection are ruled through native princes, as in Egypt and the native states of India. Finally, on the fringe of the empire, are immense "spheres of influence" where British authority is still little more than a name. So vast and varied is the British Empire. XXXII- THE LESSER NORTH SEA NATIONS "Rigor of climate tends to breed vigorous, somewhat forethoughtful men." Shaler. 446. The Scandinavian Peoples. "From the fury of the Danes and Northmen, good Lord, deliver us." This was the prayer repeated in every church of western Europe for some five centuries when the roving Vikings or sea kings of Scandi- navia were the terror of the world, ravaging nearly every' coast, conquering Normandy and England, penetrating to the heart of Russia and even to Constantinople. The same expan- sive movement of population is represented to-day by the Scandinavian farmers who have settled almost in solid masses in the North Central states of the American Union. Both movements, the warlike and the peaceful, had the same cause : a rapid increase of population on a sterile soil which left but two alternatives, migration or starvation. Since Norway by a peaceful revolution achieved her inde- pendence, the Scandinavian states consist of three separate constitutional kingdoms Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. Norway, however, speaking a dialect of Danish and opening toward the west, is far more democratic than Sweden, facing the continent. In all the Scandinavian states education is practically universal, offsetting in part the larger natural resources of more southern lands. 447. The Scandinavian Peninsula. The Scandinavian Peninsula consists, in the main, of a lofty plateau ridged with mountains. (Fig. 258.) On the east the land dips gently beneath the sea; but on the west it descends abruptly, leaving scant room for agriculture. This peninsula is in the latitude, and has substantially the climate, of Alaska. It is, however, somewhat milder because a great tide of warm water, driven by the west wind, flows up the western coast and the wind, in turn, is tempered by blowing over the water. (407) 48 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 448. The Resources of the Scandinavian Peninsula. The resources of the Scandinavian Peninsula are chiefly those of the sea, forest, and mine. The Norwegians are in proportion to their numbers the greatest fishing people in the world. The catch is chiefly cod on the Lofoten bank and herring around Bergen. Whales NORWAY, SWEDEN AND DENMARK FIG. 258. Scandinavian countries. and fur-bearing animals are also hunted in the Far North. By-products of the fishing industry are fish oils and fertilizers. Timber occurs on the seaward slopes and is of excellent quality, being close-grained and tough because of the rocky soil and short summers. It is exported in the form of lumber, THE LESSER NORTH SEA NATIONS 409 staves, or wood pulp (Figs. 259 and 260); and also supports important furniture, paper, and match industries. Swedish matches are sold all over the world. The mines of Dannemora were the foundation of the ancient Swedish iron industry. Charcoal is still employed for smelt- ing, the product being expensive but of finer quality than coal iron, as it contains few impurities. Other large iron ore beds have recently been opened around Gellivara and the Varanger Fiord in the Far North. Copper, silver-lead, and zinc ores are also mined, to a limited extent, in the rich metalliferous district north of Stockholm. Coal is lacking, except a small field in the extreme south; but peat, dried and pressed into briquettes, is extensively burned in Sweden even on railways. 32% 24% 20% 12% 6% 5% 1% Russia Sweden Austria- Canada & U.S. 2 Hungary . J 5.9 million tons 4.46 3.67 2.14 o "- 1 1.021 i Data from Forest Serrice, Circular, HD FIG. 259. Average net wood exports (millions of tons 1 ): 31% 35% 13% 8% Norway Sweden Canada >> a ?-, All other 3 1 - ; *. - <-.- countries 1,387 million pounds 1,581 583 0> 414 Data from U. S. Year Books of Agriculture, 1912-13 FIG. 260. Wood pulp exports. Total, average, 4,519 million pounds. The soil rewards but scantily the farmer's toil. Pasturage, however, is abundant, supporting cattle, sheep, and in the extreme north reindeer "the camel of the frozen desert." Butter, margarine (oleomargarine), and condensed milk are largely exported. The arable land, chiefly in the district around Christiania and south of Stockholm, yields potatoes and oats. Other grain crops are insufficient for local use. Owing to the moderating effect of the ocean and the west w r inds, barley ripens in Norway even beyond the Arctic Circle. Modern dairies and margarine factories are fairly numerous ; some cotton and woolen mills are at work in southern Sweden, at Gothenburg and Norrkoping. Norway would 'According to the kind of wood a ton is equivalent to from 500 to 1,000 board feet. (U. S. Forest Service, Circular, No. 140.) 410 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY also seem to have favorable conditions for the textile industry in her water power and damp climate. Another growing industry, in view of the abundant water power, is the manu- facture of air-nitrates, using the electric process. (117.) 449. The Commerce of the Scandinavian Peninsula. Nor- way exports mainly fish, lumber, paper, and dairy products; Sweden, lumber, paper, matches, butter, and iron ore, besides some iron goods more or less wrought. Both import foodstuffs and manufactured goods. The Norwegian coast is ice-free except in the sheltered Christiania Bay. It is deeply cut by fiords, the work of ancient glaciers, and fringed by islands which break the force of the Atlantic surges. The Norse, trained in the fisheries, are thus naturally the most maritime people in the world, and have by far the largest merchant fleet in proportion to population. (Fig. 261.) Their principal seaports are Christiania, which has valleys opening up behind it, and Bergen, the center of the fish trade. The Baltic, cut off from the ocean and exposed to the winds from the Russian plain, is usually icebound four months each year. The principal Swedish ports are Gothenburg, ice-free because of its western exposure, and Stockholm located at the outlet of an important lake in the most fertile district. The rivers are useful chiefly for logging and power. There is, however, a water route from sea to sea by way of the great Swedish lakes and the Gota Canal (nine feet deep). % -8 < E $ % Nonvay Great Britain ' ' i ,V w Holland.... . Germany ' A ^ France !""-' United States ... I/ Data from Review of World's Commerce, Bureau of Statistics, 1903 Fig. 261. Tonnage of merchant marine per 1,000 people, showing relative importance of ocean shipping previous to 1914. The railway system is large relative to the population. Christiania is connected with the western coast at Bergen. THE LESSER NORTH SEA NATIONS 411 Other lines across the mountains render Trondhjem the winter port of central Sweden, and Narvik the outlet of the Gellivara iron district. Since the completion of the railway around the Baltic, indeed, Narvik has become the winter port of Petrograd (St. Petersburg.) 1 450. The Resources of Denmark. Denmark lives almost exclusively from the soil. The surface is flat, and most of 46% 25% 28% Butter 45 million dollars Bacon and hams 26 All others 28 Data from Almanach de Gotha, 1909-13 FIG. 262. Exports of Denmark. Totals, five-year averages (millions of dollars): exports, 171, chiefly to Great Britain and Germany; imports, 200, largely corn and oil cake, coal, and manufactures. the soil very sandy. Destruction of the splendid beech forests which formerly abounded has caused sand dunes to invade the west. Even in the east, tillage demands constant use of fertilizers. Most of the land is consequently under grass and the princi- pal exports are animal products butter, margarine, bacon, eggs, and live animals. (Fig. 262.) Butter, made in cooperative creameries, is the true economic foundation of Denmark. Nowhere else has the cooperative plan in agriculture been tried so extensively or with such striking success. Bacon is a by-product of butter making, the skim milk being fed to pigs. The field crops include, besides grain and potatoes, beets from which considerable sugar and alcohol are produced. Leather goods, especially gloves, are also exported. 451. Facilities for Commerce in Denmark. The historic importance and present existence of Denmark are alike due to its position, controlling the entrance to the Baltic. The great nations, owing to their mutual rivalries, would not willingly see any one of their number master at Copenhagen. This city is the natural distributing center for the Baltic trade, though Hamburg has become a formidable rival by 1 A long finger of Finnish territory, however, points straight toward the ice-free Lyngen Fiord and the harbor of Tromso. 412 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY virtue of the ship canal to Kiel. Copenhagen has, besides steam- ship lines, direct rail connection by car ferries with Sweden, the Danish Peninsula, and Warnemiinde on the route to Berlin. 452- The Danish Possessions. To Denmark belong the Faroe Islands which like Iceland are inhabited by a sturdy, well-educated race descended from Norse Vikings. They live by fishing, sheep raising, and collecting eider- down from the nests of wild ducks. Den- mark also controls Greenland, which is, however, mostly an ice field. By granting in- dependence to Ice- land and selling to the United States, (1917) her three islands in the West Indies which were of little economic value to her, (Fig. 194), Denmark re- duced her colonial possessions, but as a result of the FIG. 263. The Low Countries. World War has enlarged her continental area. 453. The Low Countries. The Netherlands (Fig. 263) is the gift of the Rhine, Meuse, and Scheldt, as Egypt is of the Nile ; but a gift in large part won from the waves by century- long battles with the encroaching sea. Moreover the sea, which could be summoned by cutting the dikes to defend the THE LESSER NORTH SEA NATIONS 413 land, alone made possible its political independence. Holland, or the Netherlands, as it is officially known as a nation, is thus the product of the ocean, as Switzerland is of the Alps. Belgium, qn the other hand, lacking natural boundaries in all directions, has always been a debatable land. No equal area is so sown with battlefields. The larger part of the population to the north is Dutch (Flemish) in speech, while the population of the southern hill country is French. The linguistic boundary which is rather sharply marked, runs approximately from Courtrai past the historic field of Waterloo to Verviers. (Fig. 229.) 454. Natural Resources of the Low Countries. Patches of forests exist on the broken Ardennes Plateau in southeastern Belgium; but timber is a large import both in Holland and Belgium. Much of the land is under grass. The drier east pastures sheep, the low-lying west pastures dairy cattle and draft horses. Belgian horses are largely exported. In Belgium, where less than half the farms contain as much as two and a half acres each, pigs, poultry, rabbits, and draft dogs 1 are also important. The land being so subdivided, agriculture is a matter for the spade rather than the plow. The staple foods are rye and potatoes, though other grains are also sown. Immense quantities of vegetables and flowers are raised under glass. From parts of Holland, special cabbage, cucumber, and meat trains are run to the seaports for the London market. Sugar beets are extensively grown in both Holland and Belgium. Other industrial crops comprise the finest flax in the Lys Valley, tobacco near Courtrai, chicory in the Bruges district, and oil seeds (colza, rape) around Ghent. Chicory is a root which came into use during the wars of Napoleon as a substitute for coffee. The Dutch began their career on the sea as fishermen, and fishing is still a great primary industry of the Netherlands. 'See Ouida's Dog of Flanders. 414 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY The hilly district in southern Belgium is rich in minerals; notably iron at Liege, zinc at Moresnet, silver-lead at Ver- viers, coal around Mons, Charleroi, and Liege. By reason of these resources, which support manufactures, Belgium is the most densely-populated country in Europe, and the immi- gration has always exceeded the emigration. (Fig. 240.) 455. Manufactures of the Low Countries. The Nether- lands, having neither coal nor water power, has few manufac- tures. Those of large commercial importance are chiefly pottery at Delft, diamond polishing at Amsterdam, paper along the Zaan River, and the preparation of colonial wares such as chocolate, quinine, and tobacco. The steady winds furnish considerable power for drainage and local industries. Belgium, on the other hand, is once more the greatest hive of industry on the mainland of Europe, as it was during the Middle Ages. The linen industry nourishes along the river Lys, where the water, being free from lime salts, is peculiarly adapted for retting flax that is, separating the fiber from the stalk. Ghent in the flax-growing lowlands is the center of linen manufacture, and also of cotton, hemp, and jute manu- factures ; while Verviers on the sheep-raising Ardennes Plateau is the center of woolen, and Brussels of carpet and lace manu- facture. Belgium is the greatest lace-manufacturing country in the world. The mineral manufactures are naturally located on the Belgian coal fields. The Liege field contains many zinc smelters. Seraing, a suburb of Liege, has rivaled Le Creusot and Birmingham in steel. Firearms arc another specialty of this district. Charleroi is noted for glass, in which Belgium has held first place, and Jemappes for pottery.. 456. Trade Routes and Centers of the Low Countries. The Netherlands has a superb system of water ways, both natural and artificial ; Belgium leads the world in railway mileage rela- tive to area. (Fig. 289.) The coast, however, is sandy and the sea shallow far out, while the rivers require such constant dredging that most of the Belgian-Dutch ports now rely on ship canals. THE LESSER NORTlt SEA NATIONS 415 The old commercial center of Holland is Amsterdam, near the head of the Zuider Zee. It has a ship canal to the North Sea, and other canals to the Rhine and into Belgium. 1 Owing to the Dutch East Indies, Amsterdam is the first coffee mar- ket in the world and next to London the largest market for all other East India products. Rotterdam on the northern mouth of the Rhine handles an enormous transit trade. Over a hundred forty thousand river and canal boats enter yearly. It is, in fact, the natural seaport of the whole Rhine Valley and tends to supersede Amsterdam as the chief commercial city. Fast passenger traffic between London and Berlin goes by way of Flushing. The commercial center of Belgium is Antwerp, lying some miles up the Scheldt but accessible to the largest vessels. It is also connected by canals with the Seine and the Rhine, besides the industrial centers of Liege and Charleroi. Antwerp has come to the front with great rapidity and now ranks among leading European ports in tonnage entered and cleared. 2 (Fig. 291.) Bruges, which was the entrepot of Venetian trade in the fourteenth century, has again secured a ship canal to the sea, 3 as has also its ancient rival, Ghent. 4 Heyst (Zee- briigge) is a new outport of Bruges at the mouth of the canal, but passenger traffic still goes by way of Ostend. 457. The Commerce of the Low Countries. During the seventeenth century the Netherlands held the commercial supremacy in Europe. In proportion to population, the Low Countries still have the largest foreign commerce. (Table 4.) This is the result not only of their position and facilities for transportation, but also of the character and North Sea Canal, fifteen miles long and thirty-three feet deep; the Merwede Canal, ten and one-half feet, to the Rhine; the South Willems Canal, seven and one-half feet, to Belgium. 2 Tonnage, however, is not an entirely safe guide to commercial importance. A vessel may stop at an intermediate port without leaving or taking away much freight. 3 Twenty-six and one-half feet deep, seven miles long. 4 The Terneuzen Canal, nineteen miles long, now deepened to twenty- eight and one-half feet. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY technical education of their inhabitants. There are Schools of Commerce at Amsterdam, Antwerp, and elsewhere; Com- mercial Museums at Amsterdam and Brussels; and an exten- sive system of industrial education in Belgium. In consequence of difference in natural resources, the Neth- erlands exports largely dairy products, margarine, and mutton, while Belgium exports chiefly manufactures. Both import foodstuffs. In addition, the Netherlands imports manu- factured goods, and Belgium imports raw materials. 458. The Colonies of the Low Countries. The Dutch colonies are a legacy from the days when Admiral Van Tromp carried a broom at his masthead as a token that he would sweep from the sea every opposing fleet. These colonies 33% Exports by classes Imports by countries Food stuffs Raw materials Manufac- tures All others 29% 14% 10% 10% 9% 8% 20% From Germany Dutch East InJies I' ni ted Stiles Great Britain 3 5 CO Russia All others Data from Almanach de Gotha, 1915 FIG. 264. The commerce of the Netherlands. Totals in 1912 (millions of dollars): exports, 1,245; -imports, 1,445. These figures include a large transit trade. 51% Crude Metals and met-vl ~ '-.'- lit; J All others materials manufae tares ~'i ll- 1 - 1 in" 10% 14% 9"' 7% 6% 6% M" Exports by classes. Imports by countries Data from Statesman's Year Book, 1914 FIG. 265. The commerce of Belgium. Totals in 1012 (millions of dollars): exports, 763; imports, 957. embrace most of the East India islands, besides important possessions in the West Indies. They are collectively smaller From 5 3 Germam S 01 k ! a All others France u M i3 55 z 5 THE LESSER NORTlf SEA NATIONS 4*7 than the French colonial empire, but far richer. The Dutch are incontestably the ablest administrators of plantation colonies, as the English are of self-governing colonies. King Leopold of Belgium, desirous of increasing his private income, organized a company which sent out Stanley to explore the Congo, and then by virtue ~of his official position got permission from the great nations to organize a sort of independent state. Since then, however, the Congo State has been annexed by Belgium. Through this connection, Antwerp has become the principal market in the world for rubber, ivory, and copal gum. XXXIII GERMANY 459 The German Nation. After the military triumph over Austria in 1866, as a result of which Prussia succeeded in making itself the head of the German Confederation, an era of industrial and commercial development was inaugu- rated in Germany under the leadership of Prussia. This era was dominated by the same spirit of conquest and aggrandize- ment that has characterized Prussian principles since the time of Frederick the Great. Whatever success has resulted has been at bottom due to the thorough technical training guided by the strong hand of the German schoolmaster who has rigorously carried out the teachings laid down by his government. To accomplish this result, education was made in fact uni- versal; and the thorough system of primary, secondary, and university instruction was supplemented by many technical schools for farmers, artisans, and business men. These special schools were grafted on the trunk of general education, branching off at different elevations. The highest were the great agricultural, technical, commercial, and colonial schools, of true university rank, which trained the captains of German industry and commerce. The German people, -more than any other in modern times, have been trained in an all-embracing "system" which left nothing to chance, and little to the individual, and yet carried into the competition of international commerce the aggres- siveness and discipline of the battlefield. 460. The German Government. The German Empire was a confederation of twenty-six states which included kingdoms and principalities large and small, also the three free (repub- lican) city-states of Hamburg, Bremen, and Lubeck the remnants of the once mighty Hanse. (Fig. 267.) From the American viewpoint, indeed, there was too much govern- ment in Germany, and far too much restriction of private (418) GERMANY 419 initiative; but in directing the campaign to oust competitors from the markets of the world and thereby satisfy her desire for growth and power of territory the government of Ger- many demonstrated the advantages in commercial power to be gained from a system of thorough organization and centralization. 461. Forestry and Animal Products in Germany. Germany is not richly endowed by nature. The soil is light and sandy GERMAN EMPIRE SCALE lt>8 Statute Milts to one inch FIG. 267. The German Empire and Luxemburg, 1914. in the northern plain, rocky on the uplands. Only the valleys of the south and center, with certain districts around Frank- furt, are naturally fertile. The climate is generally cold and raw, while the east is subject to great extremes of temperature. The uplands are largely forested, the young trees being saved when the mature are cut. The forests are as a rule state or municipal property and yield handsome revenues. 420 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY The moist lowlands toward the west and the southern plateau pasture numerous dairy cattle ; the drier eastern dis- tricts have sheep and horses; and there are many swine in the oak forests of Westphalia. Stock raising has made remark- able progress, considering the dense population of Germany, through the use of potatoes and beet pulp, from which the juice has been extracted, for feeding purposes. The preva- lence of small farms, except in the half-feudal eastern part of Prussia, also renders poultry and bee keeping of considerable importance. 462. Scientific Agriculture in Germany. Modern German agriculture rests on the discoveries of the great chemist Liebig as to how poor or worn-out soils may be made to yield boun- tiful harvests. This miracle of nature is wrought by scatter- ing on the land phosphates, in Germany chiefly in the form of slag from basic iron furnaces; potash salts, from the great beds at Stassfurt ; and Chilean nitrates. Germany has expended over $60,000,000 a year for such commercial fertilizers. Scientific crop rotation is also practiced to maintain the fer- tility of the soil; and nowhere, unless possibly in Denmark, has agriculture been more thoroughly organized to protect the producer and eliminate the middleman. For example, many cooperative banks and cooperative buying and selling associa- tions assure the farmers extremely low interest rates on loans, wholesale prices on fertilizers and other supplies, and at the same time the highest prices for their products. 463. Farm Products in Germany. The staple crops on the sandy northern plain are potatoes, rye, and oats. (Pigs. 43 and 44.) Potatoes are not only eaten in their native condition but dried and made into potato flour, starch, or dextrin. In addition, potatoes serve as a source of alcohol, which is used for light, heat, and power. Rye is the chief breadstuff throughout the northern plain. On the better soils of central Germany, around Magdeburg and Breslau, sugar beets are the leading commercial crop, and some flax is still planted. Before the war (1914-18) Germany was the largest producer of beet sugar in GERMANY 421 the world. (Fig. 278.) On the upper Rhine the grains are wheat and barley; the industrial crops, tobacco and chicory, with grapes on all the terraced slopes and hops on the Bavarian Plateau. The country roads are commonly lined with plum trees, and nearly every German village is embow- ered in orchards, although the climate is far less favorable to fruits than in France. Germany lies too far north for corn, yet some cultivated (inter-tilled) crop is indispensable in the rotation system to keep the soil in good condition. This fact largely explains the importance of potatoes in northern, sugar beets in central, and tobacco, chicory, and hops in southern Germany. Owing to the dense population of Germany, beet sugar is the only important agricultural export, while foodstuffs, especially wheat, have begun to be largely imported. 464. The Fisheries of Germany. Almost every village has a pond planted with German carp, and the rivers are similarly stocked. Amber, a fossil resin which first drew Greek vessels to the north, is still washed up by the waves along the shore of the Baltic; but the German sea fisheries are relatively unim- portant, as the Baltic is brackish and therefore poor in fish and the best fishing grounds in the North Sea are nearer other countries. 465. The Mineral Resources of Germany. The mineral resources of Germany, on the other hand, are abundant and form the physical basis of its industrial and commercial prosperity. The richest mineral belt lies on the flanks of the central uplands which extend with some breaks from Belgium to Russia. The metallic resources are zinc, 1 in which Germany has ranked next to the United States; deposits of iron which have been considered the largest in the world; and also considerable cop- per, silver, and lead. 2 (Fig. 268.) There are several coal fields 3 1 Near Aix-la-Chapelle in the west and Konigshiitte in the east. 2 At Mansfield in the Harz Mountains and Freiberg in the Erzgebirge (Ore Mountains). 3 In the Ruhr valley, also on the northern slope of the Erzgebirge. Lignite occurs in central Germany around Hanover. 422 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY smaller than those of France but better located with reference to iron ore and water transportation, and therefore far more productive. (Fig. 268.) Finally, Germany possesses abundant deposits of salt, especially in the provinces of Saxony and Hanover, and the principal deposits of potash salts at Data from Diercke's SchOl-Atlas FIG. 268. Coal and iron fields of Central. Europe Stassfurt. Besides their use on worn-out soils as fertilizers, potash salts are of great value in the chemical industries. In the Danube region, lithographic stone is mined at Solnhofen and graphite at Passau. 466. The Manufactures of Germany. The people of Ger- many believed that a great truth was embodied in the words "The future of Germany lies upon the ocean." In order to support her rapidly growing population at home, Germany, driven to manufacture for export, became in thirty years (1870- 1900) preeminently an industrial and commercial nation whose wares were in every mart and whose ships furrowed every sea. Domestic industries, such as the manufacture of toys, clocks, and mouth harmonicas, still survive in mountain dis- tricts, especially the Black Forest. But the silence of the GERMANY 423 thinly-peopled highlands contrasts sharply with the clang of industry in the valleys which penetrate the coal fields. 467. The German Iron and Steel Industry. The leading manufacturing industry of Germany is the working of iron and steel, in which Germany has surpassed Great Britain. (Figs. 269 and 282.) This industry is localized largely in the Rhine industrial district, and the heart of the Rhine district is the Ruhr coal field, which has iron ore in the vicinity and other deposits accessible by water from the Moselle Valley. (Fig. 268.) Leading steel centers are Dusseldorf; Essen, the seat of the great Krupp steel works (Fig. 269) ; and Solingen, noted for cutlery. Steel ships, however, are naturally built in the seaports, notably Stettin and Kiel, which obtain coal and iron from the upper valley by way of the Oder River. 468. The German Textile Industry. Next in importance is the textile industry. In the Rhine district where imported fibers are easily accessible, the textile centers are Krefeld, rank-, ing next to Lyons in silk; Mimchen-Gladbach, noted for cotton goods; and Barmen-Elberfeld, producing mixed textiles and aniline dyes. In the vicinity there are, in addition, Aix-la- Chapelle, the seat of important woolen, and Bielefeld, of linen, manufactures. A second textile district is found in south Ger- FIG. 269. Bird's-eye view of the Krupp steel works at Essen. many, where water power is of some importance. The leading manufacturing centers are Augsburg and Halle, both producing 424 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY cotton goods. A third textile district is associated with the coal fields along the northern flank of the mountains in Sax- ony. Chemnitz produces chiefly hosiery, besides textile machinery; Zwickau, in a sheep-raising region, has woolen mills; and Zittau, in a flax -growing district, makes linen goods. 469. Other Industries. The industry third in importance was the manufacture of chemicals. In fact, the chemical laboratory was to a great extent the foundation of all German industries, as the machine shop is of American industries. Germany, because of her many expert chemists, 1 enjoyed a practical monopoly in the making of aniline (coal-tar) colors. During the World War American chemical industries did much to supply the deficiency created by the German block- ade. The center of the industry is the district from Frank- furt to Mannheim on the upper Rhine. Among the other important industries are the manufacture . of "Dresden" china at Meissen, near deposits of kaolin; furni- ture at Stuttgart, and jewelry at Pforzheim in the Black Forest; also paper, leather, and rubber goods in many ci.ies. The cen- ter of the world's book trade is at Leipzig. Munich, at the falls of the foaming Isar, is noted for beer, which thu Germans early learned to brew from hops and barley, and for works of art in wood and marble. Nuremberg, which was the great center of German industry in the Middle Ages, now manufactures toys, pencils, electrical machinery, and whatever else can be made without great expenditure for transportation or fuel. 470. The Position of Germany. Germany was the most central state in Europe, and the country is for the most part without natural boundaries. A great army thus seemed the price of national existence. The sea routes through the English Channel to America or the Orient are not only longer than those of France and England, but they are at the mercy of those nations in case of war. In a military and naval sense, therefore, the location of J A single factory at Ludwigshafen near Mannheim employed over a hundred expert chemists. GERMANY 425 Germany leaves much to be desired; but in a commercial sense it is admirable. This fact, sometimes strangely over- looked, goes far to explain the growth of German commerce. Transportation by sea is far cheaper than transportation by land; hence the longer sea routes of Germany to the New World and the Orient, compared to France or England, are more than offset by her shorter land routes to all central Europe. FIG. 270. Trolley car which made the speed of 130 miles an hour . near Berlin. 471. Transportation Facilities of Germany. The rivers of Germany, in place of flowing from a common center as in France, are in general parallel. Germany thus lacks one ele- ment of natural cohesion. The German rivers are, however, navigable for long distances; 1 and the great Midland Canal 'The Oder to Kosel for 4oo-ton vessels; the Rhine to Mannheim for 1,500 tons, Strassbtirg for 800 tons, Basel for small vessels; the Danube to Regensburg for large, and Ulm for small vessels; the Elbe and Vistula to beyond the German frontier. The value of the rivers for navigation has been largely increased by reforesting the hills about their headwaters. 426 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY System already largely in operation, may ultimately connect all rivers from the Vistula to the Rhine. 1 (Fig. 267.) This canal system is singularly favored by an ancient river valley extending from east to west, where the waters formerly flowed along the edge of a great ice sheet. The German water-ways have increased their tonnage faster than the railways; and the rates by water are much less than the rates by rail. The Elbe and Rhine have by far the largest tonnage. In 1914 the Rhine fleet alone comprised about 10,000 vessels. The railways mostly belong to the several states, and grant special export rates on German goods. The rates are also arranged so as to direct traffic to German rather than foreign seaports. The principal railway centers are Berlin (Fig. 270), the most central city in Europe, located in the middle of the North European plain, 2 and Frankfurt (am-Main), which stands like Vienna at the crossing of the Rhine-Danube through line with others connecting the Baltic Sea and the Mediterranean. 3 These Rhine railways are links in the chain of overland com- munications between England and India. 4 Munich, the gateway of Brenner Pass, is the commercial heir of Augsburg and the other mediaeval cities which flourished on the trade between Italy and the north. 472. The Seaports and Fairs of Germany. In proportion to its size, Germany has little seacoast, except on the Baltic, because the outlet of the Rhine and the adjacent coast are controlled by foreign states. 'To carry 400 tons east and 800 tons west of the Oder. The capacity on the southern canals at present is only no tons on the Ludwig Canal (four feet) between the Rhine and Danube; and 200 tons on the Rhine-Rhone and Rhine-Seine canals, the latter passing the Vosges by a tunnel at Zabern or Saverne. 2 Where the following through lines cross: Paris-St. Petersburg, along the inner edge of the northern plain; London-Vladivostok, Hamburg-Odessa, Copenhagen-Rome (by way of the Brenner Pass). 3 From Liibeck and Hamburg along the Weser, Rhine, and Rhone to Marseilles; or by way of the St. Gothard Tunnel to Genoa. 4 The Orient Express route from Paris to Constantinople crosses the parallel ridges of the Vosges at Zabern Pass (1,325 feet) and the Black Forest at Pforzheim. GERMANY 4 2 7 On the Rhine, however, Cologne, which was the most famous port of Germany in the Middle Ages, before the World War again became a seaport for medium-sized vessels (10 feet) ; and Emden.the cable station for America, secured connection with the Rhine industrial district by the Dortmund-Ems Canal. On the Weser, Bremen, the second port of Germany, together with its outport, Bremerhaven, handled the bulk of the emigrant traffic and was the principal market for tobacco in the world. It was also the largest market outside of England for cotton and rice. On the Elbe, although the coast is low and the channel' is kept open only by a constant battle with the sand, Hamburg is the natural commercial metropolis of Europe. It lies at the extreme head of the North Sea on the Elbe, which forms a water-way through the mountains into Austria, and it now commands the ship canal to the Baltic at Kiel. Its public dock and wharfage facilities are among the finest in the world. The outport of Hamburg, especially in winter and for the largest vessels, is Cuxhaven. ( On the Baltic, Lubeck, the ancient head of the Hanse, became once more a busy commercial port by reason of the Elbe-Trave Canal (8> feet), while Stettin prospered as the Baltic port of Berlin and of the entire Oder Valley. These ports are kept open in winter by ice breakers. Kiel, on a deep fiord-like harbor, is the Baltic terminus of the ship canal leading from the North Sea (46 feet) ; and was the chief German naval station. The great fairs of Leipzig, dating from the Middle Ages (1268), still draw together a large concourse of merchants. Leipzig because of its central location is the principal market in the world for furs and imported fur skins, wool, and similar animal products. 473. The Commerce of Germany. The commercial hinter- land of Germany embraced, in the first instance, Russia, Austria-Hungary, the Balkan states, and Roumania. These purchased German manufactures in return for food and raw materials. The Bagdad Railway, moreover, was planned to enable German freight cars to reach the Persian Gulf without 428 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY unloading. The plans of German commerce were in fact designed to secure the domination of the markets of the entire world, and the German merchant marine was made the advance agent of the German lords of trade and industry. The dense population of Germany increasing at the rate of a million a year, also made it necessary to maintain extensive foreign markets for her manufacturers in order to secure the needed food supply. The chief rival's of Germany in the commercial world were France and England, in whose vast overseas trade she sought 75% 15% 10% Exports by classes Manufactures Raw All 1,618 million dollars 327 209 Raw materials Food stuffs and animals Manufactures ,1,124 million dollars 733 615 11% s% To Great , j, c s'3 = i& "3 a 3_ All others States :)C.S million dollar; 301 |1 a 1 ^2 <~ ?- II ^ jf 994 Imports by classes Exports by countries... Imports by countries.. Data from Almanach de Gotha. 1914-15 FIG. 271. Commerce of Germany. Totals, three-year averages (millions of dollars): exports, 2,154; imports, 2,472. to make deep inroads. Finally, the ambition of her auto- cratic rulers unsatisfied by the comparatively slow progress in the competition of international commerce, Germany launched the attempt to crush her rivals, France and England, by force of arms, and so secure the control of additional terri- tory for commercial and governmental exploitation. 474. Luxemburg. Luxemburg, on the Ardennes Plateau, is rich in coal, iron, and zinc. It is neutral territory in name at least by international agreement. It is, however, German-speaking and was included GERMANY 429 in the German Customs Union and was thus in effect a part of the German Empire, as Liechtenstein was of Austria. Luxemburg is now included in the Customs Union of France. 475. The German Colonies. Trade in a measure unques- tionably follows the flag. Still more does it follow the language merchant ship, and custom house. Unfortunately for Germany, however, when Bismarck cast about (1884) for colonies to serve as markets for German manufactures, and lands where the German people might settle under their own flag, he found the Temperate zones already occupied by other nations. The German colonies in East and West Africa and the South Pacific were consequently of the plantation type, not suited to white colonization. Only in Southwest Africa, which is partly temperate, were there a few thousand white people. Kiaochow, though temperate, was densely peopled by Chinese. Finally the retention of these colonies, which were occupied by England or her allies in the course of the World War, hinged on the outcome of the great struggle and the diplomacy of German representatives at the peace table. With peace Germany's colonial empire of more than 1,000,000 square miles vanished, all rights and titles to her over-sea possessions being renounced in favor of the Allied and Asso- ciated Powers. XXXIV RUSSIA AND HER FORMER POSSESSIONS 476. Characteristics of Russia. Asia really begins at the eastern frontier of Germany (Fig. 202) as Africa does at the Pyrenees, because Russia in Europe is an undivided part of the great Siberian plain. 'The ascent of the Urals is so gradual that one may cross the range without seeing a sign of mountains. On the other hand, Russia is distinct in history from western Europe, where civilization was early fostered by the indented coast line and sheltered by the rugged uplands. The Russian people are consequently Asiatic in character and largely so in blood. Peter the Great trimmed their flowing beards and garments, but could not change their habits of thought. Not far' from nine-tenths of the Russian people, excluding the Finns and Poles, are peasants freed (1861) from serfdom. All are still almost entirely illiterate, and till recently their villages (mirs) have held the land in common somewhat like the village communities of India. 477. The Russian Government. The government of the Czars has been wittily described as "a despotism tempered by assassination," and its character seems to have been changed but little by the establishment of a Duma or Parliament. The title of Czar is a corruption of Caesar, Russia thereby hav- ing claimed to represent the Eastern Roman Empire, whose seat was Constantinople; but the autocratic power of the Czar really came from the Tatar Khan, to whom Russia was long subject. Russia was in truth the historical successor and heir of the great Asiatic empires Persian, Parthian, Arabic, Turkish, and Mongol. The revolution of 1917, during the World War, deposed the Czar and since then people's govern- ments of different forms have been in force. 478. The Climate of Russia. Russia, like the United States, has almost every variety of climate and products. The (43* RUSSIA 431 mountain ranges of Europe, however, presenting their ends to the west winds, create no sagebrush deserts as in America. The moisture is distributed widely over Europe and Asia, decreas- ing, however, toward the east and south except where the winds encounter highlands. As in the Great Plains region of the United States, Russia, east of longitude 40, receives most of it during the growing season. The west winds likewise modify the temperature along the Baltic, while extremes increase toward the east. In Siberia 40 F. below zero and 110 F. above zero are both common. 479. Tundra and Forest Belts in Russia. Along the north, both of Europe and Asia, extends a belt of moss-covered tun- dras supporting only reindeer. It also supplies considerable fossil ivory. Owing to the severe winters, this belt reaches farther south in eastern Siberia. (Fig. 17.) South of the tundras is a broad belt of forests. This is the principal timber and fur region in the Old World. The mari- time provinces in Siberia, indeed, live chiefly by the fur trade. The most valuable furs are the sable, marten, and ermine. 480. The Zone of Mixed Farming in Russia. In southern 1 Finland 1 and from the latitude of Petrograd south in Russia, the forests have been largely felled and mixed farming prevails. Toward the south, most of the land is in cereals. Special butter trains- have been run from Ob' in Siberia to Riga in Latvia and Revel in Esthonia, and special egg trains from the south- western provinces to Hamburg, to supply the English market. The farming methods are primitive. A crooked stick com- monly serves for a plow, a sickle for a reaper, and a hand flail for a threshing machine. The three-field system, used in western Europe during the Middle Ages, long prevailed here, rye being followed by oats or wheat, while the third year the land lay fallow. Over 100 million acres would thus lie unused in Russia every year. Intertilled crops had, however, begun to be substituted for the year of fallow. These were chiefly potatoes along the German border, 2 and sugar beets around Finland in 1917 declared its independence, which has now been rec- ognized by the leading nations. 2 Now Poland. 432 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHV Kiev, the capital of Ukrania. Other industrial crops were flax in the west, and hemp in the drier central districts, both flour- ishing in the vegetable humus left by the forests. In both crops Russia held first place. (Figs. 272 and 273.) 481. Wheat and Grasslands of Russia. South of a line from Kiev to Kazan is a region of prairies which extend into western Siberia. Here is the famous "black-earth" district of great fertility; but the southeastern part of it lies in the semi-arid belt and is consequently subject to terrible famines. This district grows most of the wheat for export, though on account of poor tillage the yield per acre of wheat was the lowest 83% 5% 12% Russia k All 1,283 million pounds la* others "** 183 Data from Bureau of Crop Estimates, U. S. D< FIG. 272. The -world's flax fiber crop. Tol three-year averages, 1,538 million pounds. RZf 1Xf tea, U.S. Dept. Agriculture, 101 Total, 16% Russia 728 million pounds Austria- Hungrary 152 Italy 183 All others 87 Data from Bureau of Crop Estimates, U.S. Dept. Agriculture, 1915 FIG. 273. The world' s hemp fiber crop. Total, three-year average, 1,150 million pounds. in Europe. (Fig. 276.) Grapes and tobacco occupied patches scattered from Kishinev to Saratov. The northern -limit of grape growing is here fixed by the cold of winter, while in western Europe it is determined by the lack of heat in summer. In the southeast of Europe, beyond the line of the Don- Volga rivers and in the adjacent parts of central Asia, are steppes or poor grasslands occupied by wandering shepherd tribes of Mongolian race and Mohammedan religion. These steppes support chiefly sheep and goats, besides horses and camels for transportation purposes. Russia was richer in horses than any other country in Europe. 482. Subtropical Russia. Finally, in the southern Crimea, in Transcaucasia, and Turkestan are sheltered valleys, shaded RUSSIA 433 and musical with the sound of running water, forming an East- ern Italy. Here were grown in profusion subtropical products such as the vine, olive, mulberry (for silkworms), and cotton. The principal cereals grown in this zone were maize and rice. Tea gardens had also been established in Transcaucasia. This region is said to be the original home of the vine ; and central Asia furnished a large part of the raw cotton used in Russian mills. (Fig. 84.) 483. Other Resources of Russia. The Caspian and Volga abound in sturgeon, yielding caviare (fish eggs) and isinglass (fish sounds or swim bladders) for export. Russia is rich in minerals, especially mineral fuels. The petroleum output around Baku exceeded in some years that of any other single district in the world, and other oil pools are known in Siberia. (Fig. 138.) The coal fields of European Russia exceeded in area those of the rest of the continent. The four principal fields are the Ural, Tula, Warsaw in Poland, and the Donets, the latter containing anthracite. There is also an important field at Kutais in Transcaucasia, and others of immense though unknown extent in Siberia. Iron ore is abundant near all the principal coal fields and also in Finland. Zinc is mined near the German frontier; gold in the Ural district and eastern Siberia; copper and platinum chiefly in the Urals; manganese and rock salt in Transcaucasia. Russia has had the largest output of gold in Europe, and the largest output of platinum and manganese in the world. (Fig. 223.) Platinum is indispensable in chemical operations, owing to its resistance to heat and acids. It is therefore worth more than its weight in gold. In addition, eastern Siberia is said to contain large deposits, practically untouched, of all the industrial metals, besides graphite and asbestos. 484. The Manufactures of Russia. Russia, producing abundant raw materials, naturally had considerable manu- factures of lumber, flour, sugar, tobacco, and leather, besides domestic industries such as Bukhara rugs. Russian leather 434 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY owes its peculiar odor to the birch used in tanning. Kazan, on the border of forest and prairie, where hides and bark for tanning are available, is prominent in leather working. Under the stimulus of a high protective tariff, and aided by vast investments of French capital, Russia had also developed (since 1890) important textile and mineral industries. The textile industry was largely localized in four districts. Petrograd and the factory town of Narva, possessing water power, were noted for linen and hempen goods. Moscow, near the Tula coal field, manufactured silks, cottons, and woolens. Warsaw and the adjacent factory town of Lodz made cotton goods. Tiflis, the capital of Georgia in Trans- caucasia, produced carpets. The consumption of raw cotton increased more rapidly in Russia than it did in the United States, 1 and Russian cotton goods competed with the products of South Carolina and Georgia mills in the Orient. Russian rubber wares were likewise articles of export. The output of pig iron more than tripled during the ten years ending 1900. (Fig. 282.) The principal iron-smelting center was Krivoi Rog, over rich iron ores and near the Donets coal field. Arms and cutlery were manufactured at Tula. Glass and pottery were likewise chiefly made on the coal fields, though the Imperial porcelain factory was at Petrograd. 485. Water Ways. Like Canada, Russia is a country of magnificent water ways. The great rivers of European Russia, navigable almost to their sources, flow from a common center in the Valdai Plateau (1,150 feet). These rivers, moreover, being connected by canals, carry light-draft vessels from the Baltic and Arctic to the Black and Caspian seas. 2 The Volga "Mother Volga," the Russians call it- carried by far the largest tonnage not- withstanding its waters are lost in a landlocked sea. Next 1 From 1891 to 1900 the increase in consumption of raw cotton was: in Russia, from 300 to 587 million pounds; in the United States, from 1,408 to 1,656 million pounds. 2 By way of the Vistula, Memel, and Duna to the Dnieper; the Neva to the Volga; the Dvina to the Neva and Volga. RUSSIA 435 come the Neva and "Father Dnieper." All Russian water ways are icebound for several months each year. In Asiatic Russia there is continuous water transportation by means of the east and west tributaries, and an Ob'- Yenisei Canal, almost from the Urals to Lake Baikal. Heavy freight also sometimes reaches the Ob' and Yenisei by sea. In the main, however, the Arctic drainage of the Siberian rivers is a fatal defect. The Amur, on the other hand, by its eastward course opened a route for Russian expansion, and now serves as a highway of commerce to the Pacific. 486. Land Transportation in Russia. Wagon roads hardly exist in Russia, outside of the Baltic provinces, where they are due to German settlers. Goods are therefore moved chiefly in winter on sledges, but in central Asia by camel cara- vans. It was frost, indeed, which originally unified the Rus- sian Empire by favoring rapid transportation. The level surface has favored the construction of railways. They are mainly government property and for military reasons differ in gauge from those of Germany and Austria. Both passengers and merchandise must, therefore, change cars at the frontiers. The railway centers are Moscow and Warsaw in Poland, centrally situated in the Russian and Polish plains. Samara, located on the great eastern bend of the Volga, is the junction point for the Siberian and central Asia railways, though a line leaving the Siberian Railway farther north now runs direct to Petrograd. In Transcaucasia, Batum and Poti (the Phasis of the Greeks where the Argonauts sought the Golden Fleece) are linked by rail 1 with Baku on the Caspian, and Baku with Moscow along the Caspian. 2 These roads have handled most of the commerce of Persia as well as the vast traffic in oil from the Baku district. A pipe line has, however, been constructed to carry petroleum from Baku to the Black Sea. The railway has also been extended through Erivaii on to the Armenian 1 Through the Suram Tunnel. 2 Through Dei-bent Pass, between the mountains and the Caspian. A shorter line is projected through Dariel Pass behind Tiflis. 436 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY plateau, whence Russia, confident in her "manifest destiny," looked forward to the conquest of all western Asia. Two Russian railways penetrate central Asia to Tashkend, one line branching from the Siberian Railway at Orenburg, the other starting from the Caspian Sea and skirting the mountains which wall in Turkestan on the south and east. In this region are Merv, Samarkand, Khiva, and Bukhara, once rich and famous as centers of civilization and learning when they received more moisture, and a vast overland trade from FIG. 274. Vladivostok, the terminus of the great Trans-Siberian Railway. China and India took this route toward Europe. (Fig. 3.) These railways carried much raw cotton and wool to Russian mills, and diverted most of the transit trade of central Asia from Afghanistan 1 and India to Russia. 487. The Siberian Railway. The great Siberian Railway is well named "The Path of Empire." It is now completed around Lake Baikal a sheet of water nearly the size of Lake Michigan, where trains were formerly ferried across and finds its outlets on the Pacific at Vladivostok (Fig. 274.) and Tairen 2 1 Leaving the historic Bamian (Hajikhak) Pass almost untrodden, 2 Crossing the Yablonovoi Mountains by a low pass (3,400 feet) and going through the Great Khingan mountains by a tunnel. Another rail- way line extends to Vladivostok along the Amur River, on soil peopled by "Russians. RUSSIA 437 (Dalny). Through trains from Paris to Peking reduced to about one-fourth (from sixty to fourteen days) the time between London and north China. This railway restored the overland trade of Asia to importance for the first time since Vasco da Gama found the sea road to India. It has carried into Europe much of the tea, raw silk, and other commodities which for- merly went by sea, and almost monopolized the passenger traffic as far south as Shanghai. The Siberian Railway also competed with the Pacific railways in America, and with the Panama Canal, for trade between the Orient and western Europe. 488. The Seaports of Russia. Russia is essentially an inland state. For centuries its history has been dominated by the struggle to reach the ocean. Peter the Great carried the frontier to the Baltic; his successors won their way, sword in hand, to the Black Sea, the Caspian, and the Pacific. The Baltic, corresponding in position to the Great Lakes in America, has been commercially the most important sea to Russia because it offered the shortest routes to Germany and Great Britain, which were the best markets for Russian prod- ucts. The principal Baltic ports are Petrograd, accessible by a channel or "canal" dredged in the shallow gulf; Riga, an old Hanse town at the mouth of the Diina, the capital and outlet of Latvia; Revel, the capital of Esthonia, and Helsingfors, the seat of government Finland. In summer Archangel on the Arctic is also an important seaport, rivaling Riga and Revel as an outlet for Siberian products. 1 On the Black Sea, Odessa (Greek Tyras), with a fine artificial harbor, between the mouths of the three main western rivers, is the leading seaport, though exceeded in tonnage by Astrak- han on the Volga. Odessa ships chiefly grain. Nikolaiev at the mouth of the Southern Bug has now secured deep water, and is a close rival of Odessa. Rostov at the mouth of the 1 Which go by rail to Kotlas, the head of navigation on the Dvina, and thence by boat. 43 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY Don is also an important port, though not accessible to the largest vessels. Russian merchant vessels have had a free and a safe passage at the Bosporus in time of peace. The only thing Russia lacked on the Black Sea, which possession of Constantinople would give, was free passage in war and the power to exclude from it all but Russian vessels, as she did on the Caspian. On the Pacific the commercial and naval seaport is Vladi- vostok (Rule-the-East) on a fine land-locked harbor now available at all seasons, as ice breakers keep it open in winter. Use of soil in European Russia Exports by articles Imports by countries Russia, Special U. S. Consular Report, No. 61 FIG. 275. Use of soil and commerce of Russia. Area of Russia in Europe, excluding Poland and Finland, 1,100 million acres. Commerce in 1912 (millions of dollars}: exports, 734.9, chiefly to Germany and Great Britain; imports, 532.7, largest items, raw cotton, wool, manu- factures, tea. Totals (with Finland) : exports, 800; imports, 623.4. 489. Fairs in Russia. Owing to insufficient facilities for transportation, the ancient fair at Nizhniy Novgorod on the Volga still retains its importance. It brings together every August several hundred thousand traders representing every tongue 1 of Europe and Asia. At Irbit, east of the Urals, is held in February a great fair for the sale of Siberian furs. 490. The Commerce of Russia. Russia exported mainly foodstuffs and raw materials, except to Asia, where she acted 'as an exporter of manufactures. Russian imports, on the other hand, aside from cotton, tea, and fish, were largely manufactured goods such as the Russian factories, owing to RUSSIA 439 lack of experience and of technical skill, cannot yet produce. By her exports of grain, eggs, dairy, and other farm products Russia was the chief competitor of American farm products in Europe. (Fig. 275.) Manchurian flour from the Harbin mills also disputed the oriental market with American flour. Baku oil is the leading rival of American oil for the world markets. Asia favored Russian manufactures, especially cotton goods, by discriminating port dues, unequal railway rates, and the refusal of the Russo-Chinese Bank to finance only merchants handling Russian goods. As exporting nations, therefore, Russia and the United States were not less opposed in interests than they are in ideals, social conditions, and political principles. 491. Possessions of Russia. The expansion of Russia across Asia began (1581) before the first English colony had been planted in America. Russian Asia was an integral part of the empire, except northern Manchuria, nominally Chinese, also Khiva and Bukhara, which were Russian protectorates. In like manner, the Baltic provinces and Poland lost every ves- tige of independence; the same process of destroying political rights had begun in Finland, which had retained, since its cession by Sweden (1809), a separate constitution and parliament. The Russian Empire embraced more than half of Europe and a third of Asia, altogether nearly a sixth of the world, with almost double the population of the United States; and Siberia was the only large area in the Temperate zone, except Canada, still almost unpeopled. Russia alone of the Old World nations thus had room to grow. Since the revolution of 1917 Russia has broken up into many parts and civil war has been constant, so that her industries and and trade have greatly declined or ceased. Of the republics that sprung up with the overthrow of the Czar undoubtedly only the strongest can maintain their complete independence. XXXV WORLD INDUSTRIES AND COMMERCE 492. World Industries. In order to enjoy the highest prosperity, each community is forced to follow the industries for which it has the greatest advantages. Different communi- ties and countries thus come to differ as to their leading industries (Fig. 231). Such difference constitutes geographic division of labor, which forms the basis of commerce between countries. It is only as people differ in their industries that they have occasion to exchange their products (56 and 70). Industries carried on largely with a view to supplying the needs of other countries are world-industries, and the commerce in their products is world-commerce. Of these , a few stand out as of conspicuous commercial importance. 493. Wheat. The most imperative need of man is food; the principal foodstuffs are the cereals; and by far the most important commercially of the cereals is wheat (111). In old and densely-peopled countries, like France, and England, wheat is rotated with other crops on the same soil. , With this system of farming, the yield per acre is large. Great Britain , 3 *-8 bu. fier acre Germanv..... France Austria-Hungary . United States. Russia.... Data from Year Book of Agriculture, 1913 FIG. 276. Average yield of wheat per acre, (Fig. 276) and the total crops are likewise large. For this reason, Europe produces more than half the wheat crop of the world. (Fig. 43.) Nevertheless, owing to the dense population of Europe, little of this wheat enters international commerce. (440) WORLD INDUSTRIES AND COMMERCE 441 On the other hand, in new and thinly-peopled countries, like the United States and Argentina, the yield per acre is low, 21% 15% 14% 11% 7% 6% 6% 20% Russia Argentina United Canada ^ a 5 *"" All others 140.7 million bu. 101 2 States 72.3 \ 5 f^ 137.2 99.6 1 < Data from Year Books, Dept. of Agriculture, 1912-13 FIG. 277. Exports of wheat and flour. Total, five-year average, 690.7 million bushels, but modern farm machinery enables one man to farm many acres. The aggregate crop is thus far in excess of the local demand. Such countries are consequently the principal sources of the wheat that enters international commerce. Thus, although Europe is the largest producer (Fig. 43) of wheat, Argentina, the United States, and Russia (one of the least densely peopled countries in Europe) are the principal exporters (Fig. 277), while the densely-peopled countries of Europe, especially Great Britain, are the largest importers. Since the invention of plowing and harvesting machinery, wheat growing has more than ever tended to concentrate in the plains, where the level surface favors machinery. (73.) 494. Sugar. Sugar is not only a condiment, but also a concentrated food, enabling men (as shown by tests in the American army) to undergo heavy and prolonged labor without exhaustion. In fact, it is so concentrated a food that it has something of the same effect as a stimulant, which accounts in part for its popularity. ,Cane sugar was originally the product -of exuberant tropi- cal nature plus cheap that is, slave labor. To a great extent it is still a poverty industry, based on a rate of wages, and therefore a standard of living on the part of the laborer, far below what is necessary to a decent civilized existence. In recent years, however, the competition of beet sugar has com- pelled the investment of large capital in machinery, and the use of scientific methods for the extraction of cane sugar. Sugar beets also require considerable hand labor in the fields, because they must be thinned by hand. For this work 442 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY imported laborers are commonly employed at a low wage in Germany, for example, largely Poles. But all the other operations have from the start been based on science and high technical skill. Beets are moreover a temperate crop, yield- ing a large return per acre ; and the advantages of beet culture are at the maximum where beets do not have to compete for the soil against corn, either because the climate is too cool, as in Germany, or too dry, as in Colorado and California. Further, beet culture is more profitable where the soil is cultivated intensively for other crops, since the fertilization and cultivation necessary for beets increase the yield of other crops; also where the beet pulp, after the juice has been extracted, can be fed to stock; and finally, where high technical skill can be depended on for the manufacturing processes. Cane sugar Beet sugar Exports of sugar , Year Books, Dept. of Agriculture, 1912-13 FIG. 278. Sugar industry of the -world. Totals, five-year averages (millions of tons}: cane, 8.7; beet, 7.1; total production, 15.8; exports, 6,2. For all these reasons, sugar beets are perhaps the most char- acteristic and most important product of scientific agriculture on rich land, in densely-peopled districts of the Temperate zone. As a result, the production of cane sugar is localized in countries like India, Cuba, and Java, while Europe is the chief source of beet sugar. (Fig. 278.) 495. Coffee, Tea, and Cocoa. Coffee, tea, and cocoa belonging to the group of stimulants (113) are highly com- mercial crops; that is, they are grown on limited areas, and in the main for the market. WORLD INDUSTRIES AND COMMERCE 443 Cocoa is native to the damp, hot tropical lowlands, and it requires much hand labor. For both reasons, it is distinctly a poverty industry carried on almost exclusively by colored laborers (74). In fact, slavery (in all but name) still persists on cocoa plantations, especially in the west African islands. By far the larger part of the cocoa supply comes from tropical America, chiefly Brazil and Ecuador. (Fig. 185.) Coffee is also a tropical plant, but the best grades can be grown only on the highlands which have a moderate climate. Moreover coffee, having considerable value in proportion to its bulk, is a favorite crop in districts remote from wagon roads, not to say railroads. For all these reasons, coffee has been the mainstay of the small white farmers, not alone in Porto Rico, but throughout Central America and the northern part of South America. The success of Brazil in coffee culture seems, however, to indicate that coffee can be grown more cheaply on immense plantations equipped with light railways and other labor-saving machinery. As in the case of cocoa, the bulk of the world's coffee supply comes from America, the largest producer being Brazil. (Fig. 185.) The largest con- sumer, both of cocoa and coffee, is the 'United States. Tea is native to a region having warm, rainy summers, but a fairly cold winter. Like cocoa it requires much hand labor in picking, and is therefore another poverty industry, which cannot be carried on where laborers receive more than a few cents a day. For this reason China and Japan long had a practical monopoly of tea growing. In India and Ceylon, however, the labor is equally cheap; tea planted on the high- lands in a tropical country bears leaves the year around in place of only a few months; and labor-saving machinery has been devised for curing the tea. These advantages explain the present predominance of India and Ceylon in tea growing. (Fig 222.) The principal consumers of tea are Great Britain and Russia. 496. Raw Cotton. Cotton is also a tropical plant, but it is now acclimated as far north as 37" in America and 40 in the 444 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY monsoon region of Asia (51), where it is grown as an annual. Indeed, the chief producing areas are outside the Tropics, per- haps in part because a sharp winter helps to keep in check the insect pests which assail the crop. (Fig. 84.) Cotton growing also requires much hand labor, especially during the picking season. Cotton is therefore limited as a commercial product not only by conditions of soil and climate, but also by the supply of cheap labor. 497. Cotton Manufactures. On the other hand, low-grade labor, which suffices for picking cotton, cannot well be used in cotton manufactures. Spinning and weaving require not so much cheap labor as efficient labor, in order to earn the best returns on the capital invested in machinery Even in the south, negroes are seldom employed in the cotton mills. For this reason, among others, the chief cotton growing sections are not the chief centers of cotton manufactures, at least of the finer kinds. (Figs. 84 and 279.) Cotton spinning, how- ever, especially of the lower counts (coarser thread) has made some progress in countries such as India, Japan, and China, notably since the invention of the ring-spinning machine, which is largely automatic and therefore requires less skill on the part of the operator. Mill consumption of raw cotton Cotton spindles Exports of cotton goods etin. No. 117 Data from Dcpt. of Commerce. Census Bull FIG. 279. Cotton manufactures. Totals in 1912, or latest available year: mill consumption (millions of bales),' 21.5; cotton spindles (millions'), 143.3; exports (millions of dollars'), 1,127, The amount of raw cotton used in the mills of the United States is greater than in any other country, but the British 44$ mills, which spin the finer counts, have by far the largest number of spindles. Great Britain, where the cotton industry Wool Clip Wool exports Wool used in manufactures in principal textile countries Dta from Tear Book of Amculture, 1907, and Census of Manufactures, 1905, HI. 12 FIG. 280. The wool industry of the world. Totals in 1906 or latest available year (millions of pounds'): wool clip, 2,605; exports, 1,683; wool consumption, 1,952. employs a large part of the population, also supplies most of the cotton manufactures entering international commerce, though Germany had become a serious rival before the war. 498. Wool and Silk. Wool is in part a by-product of flocks kept primarily for mutton, as in Europe. In such countries, however, the population is usually dense and the demand for wool exceeds the supply. The wool entering international commerce therefore comes in the main from sparsely -peopled countries, especially those which have wide semi-arid regions devoted to stock raising, like Australia and Argentina. (Fig. 280.) The silkworm is limited by climate to districts where the trees will grow on which it feeds (105). The production of raw silk on a commercial basis is further restricted by the price of labor. A large amount of handwork is involved in caring for the worms, hence cheap labor is indispensable. The industry is consequently limited to countries having a dense population and a low standard of living, like China, Japan, and Italy. (Fig. 281.) This is the reason why all efforts at sericulture in this country have failed. The silkworm 446 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY will thrive here, but the raw silk industry will not, because the people are making better wages at something else. 499. Woolen and Silk Manufacture. On the other hand, the manufacture either of woolen or silk goods calls for skilled 37% United States 19.0 million Ibs. France 9.9 Germany 7.4 ||P $ I o 5c ~ r Ti~ I- ^3 29% 21% 18% 9% 9% 9% 5% France 71_million dollars Switzerland 53 Germany 45 Italy 21 It d 1-5 5 n Data from Con rcial America, June. 191 i FIG. 281. .Raw 7& used in manufactures and export of silk manufactures. Totals, in igio: mill consumption, 51.8 million pounds; exports, 248 million dollars. "Others" under exports means chiefly China (n millions'), and intelligent labor. This is no doubt one reason why, as in the case of cotton, the same countries are not the most prom- inent both in the production of the raw materials and in the textile industries using these materials. (Figs. 280 and 281.) The silk and woolen mills of the United States use the largest amount of raw silk and wool. The finer grades of silks and woolens are, however, more extensively manu- factured in Europe, especially in France, Great Britain, and Germany. These three countries, where a much larger part of the population is employed in silk and woolen manufac- tures than in the United States, controlled*m 1911 the bulk of the export trade in silk and woolen goods. 500. Rubber. Like other plant products, rubber can be produced only where soil and climate are suitable; and most of the rubber plants are tropical. Here again, however, the commercial rubber industry is confined to smaller areas than the rubber plant. The collection of wild rubber is difficult and dangerous to health, yet commands relatively small wages. The rubber gatherers in many districts are consequently kept in perpetual debt to their employers, which practically amounts to slavery. The cultivation of rubber plants, which has now assumed great importance, also involves much hand WORLD INDUSTRIES AND COMMERCE 447 labor. For this reason it is practically confined to countries of dense population and low wage standards, like parts of Malaysia and Ceylon. The manufacture of rubber goods, on the contrary, calls for scientific training and skill. This fact, as in the previous cases, tends to separate the countries of manufacture from the countries of origin. Rubber is largely produced in Brazil, Africa, and the East Indies, but undergoes the various processes of manufacture in Europe and the United States. (Fig. 185.) 501. Minerals. The location of useful minerals depends absolutely on nature ; and so in part do transportation facili- ties, which are indispensable to any sort of mining. Thus coal is the more valuable if located near iron and limestone, especially if it be also near navigable water. On the othei hand, many rich mineral deposits cannot be worked because inaccessible, or accessible only at too great cost. This is the case, for example, in many parts of Alaska. In the last analysis, however, while the location of minerals depends on nature, their utilization depends on man. Nature endowed China with rich mineral resources, but man has made little use of them (331).. Nature endowed England with rich coal fields, but in 1750 many mines had been abandoned Iron ore Pig iron Steel Data from Statesman's Year Book, 1914 .FiG. 282. The iron industry of the -world. Totals in' 1912, or latest available year (millions of tons): ore, 152; pig iron, 73; steel, 72. because, until the invention of the steam pump, they could not be kept free from water. Finally the utilization of mineral 44 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY resources depends not only on the efficiency of tools and machinery, but perhaps even more on the relative cost and efficiency of labor. It was for this reason that the mine owners in South Africa imported Chinese coolies. Minerals having a large value in small bulk can be mined (if only the deposits be rich enough) wherever a man and a donkey can climb. Gold mining is thus in the main a frontier industry. On the other hand, the lower the value of any mineral in proportion to its bulk, the more completely does its utilization depend on cheap transportation, efficient (which means expensive) machinery, and either cheap or highly-skilled labor. These conditions are only realized where there is a numerous population and a considerable accumulation of capital. In turn, the utilization of mineral resources builds up indus- tries which still further increase the population and wealth of a country. Moreover, those minerals such as coal and iron, which have a relatively small value per ton, have fre- quently the largest value in the aggregate, because of the extended use made of them. For all of these reasons, the greatest mining countries arc the United States, France, Ger- many, and England. (Figs. 138 and 282.) The minerals entering most largely into international commerce are still the metals, as they have always been (7), especially gold, iron, and copper; and, in addition to these, mineral fuels. 502. Rank of Nations in Manufactures. The United States clearly ranks first in the production of iron and its derivative products. This appears from the diagram showing the world's production of iron ore, pig iron, and steel (Fig. 282): and from the diagrams showing the consumption of coal and the production of pig iron, per capital. (Figs. 283 and 284.) The United States even takes a relatively high rank in the export of machinery. (Fig. 285.) l lt must be conceded, however, that part of the large consumption of coal and iron in the United States represents waste of natural resources which could be in part avoided by the use of water in place of rail transportation for heavy and bulky commodities. WORLD INDUSTRIES AND COMMERCE 449 Great Britain is the greatest textile manufacturing country in the world and has by far the largest export trade in textiles, especially cottons. (Figs. 279 and 280.) It likewise ranks next United States. .4.46 tons Great Britain . 3. 83 Belgium 3.35 Canada 3.32 Germany 2.72 Australia 1.71 France 1.48 Sweden 0.96 FIG. 283 Data from U.S. Dept. of Commerce, 1915 A nnual consumption of coal per capita. United States.. .689 Ibs. Belgium 682 Germany 596 Great Britain . .434 S~i ^ TS4 474 iqq IQ3 188 S7 Data from Statistical Abstract of U.S.. 1913 FIG. 289. Railway mileage per 7,000 square miles of territory, showing relative density of railways. 504. Transportation as a Factor in International Com- merce. Transportation in relation to foreign commerce usually involves three things: transportation by land, ports where the commerce of the land may connect with the com- merce of the sea, and, finally, transportation by sea. In respect to transportation by land, the condition of the United States is not all that could be desired. The inland water ways are little used and the density of railways is much less than in Europe. (Fig. 289.) Nevertheless, nearly half the railway mileage in the world is in the United States, while WORLD INDUSTRIES AMD COMMERCE 453 railway rates are lower here, and railway service more efficient, than in any other country. (Tables 4 and 5.) The post is also United States. 184 Germany..' 135 Great Britain. ...132 France 94 Italy. 50 Japan 32 Spain 18 Russia 10 Data from Gov. Ownership of Electrical Means of Communication, Se Doc. No. 399 FIG. 290. Pieces of mail handled yearly per capita, 1910. more largely used in the United States than anywhere else an evidence at once of active intelligence and of greater business activity. (Fig. 290.) In facilities for the commerce of the land and sea to meet and connect, the United States is not, on the whole, in the same class as the great nations of Europe. (Fig. 292.) This is moreover the fault, not of nature, but of man. American seaports are largely monopolized by private wharves and docks. To compete with Liverpool, Hamburg, and Rotterdam, in export trade to neutral markets, it is necessary to create, as they have done, commodious free harbors where any vessel may load or discharge cargo promptly and cheaply without New York \ \ 2S.8 Hamburg. Rotterdam Antiverp Hong-kong. : ; r-y \ Con stan tinople London i i , ShangJiai. Singapore. Marseilles. ' r,4 1 ' Cardiff.. Liverpool..... Data from U.S. Statistical Abstract, 1913 FIG. 291. Rank of world's greatest seaports, measured by millions of net registered tonnage in foreign trade, 1912, or latest available year. All having over fourteen million tons entered and cleared are shown. being dependent on costly private terminals. In New York some steps have already been taken to provide such facilities. 454 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY In the matter of transportation by sea, the United States was still more poorly equipped. The other nations taking an active part in world commerce all had large fleets of merchant vessels. (Fig. 292.) The United States, on the other hand, had few sea-going merchant vessels aside from those engaged in the coasting trade, which is reserved by law to American vessels. It costs more to build ships here than in Europe; and it costs more to operate them, because the standard of living and the scale of wages are both higher in this country. As a result, in many parts of the world the American flag had become a strange and unaccustomed sight. The annual payment to for- 15 Great Britain i Germany ~f Belfort and surrounding territory 235 square miles m extent. By the Treaty of Versailles this territory was restored in its entirety to France. 460 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 26 hundred square miles of area and 580 thousand inhabitants to the kingdom. With the acquisition of Thrace and the large Smyrna area on the cast of the JEgean Sea formerly possessions of Turkey a zone on the Sea of Marmora, and the cession by Italy of the twelve smaller Dodecanese islands, Greece has become the leading ^Egcan power. By the addition of these territories her former area has been increased twofold. (Fig. 294.) As a result of the war Turkey (Fig. 297) has been reduced to the status of a minor power. Her only possessions are Anatolia, Constantinople, and the fortified area of Thrace Chatalja to Constantinople. (Fig. 294.) In area Turkey now compares with new Greece. Russia has been in a woeful state of disorder since the revolution and the creation of the Soviet government in 1917. A large number of separate states have been formed from the areas that made up the Russian Empire. (Fig. 294.) These states have nearly all declared themselves republics. Geo- graphically and racially many have excellent reasons for a separate existence, but few are likely to survive long as inde- pendent political units. The new republic of East Siberia, or Trans-Baikal, may continue because it would act as a buffer state between Japan and any strong nation to the west. Esthonia, Latvia, and Lithuania all have strategic positions on the Baltic. In time these republics will doubtless form an alliance, commercial or otherwise, with Russia. The Black Sea and Caucasus republics include much valuable mineral and agricultural land. At present Great Britain dominates the Black Sea region despite the Bolshevik advance. It is interesting, in view of existing conditions in Russia, to note that in 1919 the great annual fair at Nizhniy Novgorod (p. 10) broke all records for trade and attendance. During the fair goods valued at 60 mil-lion dollars changed hands. Finland with an area of 125 thousand square miles (Fig. 294), and outlets to the. sea through the Baltic and to the Arctic by way of Pcchenga Valley promises to become a commercial 462 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY country of world- wide importance. Her trade with the United States in 1919 amounted to 10 million dollars, chiefly imports. The prosperity of the country is largely dependent upon the forests, which cover 40 million acres and are the chief source of her export trade. Poland is now a republic, uniting areas belonging to tne Polish Kingdom before its partition among Russia, Germany, and Austria (Figs. 298 and 299) which are predominantly Polish in nationality. The country extends to the Baltic, (Fig. 294) but most of the sea-borne trade goes by way of the Vistula through the free city of Danzig. At present industry and trade are almost at a standstill throughout the country because of the war with Russia. The destruction of life and industrial and agricultural property threatens the future prosperity of the country. 509. Effects of the World War on Commerce. During the early part of the war the United States profited greatly from the sale of munitions and foodstuffs to the Allies. Although there was a sharp decrease in all trade at the outset of the war, the United States also benefited through shipments of prod- ucts that formerly had been leading exports of Germany. Other neutral countries, such as Argentina, gained much trade during the war because of increased demands, high prices, and lack of competition. But normal world trade practically ceased to exist. German submarines menaced all boats bound for Europe until the closing months of the war, and trade between neutral countries was carried on with increasing difficulty because of the strict and sometimes illegal search for contraband or war material and by the transfer of many boats from commercial to war service. Sixteen of the warring countries contracted new obligations to the extent of 212 billion dollars, or about $330 per capita. The share of the Allied countries in this vast sum is about 150 billion, or about $300 per capita, and of the Central Powers about $428 per capita. Germany's per capita debt is 33 times, Great Britain's 10 times, and that of the United States 21 times what they were FlG. 298. The Partitions of Poland, 1772-1795 The areas which remained predominantly Polish in nationality after these par- titions, were, at the close of the World War, erected into the Republic of Poland. :nsk [russo\ 5(1 A **, Poltava, u ' FIG. 299. The Grand, Duchy of Warsaw and its Final Disposition The Grand Duchy of Warsaw was erected by Napoleon and at his downfall became the prey of Russia, Prussia, and Austria. The portion falling to Russ'i was made a kingdom under Russian control and remained so until 1831, when it became a Russian province. The republic of Cracow was occupied by Austria in iC^S. 464 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY before the war, but the debt of the United States includes more than 9 billions loaned to the Allied governments. Japan is the only important country that emerged from the great struggle with finances undisturbed as far as war debt is con- cerned. The world's currency is so inflated that while paper money in circulation has increased more than 37 billion dollars, the increase in the gold held in reserve has been only 3 billion dollars. Only about one-tenth of the paper currency of the world is covered by gold. 510. Leading Commercial Countries. At the close of the war the United States stood at the head of the commercial countries of the world. Our foreign trade for 1919 exceeded 10 billion dollars, or more than one-seventh of the world's trade. Oar trade balance previous to 1915 had always fallen far below one billion dollars. In that year it leaped to more than two billion, and since then has increased until in 1919 it reached four and one-half billion dollars. This trade bal- ance is greater than the amount of our total trade for 1916, and is almost double that for 1913. Of course this was an abnormal trade balance. It was due in part to the depres- sion of European industries, so that foodstuffs and other necessaries formed the larger part of our exports. In spite of her gigantic losses because of the war, the British Empire made great commercial and economic gains, although her statesmen now face the difficult problem of holding within the empire all its present lands and resources. But England is back at work. Her factories are sending out manufactured goods,- she is lending money to smaller countries, and is, as before the war, the great factor in international commerce. France, with the addition of her new territory, now has, comparatively speaking, abundant iron, but insufficient coal, the relation between these important factors of commerce remaining the same as before the war. On the other hand, Germany now possesses more coal than she needs for her limited supply of iron, although she lacks an adequate supply THE WORLD WAR 465 of both. In fact, Lorraine's yield of iron ore was more than 70 per cent of the total of all iron ore mined annually in Germany. The war gave great impetus to South American commerce. It also made the people nationally more self-sustaining and diversified their industries, especially in Brazil and Argentina. Commercial conditions in the Orient cannot become stable until the trouble caused by Japanese aggression in China, especially in Shantung, is settled. The Chinese silver monetary standard helped that country in a commercial way because of the exchange value of silver. Prospects for increasing importance of Asiatic trade seem favorable because of the unexploited resources of the continent. The recent critical situation- the result of over-production and over-credit in Japan caused little reaction in other countries, although it occurred at a time when business in the United States was seriously handicapped because of strikes, shortage of coal, and restriction of shipments. 511. Looking Ahead. Conditions that existed in the United States after the Civil War may help in forecasting the economic course of the world during the coming decades. The country at that time was confronted by many grave problems, and naturally there was an anxious period of read- justment. The men of the 6o's returned from the battle- fields eager for the surroundings of peace, but filled with the spirit of adventure and made keenly alert by their experiences. Construction soon took the place of destruction, railroad build- ing went forward with surprising rapidity, many important industries were established, there were many wonderful inven- tions made, the ex-service men returned to industrial life with a new appreciation, and the settlement of the West w r ent forward rapidly. A similar movement, but one much more far-reaching because of the many nations and the vast areas involved, doubtless will follow in the wake of the World War. Construction and pioneering will be aided by the wireless, airplane, motor power, 466 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY and the multitude of inventions tried out and perfected in the space of little more than half a century since the Civil War. Wireless communication with points hitherto inaccessible will stimulate commerce and draw the peoples of the earth together as never before. This, the twentieth century, is indeed an age of machinery and speed in which conditions of life alter rapidly an age which in its possibilities is fascinating, but which, like any other age, has its own peculiar dangers. Read- justment has already begun, and the nations having entered upon an era in which a state of war is exceptional, we may look forward confidently to continued as well as wide-spread and unparalleled advancement. To-day the commercial world is face to face with many perplexing and perilous questions. Conditions among the nations do not warrant unbounded confidence that serious difficulties will not arise to interfere with economic advance- ment. But over-production in any essential industry appears unlikely. There is an unprecedented demand for construction work of all kinds ; shipyards are hastening the building of merchantmen, and many agricultural areas that lay dormant during the war are becoming centers of activity for the pro- duction of food. New areas are being developed, and natural geographic conditions again are beginning to control commerce. In the face of such a situation the prospects for world trade are encouraging, for stocks of many kinds are so depleted that it must be years before supplies are again normal. PART III APPENDIX REFERENCE TABLES Table I. Values of Principal Foreign Coins Country Monetary unit Value U. S. gold do!s. Coins Argentina Peso Gold: Argentine ($4 824), J Argen- Austria-Hungary Belgium. . Crown . 203 tine. Silver: Peso and divisions. Gold: 10, 20, and 100 crowns. Sil- ver: I, 2, and 5 crowns. Gold: 10 and 20 francs. Silver: Brazil Gold: 5, 10, and 20 milreis. British Possessions N. A. except N. F. . Chile Dollar i .000 36? China Tael 6->T loon (3.650), condor ($7.300). Silver: Peso and divisions. Silver France German Emnire Great Britain Mark .238 4 866J Gold: 5, i- and 20 marks. Gold' Sovereign (pound sterling. Greece sovereign. Silver: i shilling). India, British. . . 4 S66i Silver: 5 drachmas. Gold: Sovereign (pound sterling). Italv Silver: rupee and divisions. Japan Yen 498 Silver: 5 lire. Mexico Peso 498 20. and 50 sen. Gold' 5 and 10 pesos. Silver: Netherlands. . Dollar or peso, and divisions. Gold: 10 florins. Silver: 2^, i. Philippine Islands. . . . Russia Peso Ruble . 500 and divisions. Silver: Peso, 10, 20, 50 centavos. Gold: 5, 7 i, 10, i 5 rubles. Silver: Spain . . Peseta .in; Gold: 2<; pesetas. Silver: s pesetas. Table 2. The Metric System of Weights and Measures Length Meter Kilometer Weights Kilogram 2.204 Ibs. Quintal 220.4 Tcnneau 2,204.6 Square Measure Are 0247 acre Hectare 2.47 acres Sq. Kilometer 386 sq. mi. Capacity Hectoliter (liq.) 26.417 gals " (dry) 2.537 bu. Table 3. Tons and Tonnage In ocean commerce the tonnage of a vessel is expressed in tons the vessc I ton and the carKO ton. Vessel Tonnage Displacement Weight of water displaced by vessel when loaded. Gross Register Total cubic feet capacity divided by FPO. Net Register Cubic feet capacity available for cargo and passengers divided by 100. Cargo Tons Weight for grains and minerals : Short Ton = 2,000 Ibs. Long Ton = 2,240 Ibs. Metric Ton = 2,204.6 Ibs. Measurement Ton For manufactures ar,d general merchandise: 40 cubic feet. Ton mile One ton of freight carried one mile. f xiii) COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY Table 4. The Area, Population, Railway Mileage, (Tor 1913, or nearest available year, and based on Statesman's Year Bosks, Grand Divisions Area Population Population per square mile Railways NORTH AMERICA 8,598,965 3,729,665 135,431,934 8,075,000 15.75 I . 93 305,467 162,734 247,541 I . 52 841 United States (i) 3,026,7X9 97,163,330 32 . 10 255,251 590,884 64,603 . II 466 436 63,390 145 . 39 47 138 27,086 I9O.3 785,881 15,501,684 19.73 15,804 Central America, except Panama- .... 180,588 32,380 4,959,i5i 336,742 27.5 10 .4 1,239 ' West Indies Cuba 2,382,990 53 96 Haiti (5) .... 10,204 2,500,000 245 64 Dominican Republic 18,045 708,000 1,168,692 39-2 344 83 150 220 12,246 1,771,653 144.67 331 Dutch 403 55,183 136.9 French 1,073 406,430 378.78 SOUTH AMERICA Argentine Republic 7,342,572 1,153,119 54,343,547 7,467,878 7.402 6 2 45,522 19,240 514,155 798 Brazil 3,290,564 24 308,219 7 4 15,445 Chile 292,580 5,oo8 Colombia 440,846 621 370 Guiana (British, Dutch, French?) Paraguay 169,600 165,000 439,083 2-59 95 232 i 656 72,153 1,524 Venezuela 398,594 2 755 685 533 Falkland Islands 7,500 OCEANIA American 3,304,669 7,504,703 204,224 2.18 3^ 26 23,327 296 287 British Australia and Territory of Papua. . . New Zealand 3,065,121 104, 751 5,122,059 1,084,662 1.66 10. 35 20,138 2,883 French Possessions . . 8,744 81,000 9 26 10 636 563 6 62 ASIA Malay Archipelago American Philippines British Borneo . . 15,728,742 115,026 7 j , 1 06 853,050,101 8, 559. .312 710,000 54-23 74.41 971 65,782 604 130 Dutch: Java, Sumatra, etc. 736,400 38,000,000 51 .6 1,721 Portuguese Timor 7.33O 300,000 4 9 Japan Proper 148/756 52,985,423 356 . 19 4,796 Taiwan (Formosa) 13,944 3.512,607 251 .90 421 Chosen (Korea) . . 84,7 58 14 827, 101 174 97 914 Chinese Republic (i;) T he Eighteen Provinces 1,5 J2,.|2O 302,1 10,000 197 IS 4,160 Manchuria 36 5,610 20,000,000 55 i, 800 Mongolia 1,367,600 2,600,000 I 9 Tibet Sinkiang 550,340 1,200,000 2 .2 Russia in Asia (14) Siberia . . . 1 S ii 88 ' 9 788 }OO I 8 ) Central Asia 1,366,832 10,957,400 70) 10,586 REFERENCE TABLES and Commerce of the Principal Countries of the World. 1914 and 1915, and Statistical Abstract of the United Slates, 1013.) COMMERCE Year Total Exports Total Imports Per cent of exports to U.S. Per cent of imports from U.S. Tonnage entered and cleared 1913 1913 3,389,607,197 393.232,057 14,658,216 2 465 884 I49 2 2,949,695,238 692,032,392 15,996,349 i 813 008 2342 39.18 42.49 9.07 54.31 65 30 34.84 181,345,276 29,568,486 2,561,975 101,791,132 1913 26,112,978 21,809,533 94-34 95-49 1,110,400 1913 1913 1913 1913 1913 1913 1913 1913 145,997.126 47,283,110 2,467,556 164,823,059 11,315,559 10,177,754 49,103,565 48,084,714 95.145.352 37,951,580 10,000,000 143,758,736 8,100,125 9,012,651 36,900,062 56,072,318 77.24 42.06 86.32 79.64 8.83 53.48 82.55 27. 12 49.69 53-34 54-83 52.38 72.94 62 . 21 89 85 25-66 15,306,6448 6,686,236 3,801,7877 6,150,9668 2,276,7657 783,895 655,2589 20,417,969 1913 1913 1913 1913 914-292 9,415,511 1,186,237,736 469,966,418 38,723,469 1,916,283 7,954,687 1,035,897,332 409,554,669 22,138 447 73.86 0.84 18.35 4-73 5.83 53 25 21 .66 14. 10 14.72 7.38 , 1,106,300 1,964,465 174.344-494 56,604,833 1913 1913 1913 1913 315,166,140 144,455,155 34,315,800 15,216,062 16 800 628 326,426,760 120,109,243 28,535,8oo 8,517,233 31-59 21.05 54.96 24.27 15.26 16.72 12. 14 29.98 29,170,1797 55,122,552 i,323,345 7 656,795 1913 1913 1913 1913 1913 1913 1913 1913 1913 1913 5,462,001 44,409,610 65,142,000 29.483,789 7,096,664 563,784,811 43,471,940 170,018 382,480,955 111,715,469 14,050,313 7,671,551 29,591,451 50,666,000 18,030,103 1,162,619 548,121,127 36,002,940 293.648 388,644,363 108,321,148 6,087,374 .001 33.19 4.56 28.74 6^65 98.25 78.01 3-34 3-97 0.77 5-86 28.08 12 .04 32.96 .06 12.43 80.91 33-69 ii .91 9.46 4-54 528,544 2,494,901 23,798,254 2,825,540 478,049 20,594,580 3.159,357 137,9828 10,908,426 3,438,792 8/7,757 6 1913 1910,11,12 1913 1913 5.325,180 6,570,936 2,413,480,249 53,683,326 8,087,881 5,197,935 3,573,719 2,475,720,191 56,327,533 6,298,594 11-45 39.13 none 4.64 45.06 775.755 996, 5H 6 239,829,503 3,700,023 681,139 1913 1912 I9U 1913 1913 273,578,400 390,668 307,375,662 6,290,025 15,377,714 197,336,400 425,689 354,503,777 8,759,188 35,646,963 2.27 29.89 1.59 17. 19 10.96 5,238,0007 165,4967 49,917,713 792,7247 4,ooi,24l7 1913 1913 296,051,473 32,814,958 418,534,953 31,480,456 9.27 6.17 93.334,830 1908 4,811,400 7,681,600 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY Table 4. The Area, Population, Railway Mileage, Grand Divisions Area Population Population per square mile Railways ASIA Continued British Indo-China 52,106 2,085,413 40.02 ) i, 600 743,010 464 . 38 j 771 French India and Indo-China 310,176 14,773,000 8,149,487 47.63 41 . 79 994 721 1,092,994 244,221,377 223 . 47 34,656 709,118 70,864,995 99 90 25,481 4,262,097 167 . 22 605 250,000 6,OOO,OOO 2 4 628,000 9,500,000 15 6 82,000 500,000 6 09 10,387 58,165 5 6 Turkey in Asia (12) 699,342 19,382,900 27 72 2,836 3,584 286,442 79 92 61 AFRICA 11,460,899 350,000 135,347,595 8,000,000 11.83 22 86 29,914 187 Egypt (15) . . 12,226 11,287,359 923 . 39 2,279 219,000 5,000,000 22 .83 40,000 2,100,000 52 SO 909,654 20,465,000 22 49 788 British Africa 1,206,011 8,580,100 7 ii 11,314 West Africa Other British Africa 444,842 1,465,418 20,551,000 11,980,444 46.19 8.17 1,463 2,429 French Africa 343,500 5,563,828 25 05 2,793 45,779 1,878,620 41 03 1,428 3,801,572 18,238,795 4 65 3,383 1,032,280 12,428,429 12 O4 2,901 185,230 450,000 2 . 42 74 406,000 529,176 I 30 Portuguese Africa 792,140 85,814 8,059,000 10. 17 2 74 875 EUROPE United Kingdom 3,894,654 121,633 208,780 469,691,595 46,407,037 120.60 381.53 207.336 23,718 39,764 207,054 39,601,500 189 5 25,472 Netherlands Italy 12,582 110,632 6,1 14,300 35,597,78 I 404 521 76 2,320 11,165 Belgium Spain Austria-Hungary (i.j; Austria Hungary. Russian Empire (11) Russia in Europe Finland Switzerland 11,373 194,783 261,259 115,882 125,609 8,764,586 2,092,715 125,689 15,976 15,582 7,571.387 20,355,986 51.780,375 28,995,844 20,886,487 174,099,600 150,157,100 3,196,700 3,831,220 2,775,076 665.13 102.6 198.19 25O. 21 ' 166.28 19.82 71.75 24.6l 239.81 178 2,898 9,299 29,060 14,512 13,333 46,573 35,987 2,328 3,392 2,39O Sweden 172,963 124,643 5,638,583 2,391,782 32.6 8,928 1,664 Portugal 35,490 5,957,985 152 8 1,849 Turkish Empire (12) Turkey in Europe 710,22.: 10,882 21,273,900 1,891,000 30 187 3,882 1,046 Greece 41,933 4,688,780 i i 1*81 1,365 Serbia ... . 33,891 97 i Roumania 53,489 7,508,000 140 36 2,333 Bulgaria 43,305 4,752,007 I2S.9t r.384 REFERENCE TABLES and Commerce of the Principal Countries of the World COMMERCE Year Total Exports Total Imports Per cent of exports to U.S. Per cent of imports from U.S. Tonnage entered and cleared 1913 89,000,713 52,710,384 1913 220,523,142 274,514,534 27,124,789 1913 1913 1913 29,970,954 856,912,012 27,870,321 795-773.698 .22 7.10 2.64 2.15 1,135,488 17,386,408 1913 76,095,790 64,683,616 16,126,254 1913 1913 1913 1913 42,411,592 1,465,181 20,164,767 55,168,348 2,252,859 21,274.563 1 .46 15.9 o . 16 7-3 2,679,8247 93,i8l9 7,932,504 1913 3,401,577 3,281,205 721,515 843,886,233 775,186,896 3.13 3-75 104,653,447 1913 1913 1913 1912 151.875,000 14,980,911 1,112,187 11,493,973 117,223,200 39,115,608 1,411,237 10,471,905 8.18 0.53 o. 20 2.24 0.36 6.86 o 15 27,175.096 3.432.I47 7 1,068,108 1913 1913 1913 1913 1913 1913 326,530,375 74,736,691 35,416,827 99,241,200 34.732-204 54,649,823 217,320,853 72,879,296 46,238,565 129,762,000 28,043,109 53,722,575 I .01 0.48 1.87 0.63 0.15 6.66 4-54 2 . 27 1.94 4-93 10,631,118 8,281,229 6,540,938 13,081,660 9,320,942 II 462 8838 1912-13 1912-13 1913 24,338.078 2,206,857 666,311 30,040,170 4,831,432 4,963,712 2.78 0.56 1.87 0.06 S.635,835 7 200,33<7 I 623,41 1? 1912-13 11,805,796 19,163,234 3.19 H.73 5,763,8017 1913 1913 1913 1913 1913 IQI2 I913 1913 12,051,551.439 3,085,226,784 2,478,429,9Ool 7 1,227,441,600 1,233,200,000 486,763,020 762,639,500 193.957,657 559,526,940 14,423,929,672 3,736,050,831 2,723,231.98817 1,637,042,400 1,567,200,000 . 707,183,460 956,894,000 229,286,373 647.364,380 7.18 9.36 6.84 6.64 4.24 10.62 3.67 7.18 9-97 18.42 14.95 10.54 II . 29 14. 26 8.34 14.09 713,893,806* 164,810,000 65,148,111 53,739.117 36,229,000 113,837.761 32,672,989 40,788,681 60,578,486 1913 ' 1913 380,017,980 815,348,000 410,840,100 678,100,500 0.89 "s'.b'i 9,442,290 24,249,000 1913 1913 1913 I9U 1913 ' 1912 1912 73,774,620 282,151,985 193,043,088 2l8.739.35l 106,005,483 37.534,353 105,688,777 90,292,603 373,212,284 228,922,621 226,551,354 149,157,072 81,618,281 192,416,401 9.33 1 .09 4.24 7.95 16.51 2.72 6 og 10. 25 9. 12 6.63 3.38 6.12 7.325.235 6,252,867 25,511,890 11.538,458 19,154,2397 17,397,888 1913 1912 23,118,330 16,372,626 34,730,906 20,624,581 13.75 3.50 4,104,360? 191 1 1013 134.470,446 18,118,979 110,758,433 33,291,204 0. 20 2.43 0.87 0.31 21.545,868 9,009,856 * Separate figures not available for Russia in Europe; figures are for Constantinople only. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY Table 4. The Area, Population, Railway Mileage, SUMMARY OF THE LEADING COMMERCIAL Grand Divisions Area Population Population per square mile Railways 12,423,220 439,821,419 35.40 131,051 121,633 46,407,037 381 .53 23,718 Other Europe 19 237,759 1,997 -97 8 India 1,802,112 315,086,372 174.84 34,656 Other Asia 166,953 8,684,877 52 .01 1,567 Australia and Pacific Islands 3,192,663 3,128,497 6,563,425 52,398,903 2.05 16 74 23,021 17,485 4,011,243 10,443,046 2 .60 30,596 Russian Empire and Finland 8,764,586 174,099,600 19.86 59,487 2,092,715 150,157,100 71.75 46,573 6,198,714 20,745,800 3 34 10,586 Finland 125,689 3,196,700 25.43 2,328 France 4,745,597 80,587,752 16.98 34,080 Europe 207,054 39,601,509 191 . 26 25,472 343,500 5,563,828 16 . 19 2,793 Other Africa 3,847,351 20,117,415 5 . 23 4,811 Asia 310,176 14,773,000 47 .62 994 35,222 450,900 12 .77 8,744 81,100 9.27 IO United States and Possessions (i) Continental U. S 3,743,444 3,026,789 590,884 107,325,736 97-163.330 64,603 28.64 32. 10 O IO 256,884 255,251 466 Porto Rico, Virgin Islands (West Indies) 3,573 1,195,778 334.67 220 Hawaii, Guam, and Tutuila 6,736 223,715 33 . 21 296 115,026 8,559,312 74 -4 1 604 Panama Canal (3) 436 63,390 145.38 47 German Empire 1,236,600 78,159,885 63 . 20 42,937 Europe 208,780 64,925,993 310 97 39,764 Africa 1,032,280 12,428,429 12 .04 2,901 Asia 200 168,900 844 50 272 Oceania 96,160 636,563 6.61 NOTES 1. Population for 1913, from Census Bulletin, 122. 2. Commerce of United States and outlying territory except that of Philippines, which is classed as foreign commerce. 3. Commerce for Panama Canal (entered only) included in that of Panama. 4. From Bulletin of American Republics, estimated for 1913. 5. Commerce from Bulletin of American Republics. 6. Complete data not found. 7. Entered only. 8. Tutuila only. Other French Africa and Central America, incomplete. Cuba, Havana only. 9. Cleared only. Table 5. Rail and Inland Water Transportation in United States (1912) Great Britain (1913) Germany (1912) France (1911) Rt il ways mileage 23 718 37 8^3 Railways per 1,000 square miles Railways per 10,000 population 85.25 195.00 5 15 I8l .16 5 83 150.74 7 88 Water ways mileage 30,010 4,673 8,564 10,400 Water ways per 1,000 square miles Water ways per 10,000 population 9.91 38.42 41 .01 50.23 2 63 Tonnage by rail in millions of tons Tonnage by water in millions of tons. . Tonnage % total by rail 1,844.98 244.42 88 30 371.5 43-2 89 58 675.04 113.9 85 56 206.53 42.02 83 OQ Tannage % total by water 1 1 . 70 10.42 14.44 I6.9I REFERENCE TABLES and Commerce of the Principal Countries of the World XIX AND COLONIAL COUNTRIES Year Total Exports Total Imports Per cent of exports to U.S. Per cent of imports from U.S. Tonnage entered and cleared 1913 5,938,210,922 3,085,226,784 6,701,225,832 3,736,050,831 9-49 9.36 18.61 18.42 392,707,988 164,810,000 1913 1913 856,912,012 417,273,870 795,773,698 422,762,896 7.10 2. II 17,386,408 82,748,538 1913 1913 1913 508,246,737 588,658,893 476,583,500 889,122,620 503,052,885 453,661,913 776,990,683 768,393,103 3.03 2.84 28.64 3-31 10.42 4-73 56.35 3-91 15,277,003 32,870,285 56,740,727 31,574-235 1913 1913 1913 1913 73,774,620 1,509,400,911 1,227,441,600 99,241,200 89,382,026 90,292,603 1,926,147,019 1,637,042,400 129,762,000 81,765,684 .17 9.21 6.64 0.63 4.00 7.96 10.54 1.94 7,325,235 94,861,984 53,739,117 13,081,660 20,783,825 75 073,014 61,195,510 4,457,749 1913 1913 12,937,891 5,325,i8o 2,519,567,475 11,183,484 5,197,935 1,869,335,767 3-23 19.00 16.76 16.03 2,023,878 775,755 110,584,152 2 347 025 648 i 718,002,051 101,191,132 1913 1913 1913 1913 26,112,978 49,103,565 43,641,958 53,683,326 21,809,533 36,900,062 36,296,588 56,327,533 94-34 82.55 98.17 39.13 95-49 89-85 84.70 45.o6 1,110,400 685,258 3,297,339 3,700,023 1913 1912,1913 1913 1910,11,12 2,528,701,434 2,478,429,900 24,338,078 19,362,520 6,570,936 2,758,288,799 2,723,231,988 30,040,170 1,442,922 3,573,719 7-50 6.84 2.78 12.05 14 95 1.87 73,079,079 65,148,111 5,635,835 1,298,622 996,5H 10. Commerce figures of Austria-Hungary from report of common customs territory. Commerce of Bosnia and Herzegovina included. Special commerce of Hungary given separately. n. Commerce for Russia as a whole; not given separately for different divisions. 12. Commerce of Turkish Empire as a whole; separate figures not given. 13. Figures for commerce of Chinese Republic as a whole, incomplete. 14. Commerce of Russia in Asia included in Russian Empire. 15. Area given that of Nile Valley only. Entire territory about 350,000 square miles. Tonnage includes Suez Canal. 16. Compiled from statistics for British Empire in Statesman's Year Book, .1:913. 17. Includes Luxemberg. Some of the Principal Commercial Countries Austria-Hungary (1912) Russia in Europe (1912) Belgium (191.1) Canada (1913) 48,251 35,987 5,335 29,304 199.80 17.20 469 . 09 8.13 9.76 2.40 7.19 40.66 7,784 116,891 1,238 2,700 32.23 55.85 108.83 7S 1-57 7.78 1.67 3-75 242.84 227.75 72 \o6.99 10.36 33.6o 58.8 52.05 95.91 87.14 55.05 67.27 4.09 12.86 44-95 32.73 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY Table 6. Commerce of the United States with Foreign Countries and with Non-contiguous Territory by Classes of Commodities (From U.S. Statistical Abstract, 1913, and Monthly Summary of Commerce and Finance, June, 1914.) A. EXPORTS FROM UNITED STATES. (Values in Millions of Dollars.) * S'c ii** a o G ^ -~ ti W 1 *o? ^ 'O O ii X GRAND DIVISIONS 111* -o"o rt Q ^ rt w S crc a ^R2 is d-3 o H fe fe E * To No. America . . . 33-35 61 . 70 97.76 95.48 301.94 5-75 595.98 To So. America . . . 1.84 13.38 2.64 28.11 99.66 . 10 145-73 To Oceania 98 6 34 3 58 9. 96 58 04 .05 78 95 To Asia 9 31 60 12 114 78 To Africa 3 18 2 83 2 29 17 O? 10 To Europe 138.83 224.87 594-66 263 .66 239.47 2.51 1,464.00 Total values .... 181.91 321 .20 731.76 408.81 776.30 8.53 2,428.51 B. IMPORTS INTO UNITED STATES. (Values in Millions of Dollars.) From No. America From So. America. From Oceania From Asia 49.28 H3-33 1.58 21 09 IO2 .91 .84 4.90 9 01 123.80 71 .91 23-17 147 85 54 13 29-44 4.85 43 5 2 30.64 2. 10 3 00 54- ^5 I. 18 .13 .04 47 361.94 217.75 37-54 276 49 From Africa . . . . 22 .01 25 . 76 17 .16 . 10 26 42 From Europe Total values. . . . 26.25 211 .75 76.57 194.24 242.72 635.21 217.29 349.40 317.73 408. 18 12.31 14.23 892.87 1,813.01 C. EXPORTS FROM UNITED STATES. (By per cent of Total Value.) To No. America. . . To So. America. . . 1.37 .08 .04 2.54 55 .26 4.02 . II 15 3-93 1.16 .41 12.43 4.11 2 39 .237 .004 002 24.53 6.01 To Asia 15 47 1 .25 38 2.48 .001 4 73 To Africa . 13 . 15 . II .09 7O .004 I 18 5 72 9 26 24 49 10 86 9 86 Total per cents . 7-49 13.23 30.13 16 . 83 3L97 0.351 100.00 D. IMPORTS INTO UNITED STATES. (By per cent of Total Value.) From No. America 2.72 5-68 6.83 2.99 I .69 .065 19.97 From So. America. 6.25 OS 3-97 1.62 . II .007 12.01 From Oceania .09 .27 1.28 .27 .16 .002 2 .07 I 16 8 15 From Europe 1.45 4.22 13-39 II .98 17.53 .6/9 49.25 Total per cents . . 11.68 10.72 35.'H 19.27 22.51 .784 ion .00 E. EXPORTS FROM UNITED STATES TO NON-CONTIGUOUS TERRITORY (Values in Millions of Dollars.) To Alaska i . 50 4.86 .27 2.40 ii .07 .08 20. I 8 To" Hawaii I 74 471 81 3 64 28 To Philippines . . . 3.65 . II 1.82 19. 20 .006 25.36 To Porto Rico .... 6.08 7.82 72 2.44 15 09 .07 32.22 Total values .... 9.89 21 .04 1.91 10. 30 64 59 .436 108. 17 F. IMPORTS INTO UNITED STATES FROM NON-CONTIGUOUS TERRITORY (Values in Millions of Dollars.) From Alaska 55 17.45 4.65 .35 .006 23.01 From Hawaii .63 40.61 .26 05 . II 41 .66 From Philippines. . 5.64 12. 19 . II 2.99 20.93 From Porto Rico. . 3.16 27 -39 3-35 03 6.08 .01 40.02 Total values .... 4-34 91 .09 20.45 . 19 9-53 .016 125.62 THE INDEX All figures refer to pages; heavier type is used for the more important references. Abaca, 90, 225, 227. Aberdeen, 400. Abrantes, 379. Abyssinia, 346, 353; coffee, 89, 353; commerce, 353. Acadia, 245. Acapulco, 260. Acre, 342. Adana, 343- Adelaide, 295, 297, 298. Adelsbrrg Pass, 385. Aden, 336; British naval station, 337, 406. Aderar, 352. Adirondacks, 112, 117, 122. Adrianople, 368. Adriatic, 364, 366, 367, 382, 385. .Sgean Sea, 339, 367. Afghanistan, 331, 332; commerce, 333, 334. 436. Africa, 8, 30, 34, 86, 250, 328, 344-359, 396, 406; climate, 346; coast line, 24, 346; coffee, 272, 354; exports, 8, 353, 354; inhabitants, 344; irrigation in, 345, 348, 350; gold, 203, ,356; human porterage in, 64; map (Fig. 230), between 344, 345; horn of, 353; equatorial, com- merce of, 354; North, 86, 349-352; commerce, 351, 352; exports, 351; imports, 351; minerals, 351; products, 351; South, 8 1, 405; climate, 356; commerce, 358; commerce of British (Fig. 237), 358; exports, 358; other resources, 83, 356; products of the soil, 355, 356; trade routes and trade centers, 357; "white man's," 354, 355. African Islands, in Atlantic, 358, 359; Indian Ocean, 359. Agassiz, Lake, glacial, 18, 150. Agate, 188. Agaves, 257; cutting agave leaves for sisal fiber in Yucatan (Fig. 177), 257. Agram, 385. Agricultural implement industry, 122, 158. Agriculture, first developed, 3, 5; primi- tive woman first in, 5; primitive man despised, 5; made possible growth of commercial and manufacturing cities, 5; civilization based on, 15; how low- lands affect, 17, 18; upland valleys affect, 19, 20; mountains affect, 20; results of law of decreasing returns in, 57; imposes restrictions on man, 83, 84; tended to preserve race integrity of English in America, 103; Indian squaw's method, 105; Northern and Southern types of, 105, 106; in North Atlantic, South, North Central, and West [U. S.] (Fig. 64), in; westward migration of U. S. centers (Fig. 98), 157; industry of U. S. (Fig. 134), 200; exports [U. S.], why they must eventually decline, 201, 202 ; law of decreasing returns in, 202; possibilities of Alaska 213, 214;- in Philippines, 225; scientific methods of Germany, 420; for agriculture in other countries, see under the country; see also Soil. Aguascalientes, 259. Air nitrates, 410. Airplane (Fig. 33), 71. Aix-la-Chapelle, 421, 423. Akron, 106, 160. Alaska, 25, 29, 195; agricultural possi- bilities, 213, 214; character of, 210; commerce, 214, 215; exports, 214.; (Fig. 147), 214; fisheries and forests, 210-212; fisheries and minerals (Fig. 144), 211; fur farms, 210; homestead unit, 214; imports, 214; map (Fig. 129), facing 197; mineral resources, 212, 213; mountains, 210; transporta- tion, 215, 216. Alaskan islands, importance to U. S., 216. Albanians, 363. Albany [Australia], 298; [N.Y. 1,107,122,129. Albula Tunnel, 389. Alcohol, 90, 160, 392. Aleppo, 6, 342. Alexandretta, 342, 343. Alexandria, 8, n. Alfalfa, 282. Algeria, 171, 349, 350, 351, 397; products, 351- Allegheny, 122; River, 107; Plateau, 18. 112, I 15, I2O. Allentown, 122. Allied and Assoc: jd Powers, 429. Alligator, 81. Allspice (Pimento), in Jamaica, 264. Almaden, 378. Almeria, 378, 379. Almonds, 36, 85; Iberian Peninsula, 378; Italy, 372; Morocco, 351; U. S., 183; harvest (Fig. 117), 184. Aloe fiber, 359. Alpaca, 65, 83, 270. Alps, 360, 361, 367, 379, .381, 386, 389, 393, 413; mineral district, 383; rail- ways, 374; tunnels, 13, 374, 385, 389; water power, 371. Alsace-Lorraine, 393, 397. Altoona, railway cars, 122. Aluminum, Switzerland, 388; U. S., 122. Amapala, 261. Amazon River, 18, 34, 268, 272, 277, 286. Amber, 8, n, 421. Ambergris, 263. American expansion, causes of, 229; in the Caribbean, 229-242; in the Pacific, 210-228. American Mediterranean, 254. XXI COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY American people, 103, 104. Ammunition, 119. Amoy, 318. Amsterdam [Neth.], 74, 414, 415, 416; [N. Y.J, 118. Amur River, 435, 436. Anatolia (Asia Minor), 8, 338, 339, 340, 341; ports, 343. Anchovies, Mediterranean, 373, 378. Anderson [Ind.J, 165. Andes Mountains, 65, 83, 268, 271, 278, 280, 281, 285, 286; climate, fertility, 268, 269; minerals, 283; population, 270; products, 273; railways, 277; water power, 276. Andorra, 362, 380, 397. Anegada Passage, 266. Angola, 356. Angora goats, Turkey-in-Asia, 339; in the dry Southwest [U. S.] (Fig. 40), 82. Animal fibers, 81, 83. Animals, domestic, in China, 314; wild, uses of, 78. Annam, 326. Annatto, 264. Anspnia [Conn.], 119. Antilles, greater, 254; lesser, 262, 263, 264. Antimony, in China, 315; France, 393; Greece, 365; Japan, 304; Turkey, 341- Antioch, 8, 10. Antofagasta, 287; line, 285. Antwerp, commercial museum and school of commerce at, 416; important as sea- port, 27,404,453; as market, 12,415,417. Anzacs, 294. Anzin, 394; coal field, 392. Aparri, 228. Apennines, 371, 374, 376; lignite and petroleum in, 373. Apia, 293. Appalachian Mountains, 98, 99, 100, 130, 140, 145; coal fields of, 160; as a barrier to development of the country, 101, 106, 107, 108. Apples, 86; in Canada, 245, 246; France, 392; Tasmania, 296; U.S., 140, 183, 200. Apulia, 371. Aqueducts, built by Romans, 70. Arabia, 35, 328, 336, 352; commerce, 337; exports, 8, 336, 337; products, 336, 337. Arabs, their importance in commerce, 3, 337; Arab plowing in North Africa (Fig. 235), 350. Archangel, 437. Ardennes Plateau, 413, 414. 429. Areas of principal countries, xiv. Argentina, 83, 269; climate, 280; com- merce (Fig. 192), 288; forests, 281; harbor, 287; minerals, 283; population, 270; products, agricultural, 282, 285, 288; railways, 285, 286; stock raising, 83, 281, 288; the U. S. of S. Am., 286. Arica, 285; nut, 224. Arlberg Tunnel, 385, 389, 395. Armenia, 335, 435. Artesian well, at Woonsocket, S. Dakota. (Fig. 104), 171; artesian wells in Sahara, 352. Asbestos, Quebec, 248; Siberia, 433. Ash, 151. Ashtabula, 164. Asia, 35, 36, 250, 396, 430; coffee, 272; fur, 198; gold, 203; map (Fig. 201), between 300, 301; silk, 83; opium, 89; Southern, 324-3345 Western, 335-343! why western Asia is of special interest, 3355 trade routes, 342-343. Asia Minor, see Anatolia. Asiatic empires, 430. Asphaltum, in California, 187; Cuba, 237; France, 393; Switzerland, 387; Trinidad, 264; Turkey, 341; Utah, 187, Venezuela, 275; U. S., southern, 143. Assafcetida, 333. Assam, 331. Assuan, 349; down-stream fall of Assuan dam (Fig. 234), 348. Astoria, 177. Astrakhan, 437. Asuncion, 287. Atacama Desert, 283. Athabaska River, 245, 248. Athens, 8, 28, 193, 364, 365. Atlanta, 27, 145, 146, 147. Atlantic, highway of commerce, 13, 100. Attar of roses, 367, 368. Auburn, 115, 122. Augsburg, 423, 426. Augusta, 145. Aukland, 292, 293, 298. Aurora, 164. Aussig, 384. Australasia, British, 293, 294; colonies and commerce, 298, 299; commercial cen- ters, 297, 298; crops, 295, 296; exports, 298, 299; forests and fisheries, 294; manufactures, 296, 297; minerals, 296; stock industry, 294, 295; surface and climate, 294; transportation, 297. Australia, 30, 31, 35, 8r, 83, 194, 221, 250, 292, 293, 405; crops and commerce, 295, 296, 299 (Fig. 198), 299; minerals, 203, 299; traction engine and wagon in (Fig. 28), 66; transportation, 65, 66, 297. Austria, see Austria-Hungary. Austria-Hungary, 381-385, 427; commerce, 384, 385; exports, 384, 409, 441. 442 (Fig. 249), 384; fisheries, 382, 383; gov- ernment, 381; imports, 384; manufac- tures, 383; map (Fig. 248), 382; min- erals, 203, 378, 383; population, 201, 381, 450; possessions, 385; products, 381, 382; transportation, and trade routes, 384, 385, 452, xix; water power, 383; Austria and Hungary, conflict between, 42, 381, 384. Automobile industry, 164. Azores, 378. Babylon, 6, 38, 339, 34, 342. Bacon, Ireland, 399; Denmark, 411. Bagdad, 6, n, 334, 343. Baguio, 223. Bahamas, 262, 263. Bahia, 273, 274, 279. Bahia Blanca, 287. Baku, 433, 435, 439. Balata, 271, 273. Balboa, 241; steel pier at (Fig. 193), 289. Balkan Mountains, 368, 369, 370. Balkan Peninsula and Roumania, 363- 370, 427; map (Fig. 242), 362; why undeveloped, 363, 364. Balkh, ii. Balsam copaiba, 271. "Balsam of Peru," 256. THE INDEX xxiil Baltic Sea, n, 360, 384, 410, 411, 421, 426, 427, 434. 437, 439- Baltimore, 27, 112, 114, 119, 122, 123, 125, 126, 128, 155. Baluchistan, 327, 332. Bamboo, China, 312, 316; India, 329; Japan (Pig. 203), 302; Philippines, 224. Bananas, 85; Australia, 296; Ceylon, 329; Cuba, 236; Fiji, 293; Haiti, 265; Hawaii, 218; Jamaica, 264; Middle America, 256; Panama, 239; Philippines, 225; Porto Rico, 232; S. America, 275, 278; Sudan, 352. Banat, 369. Banff, 248. Bangkok, 327. Bangor, 112. Banking System, 47. Baracoa, 237. Barada, gorge, 342; River, 341. Barbados, 230, 264, 266, 406. Barbuda, 264. Barcelona, 278, 377, 3?8, 379, 395- Bariloche, 285. Barley, 87, 88; Africa, 351; Alaska, 214; Austria-Hungary, 88, 382; Canada, 88; Chile, 282; Egypt, 346; Germany, 88, 421; Great Britain, 88, 399; Greece, 365; Iberian Peninsula, 377; Iranian Peninsula, 333; Ireland, 402; Italy, 371; Japan, 88, 303; New Zealand, 296; Nor- way, 409; Russia, 88; Scotland, 402; S. America, 273; Spain, 88, 377; Syria, 340; Tasmania, 296; U. S., 88, 154, 181; world crop (Fig. 44), 88. Barmen-Elberfeld, 423. Barquisimeto, 278. Barranquilla, 278. Barrios, 260. Barrow-in-Furness, 401, 402. Barter, origin of, I. Basel, 388, 389, 425. Basswood, 151. Batavia, 325. Bath, 119. Batum, 435. Bauxite, 393. Bavarian Plateau, 421. Bay City, 157. Bay trees, 266. Bayonne, 120, 126. Beans, 114; Africa, 351; China, 313-315, 321; Chosen, 308; Egypt, 346; Italy, 371; Manchuria, 314; Middle America, 257; Porto Rico, 231; S. America, 273; United States, 155; castor, Cape Verde Islands, 358. Beaver, in Canada, 245. Beef Extract, S. America, 284. Bee-keeping industry, 80, 420; Austria- Hungary, 381; Switzerland, 387; U. S., 174- Beer, 90; Milwaukee, 160; St. Lonis, 160; Munich, 424; Czecho-Slovakia, 383. Beeswax, Africa, 353; Cuba, 236; Haiti, 265; Madagascar, 359. Beet sugar, see Sugar, beet. Beira, 357. Beirut, 6, 340-342. Belfast, 402, 403, 405. Belfort Gap, 389, 395- Belgian coal fields, 414. Belgian Congo, 272, 417. Belgium, 413; commerce (Fig. 265), 416; exports, 413,' 416; imports, 416; indus- trial education, 416; manufactures, 414; map (Fig. 263), 412; minerals, 203, 414; natural resources, 413; occupa- tions of people, 451; population, 450, 451; railway mileage (Fig. 289), 452; trade routes and centers, 414, 415; transportation, rail and inland water, xix. Belgrade, 369, 383. Bellingham, 195. Bender Abbas, 334. Bengal, 324, 331. Benguet Highlands, 226. Beni River, 277. Benue River, 354. Benzine, 96. Benzoin, 325. Berber, 346, 349. Berbera, 353- Berea grit, 165. Bergen, 408, 410. Bering River, 213; Sea, 198, 215; Strait, 301. Berkshire Hills, 123. Berlin, 375, 379, 389, 395, 396, 412, 415, 426, 427. Bermudas, 25, 262, 263. Beryl, 188. Besancon, 394. Betel leaf, 224. Bhutan, 327. Bielefeld, 423. Biella, 373- Big Horn River, 177. Bilbao, 379. Binghamton, 115. Birch, in U. S., 151; Canada, 245. Birmingham [Ala.], 21, 145, 148; [Eng.], 403, 414. "Black belt," 130. Black Forest, 426; industries of, 422, 424. Black Hills, 100, 161. Black Sea, n, 335, 343, 360, 369, 370, 384, 434. 435, 437, 438; ports, 37O. Black-waxy region, 140, 144. Blankets, Africa, 351; Mexico, 259. Bleiberg, 383. Bloomington, 159- Blue grass district, 131, 134, 135. Blue Ridge, 20, 99, 142, 146. Bogota, 269, 273, 275, 277, 278. Bohemia (Czecho-Slovakia), products, 381, 382; minerals, 383. Bois Brule, 106. Bolivia, 273, 276, 277, 278, 285-287; minerals, 275, 283. Bologna, 372, 374- Boma, 354. Bombay, 331. Bona, 351. Borate of lime, 284. Borax, California, 188; Italy, 373. Bordeaux, 392, 393, 395, 396. Borneo, 324, 325, 406; "edible birds' nests," 325. Bosnia (Serb-Crote-Slovene State), 385. Bosporus, 343. 368, 438. Boston, 25, 27. 112, 114, 117, 118, 124, 245; harbor, map (Fig. 74), 124. Boulogne, 396. Bounties, government, 44. Braddocks Trail, 107. XXIV COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY Bradford [Eng.], 402; [Pa.], 120. Brahmaputra River, 331. Braila, 370. Brandy, 90, 367; Cognac, 392. Brass, 93, 119, 122. Brazil, 34, 269, 270, 277, 279, 280, 282, 285; cocoa, 272, 273, 288; coffee, 201, 272, 273, 274, 288; coffee trust, 274; commerce, 290 (Fig. 192); manu- factures, 276; minerals and precious stones, 275, 283, 330; ports, 286; rub- ber, 272, 288; tapioca, 86. Brazil nuts, 271. Brazil wood, 271. Bread fruit, 85. Bremen, 418, 427. Bremerhaven, tobacco market, 427. Brenner Pass, 375, 446. Breslau, 420. Brest, 28. Brick, 123, 165; invention of, 92. Bridgeport, 119. Brindisi, 365, 375. Bringing goods to market on sailing wheelbarrows (Fig. 214), 317. Brisbane, 297, 298. Bristles, 200. Bristol, 405. British Columbia, 248. British Isles, see Great Britain. Brittany, 36.5, 393, 396. Brockton, 117, 160. Broken Hill, 356. Bronze goods, 394. Brookline, 124. Brooklyn, 1 14. Bruges, 74, 413, 415; ancient trade center, 12, 415. Brusa, 340, 341. Brussels, 414, 416. Buckwheat, 88; France, 392; U. S., TIJ. Budapest, 384, 385. Budweis, 383. Buenaventura, 279. Buenos Aires, 277, 280, 282, 285, 286. Buffalo, IO8, 114, 122, 12", 128, I2<), If>7, 169, 251. Bukarest, 370. Bukhara, 436, 439; rugs, 433. Bukowina, 369. Bulgaria, 367, 368, 369, 370. Buiuwayo, 357. Burgas, 370. Burlington [Iowa], 157; [Vt.j, 112. Burma, 326, 332; rice teak, 329; rubies, jade, 330. Bushire, 334. Busra, 343. Butte, 91, 185, 188, 193. Butter, 55, So, 114; Australia, So; Canaries, 358; Denmark, 80, 411; Fin- land, 80; France, cHo; Ireland, 309; Netherlands, 80; \e\v Zealand, 80; Russia, 80, 431, 438; Sweden, 80, 409. Butterine, 55. Buttons, 158. Cabbage, i 14. Cable centers, 222, 266. Cable routes, map (Fig. 52), 88. Cabuyaro, 277. Cadiz (Gades), 7, 379. Cairo, 349. Calais, 394, 396. Calcutta, 241, 330, 331. Callao, 279. Cambodia, 326. Cambridge, 124. Camden, 118. Camels, in Asia, 315; Iranian Plateau, 332; Russia, 432; Sahara, 352; Turkey- in-Asia, 339; caravans, 65. Camphor, in Ceylon, 330; Florida, 142; Taiwan, 302. Campos, 34, 268, 270. Camwood, 354. Canada, 243-253, 405; cheese, 246; climate and surface, 37, 243, 244; commerce, 252. 253 (Fig. 174), 252; commercial centers, 250-252; exports, 199, 252, 409; farming in, 245-247; fisheries, 244, 245; forest products, 199, 202, 245; fur, 78, 198, 245; imports, 252; land under grass and crops (Fig. 173), 247; making of, 243; map (Fig. 180), facing 268; manufactures, 44, 248, 249; minerals, 203, 247, 248, (Fig. 173), 247; parlia- ment, 243; population (Fig. 173), 247; postal rates, 61; transportation, 240, 249, 250, xix; U. S., relations to, 252, 253; as world granary, 282. Canals, 73; controlled by railroads, 128; in France, 394, 395; Great Britain, 403; Hungary, 384; Netherlands, 415; U.S., 127-128; Mississippi system, 166; ship canals, 73, 74, 124, 427. Canal Zone, see Panama Canal. Canary Islands, ^59, 378; exports, 358. Candles, 158; in France, 394. Cane Sugar, see Sugar, cane. Canning industry, United States, 190. Canton [China], 315, 318; [Ohio], 164; River, 121. Cape Cod Canal, 124. Cape-to-Cairo Railway, 354, 357. Cape Town, 357. Cape Verde Islands, 358, 359. Cap Harden, 265. Caracas, 260, 273. Caravan, near walls of Peking (Fig. 2), 4. Cardenas, 237. Cardiff, 404. Caribbean Sea, 234; ports of, 278. Carobs, in Cyprus, 340; Greece, 365; Iberian Peninsula, 377. Caroline Islands, 222, 291-293. Carp, German, 421. Carpathian Mountains, 360, 369, 383. Carpets, in Africa. 351; Brussels, 414; France, 394; Great Britain (Kidder- minster, Wilton), 402; Russia, 434; Turkey, 368; U. S., 118. Carrara marble, 373- Cars, 70, 122, 389. Cart, influence of its invention, 66. Cartagena, [S. Am.], 278; [Spain], 379. Carthage, 7, X, 351. Carving, in jade, ivory, wood, 315. Cascade Mountains, 21, 101, 102. Cascades, the, 190. Cascalote pods, 259. Cashmere shawls, in Ceylon and India, 331. Cash register, 164. Caspian Sea, 95, 433-438. Cassava, 272, 273. Cassia, in China, 313. THE INDEX Castor beans, India, .529; plant, China, 315. Castries Harbor, 264. Cattle 79, 81 , in Alaska, 213; Argentina, 83; Australasia 295; Austria-Hungary, 81,381; Canada, 247; Central America, 256; Ceylon, 81; Channel Islands, 399; Cuba, 235; France, 391; Germany, 81, 420; Great Britain, 399; Hawaii, 217; Iberian Peninsula, 377; India, 81; Italy, 371; Madagascar, 359; Monte- negro, 368; Netherlands, 413; New Caledonia, 293; Xew Zealand, 295; Oklahoma, 134; Porto Rico, 231; Rou- mania, 369; Russian Empire, 81; Scan- dinavian Peninsula, 409; Serbia, 367; Africa, 356; S. America, 81, 281; Sudan, 352; Texas, 113, 134; U. S., 81, 156. 172, 189; (Fig. 39), 81. Caucasus Mountains, 360. Caucho, 272. Caviare, 433. Cawnpur, 331. Cayey, 231. Ceara, 279; rubber, 272. Cebu, 228. Cedar, in Cuba, 235; Japan, 302; Middle America, 256; Porto Rico, 231; U. S., 175; Cedars of Lebanon, 7. Cedar Rapids, 159. Celery, 155. Celluloid, 302. Cement, Portland, 123; (Fig. 73), 123. Central America, 35, 148, 149, 240, 254- 262; climate and surface, 254; com- merce, 261, 262, 272; inhabitants, 255; map (Fig. 194). facing 290, manufac- tures, 259; minerals, 203, 258; products of the soil, 256-258,272; resources, other natural, 258; transportation, 259-261. Central Plain, 98, 100. Cereals, 87, 88. Cerro de Pasco, 275. Ceuta, 350, 380. Ceylon, 327-331, 406; animal products, 328, 329; climate and surface, 328; ex- ports, 312, 329 minerals, 330, products of the soil, 329, 330. Value of graphite mined (Fig. 2241, 330. Chambly Canal, 249. Champagne, to, 394. Champlain, Lake. 99, 106, 112, 127, 249. Channel Islands, 399, 405. Charcoal, 120. Charleroi, 414, 415. Charleston, 143, 146. Charlotte, 145. Chattanooga, 144, 146, 147. Cheese, 80; Canada, 80; France, 80; Italy, 80; Netherlands, 80; New York, 114; Ontario, 246} Switzerland, 80; 387; U. S., 80. Chelsea, 118. 'Chemical industry, Great Britain, 403; Germany, 424, 449; U. S., 206, 424. Chemnitz, 424. (Jhemulpe, 309. Chesapeake and Delaware Canal, 146. Chesapeake Bay, 25, 109, 112, 114, 128, 146. Chester, 122. Chestnuts, 85; France. 391; Iberian Pen- insula, 377; Italy, 371; U. S., 133. Chicago, 27, 106, 108, 129, 158, 159. 160, 164, 167, 168, 169, 250, 252; Drainage Canal, 167; River, 106, 166. Chick-peas, Africa, 86, 351; Spain, 86, 377; Italy, 372, Mexico, 257. Chicle, Central America, 256;Germany,42i. Chicory, 413, 421. Chifu, 320, 322. Chihli, Gulf of, 319, 322. Chihuahua, 258. Chile, 241, 269; climate, physical features, 280, 287; commerce, 287-289' exports, 281, 283, 284; forests, 281 manufac- tures, 284; minerals. 283, 296; nitrate industry, 54, 92, 283, 284; products, 281, 282; railroads, 285. China, "Dresden," 424. China, Republic of, 10, n, 47, 60, 83, 89, 132, 142, 241, 250, 307, 310-323, 361, 362, 436, 437; agriculture, 56, 312-315; animals, domestic, 314; centers, com- mercial, 318-320; commerce, 320, 321, (Fig. 216), 321; experts, 320, 321, 322; fisheries and forests, 312; foreign pos- sessions, 321-323; human porterage in, 64; imports, 321; loess, beds of, 17; manufactures, 315-316; map (Fig. 209), 311; merchant guilds, 320; mineral resources, 315; national characteris- tics, 5, 40, 41, 310; physical features. 35, 310-312; transportation, 316-318. "China wax," 312. Chinchilla, 281. Chinkiang, 319. Chinnampo, 309. Chinook winds, 30 Chocolate, 89; Netherlands, 414; Switzer- land, 387, 389. Chosen (Korea), 307, 308, 309, 322, map (Fig. 199), 300; products, 308; trade routes, 309. Christiania, 409, 410; Bay, 410. Chrome, Greece, 365; New Caledonia, 293. Chromium, Turkey, 341. Chunking, 319. Cider, 90. Cienfuegos, 238. Cigarettes, in Egypt, 348. Cigars, Philippines, 226, 228; Porto Rico, 232. Cinchona, India, 324; Java, 324; S. Amer- ica, 271, 324; world's production of cinchona bark (Fig. 218), 324. Cincinnati, 27, 144, 146, 146, 151, 158, 159, 160, 164, 165, 169. Cinnamon, 88; Ceylon and India, 330; Philippines, 226. Cirenaica, 349. Cities, beginning of, 5; see also names of cities. Citrons, Corsica, 392; Italy, 372. Ciudad Bolivar, 278. Civet, .553. Civilization, defined, 38, 49; based on the soil, 15; first step upward, 39; Fluvial or "valley" stage, 5; Mediterranean stage, 5; Oceanic stage, 5. Clams, iii, 198. Clam-shell scoop, taking a 1 2-ton bite (Fig. 101), 163. Clay, 123; products in Ohio, 165. Clearing houses, 47. Cleveland, 160, 164, 166, 167. Climate, 29; how commerce depends on, 29-38; how forests affect, 23; moun- COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY tains affect, 21; relation of, to man, 38; climatic belts, 32, 33; weather map (Fig. 2ia), 36; vertical zones of, in tropical America (Fig. 176), 256; .for c'imate of different countries, see un'der the country. Clinton, 157. Clothing, ready-made, 118, 160. Clover, 93; Egypt, 346. Cloves, 88. Clyde River, 403, 404. Coal, 95, 96, 97, 128, 448; annual con- sumption, per capita (Fig. 283), 449; in Alabama, 143, 148; Alaska, 212; Alle- gheny-Cumberland Plateau, 143, 145, 147; Anatolia, 341; Appalachians, 160; Australia, 296; Austria-Hungary, 203, 378, 449; Belgium, 414, 449; Brazil, 275; Bulgaria, 367; Canada, 97, 248, 249; China, 97, 315, 316; Chosen, 308; Colo- rado, 187; Czecho-Slovakia, 383; Eng- land, 208, 447; France, 203, 378, 393, 394, 422, 449; Germany, 203, 378, 421- 424, 449; Great Britain, 203, 304, 400-4, 402, 447, 449; Iberian Peninsula, 378; India, 330; Indo-China, 326; Italy, 373; Japan, 304, 307, 449; Luxemburg, 428; Malaysia, 325; Mexico, 258, 259; New Mexico, 187; New Zealand, 296; Ozark region, 143; Panama, 239; Pennsylva- nia, 258; Philippines, 226; Poland, 383, 433; Rocky Mountain region, 186, 187; Russia, 401, 433, 449; Scotland, 401; Serbia, 367; Siberia, 433; S. Africa. 356; S. America, 283; Switzerland, 387; Transcaucasia, 433; U. S., 97, 116, 119, 120, 143, 160, 203, 204, 207, 208, 449, map (Fig. 70), 120; Wales, 402, 403; Washington, 187; Yezo, 304; esti- mated fields of the wprld (Fig. 51), 97; coal and iron fields in Alabama, map (Fig. 92), 145; in Central Europe, map (Fig. 268), 422; locations, most valu- able, 447; necessary to manufactories, 119; where best grades are found, 21. Coal distillation, industrial products of (Fig. 50), 97; coal tar, 55, 96, 209. Coaling and naval stations, 216, 220, 221, 222, 239, 263, 266, 287, 307, 349, 380. Coastal Plain, 98, 99, 100. Coast Range [U. S.J, ipi, 171, 177, 193, 210. Cobalt, New Caledonia, 293; Ontario, 248. Cocaine, S. America, 271. Cochabamba, 269. Cochineal insect, 358. Cocoa (or cacao), 33, 89, 442, 443; in Africa, 272, 354; Antilles, Lesser, 264; Brazil, 271-273, 288, 443; Caracas, 273; Central America, 256; Ceylon, 329; Ecuador, 272, 273, 443; Guam, 222; Gulf of Guinea Islands, 359; Haiti, 265, 272; Hawaii, 218; Philippines, 226; Samoa, 293; San Thmmd, 272; Santo Domingo, 272; Trinidad, 264, 272; Venezuela, 272; West Indies, 266, 272; the largest consumer, 443; cocoa pods in Ecuador, gathering (Fig. 187), 274. ^ocoanuts, 85; in Central America, 256; Ceylon, 329; Cuba, 236; Fiji, 293; Florida, 142; India, 329; Indian Ocean, Islands of, 359; Jamaica, 264; New Guinea, 293; Panama, 239; Philippines, 225, 227; Purto Rico, 232; S. America, 275; cocoanut palm, the uses of (Fig. 42), 86. Cod fish, 79; Alaska, 211; Canada, 245; Great Britain, 399; Lofoten Bank, 408; U. S., ill, 112, 198. Cod-liver oil, in. Coffee, 34, 35, 442, 443; in Africa, 272, 354, 355; Abyssinia, 89, 353; Arabia, 336, 337; Asia, 272; Brazil, 201, 258, 272, 273, 274, 277, 279, 287, 288, 443; Central America, 257, 258, 272, 443; Ceylon, 330; Colombia, 272; Cuba, 236; Gulf of Guinea Islands, 359; Haiti, 264, 265; Hawaii, 218, 219; India, 330; Jamaica, 264; Java, 324; Liberia, 354; Mexico, 257, 258, 272; New Caledonia, 293; Panama, 239; Philippines, 225; Porto Rico, 230, 231, 232, 233, 443; Venezuela, 272, 277; West Indies, 266, 272; U. S., the largest consumer, 443; first coffee market in the world, 415; picking coffee near Sao Paulo (Fig. 1 86), 273; coffee tree with berries, branch of (Fig. 161), 231. Cohoes, 115, n8, 129. Coins, value of principal foreign, xiii. Coir, 329. Coke, 55, 96, 120, 121, 209. Cola nuts, 354. Colgate, 190. Collars, 1 1 8, 402. Collingwood, 250. Cologne, 427. Colombia, 269, 272, 275, 278. Colombo, 331. Colon, 239. Colonies, of Australasia, 298, 299; Ger- many, 429; the Low Countries, 416, 417; see also Possessions under coun- tries. Colorado River, 101, 179; Grand Canon, 18; relief map of lower (Fig. 112), 180. Columbia [S. C.], 145. Columbia, Gap, 170; River, 101, 177, 181, 190, 191, 193, 194, 195- Columbus, 164. Colza seed, 369. Commerce, growth and factors of, 1-97; beginnings of, 1-6; despised by Romans, 9; character of mediaeval, 9; character of modrrn, 14; Mediterranean Age of, 7-14; Oceanic Age of, 13, 14; factors in natural control of, 15; depends on land and sea, 15-28; affected by high plains, 18, lowlands, 18, coast lines, 24, loca- tion, 26; depends on climate, 29-38; relation of wind to, 31, 32; in the Temperate zone, 38; motive power behind, 39; depends on man, 39-48; influence of custom and morality, 41; languages of, 42; government aids, 43; bearing of education on, 47, 48; depends on economic forces, 49-58; development of transportation, 59-77; Principal raw materials of, 78-97; Dundations of, 196; basis of, 440; world industries and, 440-455; organi- zation of, 451, 452; transportation as a factor in international, 452-454; based on economic development, 455; based on climate, 455; development of world commerce (Fig. 25), 59; commerce of principal countries of the world, THE INDEX xiv-xix; see also under names of countries. Commercial, sites, typical military, naval, and, 28; highways, map (Fig. 14), between 28, 29; museums, 306, 384, 416; policies, effect of, 44; schools, 306, 373, 384, 416- 4i8. Competition and war, economic, 57-58. Concepcion, 280, 281. Condiments, 88, 89. Congo River, 34, 354, 397- Conneaut, 164. Connellsville, 120, 121, 164, 209. Conquest, right of, 344. Conservation of natural resources, 207- 209. Constantinople, 10, n, 13, 343, 363, 368, 369, 384, 396, 407, 426, 430, 438, 453- Constanza (Kustenji), 369, 370. Cook Islands, 298. Coolies, in treadmill pumping water for flooding rice fields (Fig. 211), 313; with loads and resting sticks (Fig. 213), 316. Cooperative buying and selling associa- tions, Germany, 420. Copals, 354, 417. Copenhagen, 411, 412, 426. Copiapo, 283. Copper, 21, 91, 93, 95, 122, 448; Africa. S., 356, 357; Alaska, 212; Andes, 283; Argentina, 283; Arizona, 185; Aus- tralia, 296; Canada, 203, 247; Chile, 296; China, 315; Chosen, 308; Cuba, 237; Cyprus, 7; France, 393; Germany, 12, 421; Iberian Peninsula, 203, 378; Japan, 203, 304, 307; Mexico, 203, 258; Michigan, 161, 163; Montana, 91, 185; Newfoundland, 253; Philippines, 226; Peru, 275; S. America, 203; Sweden, 409; Tennessee, 142; Turkey, 341; Urals, 433; U. S., 2, 203, 204 Superior copper and iron district, map (Fig. 99), 161. Copper Valley, 212, 214, 216. Copra, Ceylon, 329; Guam, 222; Malay Peninsula, 325; Oceania, 292; Phil- ippines, 225, 227; Samoa, 221, see also Cocoanuts. Coral, 79, 373; limestone, 130. Cordilleran Highland, 98, 100, 101, 195. Cordoba, 282, 379. Cordova, 216. Corfu, 366. Corinth, 8, 27. Corinthian Canal, 74, 365; vessel travers- ing the (Fig. 243), 366. Corinto, 261. Cork, 199; oak, 351, 371, 377. Corn, 54,87,88, 159, 172, 1 8 1, 433; in Amer- ica, 87; Argentina, 282; Australia, 296; Austria-Hungary, 87, 382; Canada, 246; Central America, 257; Bgypt, 346; France, 392; Greece, 365; Italy, 371; Philippines, 225, 227; Porto Rico, 231; Roumania, 282, 369; Russia, 282; S. America, 87, 273, 282; U. S., 87, 135, 140, 154-156, 200, 282; its influence in occupation of America by white race, 105; exports including corn meal (Fig. 190), 282; Kafir, 179; world crop (Fig. 43), 87; plant, industrial uses of (Fig. 45), 89. Cornstarch, 114. Coronel, 283, 284. Corral, 284. Corsica, 376, 392, 397. Costa Rica, 255, 260. Cotton, 35, 36, 54, 59, 89, 136, 137, 443i 444; production and value of (Fig. 46), 90; in Africa, 354, 355; Australia, 296; Brazil, 136, 274, 288; Ceylon, 330; China, 3 13, 314, 32 1 ; Chosen, 308 ; Egypt, 90, 136, 346; Greece, 365; Haiti, 265; India, 90, 136, 307, 330, 332; Iranian Plateau, 333, 334; Malaysia, 325; Mexico, 136, 257, 259; Peru, 136, 274; Porto Rico, 231; Russia, 136, 433; St. Christopher, 264; Sudan, 352; Turkey, 340; U. S., 55, 90, 130, 131, 136, 137, 140, 200, 202; Virginia, 105; picking, by hand and by machinery (Fig. 86), 138; map showing distribution of (Fig. 85), 137; destination of U. S. crop (Fig. 91), 144; industrial uses of the cotton plant (Fig. 47), 91; manufactures, 444, 445 (Fig. 279), 444; Austria, Hungary, 387, 444; Belgium, 444; Brazil, 276, 444; China, 320, 444; Czecho-Slovakia, 383; France, 387, 394, 444; Germany, 387, 423, 444, 445; Great Britain, 387, 402, 444, 445; Greece, 365; India, 331, 332, 387, 444; Italy, 373, 375, 387, 444! Japan, 306, 387, 444; Netherlands, 387, 444; Peru, 276; Portugal, 378; Russia, 387, 434, 438, 444; Spain, 387; Sweden, '409; Switzerland, 387-389, 444; U. S., 59, 117, 118, 144, 145, 337, 387, 444- 45O; exports of cotton goods per spindle (Fig. 251), 387; cotton and cotton-seed oil (Fig. 84), 136; cotton-seed oil, 55, 136, 144. Counci: Bluffs, 164. Courtrai, 413. Covington, 144. Crabs, in. Cracow, 383. Cremona, 372. Creosote, 133. Crete, 340, 362. Crimea, 432. Cripple Creek, 185. Crops, value of all [U. S.], map (Fig. 133). 199, 200. Ctesiphon, 6, 342. Cuba, 122, 148; cities, 238; climate, 235; commerce, 237, 238, (Fig. 166), 237; exports, 144, 201, 237, 238; forests, 235; imports, 237, 238; manufactures, 237; map (Fig. 164), 235; minerals, 237; population, 229, 235, 237, 262; postal rates, 61; products, 144, 201, 235-237; railroads, 237, 238; relation to U. S., 234, 238; surface, 235. Cuffs, 1 1 8, 402. Culebra, 234, 266. Cumberland Gap, 20, 107, 146. Curacao, 267; Harbor (Fig. 179), 267. Currants, 365, 366. Currents, distribution of ocean (Fig. 216), 37- Custom and morality, influence of, 41. Cutch, 329. Cuxhaven, 427. Cuyaba, 285. Cuyahoga River, 106. Cuyuna iron range, 163. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY Cuz r>, 269. Cypress, 132, 302. Cyprus, 7, 340. Czecho - Slovakia (Serb - Croat - Slovene State), 37, 381, 383. Dagupan, 227. Dairy products, 79, 80; Argentina, 281; Denmark, 80, 81; France, 391; Holland, 80; Iberian Peninsula, 377; Kansas, 156; Minnesota, 156; Nebraska, 156; Netherlands, 416; New York, 113, 114; Russia, 439; Switzerland, 80, 389; U. S., 80, 156, 174, 199; Wisconsin, 156; and substitutes (Fig. 38), 80; see also Butter, Cheese, Oleomargarine. Dallas, 143. Dalles, the, 190, 191. Dalny, 320. Damascus, 6, 337, 341, 342, 343; swords, 305. Danbury, 118. Dannemora mines, 409. Danube River, 367, 368, 369, 370, 375. 381, 384, 385, 389. 395, 422, 425, 426; States, commerce of the, 369, 370. Danville, 135. Dardanelles, 28. Dar-es-Salam, 354. Darwin, 297, 298. Dates, 35, 85; Africa, 352; Arabia, 337; Arizona, 183; California, 183; Ceylon, 329; Egypt, 346; India, 329; Meso- potamia, 340; Sahara, 352; Tunis, 351; orchard near Tempe, Arizona (Fig. 118), 185; date palms, Biskra, Algeria (Fig. 21), 36. Davenport, 157, 164. Dayton, 164. Decatur, 159. Deccan River, 331. Decreasing returns, law of, 55-57. Deep Harbor, 234. Delagoa Bay, 357. Delaware, Bay, 109, 128; River, 99, 122, 125, 127; and Raritan Canal, 127. Denmark, 407; commerce, facilities for, 411, 412; exports, 80, 411 (Fig. 262), 411; map (Fig. 258), 408; possessions, 242, 266, 412; resources, 81, 411, 420. Denver, 27, 148, 189, 192. Deodar, 329. Depot Harbor, 250. Derbent Pass, 435. Derby, 402, 403. Des Moines, 159. Detroit, 164, 165, 169. Diamonds, 95; Africa, 356, 358; Brazil, 275. Dieppe, 396. Diyi-divi pods, 271. Dnieper River. 434, 435. Dogger-Bank, 400. Dogs, in Belgium, 413; dog sled in Alaska, traveling by (Fig. 148), 215. Doldrums, 33, 34. Dominica, 264. Dominican Republic (Sanio Domingo), !(}-,. 272. Donets coal field, 433, 434. Don River, 432, 438. Dortmund-Ems Canal, 427. Dover, 405. Drave River, 364. Drawn work, Mexico, 259. Dry farming in the West [U. S.], 179, 180; map (Fig. 114), 181. Dry land areas, map (Fig. 113), 181. Dublin, 404. Dubuque, 157, 161. Duluth, 27, 129, 157, 164, 167, 168, 252. Duma, 430. Duna River, 434, 437. Dundee, 402. Dunkirk, 394, 396. Dunvegan, 246, 247. Durango, 258. Durban, 357. Durham, 144. Dusseldorf, 423. Dutch East Indies, 324, 325, 415. Dutch Harbor, 210. Dutch West Indies, 242, 266, 267. Dvina, 434, 437. Dyes, 7, 55, 96; France, 392; Germany, 423; New Jersey, 118; Switzerland, 388. Dye woods, 33, 235. Eagle, 214, 216. East Indies, exports and products, 85, 86, 199, 272, 415; Dutch, 325, 415. East Liverpool, 165. East London, 357. Easton, 122. East River, 125. East St. Louis, 164. Ebony, in Haiti, 265; Porto Rico, 231. Ebro River, 377, 379. Economic development, nature of, 49, 50. Ecuador, 277, 279; exports, 272, 276. Edmonton. 245, 250, 252. Education, technical, 48; Germany, 48, 418, 451; Netherlands, 416. Eger, 383. Eggs, 80; Canaries, 358; Denmark, 411; Iberian Peninsula, 377; Italy, 371, 375; Russia, 431, 439. Egypt, 5, 6, 8, 38, 335, 361, 406, 412; commerce, 8, 349; conquest of, by Arabs, 10; by Turks, 13; irrigation, 70, 312, 345, 348; the "shaduf" (Fig. 232), 345; natural resources, 90, 346; renaissance of, 348. Eisenerz, 383. Elba, 373. Elbe River, 405, 425-427, 384; -Trave Canal, 427. Elephants, in Ceylon and India, 328; haul- ing teak logs in Burma (Fig. 221), 328. Elevator, modern type of, at Minneapolis (Fig. 22), 45. Elgin, 164. Elizabeth, 126. Elmira, 1 12, 115. El Paso, 143, 149. El Triunfo, 261. Embargo Act, no. Emden, 427. Emeralds, Colombia, 275. Emery, in Greece. 365; Turkey, 341. Empire of the Rising Sun, 300, 301. Engadine Valley, 389. England, 24, 31, 250, 407, 426, 429; agricul- ture, 56; export of coal, 208; see also Great Britain. English Harbor, Fanning Island (Fig. 10), 25- THE INDEX XXIX Ennsbrenner, 385. Environment, adaptation to, 104, 105; influence of, 105, 106. Erie, 106, 122; Barge Canal, 107, 108, 113, 118, 127, 128, 129, 167; Lake, 106, 107, 118, 121, 127, 164, 166, 167, 169. Erivan, 435. Ermine, Siberia, 431. Erzgebirge, 383, 421- Esdraelon, 340, 342. Esquimau, 251. Essen, 423. Esthonia, 431, 437. Eubcea, 365. Eucalyptus, in Australia ,294. Euphrates, 5, 6, 338. Eureka 193. Europe, 8, 9, 30, 250; climate and sur- face, 360, 361, fur, 198; map (Fig. 239), between 360, 361- north central, it; peoples. 362, 363; population, dens- ity of, map (Fig. 240), facing 361; rainfall, 29, 37, 360, 361, map (Fig. 241), 361; why civilized, 24, 361, 362. European predominance in. S. American markets, 284, 288-290. Evansville, 159. Everett, 195. Exchange, machinery of, 46, 47. Exports, see under countries. Fairbanks, 212, 215, 216. Fairs, origin of, I, 2' mediaeval, 10, _Ger- many, 427; Russia, 438; "World's," 10. Falkland Islands, 31, 281, 287. Fall Line, 116, 123, 125, 130, 131, 144, 146. Fall River, 117, 118. False Bay, 358. Fanning Islands, 25, 221; English Harbor (Fig. 10), 25. Fans. 316. Farming, 53; extensive and intensive, 51, 54: North Atlantic section, 113-114; in the West, 179, 180; by steam on Pacific slope (Fig. 115). 182; eastern Canada, 245, 246; western Canada, 246-247; in Germany, 420; three-field system, 431; see also Agriculture. Farm products [U. S.], value of (Fig. 134), 200. Fashoda, 348. Fayum, 346. Feathers, 78, 200, 259. Federal Reserve Banks, 47. Felting, 83. Fernandina, 133, 147. Fertilizers, 92, 93, 284, 420. Fiber crops, 90; production and value of leading textile (Fig. 46), 90. Figs, 36, 85;' Algeria, 351; Egypt, 346; Greece, 365; Italy, 372; Japan, 303; Smyrna, 340; U. S., 183. Fiji, 291, 293. Films, moving-picture, 190. Finland, 411, 431, 433, 437, 439. Fir, Douglas, 84; Canada, 245; U. S., 175, 198. Firearms, Belgium, 414; U. S., 119. Fireworks, China, 316. Fish, 12, 78, 79; Alaska, 198; China, 320; France, 392; Japan, 301, 302; Norway, 410; U. S., 78, 133, 151. 197, 198. Fisheries, of the Adriatic, 382; Alaska, 210, 21 1 ; Australasia, 294; British Isles, 399, 400; Canada, 244, 245; China, 312; France, 393; Germany, 421; Hawaii, 217; Japan, 301, 302; Iberian Peninsula, 378; Italy, 373; Marmora Sea, 368; Netherlands, 413; Newfound- land, 253; Norway, 408; Philippines, 224, 225; U. S., no, in, 112, 132, 133, 175, 177, 207. Fishguard, 4os._ Fishing, banks in Atlantic, American, map (Fig. 65), 112; bank, principal Euro- pean, map (Fig. 256), 400; industry of U. S. (Fig. 131), 198. Fishing tribes, their development into seafaring and commercial peoples, 2. Fitchburg, 117. Fiume, 385. Flax, production and value of, 90; Austria, Hungary, 383- Bohemia 382; Belgium, 414; Egypt, 90 France, 392, 394; Great Britain, 402; Germany, 420, 424; Ireland, 399; Italy, 372; Lys Valley, 413; Roumania, 369; Russia, 382, fiber crop of world (Fig. 272), 432, 438; Switzerland, 90; U. S., 155; seed crop of world (Fig. 97), 154; flaxseed in Algeria, 154; Argentina, 282; France, 154: U. S., 154, 155, 160. Florence, 193, 374. Flores, 291. Florida East Coast Railway bridge (Fig. 94), 148. _ Flour, Brazil, 276; Hungary, 383; Great Britain, 402; Manchuria, 439; Rouma- nia, 369; Russia, 433; U. S., 114, 144, 150, 160, 189. Flowers, France, 392; Holland, 413. Flume, for conveying timber out of moun- tains (Fig. 107), 174. Flushing. 415. Flying machine, see Aeroplane. Folkestone, 405. Foochow, 318. Food and Drugs Act, 45. Forbes's Trail, 107. . Fores* reserves, in Hawaii, 217; Porto Rico, 231; U. S., areas originally wooded and national reserves (Fig. 60), facing 108. Forestry, economic importance of, 23, 24; per cent of area forested in chief timber- producing countries (Fig. 9), 24; effects of forests, 15; relation to man, 21, 22; how they affect soil, water power, and navigation, 22; how they affect climate, 23; reforestation, 207; natural seeding from long-leaf pine (Fig. 143), 208. Forests and forest products, 84, 85; in Africa, 346; Alaska, 211, 212; Aus- tralasia, 294; Austria-Hungary, 24, 381; Canada, 24, 245; Central America, 256; China, 312; Chosen, 308; Finjand, 24; France, 390; Germany, 24, 419; Italy, 371; japan, 24, 302; Panama, 239; Philippines, 224, 225; Russia, 24, 431; S. America, 271, 281; Sweden, 24, 408; Switzerland, 386; Turkey, 339; U. S., 24, 112, 132, 133, 151, 153, 174, 175 (Fig. 132), 198, 199. Formosa, see Taiwan. Fort de France, 266. Forth River, 404. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY Fox, in Alaska, 210; Canada, 245; Chosen, 308. Fox River, 106, 166. France, 367, 385, 390-397; Alsace-Lor- raine, 393; canals, 394, 395; climate and surface, 390; commerce (Fig. 255), 396, 397; Customs Union of, 429; exports, 391, 392, 390, 449, 450; fisheries, 393; forest and animal products, 390, 391 ; imports, 396; manufactures, 331, 393, 394; map (Fig. 253), 301; minerals, 163, 203, 393, 448; occupations, 451; population, 201, 363, 390, 450; products of the soil, 392; possessions, 266, 293, 332, 349-353, 359, 380, 397; rail and inland water trans- portation, xix; railway mileage (Fig. 289), 452; trade routes and centers, 394- 396; tonnage merchant marine (Fig. 261), 410; sea-going (Fig. 292), 454; water power, 393; water ways, 394-396. Frankfurt, 10, 419, 424, 426. Frankincense, 8. Fray Bentos, 284. Frazer River, 101. Freemantle, 298. Freiberg, 421. French Broad River, 146. Fruit, 51, 85, 86; Africa, 356; Australia, 296; California, 15, 181, 183 (Fig. 117), 184; Florida, 142; France, 392; Ger- many, 421; Great Britain, 399; Iberian Peninsula, 377; Iranian Peninsula, 333; Italy, 375; New Zealand, 296- Philip- pines, 225; Porto Rico, 232; S.America, 282; Tahiti, 293; Tasmania, 296; Tur- key, 340, 368; U. S., 114, 140, 155, 174, 200. Fumigation, with poisonous gas to kill insects in fruit trees (Fig. 117), 184. Funchal, 359. Furniture mfg., Austria, 383; France, 394; Germany, 424; Scandinavian Peninsula, 409; U. S., 144, 158. Furs, 8, 83, 78; importance of, in Middle Ages, n; principal market for, 427; in Alaska, 210, 214; Canada, 78, 245; Russia, 431; Siberia, 78; U. S. 151, 198. Fusan, 309. Fustic, 256. Gadez (Cadiz), 7. Gaillard (Culebra) Cut, Frontispiece. Galapagos Islands, 242, 279. Galatz, 370. Galicia (Poland), 383. Gallipoli Peninsula, 368. Galveston, 25, 148, 149. Gambia River, 354. Gambler, East Indies, 199; Malaysia, 325. Ganges River, 18, 328, 331. Garonne River, 395. Gary, 164. Gas, 55, 95; Anatolia, 341; Illinois, 160; Indiana, 160, 165; Kansas, 160, 161, 203; Ohio, 160, 203; Ontario, 248; Pennsylvania, 123, 203; U. S., 120, 14.3, 203, 204, 207; W. Virginia, 203; fields in U. S. (Fig. 71), 121. Gasoline, 96, 373. Gate cities, 100, 129, 146, 169. Gelatine, 158. Gellivara iron district, 409, 411. Genessee Road, Great, 107. Genessee Valley, 52, 113. Geneva, 374, 388, 389; Lake of, 386, 389. Genoa, n, 373, 374. 375, 389, 395, 426. Georgetown, 278. Georgia, 434, in Transcaucasia, 434. Georgian Bay, 245, 250, 251. German Empire, map (Fig. 267), 419. Germany, 54, 56; agriculture, scientific, 420; commerce, 288, 289, 425, 427, 428 (Fig. 271), 428; education, 48, 418; ex- ports, 409, 421, 428, 449, 450; farm prod- ucts, 420, 421; fisheries, 421; forest and animal products. 419, 420; imports, 421, 428; manufactures, 89, 331, 422, 423, 424, 449; minerals, 203, 330, 421, 422; population, 201, 363, 381, 418, 450, 451; position, 424,425; possessions, 222, 292, 321, 322, 429; postal rates, 61; rank among nations due to scientific training, 451 ; seaports and fairs, 426, 427; trans- portation, 425, 426, 452, xviii; tonnage merchant marine (Fig. 261), 410; sea- going tonnage (Fig. 292), 454. Ghent, 74, 413, 414, 415. Gibraltar, 380, 405; Strait of, 28, 351. Gijon,379. Gila Valley, 193. Ginger,Ceylon and India, 330; Jamaica, 264. Ginseng, 308. Glacial soils, in U. S. (Fig. 63), no. Glacier, effects of the, 109, 1 10. Glasgow, 398, 403, 405. Glass, 7, 8, 92; Belgium, 414; Czecho-Slo- vakia, 383; France, 394; Great Brit- ain, 403; Indiana, 165; Pennsylvania, 123; Russia, 434; Spain, 378. Glens Falls, 115. Gloucester, 112. Gloversville, 117. Gloves, Austria, 383; Denmark, 411; France, 391; N. Y., 117. Glucose, 88. Glue, 158. Goa, 332. Goats, 79, 80; Angora and Cashmere, 83; Africa, 351, 356; Asia, 315; Austria, Hungary, 381; France, 391; Greece, 364; Hawaii, 217; Iberian Peninsula, 377; Iranian Peninsula, 332; Italy, 371; Montenegro, 367; Porto Rico, 232; Russia, 432; Turkey, 368; U. S., 174. Gobelin tapestries, 394. Goderich, 250. Gogebic, 163. Gold, 9, 21, 95, 448; Africa, 8, 91, 203, 353, 354, 356, 357, 358; Alaska, 212, 214, 215; Argentina, 283; Asia, 203; Australia, 203, 296, 299; California, 15, 183, 185, 194, 258, 296; Canada, 247; China, 315; Chosen, 308; Colorado, 185; Dakota, S., 161; Georgia, 142; Greece, 365; Guiana, 275; India, 330; Mada- gascar, 359; Mexico, 258, 261; New Guinea, 293; New Zealand, 296; Nicar- agua, 258; N. Carolina, 142; Panama, 239; Philippines, 226; Russia, 203, 433; Siberia, 433; S. America, 283; U. S., 161, 203, 204; dredge, modern, at work (Fig. 120), 187. Gold Coast, 354. Goldfield, 65. Good Hope, Cape, 28,31,298,346; Fort, 247. Gota Canal, 410. THE INDEX XXXI Gothenburg, 409, 410. Government, inspection, 45; service of, 43,44; peoples, 430. Grain harvesting.evolution of (Fig. 95), 152. Grains, map showing yield of all (Fig. 96), 153- Grand Canal, 317, 318, 319. Grand Canon of the Arkansas (Fig. 6), 19. Grand Rapids, 158. Granite, 20, 118, 119, 142. Grape fruit, 142. Grapes, 36, 85; Algeria, 351; Australia, 295; Bulgaria, 367; Germany, 421; Greece, 365; Iberian Peninsula, 378; Roumania, 369; Russia, 432; U. S., 183. Graphite, value of (Fig. 224), 330; in Austria, 330; Czecho-Slovakia, 383; Ceylon, 330; Germany, 422; Siberia, 433; U. S., 330. Graz, 383. Grazing industry, 81, (Fig. 106), 173; decline of the, 172, 174. Great Basin, 101. Great Britain, 24, 31, 398-406; climate and surface, 398; commerce, 262, 405 (Fig. 257), 406; exports, 405, 406, 449, 450; fisheries, 399, 400; imports, 401, 405, 406; map (Fig. 238), facing 360; manufactures, 331, 401; textile industry, 401, 402, 449; grain and sugar industry, 402; causes of prominence in manufac- tures, 450, 451; mineral resources, 163, 203, .$00-403; population, 201, 398, 4SO, 451; postal rates, 61; products of the soil, 398, 399; possessions, 405-406; in Africa, 352, 353, 355, 359; Egypt, 348; Asia, 324, 337, 340; China, 322; India, 327; Islands of Indian Ocean, 359; Mediterranean Sea, 380; West Indies, 263; railway mileage, 452; rail and inland water transportation, xviii; seaports, 404; situation and transportation facilities, 403, 404, xviii; sea-going tonnage (Fig. 292), 454; tonnage of merchant marine (Fig. 261), 410. Great Falls, 190. Great Plains, 100, 130, 132, 170, 179. Great Valley, 99. Great Yarmouth, 400. Greece, 8, 24, 38, 361-366, 368, 370, 374, 376; products, 364; commerce, 366. Greeks, 6, 7, 8, 9, 363, 364. Green Bay, 157. Greenland, 412. Greenwich, 46. Grenada, 264. Grenoble, 391. Grimsby, 400. Grindstones, 165. Guadalajara, 259, 260. Guadalquivir River, 377, 379. Guadeloupe, 266. Guam, 222, 291, 293; map (Fig. 154), 222. Guanacos, 270. Guanajuato, 258. Guano, Africa, 356; Oceania, 292, 293; S. America, 275; W. Indies, 264; Act, 298; Islands, 221. Guanta, 278. Guantanamo, 234. Guatemala, 255, 256, 260, 261. Guayaquil, 277, 279. Guaymas, 260. Guiana, 270, 275, 278; mountains, 268. Guinea, Gulf of, 344, 358; Islands, 359. Gulf Coast, 132; region, commercial routes and centers of, 147-149. Gum, 133; arabic, 346, 351, 352; Kauri, 294; -lac, 329; tragacanth, 339. Gutta-percha, 84, 85; in Malaysia, 325; Philippines, 224; S. America, 273; tree, freshly tapped, with leaves spread to catch the flow (Fig. 41), 84 Gypsum, 123; Alaska, 213; France, 393; U. S., 165, 187. Haddock, in, 198, 245. Hadramut Valley, 336. Haidar Pasha, 343. Haifa, 340, 342. Haifong, 327. Haiti, 232, 262, 264, 265. Hakodate, 307. Halibut, 211, 399. Halifax, 125, 244, 251. Halle, 423. Hamburg, 27, 75, 384, 404, 411, 418, 426, 427, 431; rank as seaport, 453; -Amer- ican steamship line, 266. Hamilton, 164, 249. Hammocks, 259. Hammond, 159. Hams, 411. Handicrafts, Ceylon and India, 331; Japan, 304, 305, 307; Switzerland, 388; hand weaving in Ireland, 402. Hankow, 316, 318, 319. Hanoi, 327. Hanover, 421, 422. Hanse, n, 12, 418, 427. Harbin, 314, 320, 439. Harbors, formation of, 24-26. Harpers Ferry, 20. Harrisburg, 122. Hartford, 119. Harvesters, which cut, thresh, and sack the grain in one operation (Fig. 115), 182. Harwich, 405. Harz Mountains, 12, 421. Hats, 118; plaited straw, Cuba, 237; Chosen, 308; Panama, Ecuador, 276. Hauran Plateau, 340. Havana, 149, 234-238. Haverhill, 117. Hawaii, 194, 216-220, 221, 292, 293; commerce, 219, 220 (Fig. 151), 219; exports, 219, 260; imports, 219, 220; map (Fig. 149), 217; population, 216, 219 (Fig. 151), 219; natural resources, 217, 218, 219. Hay, Australia, 299; Canada, 247; U. S., 114, 181, 200; map (Fig. 66), 113. Heat and light, causes affecting, 30, 31. Helsingfors, 437. Hemlock, 112, 116, 153, 160, 198, 249. Hemp, 90, 148; production and value (Fig. 46), 90; Belgium, 414; China, 313; France, 392, 394; Hungary, 382; Italy 372; Japan, 303, 306; Kentucky, 135; Philippines, 225, 226; shipping Manila hemp in original bundles (Fig. 157), 226; Russia, 382, fiber crop of world (Fig. 273), 432, 434, 438; brake, 136. Herat, 334, 343. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY Hermoupolis, 366. Herring, Alaska, 211; Canada, 245; Great Britain, 399; Norway, 408; U. S., in, 198; pursing a seine about a school of herring in Boston Harbor (Fig. 37), 79. Herzegovina, (Serb-Croat-Slovene State), 385. Heyst (Zeebrugge), 415. Hickory, 133. Hides, 12, 200; Africa, 358; Arabia, 337; China, 321; India, 329, 332; Malay Peninsula, 325; S. America, 287; Turkey, 339: U. S., 18; value of U. S. import, 200. Highways, to the West, early, map (Fig. 59), 107; to the Pacific, map (Fig. 124), 191: Commercial (Fig. 14), bet. 28, 29. Himalayas, 311, 328, 360. Hobart, 297, 298. Hoboken, 126; West Hoboken, 118. Hodaida, 336. Hogs, see Swine. Holbrook, 1 88. Holland, 70, dairying in, 80; exports, 413; imports, 416; natural resources, 413; tonnage of merchant marine (Fig. 261), 410; trade routes and centers, 415; see also Netherlands. Holyhead, 405. Holyoke, 112. Homestead, 122. Honda, 278. Honduras, 254, 256, 258. Honey, 80, 90; Cuba, 236; France, 391; Greece, 80, 364. Hong Kong, 27, 241, 321, 322, 326, 406; rank as seaport, 453; Harbor (Fig. 217), 322. Honolulu, 216, 220; map (Fig. 152), 220. Hops, 87; Bavarian Plateau, 421; Bo- hemia, 382; Germany, 421; Oregon, 181; U.S., U4j irrigated hop yard on Pacific slope (Fig. 116), 183. Horse latitudes, 32, 35, 36. Horses, 79; Asia, 315; Australia, 295; Belgium, 413; France, 391; Germany, 420; Hawaii, 217; Hungary, 381; Iberian Peninsula, 377; Kentucky, 134; Queensland, 295; Russia, 432; U. S., 134. 172, 199. Hosiery, 402, 424. Houston, 144. Hudson Bay, 100, 250; Company, 245. Hudson River, 99, 100, 106, 108, 115, 116, 122, 123, 126, 127, 129, 249. Hull, 405. Humber, the, 404, 405. Humboldt Bay, 193. Hungary, 364; see also Austria-Hungary. Hunters and fishers, trade among, 2. Huron, Lake, 167, 169, 250, 251. Hwang-ho, 311, 312, 316, 322. Hydraulic elevator, on Glacier Creek, Alaska (Fig. 145), 212. Hyrnettos, Mount, 80, 364. Iberian Peninsula, 376-380; climate and surface, 376, 377; inhabitants, 376; map (Fig. 246), 376; trade routes and centers, 378, 379. Iceland, 400, 412. Ichang, 319. Idaho, 185. Idria, 383. Illinois and Michigan Canal, 167. Illinois River, 106, 166, 167, 169. Iloilo, 228. Imperial Valley, 179, 193. India, 250, 295, 298, 327-332. 361, 375. 426, 436; animal products, 328, 329; climate and surface, 328; commerce, 33i 332 (Fig. 226), 332; cultivated products, 90, 139, 307, 312, 329, 330; exports, 331, 332; forests, 329; government, 327, 406; imports, 332; manufactures, 33 1 ; minerals, 330; popu- lation, 35, 56, 450; sea routes to, 6, 13. India ink, 315. Indianapolis, 27, 159. Indian Ocean, 337; islands of , 359. Indigo, Bengal, 324; India, 329; Java, 324; Salvador, 256; Sudan, 352; U. S., 105. Indo-China, 326, 327, 397; commerce and products, 312, 326, 327; French, 225, 326. Indus River, 331, 332. Industrial Education, 48; Germany, 48, 418,451; Netherlands, 416. Industries, complementary, 53, 54; locali- zation of, 50; see also specific industries. Industry, and commerce, factors in natural control of, 15; and poverty, 53, 136, 219, 262, 306, 316, 441, 443, 445, 446, 447; primitive woman in, 64. International Commission, 369. International Date Line, 46. International Postal Union, 61. Iodine, 284. Iquique, 287. Iquitos, 277. Iranian Plateau, 332-334, 338; exports, 332, 333; products, 332-334; trade routes. 334. Irawadi River, 331, 332. Ireland, 363, 405; postal rates, 6r; prod- ucts, 399, 401, 402; railways, 404; sur- face, 398; see also Great Britain. Iron, 93, 94, 96, 448; ore, modern method of handling (Figs. 100, 101), 162, 163; Africa, 351 ,356; Alabama (Fig. 92), 145, 148: Australia, 296, 297; Austria, 383: Belgium, 414; Blue Ridge [U. S.], 142; Canada, 247, 249; China, 315; Cho- sen, 308; Colorado, 185; Cuba, 237; Fin- land, 433; France, 163, 393, 447; Ger- many, 421, 423, 447; Great Britain, 163, 400, 447; Greece, 365; Iberian Peninsula, 378; Italy, 373; Japan, 304; Luxemburg, 429; Mexico, 258; Newfoundland, 253; New York, 122; Philippines, 226; Russia, 433, 447; S. America, 275, 283, 284; Spain, 447; Superior ranges, Lake, 121, 161, 163, map (Fig. 99), 161; Swe- den, 12, 410, 411, 447; Switzerland, 387; Tasmania, 296; U. S., 116, 119, 121, 163, 185, 204, 207, 208, 447; and coal fields of central Europe, map (Fig. 268), 422; manufactures, Austria, 383, 449! Bel- gium, 449; Canada, 44, 249; China, 316; Germany, 423, 449; Great Britain, 401, 402, 403, 449; France, 394. 4491 Japan, 305; Russia, 434, 449; Spain, 378; Swe- den, 409, 449; U. S., 120- 122, 144, 145, 164, 189, 206, 448, 449; industry of the world (Fig. 282), 447. Iron Gate, 369. Iroquois trail, 107. THE INDEX Irrigation, 5, 72; Africa, 345. 348, 35.o; Canada, 247; Egypt, 345, 348; India, 328; U. S., 177, 179; Canal, Truckee- Carson (Fig. TOO), 176; flume, old, and new redwood stave pipe replacing it (Fig. 34), 72; hop yard on Pacific slope (Fig. 116), 183; irrigated lands in the West, map (Fig. 108), 175; irrigating a field, California (Fig. no), 177. Isar River, 424. Isinglass, 433. Iskanderun Gulf, 343. Isker, 370. Isla de Pinos, 237. Isle of Man, 405. Ispahan, 333. Italy, 9, 12, 13, 371-376, 381, 389; cities, rise of, n; commerce, 375 (Fig. 245); crop products, 371-373; exports, 199, 312, 375, 450; forest and animal prod- ucts, 371; imports, 375; manufactures, 373. 45o; map (Fig. 244), 372; other resources, 203, 373, 382; population, 363, 371, 381, 450; possession, 353, 376; sulphur, 143; sea-going tonnage, 454; transportation routes and trade centers, 374, 375, 385- Ivory, 33, 78; Africa, 8, 351, 353, 417; Ceylon, 331; India, 331; fossil, in Russia, 431; nuts in S. America, 271. Jackson, 158. Jacksonville, 143. Jade, 2, 330. Jaffa, 340. Jamaica, 263, 264. }ames River, 99. amestown, 115. Japan, 58, 222, 241, 250, 300-308; climate and surface, 301 ; agricultural products, 302, 303, 312; commerce, 307, 308, and crops (Fig. 207), 307; exports, 303, 305, 307,450; fisheries, 301, 302; forests, 24, 302; handicrafts, 304, 305; human porterage in, 64; imports, 303, 307; mandate over, 222, 292; manufactures, 305, 306; map (Fig. 199), 300; mineral resources, 203, 304; population, 308, 320, 450; progress, 301; seagoing tonnage, 454; shipping subsidies, 306; steamship lines, 306; swords, 305; threshing ma- chine (Fig. 204), 303; transportation and trade centers of, 306, 307; Sea of, 307. Jarvis (Howland) Island, 221. Java, 324, 325, 337. Jedda, 337. Jeffersonville, 149. Semappes, 414. erablus, 343. ersey City, 118, 126. ewelry, 119, 259, 394, 424. Jibuti, 353. Jinrikishas, 306. Jobos, 233. Johannesburg, 91, 357; market place at (Fig. 236), 355. Johnstown, IN. Y-l, 117; , I a.], 122. Joliet, 164. Joplin, 161. Jordan River, 338, 340, 341. Jugo-Slavia, 381, 383, 385. Jujuy, 285. Juneau, 212, 213. Juniata River, 107, 128. Jura Mountains, 386, 388, 389. Jute, 35; production and value, 90; manu- facture (Fig. 225), 331; in Belgium, 414; France, 331, 394; Germany, 331; Great Britain, 331, 402; India, 90, 329. 331, 332; U. S., 331. Kabul, 334, 343. Kalamata, 365, 366. Kalamazoo, 155. Kalgan, 318, 319. Kamchatka, 300. Kandahar, 334. Kankakee River, 106. Kano, 353. Kansas City [Kan.], 159; [Mo.], 27, 159, 169. Kaolin, 424. Karachi, 332. Karlsbad, 383. Kashgar, 323. Katanga, 357. Kayes, 352, 354. Kazan, 434. Keel, invention of, 12. Kelung, 307. Kerman, 333. Kerosene, 96, 320. Key West, 28, 133, 144, Florida East Coast Railway bridge at (Fig. 94), 148, 149, 238. Khaibar Pass, 334. Kharput, 341. Khartum, 349. Khiva, 436, 439. Khong, 327. Kiakhta, 323. Kiaochow, 323, 429; Bay, 322. Kidderminster, 402. Kiel, 412, 423, 427; Ship Canal, 74, 405. Kiev, 432. Kimberley, 356. Kingston, 250; Harbor, 264. Kishinev, 432. Kishon River, 342. Kittanning Path, 107. Klondike, the, 247. Knoxville, 142, 144, 146, 147. Kobe, 306, 307. Konigsh'-tte, 421. Kopias, Lake, 365. Korea, see Chosen. Korean oxen and sleds (Fig. 208), 309. Kosel River, 425. Kotlas, 437. Krefeld, 423. Krivoi Rog, 434. Krupp steel works, 423; bird's-eye view of (Fig. 269), 423. Kurdish rugs, 341. Kustenji, sec Constanza. Kutais, 433. Kyoto, 304, 305- Labor, beginning of division of, 2; geo- graphic division of, 39, 49, So, 55, 57, 59, 70, 440; maximum returns from, 53; scarcity of, 219; skilled, 119. Labrador, 253; current, 109, no, 253. Lace, Belgium, 414; France, 394; Great Britain, 402; Mexico, 259. XXXIV COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY Lacquered and enameled goods in Japan, 305- Lacquer tree, 302. La Crosse, 157. La Dorado, 278. La Guaira, 278. Laings Nek, 357. Lakes, Great, 106, 108, 109, no, 114, 129, 151. 155, 157. 165, 167. Lambskins, 332. Lancaster, 115. Land routes, the crossing of, 27. Language, influence of, 42. Languages of commerce, 42 (Fig. 229), facing 344. Laos, 326. La Paz, 260, 269, 276, 277, 285. La Plata River, 268, 277, 284, 286. Lard, 158. Larissa, 365. La Rochelle (La Pallice), 396. Las Palmas, 359. Latakia, 340; Latin, nations, 363; tongue, 364. Latvia, 431, 437. Launceston, 297, 298. La Union, 261. Laurentian Highland, 249, 268. Laurion, 365. Lawrence, 117. Lead, 95; Africa, 356; Australia, 203, 296; Austria, 383; Belgium, 414; British Co- lumbia, 248; China, 315; France, 393; Germany, 203, 421; Great Britain, 403; Greece, 365; Iowa, 161; Idaho, 185; Italy, 373; Japan, 304; Mexico, 203, 258; Missouri, 161; Spain, 7, 203, 378; Sweden, 409; U. S., 203, 204; Virginia, 142, Wales, 400. Leadville, 185. Leather, and animal fibers, 81, 83; goods, Austria, 383; France, 394; Germany, 424; Mexico, 259; Russia, 433; Spain, 378; S. America, 284; Turkey, 368; U. S., 124, 143, 160, 190. Lebanon Mountains, 335, 337, 34. 342- Le Creusot, 393, 394, 414. Leeds, 402. Leghorn, 374. Le Havre, 28, 394, 395, 396. Lehigh Valley, 123. Leipsig, 10, 424, 427. Lemberg, 383. Lemons, 36; Cuba, 237; Italy, 372; Jaffa, 340; U. S., 183. Leon, 259. Lerdo, 257. Lethbridge, 248. Leukos Limen (Kosseir), 8. Levant, the, 10, 370. "Leviathan", the (Fig. 36), 76. Lewiston [Idaho], 191; [Me.], 117. Lexington, 131, 134. Liau-ho, 320. Liautung, 319. Liberia, 353- Libya, 349~35o, 376. Licorice, 339, 371. Liechtenstein, 362, 385, 429. Liege, 414, 415. Life zones in N. A., map (Fig. 78), 131. Light, causes affecting, 30, 31. Lille, 394. Lily bulbs, in the Bermudas, 263. Lima, 277, 279. Lima beans, 181. Limes, 264. Limestone, 122, 145, 249, 356, 447. Limoges, 394. Limon, 260. Linares, 378. Linen manufacture, Austria-Hungary, 383; Belgium, 414; Czecho-Slovakia, 383; Egypt, 8; France, 394; Germany, 423, 424; Great Britain, 402; Russia, 434. Lingah, 334. Lingua Franca, 42. Linseed, 329; oil, 155. Lisbon, 12, 378, 379, 396. Litani (Leontes) Valley, 342. Lithographic stone, 422. Little Rock, 143. Liverpool, 241, 250, 4.02, 404; rank as sea- port, 453. Live stock, 133, 134, 199, 200, 202; in 1907 (Fig. 39), 81; see also Stock industry. Llamas, 65, 279, 277; in Peru, waiting for their load (Fig. 188), 276. Llanos, 34, 268, 270. Lobito Bay, 357. Lobsters, 79, in, 198, 245, 378. Locomotives, 122; fifteen years' develop- ment in (Fig. 31), 69. Lodz, 434. Loetschberg Tunnel, 389. Logrono, 379. Logwood, 256, 264. Loire River, 394. Lombok, 291. London [Can.], 248; [Eng.], 27, 38, 47, 80, 198, 241, 250, 295, 357. 375, 404, 405. 415, 426, 437: rank as seaport, 453. Londonderry, 402. Long Island, 126; Sound, 112. Lorain, 164. Los Angeles, 171, 189, 193. Louisville, 27, 144, 146, 149, 169. Lourenco Marques, 357. Low Countries, 412-417; colonies, 416- 417; commerce, 415, 416; manufactures, 414; natural resources, 413, 414; trade routes and centers, 414, 415. Lowell, 117. Lowlands, affect transportation and com- merce, how, 18; principal source of world's food supply, 17. Lubeck, 12, 418, 426, 427. Ludwig Canal, 426. Ludwigshafen, 424. Lumber and lumber mfg.: Austria, Hungary, 383; Canada, 199; Norway, 410; Roumania, 369; Russia, 433', Sweden, 410; U. S., 112, 133, 143, 153, 157, 190 (Fig. 132), 198, 206. Luxemburg, 362, 429. Lynn, 116, 117, 160; Canal, 214. Lyons, 374, 394, 423. Lys River, 413, 414. Macadam, 67. Macao Island, 321. Macaroni, 373. "Macchie," 371. Machinery, American, in Turkey-in-Asia, 340; relative export of (Fig. 285), 449. THE INDEX XXXV Mackenzie River, 248, 249. Mackerel, 79, nr, 198, 245, 399. Mackintosh's invention, 84. Madagascar, 359, 397. Madeira Islands, 358, 359, 378; River, 278. Madras, 331. Madrid, 379, 396. Magdalena River, 278; Bay, 242. Magdeburg, 420. Magellan, Strait of, 241, 281, 287. Magnesite, 365. Maguey, 226. Mahogany, 33, 84, 235, 256. Mail, pieces of, handled yearly per capita (Fig. 290), 453; pneumatic tubes used for transporting, 72; rates for carry- ing, 77- Maize, see Corn. Malacca, Strait of, 28. Malaga, 377-379- Malaysia, 296, 324-326; agricultural products, 324, 325; commerce, 325, 326; exports, 325, 326; imports, 326. Malta, 380, 405. Manahiki Islands, 221, 298. Manaos, 279. Manchester [Eng.], 74, 402, 404, 405; Ship Canal, 404; [X. H.], 117. Manchuria, 309. 312, 314. 315. 317-320, 323, 439. Mandalay, 331. Mangabeira, 272. Manganese, 93; Brazil, 275, 330; Cuba, 149, 237; Germany, 330; Greece, 365; India, 330; Japan, 304; Russia, 330, 433! Transcaucasia, 433; world's pro- duction of (Fig. 223), 330. Mango, Ceylon, 329; East Indies, 85; Florida, 142; India, 329; Philippines, 225. Mangrove bark, 354. Manicoba rubber, 272. Manila, 35, 90, 222, 223, 225, 227, 228, 241, 307; map (Fig. 159), 228. Manioc, Africa, 86; S. America, 86, 273. Mannheim, 424, 425. Mansfield, 421. Manufactures, relation of mountains to mining and, 20, 21; exports of (Fig. 286), 450; rank of nations in, 448-451; in Australasia, 296, 297; Austria, Hungary, 383; Belgium, 414; Canada, 248, 249; China, 315, 316; Cuba, 237; France, 393, 449; Germany, 422, 449; Great Britain, 401, 405, 449; Iberian Peninsula, 378; Italy, 373; Japan, 305, 306; low countries, 414; Mexico and Central America, 259; Porto Rico, 237; Russia, 433, 434; Switzerland, 388; S. America, 276, 284; U. S., in, 115, 116, 117, 118, 126, 143-145, 156, 157, 158, 160, 164, 188-190, 204, 205 (Fig. 142), 206; exports, 449; location of, 156; mechanical power used in (Fig. 67), 115; water power, 115; value (Fig. 140), 205; westward migration of centers (Fig. 98), 157. ' Manzanillo, 254, 260. Maple, 151, 198. Maracaibo, 278. Marble, 20; Alaska, 213; Italy, 373; Georgia, 142; Greece, 365; Vermont, 119. Margarine, 411, 416. Mariannes, 222, 292. Maritsa-Morava Pass, 368. Maritsa Valley, 367-369. Markets, origin of, i; connection between, and religious sanctuaries, i, 2; foreign, for manufactures necessary, 205, 206; where they may be found, 206, 207. Marlborough [Mass.], 117. Marquette, 163. Marseilles, 8, 374, 389, 394, 395, 396, 426; part of water front in port of (Fig. 254). 395- Marshall Islands, 292. Marten fur, Canada, 245; Russia, 431. Martinique, 236, 266. Maskat, 337. Massawa, 353, 376. Mastic, 339. Matanuska, 213. Matches, Japan, 305; Sweden, 305, 409. Mate, 282. Matting, China, 316; Japan, 305. Mauritius, 359. Mayaguez, 231. Maximum returns, from capital, 52, 53; labor, 53; land, 51, 52; the principle of, 40, 51. Mazatlan, 260. Meaford, 250. Meat, 59; products, 81; U. S. export, 200; packing, 114, 158, 159, 189; by- products, 158. Mecca, 2, 337, 342. Medina, 337. Mediterranean Age of Commerce, 7-14. Mediterranean, American, 234. Mediterranean Peninsulas, Other, 371-380. Mediterranean region, climate of, 360, 364. Mediterranean Sea, 5-10, 12, 13, 36, 335, 369, 379, 426. Mediterranean stage of civilization, 5. Meissen, 424. Mekong River, 327. Melbourne, 2c 6, 207, 298. Memel River, 434. Memphis, [Tenn.j, 27, 133, 144, 149, 280; [Egypt], 349. Menado, 222, 293. Menam River, 327. Mendoza, 282, 283. Menhaden, in. Menominee, 163. Mentasta Pass, 216. Merchant Marine, tonnage of, showing relative importance of ocean shipping (Fig. 261), 410. Mercury, Austria-Hungary, 203; Iberian Peninsula, 378; Jugo-Slavia, 383; Italy, 203; Russia, 203; Spain, 203, 378; U. S., 143, 185, 203, 204. Meriden, 119. Merino, 83. Mersey River, 404. Merv, 436. Merwede Canal, 415. Mesabi, 163. Mescal, 257. Meshed, 333. Mesopotamia, 5, 6, 8, 92, 335. 338, 340, 361; commercial centers, 342; desola- tion of, 6, 340; map (Fig. 228), 338; meeting place of East and West, 6; prod- ucts, 340, 341; road building first begun in, 67. XXXVI COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY Messengers, communication by, 59, 60. Messina, 375. Mesta River, 367. Metallic products of the West [U. S.], 183, 185, 186. Metals, industries, 7, 11, 305; precious, 95. Metric system of weights and measures, xiii. Meuse River, 404, 412. Mexico, climate, 254, 255; commerce, 261, 262; (Fig. 178), 261; exports, 90, 261, 262; handiwork, 259; imports, 261, 262; map (Fig. 182), facing 269; manufac- tures, 259; minerals, 203, 258; physical features, 254, 255; population (Fig. 178), 261; postal rates, 61; products, 256-258, 272, 273; profile view of (Fig. 175). 2 55'. transportation, 66, 240, 261; City of, 255; Gulf of, 100, 108. Miami, 142; River, 106. Mica, Canada, 248; Ceylon and India, 330; U. S., 142. Michigan, Lake, 158, 164. Michipicoten, 163. Middle America, see Central America. Middlesbrough, 400, 402. Midland, 250. Midland Canal System, 425, 426. Midway Island, 222. Milan, 27, 373, 374- 395. 396. Military highways, 9; naval and com- mercial sites, typical, 28. Milk, 114; condensed, 387, 409; see also Dairy products. Millet, in Africa, 87; China and Manchuria, 314; Egypt, 346; India, 87; Sudan, 352. Milo, 179. Milwaukee, 160, 164, 168. Minerals, 447, 448; influence of, 90, 91; world's production of (Fig. 138), 203; in Africa, 351; Alaska, 211, 212, 213, 447; Austria, 383; Belgium, 414; Bulgaria, 367; Canada, 247, 248 (Fig. 173), 247; Chinese Republic, 315, 447; France, 303; Germany, 421, 422, 448; Great Britain, 400, 401, 402, 403, 448; Greece, 365; Iberian Peninsula, 378; Japan, 304, 307; Philippines, 225; Russia, 433; Serbia, 369; Spain, 379; S. America, 275, 283; Turkey, 341; U. S.. 118, 119, 122, 123, 142, 165, 186-188, 199, 202-204, 448; location of metallic deposits in the West, map (Fig. 119), 186; value per square mile, map (Fig. 137}, 202; mineral indus- try of U. S. (Fig. 139), 204; mineral fer- tilizers, 92, 93; fuels, 95, 119, 120, 160. Minneapolis, 157, 159, 169, 247, 252. Mississippi River, 100, 108, 130, 149, 151, 164, 165, 166, 169, 170, 179, 268. 312; an artery of commerce, 147; system, canals of, 166. Missouri River, 73, 108, 165, 166, 169, 172. Mobile, 28, 143, 148. Mohair, Africa, 358; Turkey, 339. Mohammera, 334. Mohawk Gap, 108, 129; River, 100, 106, 118, 124. Molasses, 88, 90. Moldau River, 384. Mole, St. Nicolas, 265. Moline, 157, 158. Mollendo, 277. Mombasa, 354. Monaco, 362, 397. Monastir, 367. Monazite, 275. Moncton, 250, 251. Money, 46, 47; gold standard, 47. Mongolia, 311, 314, 317, 319, 323. Mons, 414. Mont Cenis Tunnel, 389, 395. Montenegro, 367. Monterrey, 259. Montevideo, 286. Montgomery, 143. Montreal, 27, 125, 169, 249, 250, 251, 279. Montserrat, 264. Morava River, 384; valley, 369. Moravia (Czecho- Slovakia), 383. Moresnet, 414. Morocco, 349, 350, 351. Mortar, 123. Moscow, 434, 435. Moselle River, 423. Mosul, 342, 343. Mound Builders, 142. Mountains, affect agriculture and trans- portation, 20.; climate, 21; profile sketch showing relation of, to rainfall in Utah (Fig. 7), 21 ; relation of, to mining and manufactures, 20. Moving-picture films, 190. Mulberry, Japan, 302, 307; Russia, 433. Mules, Iberian Peninsula, 377; S. America, 277; U. S., 134, 172, 199. Miinchen-Gladbach, 423. Muncie, 165. Munich, 374, 424, 426. Murex, 7. Murray River, 297. Mushrooms, 392. Musk, 315. Muskegon, 157. Muskingum River, 106, 167. Mustard, 88. Mutton, 416. Myrobalans, 329. Myrrh, 8, 336. Mysore, 330. Nagasaki, 305, 307. Nagoya, 305. Nanaimo, 248. Nancy, 394- Nanking, 315, 318. Nankou Pass, 319. Nantes, 393, 396. Naples, 372, 374, 375. Narbonne, 391. Narva, 434. Narvik, 411. Nashua, 119. Nashville, 131, 144. Nassau, 263. Natal, 356. Nationality, influence of, 42, 43. National Road, 107, 108 Nature, what man o\ves to, 15. Naval sites, 28; *ee aiso Coaling and navai stations. Navigation, how forests aflect, 22: inland, 72> 73; effect of railways upon, 73: ocean, 74, 75- Naxos, 365. Negros, 225, 226. Nejd, 336, 352. THE INDEX XXXV11 Nemacolins Path, 107. Nepal, 327. Netherlands, 26, 44, 412, 413; canals, 415; colonies, 416, 417; commerce, 415, 416, (Fig. 264), 416; exports, 416; fishing, 413; imports, 416; map (Fig. 263), 412; manufactures, 414; population, 450, 451; occupations of people, 451; rail- way mileage, 452; trade routes and centers, 414. 415. Neva River, 434, 435. New Almaden. 185. Newark, 116, 118, 126. New Bedford, 117, 175. New Britain, 119. New Brunswick, 243, 245. New Caledonia, 292, 293. ewcastle \ [Pa.], 122. Newcastle [N. S )2, 293. . W.], 296, 297, 298; Newcastle-on-Tyne, 403. Newchwang (Niuchwang), 314, 320. Newfoundland, 61, 253, 405. New Guinea, 291, 292, 293, 298. New Haven [Conn.], 119; Newhaven, |Eng.], 405. New London, 119. New Orleans, 27, 131, 133, 143, 146, 148, 149, 166, 194, 260, 280; Harbor (Fig. 93), 147- Newport, 144. Newport News, 133, 146. New York, Bay, 126; City, 27, 117, 118, 119, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 146, 171, 241, 250, 251, 260, 263, 264, 277, 289, 404; rank as seaport, 453; Harbor, 126; map (Fig. 76), 126; -sub- ways and tunnels (Fig. 77), 127. New Zealand, So, 250, 291, 293, 297, 405; colonies, 220, 298; commercial centers, 298; products, 295, 296. Niagara, 122; Falls, long distance trans- mission of electric power from (Fig. 68), 116; water power at (Fig. 69), 117; River, 115. Nicaragua, 254, 256, 258, 269. Nice, 390, 392. Nickel, 247, 293. Nigeria, 353. Niger River, 352, 354. Nikolaiev, 437. Nile River, 5, 8, 18, 346, 349, 352, 354, 412. Nineveh, 6, 342. Ninghai, 320. Nish, 369. Nishapur, 333. Nisibin, 343. Nitrate industry, 54, 92, 283, 284, 287. Nitrogen, 92, 93. Nizhniy Novgorod, 10. Nome, 212, 214, 215, 216. Norfolk, 140, 146. Norristown, 118. Norrkoping, 409. North America, 36, 98-102; climate, 101, 102; coast line and surface, 98; life zones in, map (Fig. 78), 131; map (Fig. 53) between 98, 99; rainfall, 102; position, 98. North Sea, 360, 363, 384, 415, 421, 427; Canal, 415. North Sea Nations, Lesser, 407-417. Norway, 25, 87, 407; exports, 410; fishing industry, 408; map (Fig. 258), 408; sea-going tonnage (Fig. 292), 454; ton- nage of merchant marine (Fig. 261), 410; wood and wood-pulp exports, 409; see also Scandinavian Peninsula. Nottingham, 402. Nova Scotia, 245, 247, 248, 252. Numea 293. Nuremberg, 13, 424. Nushki, 334. Nutmegs, 88; Ceylon and India, 330; Grenada, 264; Philippines, 226. Nutria, fur of, 83. Nuts, 85, 86, 183, 333, 354. Oak, Greece, 364; Japan, 302; Philippines, 223; Roumania, 381; Turkey, 339; U. S., 116, 133, 151, 198. Oakland, 190. Oats, 87, 88; Australia, 299; Austria- Hungary, 87, 382; Canada, 247; France, 87, 392; Germany, 87, 420; Great Britain, 87, 399; New Zealand, 296; Russia, 87, 431; Scandinavian Penin- sula, 409; Tasmania, 296; U. S., 87, 113, 140, 154; world crop (Fig. 43), 87. Ob', 431, 435; -Yenisei Canal, 435. Obok, 353. Occupations of people (Fig. 288), 451. Ocean, commerce, paths of, 28; currents, distribution of, map (.Fig. 216), 37; "greyhounds," 75; subdued to man's use, 76; routes, termini of, 26, 27; world, 291. Oceania and Australasia, 291-299; com- merce, 292, 293; islands of coral and volcanic formation, 291; map (Fig. 195), between 290, 291; partition of, 292. Oceanic age of commerce, 13, 14. Oceanic stage of civilization, 5. Oder River, 423, 425, 426, 427. Odessa, 426, 437. Office, interior of a general (Fig. 5), 14. Ohio River, 17, 106, 108, 118, 121, 125, 126, 129, 130, 149, 165, 166, 167; falls of the, 107, 149; fleet of barges carry- ing coal down the (Fig. 102). 166. Oil, Africa, 356; California, 188; Indiana, 160; Mesopotamia. 341; Ohio, 160; Roumania, 369; Baku, 439; Trinidad, 264; U. S. (Fig. 71) 121; transporting, - cost of , 72; wells and derricks in Bakers- ville district [Calif.] (Fig. 121), 188; Seeds, Africa, 354; Belgium, 413; France, 392, 394! India, 329, 332. Oil City, 120. Olean, 120. Oleomargarine, 55, 80, 158; Denmark, 80; Germany, 80; Great Britain, 80; Nether- lands, 80; Scandinavian Peninsula, 409; y. s., so. Olive oil, 55; France, 396; Greece, 364; Italy, 372, 375- Olives, 36, 85; Australia, 295; France, 392; Greece, 364; Haifa, 340; Iberian Penin- sula, 377; Russia, 433; Tunis, 351; U. S., 183. Olympia [Greece], 2; [Wash.], 195. Omaha, 169. Oman, 336. Oneida Carrying Place, 106. Onions, 87, 114, 263, 377. Ontario, Lake, 115, 127, 249, 251 Onyx, 258. COM MERC I A L GEOGRA PI1 Y Opals, 258. Open-hearth, steel, 145. Opium, Asia, 89; Ceylon, 330; China, 320, 322; India, 330, 332; Iranian Plateau, 333; Smyrna, 340; Turkey, 340, 368; poppies, 313. Oporto, 379. Oran, 351. Orange, 118. Orange Free State, 357. Oranges, 36, 85; Australia, 295; China, 313; Cuba, 237; Florida, 142; Greece, 365; Iberian Peninsula, 378; Italy, 372; Jaffa, 340; Jamaica, 264; Japan, 303; Paraguay, 282; Porto Rico, 232; U. S., 183. Orchilla (litmus), 358. Oregon City, 190. Orenburg, 436. Orinoco River, 264, 270, 277, 278. Orontes, 6, 8, 339, 342. Oroya, 277. Oruro, 275. Oshkosh, 157. Ostend, 415. Ostrich farming, 174, 356; feathers, 351, 352, 358. Oswego, 114, 115; Canal, 127; River, 106. Ottawa River, 245, 249, 251. Overland trails, the first, 106, 107. Owen Sound, 250. Ox teams, Australia (Fig. 107), 295. Oysters, 79, 112, 114, 133, 198, 393. Ozaka, 306. Qzarks, 100, 130, 140. Ozokerite, 187. Pacific ports, comparative distances from Hamburg and New York to, before and after opening of Panama Canal (Fig. 169), 241. Pack animals, 65. Pago Pago, 221; Harbor (Fig. n), 25; (Fig. 24), 58. Paita, 293. Palermo, 375. Palestine, 339. Palmerston Island, 298. Palmetto roots, 144. Palm oil, 354. Palmyra, 6. Panama, 234, 254, 298, 299; Republic of, 239,240; postal rates, 61; relation of, to U. S., 238, 239; Bay of, 239; Canal, 28, 73, 74, 149, 167, 194, 220, 221, 240-242, 260, 264, 267, 285, 292, 437; effect of (Fig. 169), 241, 290; excavated to grade at Matachin (Fig. 168), 240; plans for safety of, 242; Canal Zone, 9, see Pana- ma Canal; Harbor of, at low tide (Fig. 170), 242; hats, 232, 276. Panama Canal, 220, map (Fig. 167), 238; effect of (Fig. 169), 241, 267. Pan-American Railway, 277, 285, 290, 357. Paper manufacturing, Canada, 249; China, 316; France, 394; Germany, 424; Greece, 3/'5', Japan, 305; Netherlands, 414; Spain, 378; Scandinavian Peninsula, 409; U. S., 112, 113, 157, 206. Para (Belem), 279; chestnuts, 271; rubber, 272. Paraffin, 96. Paraguay, 281, 282, 285-287; River, 285. Paris, 318, 370, 375, 379, 39, 39O, 395. 396, 426, 437; manufactures, 394. Parmesan cheese, 80, 371. Paros, 365. Pasig River, 228. Passaic, 118; River, 118. Passau, 422. Pasto, 269. Paterson, 118. Patras, 365. Pauillac, 396. Pawtucket, 117. Payta, 275. 277. Peabody, 116. Peace River Valley, 246. Peace Treaty, 292. Peaches, 86, 140, 183. Peanut butter, 142. Peanuts, 140. Pearl Harbor, 220; map (Fig. 152), 220. "Pearl of the Antilles," 235. Pearls, 8, 79; Australia, 294; Bahrein Islands, 337; California, Gulf of, 258; Ceylon, 328; Malaysia, 325; Nicoya Bay, 258; Oceania, 292; Panama, Bay of, 239; Persian Gulf, 333; S. America, 27s;'Sulu Sea, 224. Pears, 86, 247, 392. Peat, 1 6, 401, 409. Pecans, 85, 142. Pei-ho, 317. Peking, n, 317, 318, 319, 437- Peloponnesus (Morea), 365. Pemba, 354- Pennine Range, 401, 402. Penobscot River, 112. Pensacola, 148. Peons, 41. Peoria, 158, 160. Pepper, 88, 89; America, 88; Ceylon and India, 330; Philippines, 226; Siam, 326; Sumatra, 324. Peppermint, 155. Perche, 379. Perfumes, 392. Pernambuco, 272, 274, 279. Persia, 6, 8, 38, 331-335, 343. Persian Fire Worshipers, 95. Persian Gulf, 334, 335, 343, 427. Persian traders, with pack camels (Fig. 227), 333- Persimmons, 303. Perth, 297, 298. Perthus, 379. Peru, 86, 241, 272, 274-277, 283, 290. Petersburg, 144. Petrograd (St. Petersburg), 396, 4.11, 426, 431, 434. 435. 437- Petroleum, 55, 95, 143; Apennines, 373: Poland, 383; Burma, 330; California, 187; Illinois, 160; Indiana, 160; Japan, 304; Kansas, 160; Malaysia. 325; Mex- ico, 258; Ohio, 160; Ontario, 248; Pana- ma, 240; Roumania, 369; Russia, 95, 203, 433, 435; S. America, 275, 283; U. S., 95, 1 20, 203, 204, 207; oil and gas fields of U. S., 121; industrial prod- ucts of. (Fig. 49), 96. Pforzheim, 424, 426. Philadelphia, 27, 116, 118-120, 122, 125, 128, 140; bird's-eye view of Reading Terminals at (Fig. 12), 26. Philippines, 35, 194, 223-228, 300, 324; THE INDEX agricultural and mineral products, 225, 226, 227, 228; banks and money in, 227; commerce, 226-228 (Fig. 158), 227; exports, 227; fisheries and forests of, 224, 225; inhabitants, 224; map (Fig. 196), facing 291; postal service in, 227; rice terraces in (Fig. 155), 223; seaports, 228; tariff, 228. Philistia, 340. Phoenicia, 335. Phoenicians, 2, 6, 7, 43. Phormium, 296. Phosphate, 55; Africa, 351; Florida, 149; France, 393; Oceania, 292, 293; U. S., 142, 143, 204; phosphate-rock produc- tion of the world (Fig. 89), 142. Phosphorus, 93. Piassava, 271. "Pidgin" English, 42. Piedmont region, 99, 130-132. Pig iron, annual production of, per crpita (Fig. 284), 449; modern method of handling (Fig. 48), 94; totals in 1906 (Fig. 282), 447. Pilchards, 399. Pilsen, 383- Pimento, 88. Pine, 84; Canada, 245; Chosen, 308; Manchuria, 312; New Zealand, 294; Philippines, 223; S. America, 281; U. S., ii2, 132, 133, 153, 174. 175, 198, 199. Pineapples, Bahamas, 263; Cuba, 237; Florida, 142; Hawaii, 218; Malaysia, 325; Porto Rico, 232; fiber (pina), 226. Pinehurst, 142. Pipe lines, 70, 72. Piraeus, 365. Pitch, 84, 133- Pittsburgh, 27, 119, 120, 121, 123, 125, 126, 129, 164, 165, 167. Piura Valley, 274. Plantain, 329. Plants, cultivated, 85; how they connect man with the earth, 83. Plaster of Paris, 123. Plated ware, 119. Platinum, 433. Platt Amendment, 234, 238. Plow horses in China, Human (Fig. 212), 314- Plums, 86; Germany, 421; Japan, 303; Roumania, 369; Serbia, 367; U. S., 183. Plymouth, 400, 405. Pod crops, 86, 87. Pola, 28. Poland, 381, 383, 431, 433, 435, 439. Polenta, 372. Ponape Island, 291. Ponce, 233. Pondichery, 332. Pongo de Manseriche, 277. Pontebba, 385. Poplar, 133 (Fig. 132), 198. Population, U. S., density of, per square mile (Fig. 58), 104; distribution of, illustrates man's control by nature, 104; westward migration of centers of (Fig. 98), 157; growth of, in principal com- mercial countries (Fig. 136), 201; per square mile, of principal commercial countries (Fig. 187), 450; of the world, density of, map (Fig. 13), facing 28; of principal commercial countries of the world, xiv; see also under countries. Porcelain, Austria, 383; China, 315; Czecho-S!ovakia,383; France, 394; Great Britain, 403; Japan, 305; Russia, 434; U. S., 123. Po River, 371, 372, 374. Portages, historic, 106, 166. Port Arthur, [Can.], 250, 251; [China], 314, 318, 323. Port Augusta, 298. Port au Prince, 265. Port Curtis, 297. Port Darwin, 297, 298. Port Elizabeth, 357. Porterage, Human, 64. Port Huron, 169. Port Hunter, 297. Port Jackson, 297. Portland [Can.], 250, 251; [Me.], 124, 125, 291; [Ore.], 189, 190, 191, 193. I94 195- Portland cement, 92, 165 (Fig. 73), 123. Port McNicoll, 250. Port Mann, 250. Port Nelson, 250. Porto Alegre, 286. Porto Rico, 229-234, 262, 263, 266, 267; climate and surface, 230, 231; com- merce, 232-234 (Fig. 162), 232; educa- tion, 230; exports, 232; manufactures, 237; map (Fig. 160), 230; military road in (Fig. 163), 233; people and govern- ment, 229, 230; products, 231, 232. Port of Spain, 264. Port Phillip, 297. Port Said, 241, 349. Port Sudan, 349. Portugal, 67, 376-380; commerce, 379, 380; crop products, 377, 378; exports, 377, 378; forest and animal products, 377; manufactures, 378: other products, 203, 378; possessions, 321, 324, 332, 355, 359, 379, 380. Post, the, 60; transportation rates for, 77. Postal routes, map (Fig. 52), facing 98. Potash salts, 422. Potassium, 93. Potatoes, 88, 90, 218, 273; Alaska, 214; America, 86; Austria-Hungary, 88, 382; Belgium, 413; Bermudas, 263; Canada, 246, 247; Chile, 282; Denmark, 411; France, 88, 392; Germany, 88, 420; Great Britain and Ireland, 88, 399; Maine, 114; Michigan, 155; New York, 114, 155; New Zealand, 296; Norway, 87; Peru, 86; Philippines, 225; Russia, 88, 431; Scandinavian Peninsula, 409; S. America, 273; Tasmania, 296; U. S., 88, 140, 181; Wisconsin, 155; world crop (Fig. 44), 88. Poti, 435. Potomac River, 20, 99, 108,127, 1 28, 130, 146. Potosi, 275. "Potteries," the, 403. Pottery, 92; Belgium, 414; Great Britain, 403; Mexico, 259; Netherlands, 414; Ohio, 165; Russia, 434; S. America, 276; U. S., 123; Delft, 414. Pottsville, 119. Poultry, 80, Belgium, 413; California, 174; China, 314; Czecho-Slovakia, 381; France, 391; Germany, 420; Iberian Peninsula, 377; Italy, 371; U. S., 174, 199. xl COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY Prague, 383, 384. Pribilof Islands, 210. Prince Edward Island, 245. Prince of Wales Island, 212, 213. Prince Rupert, 250, 252. Prince William Sound, 215. Proctor, 119. Providence, 118, 119. Prunes, 86, 183, 200, 367, 392. Prussia, 420. Puebla, 259. Puerto Barrios, 260. Puerto Cabello, 278. Puerto Mexico (Coatzacoalcos), 259. Puerto Montt, 281, 285. Puerto Plata, 265. Puget Sound, 25, 101, 175, 190, 194, 195, 252. Pulp, wood, 157; exports (Fig. 260), 409. Pulque, 257. Punjab, 332. Punta Arenas, 261, 287. Pyramids, and an electric trolley (Fig. 233), 347- Pyrenees, 360, 363, 368, 379, 380, 390, 395- Quartz, 95, 212. Quebec, 125, 245, 248, 249, 250, 251, 397. Quebracho, 281. Queen Charlotte Islands, 248. Queensland, 295, 298, 405. Quetta, 333, 334. Quincy, 119, 164. Quinine, 271, 414. uinua, 273. uito, 269, 277. Rabba, 354. Rabbits, 83; Australia, 295; Belgium, 413. Race, influence of, 40; races of man, map (Fig. 200), facing 300. Racine, 158. Raffia, 359. Ragusa, 385. Railroad, the, 69, 70; first continental in America, 239, 240; transcontinental roads, 240; railways in Africa, 354, 357; Arabia, 337; Australasia, 297; Austria- Hungary, 384; Belgium, 414; Canada, 249, 250; Central America, 259-261; China, 317, 318; Cuba, 237, 238; Danube States, 370; France, 395; Ger- many, 426; Great Britain and Ireland, 404; Greece, 365; India, 331; Italy, 374; Japan, 306; Malaysia, 325; Philippines, 227; Russia, 435, 436; S. America, 277, 285, 286; Switzerland, 389; Sudan, 352, 353! Turkey, 342, 343, 368; U.S., 128, 129, 145, 146, 167-169, 191, 192; density of (Fig. 127), facing 196; railway mileage per 1,000 square miles of territory, show- ing relative density of railways (Fig. 289), 452; railway mileage of the princi- pal countries of the world, xiv; railway mileage in Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Canada, France, Germany, Great Britain, Russia, United States, xviii. Rainfall, mean annual, and prevailing winds (Fig. 15), facing 29; in U. S., (Fig. 57), 103; why it rains, 29, 30; see also Climate under countries. Rainy River, 157. Raisin grapes, picking (Fig. in), 178. Raisins, 85; Australia, 295; California, 183, 296; Iberian Peninsula, 378; Smyrna, 340. Raleigh, 145. Ramie, 313. Rampart, 214. Rangoon, 330, 332. Rattan, Malaysia, 325; Philippines, 224. Raw materials of commerce, 78-97. Reading, 122. Recife, 279. Reclamation service, 177, 179; first work completed by (Fig. 109), 176. Red River Carts (Fig. 29), 66. Red River Valley, 18, 150, 153. Red Sea, 8, 338, 349, 352, 353. Redwood, 175, 193, 199. Reforestation of cut-over land in U. S. (Fig. 143), 208. Regensburg, 425. Reichenberg, 383. Reims, 394. Reindeer, in Alaska, 213; freighting with (Fig. 146), 213; Russia, 431; Scandi- navian Peninsula, 409. Religion, influence of, 40. Religious festivals, 2. Resin, 84; Africa, 354; Arabia, 336, 337; Malaysia, 325; Philippines, 224. Reunion, 359. Revel, 431, 437. Revolutions, destructive to industry and commerce, 255, 430. Rhine, industrial district, 54, 423, 427; River, 374, 384, 385, 389, 394, 404- 412, 415, 421, 423, 424, 4.25, 426, 427; -Rhone Canal, 426; -Seine Canal, 426. Rhodes, 8. Rhodesia, 34, 355. 356, 357- Rhodope Range, 367. Rhone River, 389, 392, 394, 395, 396, 426. Rice, 35, 88, 433; exports, sources of (Pig. 220), 326; field in the Philippines, plowing with caraboo (Fig. 156), 225; market, 427; terraces, in Philippines (Fig. 155), 223; threshing in Louisiana (Fig. 87), 139; water, 88; Asia, 87; Bulgaria, 367; Burma, 329; China, 312, 3I3> 314, 320, 321; Chosen, 308, 312; Egypt, 346; Hawaii, 218; India, 312, 326, 332; Indo-China, 225, 312, 326; Iranian Plateau, 333; Italy, 371; Japan, 301, 303, 307, 312; Louisiana, 131, 139, Malay Peninsula, 326; Philippines, 225, 227, 228; Porto Rico, 231; Siam, 326; S. America, 273; S. Carolina, 139; Texi<=. 131, 1391 Turkey, 341; Virginia, 10- Richmond, 144, 171. Rideau Canal, 249. Riga, 431, 437- Rio de Janeiro, 273, 277, 279; Harbor, view of (Fig. 189), 278. Rio Grande, 149. Rio Grande do Sul, 270, 286. Rioja, 283. Rio Tinto, 378. Rivers, navigable, 73; see also names ot rivers. Road, a mud, and same road macadam- ized (Fig. 30), 68; construction of roads, 67- Roanoke, 144. Rochester, 114, 115, 117, 129. Rockford, 158. THE INDEX ' Xli Rockhampton, 296, 297. Rock Island, 108, 157, 166. Rocky Mountains, 30, too, 101, 107, 161, 170, 174, 179, 192, 210, 248, 268. Roman, Empire, 8, 9; Roads, 67;. Romans, 8, 43- Rome, 7 28, 38, 371, 426; N. Y., 106. Roncesvalles, 379. Root and pod crops, 86, 87. Roquefort cheese, 80. Rosario. 286. Rosewood, 84, 256. Rosin, 84, 133, 198, 199; sources of, enter- ing international commerce (Fig. 79), 132. Rossland mines, 247. Rostov, 437. Rotterdam, 74, 404, 415; rank as seaport, 453- Roubaix, 394, 396. Rouen, 394, 396. Roumania, 364, 369, 370; exports, 282, 369, 381, map (Fig. 242), 362. Roumanians, 363, 364, 381. Royal Gorge, Grand Canon of the Arkansas (Fig. 6), 19. Rubber, 33, 84, 199, 446, 447; Africa, 354, 447; Belgian Congo, 272, 417; Brazil, 272, 447; Central America, 256; Cey- lon, 330, 447; East Indies, 272; Hawaii, 218; Madagascar, 359; Malay Peninsula, 325, 447; Mexico, 258; New Guinea, 293; Philippines, 224; S. America, 271, 272, 273, 287, 288; industry, 84; goods, 118, 160, 424, 434; tree, tapping a (Fig. 184), 271. Rubies, 95, 330. Rugs, Persia, 333, 334; Turkey, 341, 368. Ruhr, coal field, 54, 423; River, 421. Rushchuk, 370. Russia, 58, 88, 196, 363, 407, 427, 430-439; characteristics, 430; climate, 31, 360, 430, 431; commerce, 438, 439; exports, 282, 409, 431, 433, 434, 438, 439; fairs, 438; government, 430; im- Eorts, 438, 439; leather, 433; manu- ictures, 433, 434; map (Fig. 202), facing 301: minerals,, 203, 330, 433; pop- ulation, 201 363 430, 450: possessions, 323, 334, 439; resources, other, 312, 433; sea-going tonnage (Fig. 292), 454; seaports of, 437, 438; sub-tropical, 432, 433; transportation, land, 435, 436; rail and inland water, xix; water ways, 434. 435> tundra and forest belts, 431; uses of soil and commerce of (Fig. 275), 438; wheat and grasslands of, 392, 432; zone of mixed farming in, 431, 432. Rutland, 1 19. Rye, 87, 88; Austria-Hungary, 88, 382; Belgium, 413; France, 392; Germany, 88, 420; Japan, 303; Russia, 88, 431; U. S., 88, 113, 154; world crop (Fig. 44), 88. Saba, 262, 267. Sabanilla, 278. Sabinas, 258, 259. Sable, Canada, 245; Russia, 431. Sacramento, 189, 191; River, 101. Saddlery, 160. Saffron, 378. Saginaw, 157. Sago, 86, 325. Saguenay River, 245. Sahara, 29, 30, 35. 344. 350, 3SL 352. Saigon, 327. Sailing ship, modern steel, 74, 75; (Fig. 35). 75; wheelbarrows (Fig. 155), 223. St. Anthony, falls of, 159. St. Clair River, 250. Ste. Croix, 242, 266 (Fig. 194). St. Etienne, 394. St. Gobain, mirrors, 394. St. Gothard Tunnel, 389, 426. St. Helens, 403. St. John [W. Ind.], 242, 266; [N. B.], 125, 249, 251; St. Johns [Newf.], 253. St. Joseph, 108, 159; River, 106. St. Lawrence River, 99, 100, 106, 124, 125, 127, 128, 245, 246, 248-251, 268. St. Louis, 27, 151, 158-160, 164, 169; River, 106, 157, 164. St. Michael, 214. St. Nazaire, 396. St. Paul, 27, 149, 151, 159, 164, 169, 252. St. Petersburg, see Petrograd. St. Thomas, 234, 242, 266 (Fig. 194), 359. Sakhalin, 300, 304, 307. Sal, 329. Salem, 116, 117. Salina Cruz, 260. Salisbury, 357. Salmon, 79, 151, 177, 198,211, 214, 245,301. Saloniki, 366, 369, 370, 385. Salt, Austria, 383; Bahamas, 263; Califor- nia, 188; Germany, 422; Iberian Penin- sula, 378; Iowa, 165; Italy, 373; Kansas, 165; Louisiana, 143; Michigan, 123, 165; Mexico, 258; New York, 123; Poland, 383; Roumania, 369; Switzerland, 387; Texas, 165; Transcaucasia, 433; Utah, 178; W. Indies, 264. Salt Lake, Great, 19, 175, i77;City,i92,l93. Salto, 285. Salton Sink, 179; salt piles in (Fig. 122), 189. Salvador, 256, 261. Salzburg, 374. 383- Samara, 343, 435. Samarkand, 436. Samoa, 194, 216, 220, 221, 222, 292, 293; map (Fig. 153), 221. Samsun, 340, 343. Sana, 336. San Antonio, 140, 143. San Bernardino, 193. Sandalwood, India, 329; New Guinea, 293; Porto Rico, 231. San Diego, 188, 193. Sandstone, 122, 131. San Francisco, 27, 63, 108, 171, 174, 175, 189, 190, 193, 194. 195, 221, 241, 252, 260, 280, 293, 298; Bay, 191, 194. San Joaquin River, 101, 193. San Juan, 230, 233. San Luis Potosi, 258. San Luis Valley, 177. San Marino, 362. San Pedro, 26, 193; artificial harbor at (Fig. 126), 194. Santa Marta Cesar, 275, 278. Santiago, 2.55, 237, 23, 283, 287. Santo Domingo, see Dominican Republic. Santos, 273, 279, 286. Sao Francisco, 275; River, 279. Sao Roque, 28. xlii COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY Sapan wood, 225. Sapphires, 188. Sardines, in, 373, 378, 393. Sardinia, 373. Sarre Basin, 393. Sarsaparilla, 271. Saskatchewan River, 245, 249. Satinwood, 265. Sault Ste. Marie, 157, 169, 249; Canal, 74, 163, 167 (Fig. 103), 168. Savannah [Ga.], 133, 147- "Savannah," the (Fig. 36), 76. Savanna Zone, 34. Savona, 373. Sawakin, 349. Saxony, 422, 424. Scandinavian Peninsula, 360, 407-411; climate and surface, 407; commerce, 410, 411; exports, 409-411; imports, 410; map (Fig. 258), 408; people, 363, 407; resources, 408-410. Schaffhausen, 388. Scheldt River, 412, 415. Schenectady, 122, 129. Schools, industrial and commercial, Austria-Hungary, 384; Germany, 418; Italy, 373; Netherlands, 416; Switzer- 1 land, 388. Schuylkill River, 127. Scotland, 363, 400, 401, 402, 405; see also Great Britain. Scranton, 1 19, 122. Sea, unity of the, 74; harvest of, 78, 79. Sea-going tonnage of chief commercial nations (Fig. 292), 454. Seals, fur, 210; skins, 79, 198. Sea otter, 198, 210. Seaports, rank of world's greatest (Fig. 291), 453; see also under countries. Seattle, 171, 177, 189, 195. Seine River, 394. 395, 396, 415. Seleucia, 6, 342. Semmering Tunnel, 385. Senegal, 352, 354. Seraing, 414. Serb-Croat-Slovene State, 381, 385. Serbia, 36,5, 364, 367, 3O9, 381, 385. Sesame, 315, 329. Severn River, 404. Seville, 377, 378, 379. Sevres china, 394. Seward Peninsula, 214, 215, 216. Shad, in, 198. "Shaduf," method of irrigation used in Egypt (Fig. 232), 345. Shanghai, 228, 293, 316, 318, 319, 437; native part of water front at (Fig. 215), 319. Shantung, Peninsula, 317, 319, 320, 322, 323; Mountains, 315. Shark fins, 292. Sharon, 340. Sheboygan, 158. Sheep, 70 (Fig. 39), 81, 83; Africa 81, 351, 356; Alaska, 213; Arabia, 336; Ardennes Plateau, 314; Argentina, 281; Asia, 315; Australia, 81; Belgium, 413; Bohemian Plateau, 381; Central America, 256; Chile, 281; Falkland Islands, 281; France, 391, 394; Germany, 420; Great Britain, 81, 401, 402; Greece, 364; Hawaii, 217; Iberian Peninsula, 377; Iranian Plateau, 332; Italy, 371; Michi- gan, 155; Montenegro, 367; Nether- lands, 413; New South Wales, 295; New Zealand, 81, 295; Ohio, 155; Oklahoma, 134; Roumania, 369; Russia, 81, 432; Scandinavian Peninsula, 409; Serbia, 367; South America, 81, 270; Texas, 134; Turkey, 81, 339, 368; U. S., 81, 156, 172, 174, 199; grazing (Fig. 106), 173. Sheffield, 403. Shellac, 329. Shenandoah Valley, 107. Shepherds, camp of nomadic (Fig. i), 3; trade among, 2, 3. Shipbuilding, no, 119, 122, 189, 305, 403; of the desert, 3; modern (Fig. 28), 66; old and new in ocean steamships (Fig. 36) , 76. Shoe manufacturing, Brazil, 276; Canada, 249; Austria, 383; France, 394; bwitzer- land, 388; U. S., 59, 116, 117. Shrimps, 133. Siam, 326, 327. Siberia, 37, 78, 282, 307, 319, 43L 433. 439- Siberian Railway, 435, 436, 437. Sicily, 237, 372, 373, 375. Sidon, 6, 8, 342. Sierras, 21, 101, 102, 170, 172, 177, 183, 185, 190, 192, 193. Signals, use of, 61, 62; used by U. S. Weather Bureau (Fig. 26), 61. Si-kiang, 313, 322. Silk, 8, 12, 35, 445, 446; artificial, 83; in the Middle Ages, 10; manufactures, 118; production and value (Fig. 46), 90; raw, 53, 200; used in manufactures and export of silk manufactures (Fig. 281), 446; reeling, from cocoons in Japan (Fig. 206), 305; wild, 329; in Asia, 83; Austria, 383, 446; Bulgaria, 367; China, 83, 312, 313, 314, 320, 321, 445, 446; Czecho-Slovakia, 383; France, 302, 394, 446; Germany, 423, 446; Great Britain, 402, 446; Greece, 365; India, 312; Iranian Peninsula, 333; Italy, 312, 372, 373, 375, 382, 445, 446; Japan, 303, 307, 312, 445, 446; Russia, 312, 434, 446; Switzerland, 388, 389, 446; Turkey, 312, 340, 341, 368; U. S., 118, 446. Silver, 9, 21, 95; Australia, 203, 296; Jugo-Slavia, 383; Belgium, 414; Canada, 203, 296; Central America, 203; China, 315; Germany, 421; Greece, 365; Hon- duras, 258; Japan, 304; Iberian Penin- sula, 378; Mexico, 203, 258, 261; north central Europe, n, 12; Ontario, 248; S. America, 203, 283; Spain, 7; Sweden, 409; Turkey-in-Asia, 341; U. S., 153, ' 185, 203, 204, 275; mines of Potosi and Cerro de Pasco, 275. Simplon Tunnel, 389, 395. Singapore, 27, 218, 228, 241, 325, 326. Sioux City, 159. Sipka (Shipkn) Pass, 367, 368. Sisal, 148; Bahamas, 263; Hawaii, 218; Mexico, 90, 261; New Guinea, 293; Yucatan, 257, 258. Sitka, 210, 280. Sivas, 340. Skagway, 214. Skins, preservation of, 81, 83. Slate, 20, 1/12. Slavs, 363, 364, 381. Smelting industry, 14.3, 188. Smyrna, 340, 34 1, 343- THE INDEX xliii Snake River, 191. Soap, 158, 394. Society Islands, 293. Soda, 123. Sofia, 369, 370. Soil, civilization based on the, 15; kinds of, 16; organic matter in, 16; formation and transportation of, 17; alluvial, 17; glacial, 17, iso, 151; map (Fig. 63), no; loess, 17; residual, 17; how forests affect, 22; hillside ruined by erosion, where forest had been cut away (Fig. 8), 23; of North Atlantic section, 109, no; Southern section, 130, 131; of North Central section, 150, 151; scientific agriculture in Germany, 420; use of soil in European Russia, 438; method of using, map (Fig. 231), facing 345. Sokoto, 352. Solingen, 423. Solnhofen, 422. Songkoi River, 326, 327. Sorghum, 179. South America, 43; as a whole, 268; map (Fig. 181), between 268, 269; popula- tion by races (Fig. 183), 269; temper- ate, 280-290; climate, 280; commerce, 286, 287; commercial relations, 287- 290; crops, 282, 283; forests, 281; inhabitants, 283; manufactures, 284; mineral products, 203, 283; nitrate industry, 284; physical features, 280; society, organization of, 283; stock raising, 281; transportation, internal, 284, 285; U. S. of, 286; tropical, 268- 279; climate, 268, 269; crops, 273-275; exports, 271, 272, 275; forest products, 271; grasslands, 270; inhabitants, 269, 270; manufactures, 276; mineral re- sources, 203, 275; mountains, 269; principal ports, 278, 279; rubber in- dustry, 272; staple tropical exports (Fig. 185), 272; transportation, internal, 276-278. Southampton, 405. South Bend, 106, 158. South Bethlehem, 122. South Chicago, 164. South Omaha, 159. South Willems Canal, 415. Soy beans, 86, 303, 315. Spain, 7, 44, 67, 171, 376-380; commerce, 262, 379, 380; crops and products, 86, 377, 378; exports, 377, 378 (Fig. 247), 380; forest and animal products, 377; manufactures, 378; map (Fig. 246), 376; minerals, 203, 378; people, 255, 270, 363, 378; possessions, 222, 350, 359, 379, 380. Spice Islands, 324. Spices, 8, 12, 114, 226. Spinning Jenny, 401. Spokane, 170, 181, 189, 190, 193. Sponges, 79; Africa, 351; Bahamas, 263; Florida, 133; Greek Islands, 364; Turkish Islands, 340. Springfield [111.], 164; [Mass.], 119; [Ohio], 1 19. Spruce, 84, 112, 153, 198, 245. Squirrels, 83, 308. Stanley Falls, 354. Starch, 89. 159. Stassfurt, 93, 420, 422. Steamboat furthered work of unification, 108. Steamships, ocean, 75; the old and the new (Fig. 36), 76. Steel, 92, 93, 94; Austria, 383; Belgium, 314; Chile, 284; France, 447; Germany, 423, 447; Krupp steelworks (Fig. 269), 423; Great Britain, 447; Russia, 447; Switzerland, 389; U. S., 119, 122, 164, 189, 206, 447; steel works at Pittsburgh (Fig. 72), 121. Steelton [Pa.], 122. Stettin, 423, 427. Steyr, 383. Stimulants, 89, 90. Stockholm, 409, 410. Stock industry, Australasia, 294, 295; S. America, 270, 281; U. S., 134, 155, 156, 171-174; western stock ranges (Fig. 105), 172; see also Live stock. Stockton, 189, 191. Stoke-upon-Trent, 403. Stone, 91; precious, 95, 188. Stonehenge, 91. Stourbridge, 10. Strassburg, 425. Structural material, 91, 92. Struma, 370. Sturgeon, 151, 333, 433. Stuttgart, 424. Subsidies, government, 44. Substitution, influence of, 54, 55. Subways, and tunnels in N.Y. (Fig. 77), 127. Sudan, 34, 348, 352, 355. Sudbury, 247. Suez Canal, 6, 8, 13, 28, 73, 74, 167, 240, 241, 250, 298, 332, 337, 348. 349. 358, 366, 374, 396, 404. Sugar, 89, 441, 442; industry of the world (Fig. 278), 442; beet, 51, 54, 55, 441, 442; Austria-Hungary, 442; Belgium, 413; Bohemia, 382; California, 181, lyo. 442; Denmark, 411; Europe, 236, 263; France, 392, 442; Germany, 89, 420, 421, 442; Holland, 413; Iberian Peninsula, 377; Italy, 372; Michigan, 154; New York, 114, 154; Russia, 431, 433, 442; U.' S., 20 1, 442; Wisconsin, 134; cane, 35, 55, 441. 442; Africa, 356; Argentina, 282; Australia, 296; Barbados, 264; Central America, 256; China, 313; Cuba, 89, 201, 236, 237. 26,5, 442; Egypt, 346; Fiji, 293; Haiti, 265; Hawaii, 190. 218, 219, 442, gathering sugar cane (Fig. 150), 218; India, 89, 442; Indian Ocean, Islands of, 359; Java. 324, 442; Louisiana 131, 139; Philippines, 225, 227, 228; Porto Rico, 232, 442; S. America, 274, 442; Taiwan, 303; Trini- dad, 264; Virginia, 105; U. S., 442; West Indies, 262, 266, 392; field of, with central mill in Cuba (Fig. 165), 236; exports of, from Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Cuba, Dutch East Indies, France, Germany, S. America (Fig. 278), 442; refining, 114, 143, 189, 284, 33, 402. Sulphur, China, 315; Iberian Peninsula, 37S; Italy. 143; Japan, 304; Louisiana, 143; Mexico, 258; Sicily, 373; produc- tion of the world (Fig. 90), 143. Sulphuric acid, 55. Sultanabad, 333. xliv COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY Sulu, 228; Sea, 224. Sumac, 199, 371. Sumatra, 324, 325. Sungari River, 314. Sunshine, possible hours of, map (Fig. 171), 244. Superior, 27, 157, 168, 252; Lake, 100, 121, 161, 167, 252; iron and copper district, 161, 163, 247, 249, map (Fig. 99), 161. Surabaya, 325. Suram Tunnel, 435. Susitna Valley, 212, 216. Susquehanna River, 99, 112, 127, 128, 129. Swansea, 403. Swatow, 318. Sweden, 12, 389, 407, 409-412; map (Fig. 258), 408; see also Scandinavian Peninsula. Sweet potatoes, 86. Swine, Austria-Hungary, 81; Balkan Pe- ninsula, 81; China, 314; Denmark, 81; France, 81, 391; Germany, 81, 420; Iberian Peninsula, 377; Roumania, 381; Russian Empire, 81; Serbia, 367; S. America, 8"i; U. S. 81, 133, 156, 199. Switzerland, 90, 386-389, 413; com- merce, 389; exports, 80, 387 (Fig. 252), 389; government, 386; manufactures, 388; map (Fig. 250), 386; natural resources, 386-388; "playground of Europe," 387; population, 450, 451; railway mileage, 452; surface, 386; trade routes, 374, 385, 389. Sycamore, 133. Sydney [Australia], 221, 241, 293, 295, 298; [N. S.], 249. Syra, 366. Syracuse, 122, 123, 129. Syria, 7, 34, 342, 350; map (Fig. 228), 338. Syrup, 89, 159. Tabriz, 333. Tacoma, 180, igo, 195. Tagus River, 377, 379. Tahiti, 292, 293. Tairen (Dalny), 320, 436. Taiwan (Formosa), 301, 304, 306, 307, 318; products, 303, 312. Tamatave, 359. Tampa, 144, 149. Tampico, 259, 260. Tampico, or ixtle, fiber, 257. Tanana Valley, 214, 215. Tanganyika, Lake, 354. Tangier, 351. Tan jqng Priok, 325. Tanning industry, 116, 144, 160. Tapioca, 86, 273, 325. Tar, 133. Taro, 86, 218. Tasajo, 284. Tashkend, 436. Tasmania, 293, 294, 296, 298. Tate, 142. Tauern, 385. Taunton, 117. Taxation, reform needed, 209; system of, 44, Tea, 34, 35, 53, 442, 443; Africa, 356; Cey- lon, 312, 314, 329, 330, 443; Chir.a, 89, 312, 313, 314- 320, 321, 329, 443; India, 312, 329, 332, 443; Indo-China, 326; Iranian Plateau, 334; Japan, 303, 307, 312,324,329,443; Russia. 433; Taiwan, 303, 312, 329; U. S., 142; the principal consumers, 443; exports, sources of (Fig. 222), 329; gathering, near Kyoto (Fig. 205), 304; picking, at Summerville (Fig. 88), 141; transportation of, 317. Teak, 281; Burma, 329; elephants haul- ing logs in Burma (Fig. 221), 328; Indo- China, 326. Teheran, 343. Tehuantepec, 254, 260. Telegraph, the, 62, cable and postal routes, map (Fig. 52), facing 98. Telephone, the, 62, 63, 389. Temperature belts, in U. S. (Fig. 56), 101; of the world (Fig. 16), facing 30. Tennessee River, 147; Water Gap, 149. Terneuzen Canal, 415. Terni, 373. Terra-cotta, 123. Terre Haute, 160. Tete, 357. Teutonic nations, 363. Textile fibers, production and value of lea_ding (Fig. 46), 90. Textile industry, Austria, 383; Czecho-Slo- vakia, 383; France, 394; Great Britain, 401, 402; Japan, 307; Mexico, 259; Rus- sia, 434; Spain, 378; U. S., 117, 118, 206. Thames River, 404. Thessaly, 365, 366. Thracian Plain, 368. Tibesti, 352. Tibet, 311, 314, 331. Tientsin, 317-319. Tiflis, 434, 435. Tigris River, 5, 6, 332, 334, 335, 338, 343. Tilbury Docks, 404. Tile, 92; tiling, art, 165. Tillers of the soil, trade among, 3, 5. Timber, mfg., Canada, 202; Porto Rico, 232; Roumania, 369; Russia, 438; Scandinavian Peninsula, 408, 409; U.S., IS7, 158, 197, 198, 202; raft on Colum- bia ready for towing (Fig. 123), 190; see also Forests, under countries. Timbuktu, 352. Time belts, 46; map (Fig. 23), 46. Timor, 324. Tin, 7, ii, 93, 95; Alaska, 212; Australia, 296, 325; Banka, 325; Billiton, 325; Bolivia, 275, 325; China, 315; Dutch East Indies, 325; Great Britain, 400, 403; Malay Peninsula, 296, 325; world's production of (Fig. 219), 325. Tinian, 291. Tobacco, 36, 51, 54; Austria-Hungary, 136, 382; Africa, 351; America, 89; Belgium, 413; Brazil, 136; Bulgaria, 367; Canada, 246; China, 313; Chosen, 308; Cuba, 136, 236; Dutch East Indies, 136; France, 392; Greece, 365; Ger- many, 421; Haiti, 265; Hawaii, 218, 219; Italy, 373; Japan, 303, 305; Latakia, 340; Mexico, 257; Missouri, 154; New Caledonia, 293; Ohio, 154; Paraguay, 282; Philippines, 225, 227, 228; Porto Rico, 231-233; Russia, 136, 432; Samsun, 340; S. America, 274, 275; Sudan, 352; Sumatra, 324; Tur- key, 136, 340, 368; U. S., 114, 130, 134- 136, 197, 200; yield of, per square mile (Fig. 82), 135; Virginia, 105, 139, 197; Wisconsin, 154; industry of the world THE INDEX xlv (Fig. 83). 136; manufacture in Austria- Hungary, 383; Cuba, 144, 237; Russia, 433; Spain, 378; U. S., 114, 115, 144; market, principal, 427. Tokyo, 303, 306, 307, 309. Toledo, 159, 160, 164, 166. Tolu, 271. Tongking, 326. Tonka beans, 271. Tons and tonnage, xiii. Topaz, 188. Topeka, 159. Topolobampo, 260. Toronto, 169, 249, 251. Tortoise shells, 79, 292, 325. Tortosa, 379. Toulon, 396. Toulouse, 392, 395. Tourmaline, Brazil, 275; California, 188. Toys, mfg., 422, 424. Trade, among savage tribes, I ; among hunters and fishers, 2; among shep- herds, 2, 3; among tillers of the soil, 3, 5; domestic, beginning of, 2; domestic, flourished, 5; left to subject peoples, 9; routes to the Orient, ancient and mediaeval, map (Fig. 3), facing 10; routes to the north from the Mediter- ranean, mediaeval, map (Fig. 4), facing IT ; routes, shifting of, 12, 13; make and unmake cities, 13; routes to East blocked by Turks ended Mediterranean and introduced Oceanic Age of commerce, 13; in Asia and Africa, 41; see also Trade routes under countries. Trails, the first overland, 106, 107. Transcaucasia, 432, 433, 434, 435. Transportation, how lowlands affect, 18; upland valleys affect, 19, 20; mountains affect, 20; the development of, 59-77; influence of, 59 > communication by messengers, 59-60; the post, 60, 61; use of signals (Fig. 26), 61; telegraph, 62; telephone, 62, 63; tests of, 63; methods of, 63, 64; human porterage, 64; transportation by man power (Fig. 27), 65; pack animals, 65; wheeled transportation, 66; in the desert, 65; modern "ship of the desert" (Fig. 28), 66; the old way (Fig. 29), 66; construction of roads, 67; mud road and same road macadamized (Fig. 30), 68; the railroad, 69, 70; fifteen years' development in locomotives (Fig. 31), 69 j trolley lines in the Middle West (Fig. 32), 70; modern progress in trans- portation (Fig. 33), 71; pipe lines, 70, 72; inland navigation, 72, 73; ship canals, 73, 74; ocean navigation, 74- 76; modern steel sailing ship (Fig. 35), 75; old and new in ocean steamships (Fig. 36), 76; how transportation rates are fixed, 76, 77 > good transportation essential for unification of a country, 1 08; as a factor in international com- merce, 452-454; in China, 316, 317; on Mississippi and Ohio Rivers, 165, 166; rail and inland water in Austria- Hungary, Belgium, Canada, France, Germany, Great Britain, Russia, United States, xviii, xix; see also under countries. Transvaal, 356, 357. Transylvania, 369, 381. Treaties, reciprocity, of 1866, 253; of 1903, 238. Trebizond, 334. 343- Trejevna Pass, 370. Trenton, 27, 122, 123, 165. Trentino, 382. Trepang, Australia, 294; Malaysia, 325; Oceania, 292. Tres Cruces Pass, 285. Trieste, 28, 374, 375, 385. Trinidad, 263, 264, 272. Tripoli, 351. Tripolitania, 349. Trolley car, which made speed of 130 miles an hour (Fig. 270), 425; lines in Middle West (Fig. 32), 70. Tromsp, 411. Tronhjem, 411. Trout, lake, 245. Troy, us, 118, 129. Troyes, 10. Truckee-Carson project (Fig. 109), 176. Truffles, 392. Tsinan, 322. Tsingtau (or Chingtao), 322. Tucacas, 278. Tucuman, 282. Tulu, 434; coal fields, 433, 434- Tungsten, 185. Tunis, 349, 350, 351. Tunny fish, 351, 373, 378. Turin, 27, 373, 374. 395. Turkestan, 311, 432, 436. Turkey, 6, 60, 335, 336, 362, 367, 368, 385; -in-Asia, 337-341; commerce, 341; ex- ports, 339, 341; products, 312, 339, 340, 341; irrigation, need of, 339, 340; man- ufactures, 341; mineral resources, 341; -in-Europe, 368-369; commerce, 368; exports, 368; resources, 368. Turkish rugs, 341, 368. Turks, 12, 363; conquests, effects of, 13. Turpentine, 84, 133, 198, 199, 302; and rosin, sources of, entering international commerce (Fig. 79), 132; orcharding, new methods of (Fig. 80), 133. Turquoise, Arizona, 188; New Mexico, 188; Nishapur, 333.' Turtles, 133. Tuscany, 373. Tutuila, 221; (Fig. 1 1), 25. . Tuxpan, 259. Twentieth Century Limited (Fig. 330), 71. Tyre, 6, 7, 8, 342. Tyrol (Trentino), 382. Uea (Wallis) Island, 292. Ukrainia, 432. Ulm, 425. Union, Bonds of, 107, 108. Union of South Africa, commerce of (Fig. 237), 358. Union Pacific, driving last spike on, 108. United States, 37, 240, 275, 389; making of the, 98-108; physical divisions, map (Fig. 54), facing 99; relation of physiog- raphy to population (Fig. 55), 99; coastal plain and Appalachian Highland, 99, 100; Central Plain, 100; Cordilleran Highland, 100, 101; climate, 101, 102; temperature belts (Fig. 56), 101; mean annual rainfall (Fig. 57), 103; people, 103, 104; density of population, map xlvi COMMKRCIA L GEOGRA PII Y (Fig. 58), 104; northern and southern types of agriculture, 105, 106; early importance of water ways, 106; inland water ways, map (Fig. 62), facing 109; first overland trails, 106, 107; early highways to the West (Fig. 50), 107; bonds of union, 107, 108; map (Fig. 61), between 108, 109; areas originally wooded and National Forest Reserves, map (Fig. 60), facing 108; continental U. S., by sections (Fig. 64), m; North Atlantic Section, 109-129; climate and surface, 109; soil, 109, no; glacial soils, map (Fig. 63), no; early industries, no, 111; fisheries, in, 112; American fishing banks in Atlantic, map (Fig. 65), 112; forest products, 112, 113; farming, 113, 114; distribution of hay (Fig. 66), 113; industries using farm products, 114, 115; why manufactures flourish, 115, 116; mechanical power used in manufactures (Fig. 6"), 115; long distance transmission of electric power from Niagara Falls (Fig. 68), 116; water power at Niagara (Fig. 69), 117; leather manufactures, 116, 117; textile manufactures, 117, 118; mineral industries, 118, 119; mineral fuels, 95, 119, 120; coal fields (Fig. 70), 120; oil and gas fields (Fig. 71), 121; iron, industry, 120-122; steel works at Pitts- burgh (Fig. 72), 121 ; other mineral industries, 122 123; portland cement (Fig. 7,0, 12,5; seaports, 123 127; Boston Harbor (Fig. 74), 124; percent- age of foreign commerce handled by lending seaports (Fig. 75), 125; New York Harbor (Fig. 76), 126; canals, 127, 128; subways and tunnels, N. Y., (Fig. 77), 127; railway routes to the" West, 128, 129; Southern Section, 130- 149; Southern people, 130; surface and soil, 130, 131; southern climate, 131, 132; forest and fishery products, 132, 133; sources of turpentine and rosin entering international commerce (Fig. 70), 132; new method of turpentine orcharding (Fig. 80), 133; live stock in the South, 133, 134; Texas cattle (Fig. _8i), 134; tobacco belt, 134-136; distribution of crop (Fig. 82), 135; tobacco industry of the world (Fig. 83), 136; cotton bflt, oo, 136, 137; raw cotton and cotton-seed oil (Fig. 84), 136; distri- bution of cotton crop (Fig. 85), 137; picking cotton (Fig. 86), 138; destina- tion of U. S. cotton crop (Fig. 91), 144; export of cotton goods per spindle (Fig. 251). 387; cotton manufactures, 444, 445 (Fig. 279), 444; rice and sugar belt, 139; finished rice threshing (Fig. XT), 130; sugar industry of the world, 441,442 (Fig. 278), 442; other Southern crr.ps, 140 142; picking tea (Fig. 88), 141; mineral products, 142, 143; phos- phate-rock production (Fig. 89), 142; sulp'-'ur production (Fig. 90), 143; Alabama c