OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES A Handbook for the Analysis of Expository Essays BY NORMAN FOERSTER Associate Professor of English in the University of North Carolina NEW YORK HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY COPYRIGHT, 1915, BY HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY THE QUINN 4 BODEN CO. PRESS RAHWAY, N. J. PREFACE THIS little treatise is the result of an endeavor to find a fairly rigid, formal method of outlining that could actually be taught. Virtually every- thing that has been written on outlining refrains from venturing beyond miscellaneous mechanical directions, apparently on the assumption that the fundamental processes involved are of an intuitive nature and cannot be taught. To a mature mind, they are more or less intuitive, and it is desirable that they should be so. But they need not be intuitive ; it is possible to create a method that presents definite directions at every stage of the process, a method which is easy to teach and easy to learn and a mastery of which is of great value. The author believes that in this text-book he has explained such a method. It has been used profit- ably, at all events, by the freshman class in the University of Wisconsin. It is expected that the book will be used in connection with Essays for College Men (Holt), or any other collection of orderly expository writ- ing. It is not expected that it will be used in connection with rambling expository essays or the " personal essays " of Lamb and Stevenson. 431987 iv PREFACE Although the author believes that the training afforded by the preparation of analytical outlines and summaries in accordance with the instruction given in this book has most of the merits of training in argumentation and may very well sup- plant the latter, and although he believes that it goes far toward teaching students to read intelli- gently and to remember what they read, he desires to state his opinion that, in the study of such essays as those in this volume and in the many compilations of expository essays, there is always grave danger that formal structure will be greatly overstressed, and that the class-room will become a place for exercise in logic-chopping. It is easily forgotten that the true center in the teaching of expository essays is a realization of the total sig- nificance of the thought. This must be carefully distinguished, not only from an image of the framework of the thought, as if literature were a matter of building blocks, but also from a blind memory of phrases, as if literature consisted of a mass of formulae. To the latter error, such an essay as Matthew Arnold's " Literature and Science " lends itself with particular aptness ; of ten students who, after reading it attentively, are certain that they understand it, perhaps not one has obtained so much as a glimpse of the full significance of the ideas. The author is indebted to Dr. Frederick A. PREFACE v Manchester, of the University of Wisconsin, who has read the manuscript, and to Professor Karl Young, also of the University of Wisconsin, who has been everything but a collaborator. N. F. July, 1914. CONTENTS PART I PAGE I. THE NATURE OF THE PROCESS . . 3 II THE MAIN DIFFICULTY .... 5 III. IV. V. VI COMPOSING THE SUMMARY SENTENCES COMPOSING THE GROUP SENTENCES . COMPOSING THE THESIS .... . 6 . . 11 . . 17 . 19 VTT. THE SUMMARY 23 PART II " THE SPIRIT OF LEARNING " BY WOODROW WILSON, WITH MARGINAL OUTLINE 31 " KNOWLEDGE VIEWED IN RELATION TO PROFESSIONAL SKILL" BY JOHN HENRY NEWMAN, WITH MARGINAL OUTLINE 57 OUTLINE OF " THE SPIRIT OF LEARNING " . . . .95 OUTLINE OF " KNOWLEDGE VIEWED IN RELATION TO PRO- FESSIONAL SKILL " 97 SUMMARY OF " THE SPIRIT OF LEARNING " . . . .99 APPENDIX To THE INSTRUCTOR . .103 PART I OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES I. THE NATURE OF THE PROCESS WHEN we have heard a lecture, we can ordinarily report the general topic in a mere phrase or two. If a friend inquires what the lecturer talked about, we perhaps reply : " The spirit of learning the need of it in our colleges to-day." Should the in- quirer press us for further information, we men- tion if we can recall them the two or three chief " points " made by the speaker. This oral state- ment of the topic and the sub-topics forms an outline or summary. The mental processes in- volved in the preparation of the most elaborate written outline or summary are identical with those involved in this simple oral outline or summary. In both cases we ask ourselves precisely what the topic is, and how that topic is treated, under what divisions the discussion has been carried on. If, in listening to a lecture, we take notes on paper rather than in our minds, the result is a more or less useful outline or summary the de- gree of usefulness depending both on the clearness of the lecture and on the intelligence of the listener. There is no fundamental difference be- 3 AND SUMMARIES tween lecture notes and an outline or summary. Again, in taking reading notes, we go through ex- actly the same mental operations ; we try to find the main ideas and to relate with them the sub- ordinate ideas. Finally, whenever we study, whenever, that is, we read with concentration, en- deavoring to select what is important so that it will be indelibly stamped on our minds, and put aside what is least important so that it will not confuse us, we use our minds in quite the same manner. In all these cases, the mental processes are fundamentally identical. Whether we report a lecture by the spoken word or by the written word, whether we write notes on our reading or study it without writing notes, it is inevitably a matter of distinguishing between degrees of im- portance, of finding the coordinate main ideas, and the ideas subordinate to them, and the ideas sub- ordinate to the subordinate ideas. The readiest means of practice in these funda- mentally identical mental operations is the prep- aration of analytical outlines and summaries. Aside from the value of such a procedure in strengthening a sense of form in writing, and aside from its practical value in almost any call- ing that one may enter, it has the highly important value of contributing largely to that mental dis- cipline which is the chief end of education. THE MAIN DIFFICULTY II. THE MAIN DIFFICULTY Our main difficulty in outlining or summarizing an essay is the mastery of the thought ; we shall find it easy enough to tabulate our results in the form of an outline or to write them in the form of a summary when these results are once firmly in our grasp. Provided an author writes with ordinary clearness, it is a relatively simple matter to follow the progress of his thought, to understand, as we say, what we are reading. But, after all, we frequently do little more than float on the surface of the thought ; when we have done reading, we may be quite powerless to set down the substance of what we have read, and to-morrow our recollection of it will be vague indeed. We are like American travelers " seeing Europe " ; so far are we from remembering what we have read, that we are lucky if we can remember having read it. We read superficially we see what is written but do not comprehend what it means. We read for the moment, not for all time, and so we are satisfied with the most casual acquaintance with the thought. Then, having read in this fashion, we flatter ourselves that we are prepared to write an outline or summary. But really to master the thought of the essay or chapter in question, we must do a great deal 6 OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES more than this. At the very least, we must read the essay with special care, or else read it two or three times; such a method will often serve if the essay is a fairly short and simple one like William James's " The Social Value of the College-bred." l But since most essays are either fairly long (e.g., Woodrow Wilson's "The Spirit of Learning" 2 ) or fairly complex (e.g., Cardinal Newman's " Knowledge Viewed in Relation to Professional Skill" 3 ), we shall find it highly desirable habit- ually to employ the means of studying the para- graphs singly and reducing each of them to a summary sentence. III. COMPOSING THE SUMMARY SENTENCES Having read through the essay once, to get the drift of it, we return to the first paragraph, which we study carefully consulting the dictionary freely, if need be, and perhaps going over it two or three times, if the sense does not lie close to the surface. When the meaning of all parts of the paragraph is clear, it is ordinarily safe to assume 1 Printed in Essays for College Men; in Roe and Elliott, English Prose; and in Fulton, Expository Writing. 2 Printed in Essays for College Men and in the present volume. 3 Printed in Essays for College Men; in Carpenter and Brewster, Modern English Prose; and in the present volume. SUMMARY SENTENCES 7 that the meaning of the paragraph as a whole is also clear, and then and not until then we are prepared to state the meaning of the para- graph in what might be called a Summary Sen- tence. Thus, if we are analyzing the paragraphs of " The Spirit of Learning " (see pp. 31-56), we should perhaps set down as the first summary sentence something like this: We have fallen into a sympathetic discontent with the college. That gives us the meaning of the paragraph in a nutshell. One might suppose that we could save ourselves a deal of trouble by finding the Topic Sentence, which is usually the first sentence of the paragraph, and adopting that as the Summary Sentence; but though the two frequently coincide in part, they rarely do so altogether, and they are sometimes totally different. The reason that they do not fully coincide is that, whereas the summary sentence contains all the sense of the paragraph in small compass, the topic sentence often does little more than point to the subject treated, without indicating precisely how it is treated; the summary sentence is always like the kernel of a nut, the topic sentence is often no more than the label on a bottle. The summary sentence that we have just com- posed 8 OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES We have fallen into a sympathetic discontent with the college is fairly close to the topic sentence, which reads : We have fallen of late into a deep discontent with the college, with the life and the work of the under- graduates in our universities. But note one important deviation, the substi- tution of " sympathetic " for " deep." After saying that our discontent is deep, Mr. Wilson is at pains to make clear that it is deep in the sense that it is highly sympathetic, not in the sense that it is hostile or captious. If we are to summarize the paragraph in one sentence, we can- not afford to neglect a distinction the discussion of which occupies a considerable part of the para- graph. Again, the topic sentence of the second paragraph does not contain enough. It reads : The American college has played a unique part in American life. What that unique part is, the sentence does not even hint at, and yet every other sentence of the paragraph deals with it more or less explicitly. Accordingly, our summary sentence will run some- what as follows: The American college, in being the seat of ideals, has played a unique part in American life. In addition to this danger of confusing the sum- mary sentence with the topic sentence, two other SUMMARY SENTENCES 9 considerations need mention. First, whenever pos- sible, we should indicate, by means of connectives, the relation of every summary sentence to the one immediately preceding. The two sentences already given could not readily be related to each other, since the author does not indicate the relation be- tween the paragraphs. But the third summary sentence could easily be joined to the second if we wrote it after this fashion : On account of its absorption in ideals, it has differed strongly, in purposes and spirit, from the professional schools. For further illustrations, see the summary sen- tences below. The other consideration is this: we should al- ways prefer to write summary sentences as periodic rather than as loose sentences. This will auto- matically discourage the composition of vague, straggling sentences, and on the other hand will encourage the composition of the compact, definite type of sentence that is especially desirable as a summary sentence. Bearing in mind these several considerations, we may proceed to reduce the paragraphs of " The Spirit of Learning " to these summary sentences : SUMMARY SENTENCES, " THE SPIRIT OF LEARNING " 1. We have fallen into a sympathetic discontent with the college. 10 OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES 2. The American college, in being the seat of ideals, has played a unique part in American life. 3. On account of its absorption in ideals, it has differed strongly, in purposes and spirit, from the professional schools. 4. Crudities in what I have said will be removed as I proceed. 5. In losing its defmiteness of aim, the college has profited by many of the changes. 6. But these changes have also resulted in an almost complete disorganization, which, since the col- lege is the root of our intellectual life, calls for re- organization. 7. The disorganization was brought about by the introduction of the elective system. 8. The elective system resulted in a divorce be- tween the studies and college life, and an estrange- ment of teachers from the life of the students. 9. Meanwhile, the constituency of the college wholly changed through the growth of a non-bookish majority. 10. This, then, is the situation that we must meet with a new conception of the function of the college. 11. The chief mistake we have made is the em- phasis we have laid on instruction rather than the life of the mind. 12. The life of the mind is the result of an at- mosphere. 13. The key to the matter lies in our realizing that the object of the college is not learning, but disci- pline and the enlightenment of the mind. 14. What, therefore, we should seek to impart is the spirit of learning. 15. A serious misunderstanding that would be removed by an acceptance of this idea is that between the teachers, who desire to impart learning, and the parents of the students, who desire for their sons what they get out of the life of the college. GROUP SENTENCES 11 16. The parents are right in this, provided that the life of the college includes the spirit of learning. 17. Since the college produces its effects through its atmosphere, the spirit of learning must thrive out- side the class-room. 18. This it will never do until the teacher makes himself a part of the life outside the class-room. 19. From the point of view I have maintained, such proposals as that limiting the period of general study to two years are absurd ; for a college education demands a special environment for a period of four years. 20. Athletics and other non-academic activities thrive unduly because study does not compete with them. 21. The same. 22. The same. 23. The university authorities, therefore, must create a society of teachers and students. 24. The creation of such society, the creation of a spirit of learning, cannot be achieved through legis- lation. 25. Whatever method is used, the nursery atti- tude must be avoided. 26. My plea, then, is that we reorganize the col- lege in such a manner that it shall become a home for the spirit of learning. IV. COMPOSING THE GROUP SENTENCES Although the series of summary sentences that we now have before us is in itself a kind of outline, it is of relatively little value for the reason that 12 OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES it indicates no degrees of importance the sen- tences are placed one after another as if any one of them had as important a mission as any other. In other words, the arrangement is coordinate throughout. But inasmuch as the best type of outline or summary is that which indicates degrees of importance by subordination as well as coordi- nation, we shall have to proceed farther by seek- ing the main divisions and the subdivisions of the structure. The process is as follows. Concentrating our attention on the thought em- bodied in the series of summary sentences before us, we read them over carefully, endeavoring to arrange them in groups. Whenever there is a dis- tinct turn in the thought, we are warned that we have reached a new group. The first sentence We have fallen into a sympathetic discontent with the college obviously stands by itself, since the second The American college, in being the seat of ideals, has played a unique part in American life brings us to a new aspect of the discussion ; the first sentence constitutes, therefore, by itself a main division of the thought-structure. The sec- ond sentence, however, does not stand by itself, since the third GROUP SENTENCES 13 On account of its absorption in ideals, it has dif- fered strongly, in purposes and spirit, from the pro- fessional schools clearly deals with the same general matter; the second and third consequently form a group, and with them we might place the fourth Crudities in what I have said will be removed as I proceed which, though transitional in character, is re- lated more intimately with what goes before than with what follows. When we come to the fifth sentence In losing its definiteness of aim, the college has profited by many of the changes we are aware of another turn in the thought: so far Mr. Wilson has been concerned with the function of the old American college, but now he is concerned with the changes that the college has experienced in recent years. This subject is held before us in the sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth, and tenth sentences, the tenth closing the subject and opening the next subject. This group, then, is composed of six sentences. The next group we shall find to include sentences 11-17; and the last group, sentences 18-26. What we have been doing might be represented diagrammatically in this manner: 14 OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 <( 23 24 25 26 GROUP SENTENCES 15 The twenty-six sentences have been divided into five groups according to the aspects of the whole discussion with which they deal. This we found to be a fairly easy process because the summary sentences had been composed with care. Had con- nectives not been used frequently, the relation of sentence with sentence would have been less obvious ; and had any of the sentences misrepre- sented the contents of the paragraph, we might have been seriously misled and perhaps even al- together baffled. Now that the groups are marked off, we can readily enough compose sentences that will be large enough in meaning to embrace all the thought of the several groups Group Sentences they might be called. For example, sentences 2-4, the second group, are comprised in this group sentence: The American college has played a unique part in American life. And sentences 5-10, the third group, are com- prised in this sentence : The changes that have taken place, though not lueles ization. <-> A C7 valueless, have resulted in almost complete disorgan- For the other group sentences, see pp. 17-18. Our diagram, to show this additional step, might be drawn in this wise : 16 OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES I 1 2 f II 3 < 4 5 6 7 Ill 8^ 9 10 11 - 12 13 IV 14^ 15 16 17 18 r 19 20 21 V 22 i 23 24 25 26 COMPOSING THE THESIS 17 V. COMPOSING THE THESIS We shall be ready to write the outline or sum- mary after one more step. This step is the com- position of the Thesis, a single sentence, prefer- ably a complex sentence, that summarizes the whole essay by an interweaving of the group sentences. The title of the essay often supplies a hint as to what shall go into this sentence, but it does not invariably do so, and is in most cases a mere label, indicating what is under discussion but not what is said regarding what is under discussion. The thesis sentence should always state the central idea of the essay, and it should ordinarily state in addi- tion one or two of the less important ideas. These ideas both the central and the less important may be found most conveniently by the following method. Examine the sentences that represent the groups, in order to ascertain which are least im- portant. Of the five group sentences of " The Spirit of Learning " I. We have fallen into a sympathetic discontent with the college. II. The American college has played a unique part in American life. III. The changes that have taken place in the college, though not valueless, have resulted in almost complete disorganization. 18 OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES IV. In effecting the needed reorganization, we should seek to make the college a place where the spirit of learning may flourish. V. Such a reorganization will involve the follow- ing considerations. it is obvious that I. may be ignored, and that of those that remain, IV. is the most important, III. perhaps next most important, and II. and V. least important. Sentences I., II., and V. might therefore be left out of consideration ; if our thesis sentence gives the substance of III. and IV., it will contain enough. These, then, are the two sen- tences that are to be interwoven : The changes that have taken place in the college, though not valueless, have resulted in almost complete disorganization. In effecting the needed reorganization, we should seek to make the college a place where the spirit of learning may flourish. Since the second of these two sentences is more im- portant than the first, it will be recast as the main clause of the thesis sentence, and the first as a sub- ordinate clause, with this result : The American college, having fallen into a state of disorganization, should be reorganized in such a manner that it will become a place where the spirit of learning may flourish, THE OUTLINE 19 VI. THE OUTLINE What has been said thus far applies equally to the outline and to the summary. This section is concerned only with the outline. When we have reduced the paragraphs to sum- mary sentences, and combined these sentences in groups, and composed the group sentences and the thesis, we are in a position to write the outline. First we write the word Thesis; below that, the thesis itself; below that, the words Outline Proper; and below that, the several sections of the outline. Since the group sentences that we have already composed are to serve as our main headings, the principal question that now confronts us is: How much detail shall we give under each main heading? It is hard to answer this question definitely, because we are free to use as much or as little detail as we please. It would be possible to outline " The Spirit of Learning " on one page of writing paper, or on a dozen pages. But here, as elsewhere, there is a golden mean : for most purposes " The Spirit of Learning " would be most effectively outlined on three or four pages. If an outline is too short, it has an effect of meagerness; if it is too long, it confuses through its abundance. In any event, however, we must observe one simple principle : the scale must be the same throughout. Just as a map 20 OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES of a country may be large or small, but in either case must be drawn consistently, so an outline may be long or short, but must be on the same scale in every part. If it is brief, only the most important ideas should be used and this must be true with- out exception; if it is long, considerable detail should be given and in no part may such detail be omitted. One other general point should be remembered in the writing of an outline, the necessity of dis- tinguishing with unceasing vigilance between what is important and what is unimportant, between the statement of significant ideas or facts and the passages that elaborate, reinforce, or momentarily digress. We might profitably regard each gen- eral statement as a thing to be proved or illus- trated, the proof or illustration being the sub- ordinate material. If we write with the summary sentences as well as the essay before us, we must bear in mind the fact that many of the summary sentences, with the corresponding paragraphs, will not be used directly in the outline because in them- selves they are of slight importance, however use- ful they may be in emphasizing an idea, or sum- marizing a set of ideas, or joining one set of ideas with another. Thus, summary sentences 4, 21, 22, and 26 have no place at all in the outline. On the other hand, we must also bear in mind the fact that the summary sentences alone will not always THE OUTLINE 21 give us enough subordinate material; so that, on rare occasions, we must turn to the book for more detail, more proof, or more illustration. In addition to these general considerations, we should observe the following more or less mechani- cal directions : 1. Use these symbols, and use them in the order given : I A. 1. a. 1'. a . Frequently the first two or three symbols will suffice. Never write two symbols on the same line ; that is, avoid such forms as I. A. and A.I. 2. Indent precisely as in the outlines printed on pp. 95-98. The principle of indentation used here departs from that used in indicating para- graphs because it is essential that the symbols should stand forth boldly. 3. Write each heading in the form of a com- plete statement. Thus, instead of writing, II. The unique part which the American college has played in American life, write, 28 OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES II. The American college has played a unique part in American life. 4?. Use connectives freely. Among the most useful connectives are " for," " the following," " these," " that is," " viz.," " for example." Avoid using such words as " therefore," " hence," and " consequently " to connect a minor heading with a main heading ; these words reverse the usual order of the outline by putting a main statement in a subordinate position. (Although there are occa- sions when the usual order may be ignored, they are so infrequent as to be negligible.) 5. Whenever possible, use the parallel con- struction. Always prefer this form: A. It has been the seat of ideals. B. It has avoided the narrow concentration of the professional school. to this form : A. It has been the seat of ideals. B. The narrow concentration of the professional schools has been avoided. 6. Be concise reduce all statements to the smallest bulk, and avoid the wording of the original when by rephrasing you can state the idea in a more condensed form. Instead of writing, III. The changes that have taken place, although they have not been without value, have resulted in a state of disorganization which is all but complete. write, THE SUMMARY 23 III. The changes that have taken place, though not valueless, have resulted in almost complete dis- organization. 7. In seeking brevity, however, do not omit articles, etc., in " telegram style." Avoid such headings as the following: III. Changes taken place, though not valueless, have resulted almost complete disorganization. VII. THE SUMMARY The preparation for the writing of a summary is the same as that for the writing of an outline, we should have before us, together with the essay itself, the summary sentences arranged in groups, the group sentences, and the thesis. In summarizing an essay of the length of " The Spirit of Learning," it is almost invariably pos- sible for us to confine ourselves to a single para- graph. The first sentence of this paragraph should be the thesis. 1 The rest of the paragraph should be built up around the ideas stated in the group sentences ; 1 When the thesis is so long that it would form an ex- tremely awkward initial sentence, some of the less im- portant parts of it may be omitted. Our thesis for " The Spirit of Learning " is perhaps not too long to serve as the initial sentence of a paragraph, but whoever felt that it was too long could easily omit the phrase " having fallen into a state of disorganization." 24 OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES by care in the choice of connectives, we can make these ideas emphatic, and indicate what kinds of subordinate relation the subordinate ideas bear towards them. The first group sentence, since it merely introduces the others, may well be disposed of in a sentence whose chief function it is to point in the direction of the second group sentence. It might read : The sympathetic discontent which we now feel for the college has been occasioned by its decline as an instrument in our national life. The second group sentence, though it involves three summary sentences, may also be confined to one sentence: In the past, it has played a unique part in that life, in being the seat of ideals, and, unlike the pro- fessional schools, a place of orientation. The third group sentence, involving six summary sentences, and dealing with important matter, must be treated at greater length. Note, in the following passage, that the group sentence has been used as the first sentence of the passage, that this first sentence is related with what has gone before by the use of " But," and that the succeed- ing sentences are related to each other by the use of various means of connection (these means have been indicated by underscoring) : But the college has undergone fundamental changes, which, though not valueless, have resulted in almost THE SUMMARY 25 complete disorganization. The principal cause of the changes that brought about this disorganization was the introduction of the elective system. This caused a divorce between the studies and the life of the col- lege, and an estrangement between teachers and stu- dents. Meanwhile, the constituency of the college changed wholly, since now men go to college, not for learning, but for the incidental associations of the place. These are the changes, then, that have brought about the disorganization of the college, and have thus created the need of a reorganization. The fourth group sentence, involving the next seven summary sentences, and also dealing with important matter, is represented by a fairly long passage, which begins with the group sentence and which is made coherent through the scrupulous use of connectives: In effecting this reorganization, we should, hold be- fore us the conception of the college as a place where the spirit of learning may flourish. The chief mis- take that we have made is the emphasis we have laid on instruction rather than the life of the mind; we must realize that the object of the college is not learning, but discipline and the enlightenment of the mind, and that what we should seek to impart, there- fore, is the spirit of learning. Accordingly, before we can proceed, we must remove a serious misunder- standing, that, namely, between the teachers, who de- sire to impart learning, and the parents of the stu- dents, who desire for their sons what may be got 26 OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES out of the life of the college. In a sense the parents are right; they are right in emphasizing the life of the college. But that life should include the spirit of learning. Finally, the fifth group sentence, involving the last nine summary sentences, and also dealing with im- portant matter, is represented as follows : Now, a reorganization which aims to make the col- lege a place where the spirit of learning may flourish, involves several considerations. In the first place, the life of the college will never include the spirit of learning until the teacher makes himself a part of the life outside the class-room. Again, the student must live in the special environment which the college de- mands for four years; such proposals as that limiting the period of general study to two years are absurd. Again, athletics and other non-academic activities, which have been giving us much concern, thrive un- duly because study does not compete with them; change the environment, introduce the spirit of learn- ing, and they will assume the subordinate position which is their due. Further, it is important for us to realize that such a society of teachers and students as has been described cannot be achieved through legislation, and that, whatever method is used, we must not resort to the nursery attitude to the em- ployment of artificial assistance. For the summary printed as a whole, see pp. 99- 101. THE SUMMARY 27 In the writing of summaries, two points not al- luded to in the above discussion should be borne in mind. The first is the danger of overfullness at the beginning and haste at the end. It is so easy to be diffuse that we are inclined to use far too much detail at the beginning, and then, observ- ing that our scale is too large, and tiring some- what as we proceed, we are prone to omit more and more material, even indispensable material, so that if the plan of our summary were illustrated by a diagram, it would look like an inverted cone. The second point is this : beware of all suggestion of prejudice. By the choice of a word here, by the turn of a phrase there, one may convey a sense of one's personal attitude toward the question under discussion. It would never do to say, " We have fallen into a sympathetic discontent with the college though perhaps the author exaggerates the amount of discontent " ; or to say, " The teacher should make himself a part of the life out- side the class-room. (Personally, I do not agree with Mr. Wilson in this.)" If the pronoun " I " occurs at all in the summary, it should refer to the author of the essay, not to the person writing the summary. PART II THE SPIRIT OF LEARNING 1 WOODROW WILSON 1. WE have fallen of late into a deep discontent with the college, with the life and the work of the undergraduates in our universities. It is an honorable discontent, bred in us by J devotion, not by captiousness or hostil- The American college, ity or by an unreasonable impatience to having fallen into a state of disorganization, set the world right. We are not critics, should be reorganized but anxious and thoughtful friends. !? "* a manner f a * it will become a place We are neither cynics nor pessimists, where the spirit of but honest lovers of a good thing, of learnin * may ^ ourish ' whose slightest deterioration we are OUTLINE PROPER: jealous. We would fain keep one of We have 'fallen into the finest instrumentalities of our na- a sympathetic discontent , . . with the college. tional life from falling short of its best, and believe that by a little care and candor we can do so. . The American college has played a unique part in American life. So long as its aims were definite and its processes authoritative it formed 1 Oration delivered before the Harvard Chapter of Phi Beta Kappa, Sanders Theatre, Cambridge, July 1, 1909. Reprinted through the generous permission of Woodrow Wilson and of The Harvard Graduates' Magazine. 31 32 OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES men who brought to thdir tasks an incomparable morale, a capacity that seemed more than indi- jj vidual, a power touched with large The American college ideals. The college has been the seat has played a unique f ^ i ^^^ TI t , i i part in American life, of ldeals - The hberal training which f or ^ it sought to impart took no thought of any particular profession or business, but was meant to reflect in its few and simple disciplines the image of life and thought. Men were bred by it to no skill or craft or calling: the disci- It has been the seat pline to which they were subjected had of ideals. a more general object. It was meant to prepare them for the whole of life rather than for some particular part of it. The ideals which lay at its heart were the general ideals of conduct, of right living, and right thinking, which made them aware of a world moralized by principle, steadied and cleared of many an evil thing by true and catholic reflection and just feeling, a world, not of interests, but of ideas. 3. Such impressions, such challenges to a man's spirit, such intimations of privilege and duty are not to be found in the work and obliga- It has avoided the tions of professional and technical "o~i:Loi *oob. They cannot be. Every call- and has served as a ing has its ethics, indeed, its standards place of orientation. / i j. j j -j. ii i oi right conduct and wrong, its outlook upon action and upon the varied relationships of society. Its work is high and honorable, THE SPIRIT OF LEARNING 33 grounded, it may be, in the exact knowledge which moralizes the processes of thought, and in a skill which makes the whole man serviceable. But it is notorious how deep and how narrow the absorp- tions of the professional school are and how much they are necessarily concentrated upon the methods and interests of a particular occupation. The work to be done in them is as exact, as definite, as exclusive as that of the office and the shop. Their atmosphere is the atmosphere of business, and should be. It does not beget generous comrade- ships or any ardor of altruistic feeling such as the college begets. It does not contain that gen- eral air of the world of science and of letters in which the mind seeks no special interest, but feels every intimate impulse of the spirit set free to think and observe and listen, listen to all the voices of the mind. The professional school differs from the college as middle age differs from youth. It gets the spirit of the college only by imitation or reminiscence or contagion. This is to say nothing to its discredit. Its nature and objects are different from those of the college, as legitimate, as useful, as neces- sary; but different. The college is the place of orientation; the professional school is the place of concentration. The object of the college is to liberalize and moralize; the object of the professional school is to train the powers to 34 OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES a special task. And this is true of all vocational study. 4*. I am, of course, using the words liberalize and moralize in their broadest significance, and I am very well aware that I am speaking in the terms of an ideal, a conception, rather than in the terms of realized fact. I have spoken, too, of what the college did " so long as its aims were definite and its processes authoritative," as if I were thinking of it wholly in the past tense and wished to inti- mate that it was once a very effective and ideal thing but had now ceased to exist; so that one would suppose that I thought the college lost out of our life and the present a time when such influ- ences were all to seek. But that is only because I have not been able to say everything at once. Give me leave, and I will slowly write in the phrases which will correct these impressions and bring a true picture to light. 5. The college has lost its definiteness of aim, and has now for so long a time affected to be too modest to assert its authority over its III The changes that have Pupils in any matter of prescribed taken place in the col- study that it can no longer claim to be leqe, though not value- . . less, have resulted in the nurturing mother it once was ; but almost complete disor- fa e college is neither dead nor mori- ganization, for . . bund, and it has made up for its relaxed discipline and confused plans of study by many notable gains, which, if they have not improved THE SPIRIT OF LEARNING 35 its scholarship, have improved the health and the practical morals of the young gentlemen who resort to it, have enhanced their vigor and quickened their whole natures. A freer choice of studies has imparted to it a stir, an air of freedom and indi- vidual initiative, a wealth and variety of instruction which the old college There has been a altogether lacked. The development of athletic sports and the immoderate *>le, brought about a state of disorganization. addiction of undergraduates to stimu- lating activities of all sorts, academic and unaca- demic, which improve their physical habits, fill their lives with interesting objects, sometimes im- portant, and challenge their powers of organiza- tion and practical management, have unques- tionably raised the tone of morals and of conduct in our colleges and have given them an inter- esting, perhaps valuable, connection with modern society and the broader popular interests of the day. No one need regret the breaking-up of the dead levels of the old college, the introduc- tion and exaltation of modern studies, or the general quickening of life which has made of our youngsters more manly fellows, if less docile pupils. There had come to be something rather narrow and dull and morbid, no doubt, about the old college before its day was over. If we gain our advances by excessive reactions and changes which change too much, we at least gain them, 36 OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES and should be careful not to lose the advantage of them. 6. Nevertheless, the evident fact is, that we have now for a long generation devoted ourselves to promoting changes which have resulted in all but complete disorganization, and it is our plain and immediate duty to form our plans for reorganiza- tion. We must reexamine the college, reconceive it, reorganize it. It is the root of our intellectual life as a nation. It is not only the instrumentality through which we must effect all the broad prelim- inary work which underlies sound scholarship ; it is also our chief instrumentality of catholic enlight- enment, our chief means for giving widespread stimulation to the whole intellectual life of the country and supplying ourselves with men who shall both comprehend their age and duty and know how to serve them supremely well. Without the American college our young men would be too exclusively shut in to the pursuit of individual interests, would lose the vital contacts and emula- tions which awaken them to those larger achieve- ments and sacrifices which are the highest objects of education in a country of free citizens, where the welfare of the commonwealth springs out of the character and the informed purposes of the private citizen. The college will be found to lie somewhere very near the heart of American social training and intellectual and moral enlightenment. THE SPIRIT OF LEARNING 37 7. The process is familiar to every one by which the disintegration was brought about which de- stroyed the old college with its fixed B disciplines and ordered life and gave us The introduction of our present problem of reorganization <*- and recovery. It centered in the tween the studies and , ,, , , . , j ,1 college life, and an es- break-up of the old curriculum and the traJ Cgemeni of teachers introduction of the principle that the from the life of the ... ,. students. student was to select his own studies from a great variety of courses, as great a variety as the resources of the college and the supply of teachers available made possible. But the change could not in the nature of things stop with the plan of study. It held at its heart a tremendous implication: the implication of full manhood on the part of the pupil, and all the untrammeled choices of manhood. The pupil who was mature and well informed enough to study what he chose was also by necessary implication mature enough to be left free to do what he pleased, to choose his own associations and ways of life outside the cur- riculum without restraint or suggestion; and the varied, absorbing college life of our day sprang up as the natural offspring of the free election of studies. 8. There went along with the relaxation of rule as to what undergraduates should study, therefore, an almost absolute divorce between the studies and the life of the college, its business and S8 OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES its actual daily occupations. The teacher ceased to look upon himself as related in any responsible way to the life of his pupils, to what they should be doing and thinking of between one class exer- cise and another, and conceived his whole duty to have been performed when he had given his lecture and afforded those who were appointed to come the opportunity to hear and heed it if they chose. The teachers of this new regime, moreover, were most of them trained for their teaching work in German universities, or in American universi- ties in which the methods, the points of view, the spirit, and the object of the German universities were, consciously or unconsciously, reproduced. They think of their pupils, therefore, as men al- ready disciplined by some general training such as the German gymnasium gives, and seeking in the university special acquaintance with particular studies, as an introduction to special fields of in- formation and inquiry. They have never thought of the university as a community of teachers and pupils: they think of it, rather, as a body of teachers and investigators to whom those may resort who seriously desire specialized kinds of knowledge. They are specialists imported into an American system which has lost its old point of view and found no new one suitable to the needs and circumstances of America. They do not think of living with their pupils and affording them THE SPIRIT OF LEARNING 39 the contacts of culture; they are only accessible to them at stated periods and for a definite and limited service; and their teaching is an interrup- tion to their favorite work of research. 9. Meanwhile, the constituency of the college has wholly changed. It is not only the bookish classes who now send their sons to col- c lege, but also the men of business and The constituency of c n -i ,1 i the college has wholly of affairs, who expect their sons to changed y through & follow in their own footsteps and do growth of a non-book- i .,i i'ii i i T..I t5 ^ majority. work with which books have little con- nection. In the old days of which I have spoken most young men who went to college expected to enter one or other of the learned professions, ex- pected to have to do with books and some of the more serious kinds of learning all their lives. Books were their proper introduction to the work that lay before them; learning was their natural discipline and preparation. But nowadays the men who are looking forward to the learned pro- fessions are in a minority at the college. Most undergraduates come out of an atmosphere of business and wish a breeding which is consonant with it. They do not wish learning. They wish only a certain freshening of their faculties for the miscellaneous contacts of life, a general acquaint- ance with what men are doing and saying in their own generation, a certain facility in handling themselves and in getting on with their fellows. 40 OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES They are much more interested in the incidental associations of college life than in the main intel- lectual occupations of the place. They want to be made men of, not scholars ; and the life led at college is as serviceable for that as any of the tasks set in the class-room. If they want what the formal teaching offers them at all, it is for some definite and practical purpose connected with the calling they expect to follow, the business they expect to engage in. Such pupils are specially unsuitable for such teachers. 10. Here, then, is our situation. Here is the little world of teachers and pupils, athletic asso- ciations, musical and literary clubs, social organi- zations and societies for amusement, class-room and playground, of which we must make analysis, out of which we must get a new synthesis, a definite aim, and new processes of authoritative direction, losing nothing that has been gained, recovering what has been lost. All the fresh elements we have gained are valuable, many of the new points of view are those from which we must look upon the whole task and function of the college if we would see it truly; but we have fallen upon an almost hopeless confusion and an utter dispersion of energy. We must pull the whole inorganic thing together under a new conception of what the col- lege must be and do. 11. The chief and characteristic mistake which THE SPIRIT OF LEARNING 41 the teachers and governors of our colleges have made in these latter days has been that they have devoted themselves and their plans too exclusively to the business, the very iy In effecting the need- COmmonplace business, OI instruction, e d reorganization, we to well-conceived lectures and approved 8h ld seek *? makethe college a place where class-room method, and have not enough the spirit of learning regarded the life of the mind. The may ftouris *> for mind does not live by instruction. It we have been mis- is no prolix gut to be stuffed. The real * ak f n which they will get from the asso- ciations of college life: and many more The teachers desire to impart learning, and would say the same thing if they were I know what they got out of the life of mean, and I am free to say that I sym- the college. pathize with them. They understand that all that their boys get in the class-room is in- struction in certain definite bodies of knowledge; that all that they are expected to bring away from their lectures and recitations is items of learning. They have consorted with college men, if they are not college bred themselves, and know how very soon items of knowledge slip away from them, no matter how faithful and diligent they may have been in accumulating them when they were stu- dents. They observe that that part of the college acquisition is very soon lost. College graduates will tell you without shame or regret, within ten years of their graduation, that they remember practically nothing of what they learned in the class-room ; and yet in the very same breath they will tell you that they would not have lost what they did get in college for anything in the world ; THE SPIRIT OF LEARNING 45 and men who did not have the chance to go to college will everywhere be found to envy them, per- ceiving that college-bred men have something which they have not. What have they got, if learning is to be left out of the reckoning? They have got manliness, certainly, esprit de corps, the training of generous comradeships, a notable development of their social faculties and of their powers of appreciation; and they have lived under the influ- ence of mental tasks of greater or less difficulty, have got from the class-room itself, from a quiet teacher here and there, some intimation, some touch of the spirit of learning. If they have not, they have got only what could no doubt be got from association with generous, self-respecting young men anywhere. Attendance on the exercises of the college was only a means of keeping them together for four years, to work out their com- radeships and their mutual infections. 16. I said just now that I sympathized with men who said that what they wanted for their sons in college was not what they got in the g class-room so much as what they got The parents are right f ,i T/ i / ii in this, provided that from the life and associations of the the ^ e of the college place; but I agree with them only if includes the spirit of what is to be got in the class-room is nothing more than items of knowledge likely to be quickly lost hold of. I agree with them ; but I see clearly what they are blindly feeling after. They 46 OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES should desire chiefly what their sons are to get out of the life and associations of the place; but that life and those associations should be freighted with things they do not now contain. The proc- esses of life, the contagions of association, are the only things that have ever got any real or perma- nent hold on men's minds. These are the conduct- ing media for every effect we seek to work on the human spirit. The undergraduate should have scholars for teachers. They should hold his atten- tion steadily upon great tested bodies of knowledge and should insist that he make himself acquainted with them, if only for the nonce. But they will give him nothing he is likely to carry with him through life if they stop with formal instruction, however thorough or exacting they may make it. Their permanent effects will be wrought upon his spirit. Their teaching will follow him through life only if they reveal to him the meaning, the significance, the essential validity of what they are about, the motives which prompt it, the processes which verify it. They will rule him, not by what they know and inform him of, but by the spirit of the things they expound. And that spirit they cannot convey in any formal manner. They can convey it only atmospherically, by making their ideals tell in some way upon the whole spirit of the place. 17. How shall their pupils carry their spirit THE SPIRIT OF LEARNING 47 away with them, or the spirit of the things they teach, if beyond the door of the class-room the atmosphere will not contain it? College is a place of initiation. Its effects are atmospheric. They are wrought by impression, by association, by emulation. The voices which do not penetrate beyond the doors of the class-room are lost, are ineffectual, are void of consequence and power. No thought will obtain or live there for the trans- mission of which the prevailing atmosphere is a non-conducting medium. If young gentlemen get from their years at college only manliness, esprit de corps, a release of their social gifts, a training in give and take, a catholic taste in men, and the standards of true sportsmen, they have gained much, but they have not gained what a college should give them. It should give them insight into the things of the mind and of the spirit, a sense of having lived and formed their friendships amidst the gardens of the mind where grows the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, a consciousness of having taken on them the vows of true enlighten- ment and of having undergone the discipline, never to be shaken off, of those who seek wisdom in candor, with faithful labor and travail of spirit. 18. These things they cannot get from the class-room unless the spirit of the class-room is the spirit of the place as well and of its life ; and that will never be until the teacher comes out of 48 OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES the class-room and makes himself a part of that life. Contact, companionship, familiar intercourse is the law of life for the mind. The Such a reorganization comradeships of undergraduates will C -" OM> " never breed the spirit of learning. The A. circle must be widened. It must include The college teacher the older men, the teachers, the men for shall make himself a part of the life outside whom life has grown more serious and the class-room. to whom it hag reyealed more of itg meanings. So long as instruction and life do not merge in our colleges, so long as what the under- graduates do and what they are taught occupy two separate, air-tight compartments in their con- sciousness, so long will the college be ineffectual. 19. Looked at from the point of view at which I stand in all that I have been saying, some of the proposals made in our day for the im- Such proposals as provement of the college seem very that limiting the period s t ra ngely conceived. It has been pro- of general study to two J years are absurd: a col- posed, for example, to shorten the l :\"7n* t P^iod of general study in college to for a period of four (say) two years, and let the student who has gone the distance our present sophomores have gone enter at once upon his pro- fessional studies or receive his certificate of grad- uation. I take it for granted that those who have formulated this proposal never really knew a sophomore in the flesh. They say, simply, that the studies of our present sophomores are as ad- THE SPIRIT OF LEARNING 49 vanced as the studies of seniors were in the great days of our grandfathers, and that most of our present sophomores are as old as our grandfathers were when they graduated from the pristine col- lege we so often boast of; and I dare say that is all true enough. But what they do not know is, that our sophomore is at the age of twenty no more mature than the sophomore of that previous generation was at the age of seventeen or eighteen. The sap of manhood is rising in him but it has not yet reached his head. It is not what a man is studying that makes him a sopho- more or a senior : it is the stage the college process has reached in him. A college, the American col- lege, is not a body of studies: it is a process of development. It takes, if our observation can be trusted, at least four years for the completion of that process, and all four of those years must be college years. They cannot be school years : they cannot be combined with school years. The school process is an entirely different one. The college is a process of slow evolution from the schoolboy and the schoolboy's mental attitude into the man and his entirely altered view of the world. It can be accomplished only in the college environment. The environment is of the essence of the whole effect. 20. If you wish to create a college, therefore, and are wise, you will seek to create a life. We 50 OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES have allowed ourselves to grow very anxious and to feel very helpless about college athletics. They c play too large a part in the life of the The undue promi- undergraduate, we say ; and no doubt nence of athletics and ,, mi ^ other non-academic ac- the j do. There are many other things tivities can easily be ob- wn i c ^ p l ay too j arge a part j n tnat mated by bringing study into competition with life, to the exclusion of intellectual in- terests and the dissipation of much excellent energy: amusements of all kinds, social preoccupations of the most absorbing sort, a multitude of activities which have nothing what- ever to do with the discipline and enlightenment of the mind. But that is because they are left a free field. Life, at college, is one thing, the work of the college another, entirely separate and distinct. The life is the field that is left free for athletics not only but also for every other amuse- ment and diversion. Studies are no part of that life, and there is no competition. Study is the work which interrupts the life, introduces an em- barrassing and inconsistent element into it. The Faculty has no part in the life; it organizes the interruption, the interference. 21. This is not to say that there are not a great many undergraduates seriously interested in study, or that it is impossible or even difficult to make the majority of them, the large majority, pass the tests of the examinations. It is only saying that the studies do not spring out of the THE SPIRIT OF LEARNING 51 life of the place and are hindered by it, must resist its influences if they would flourish. I have no jealousy of athletics : it has put wholesome spirit into both the physical and the mental life of our undergraduates. There are fewer morbid boys in the new college which we know than there were in the old college which our fathers knew ; and fewer prigs, too, no doubt. Athletics are indispensable to the normal life of young men, and are in them- selves wholesome and delightful, besides. In an- other atmosphere, the atmosphere of learning, they could be easily subordinated and assimilated. The reason they cannot be now is that there is nothing to assimilate them, nothing by which they can be digested. They make their own atmosphere un- molested. There is no direct competition. 22. The same thing may be said, for it is true, of all the other amusements and all the social activities of the little college world. Their name is legion : they are very interesting ; most of them are in themselves quite innocent and legitimate; many of them are thoroughly worth while. They now engross the attention and absorb the energies of most of the finest, most spirited, most gifted youngsters in the undergraduate body, men fit to be scholars and masters in many fields, and for whom these small things are too trivial a prepara- tion. They would not do so if other things which would be certain to grip these very men were in 52 OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES competition with them, were known and spoken of and pervasive in the life of the college outside the class-room; but they are not. The field is clear for all these little activities, as it is clear for athletics. Athletics has no serious competitor except these amusements and petty engrossments; they have no serious competitor except athletics. The scholar is not in the game. He keeps mod- estly to his class-room and his study and must be looked up and asked questions if you would know what he is thinking about. His influence can be set going only by the deliberate effort of the undergraduate himself who looks him up and stirs him. He deplores athletics and all the other ab- sorbing and non-academic pursuits which he sees drawing the attention of his pupils off from study and serious preparation for life, but he will not enter into competition with them. He has never dreamed of such a thing ; and, to tell the truth, the life of the place is organized in such a way as to make it hardly possible for him to do so. He is therefore withdrawn and ineffectual. 23. It is the duty of university authorities to make of the college a society, of which the teacher will be as much, and as naturally, a member as the undergraduate. When that is done other things will fall into their natural places, their natural relations. Young men are capable of great en- thusiasms for older men whom they have learned THE SPIRIT OF LEARNING 53 to know in some human, unartificial way, whose quality they have tasted in unconstrained con- versation, the energy and beauty of whose char- acters and aims they have learned to appreciate by personal contact; and such enthusiasms are often among the strongest and most lasting influ- ences of their lives. You will not gain the affec- tion of your pupil by anything you do for him, impersonally, in the class-room. You may gain his admiration and vague appreciation, but he will tie to you only for what you have shown him personally or given him in intimate and friendly service. 4*. Certain I am that it is impossible to rid our colleges of these things that compete with study and drive out the spirit of learning by the simple device of legislation, in ^he creation of a which, as Americans, we have so child- e P irit f learning, the .,-.., creation of a society of ish a confidence; or, at least, that, if teachers and students, we did succeed in driving them out, did nno \ . be . . through legislation. set our house in order and sweep and garnish it, other equally distracting occupants would crowd in to take their places. For the house would be empty. There must be life as well as study. The question is, not of what are we to empty it, but with what must we fill it? We must fill it with the things of the mind and of the spirit; and that we can do by introducing into it men for whom these things are supremely inter- 54 OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES esting, the main objects of life and endeavor, teachers who will not seem pedagogues but friends, and who can by the gentle infection of friendli- ness make thought a general contagion. Do that ; create the atmosphere and the contacts of a so- ciety made up of men young and old, mature and adolescent, serious and gay, and you will create an emulation, a saturation, a vital union of parts in a common life, in which all questions of sub- ordination and proportion will solve themselves. So soon as the things which now dissipate and distract and dissolve our college life feel the things which should coordinate and regulate and inspire it in direct contact with them, feel their ardor and their competition, they will fall into their proper places, will become pleasures and cease to be occupations, will delight our undergraduate days, but not monopolize them. They are exag- gerated now because they are separated and do not exchange impulses with those greater things of whose presence they are sometimes hardly con- scious. 25. No doubt there are many ways in which this vital association may be effected, but all wise and successful ways will have this in common, that they will abate nothing of the freedom and self- government which have so quickened and purified our colleges in these recent days of change, will have no touch of school surveillance in them. You THE SPIRIT OF LEARNING 55 cannot force companionships upon undergradu- ates, if you treat them like men. You can only create the conditions, set up the organ- ization, which will make them natural. Whatever ' method is The scholar should not need a statute use ^ the ery atti- tude must be avoided. behind him. The spirit of learning should not covet the support of the spirit and organization of the nursery. It will prevail of its own grace and power if you will but give it a chance, a conducting medium, an air in which it can move and breathe freely without effort or self-consciousness. If it cannot, I, for one, am unwilling to lend it artificial assistance. It must take its chances in the competition and win on its merits, under the ordinary rules of the game of life, where the most interesting man attracts at- tention, the strongest personality rules, the best organized force predominates, the most admirable thing wins allegiance. We are not seeking to force a marriage between knowledge and pleasure ; we are simply trying to throw them a great deal together in the confidence that they will fall in love with one another. We are seeking to expose the undergraduate when he is most susceptible to the best and most stimulating influences of the university in the hope and belief that no sensible fellow fit for a career can resist the infection. 26. My plea, then, is this: that we now delib- erately set ourselves to make a home for the spirit 56 OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES of learning: that we reorganize our colleges on the lines of this simple conception, that a college is not only a body of studies but a mode of asso- ciation; that its courses are only its formal side, its contacts and contagions its realities. It must become a community of scholars and pupils, a free community but a very real one, in which democracy may work its reasonable triumphs of accommodation, its vital processes of union. I am not suggesting that young men be dragooned into becoming scholars or tempted to become pedants, or have any artificial compulsion what- ever put upon them, but only that they be intro- duced into the high society of university ideals, be exposed to the hazards of stimulating friend- ships, be introduced into the easy comradeships of the republic of letters. By this means the class- room itself might some day come to seem a part of life. KNOWLEDGE VIEWED IN RELA- TION TO PROFESSIONAL SKILL x JOHN HENRY NEWMAN 1. I HAVE been insisting, in my two preceding Discourses, first, on the cultivation of the intellect, as an end which may reasonably be pur- sued for its own sake ; and next, on the nature of that cultivation, or what that ^ JJJJJJ^j cul _ cultivation consists in. Truth of what- ture is useful in being *'* ii i t M an end in itself, and ever kind is the proper object of the since it is useful in intellect ; its cultivation then lies in training men for mem- bership in society and fitting it to apprehend and contemplate f or professional study, truth. Now the intellect in its present a Lib ?\ Education is superior in utility to an state, with exceptions which need not education which aims here be specified, does not discern truth at sMl in a intuitively, or as a whole. We know, not by a direct and simple vision, not at a glance, but, as it were, by piecemeal and accumulation, by a mental process, by going round an object, by the comparison, the combination, the mutual cor- 1 The seventh of a series of nine Discourses on Uni- versity Teaching delivered to the Catholics of Dublin in 1852. 57 58 OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES rection, the continual adaptation, of many partial notions, by the employment, concentration, and joint action of many faculties and ex- OUTLINE PROPER: n j o 1 J ercises 01 mind, buch a union and con- That the idea of a Lib- cert of the intellectual powers, such an eral Education (which enlargement and development, such a has been set forth in . my two preceding dis- comprehensiveness, is necessarily a mat- courses) has not been ter of training. And again, such a accepted by all great men, may be exempli- training is a matter of rule; it is not me f e a PP lication > however exemplary, which introduces the mind to truth, nor the reading many books, nor the getting up many subjects, nor the witnessing many experiments, nor the attending many lectures. All this is short of enough ; a man may have done it all, yet be lingering in the vestibule of knowledge: he may not realize what his mouth utters ; he may not see with his mental eye what confronts him; he may have no grasp of things as they are; or at least he may have no power at all of advancing one step forward of himself, in consequence of what he has already acquired, no power of discriminating be- tween truth and falsehood, of sifting out the grains of truth from the mass, of arranging things according to their real value, and, if I may use the phrase, of building up ideas. Such a power is the result of a scientific formation of mind; it is an acquired faculty of judgment, of clear-sightedness, of sagacity, of wisdom, of phil- PROFESSIONAL SKILL 59 osophical reach of mind, and of intellectual self- possession and repose, qualities which do not come of mere acquirement. The bodily eye, the organ for apprehending material objects, is pro- vided by nature ; the eye of the mind, of which the object is truth, is the work of discipline and habit. 2. This process of training, by which the intel- lect, instead of being formed or sacrificed to some particular or accidental purpose, some specific trade or profession, or study or science, is disci- plined for its own sake, for the perception of its own proper object, and for its own highest culture, is called Liberal Education; and though there is no one in whom it is carried as far as is conceiva- ble, or whose intellect would be a pattern of what intellects should be made, yet there is scarcely any one but may gain an idea of what real training is, and at least look towards it, and make its true scope and result, not something else, his standard of excellence ; and numbers there are who may sub- mit themselves to it, and secure it to themselves in good measure. And to set forth the right standard, and to train according to it, and to help forward all students towards it according to their various capacities, this I conceive to be the busi- ness of a University. 3. Now this is what some great men are very slow to allow; they insist that Education should be confined to some particular and narrow end, 60 OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES and should issue in some definite work, which can be weighed and measured. They argue as if every thing, as well as every person, had its price ; and that where there has been a great outlay they have a right to expect a return in kind. This they call making Education and Instruction " useful," and " Utility " becomes their watchword. With a fundamental principle of this nature, they very naturally go on to ask, what there is to show for the expense of a University ; what is the real worth in the market of the article called " a Liberal Education," on the supposition that it does not teach us definitely how to advance our manufac- tures, or to improve our lands, or to better our civil economy; or again, if it does not at once make this man a lawyer, that an engineer, and that a surgeon ; or at least if it does not lead to discoveries in chemistry, astronomy, geology, mag- netism, and science of every kind. 4. This question, as might have been expected, has been keenly debated in the present age, and A formed one main subject of the con- Certain Edinburgh troversy, to which I referred in the In- Reviewers, advocates of i ,. i ^. education for Utility, troduction to the present Discourses, as an ^ having been sustained in the first decade of this century by a celebrated Northern Review * on the one hand, and defenders of the University of Oxford on the other. Hardly had the authori- 1 The Edinburgh Review. PROFESSIONAL SKILL 61 ties of that ancient seat of learning, waking from their long neglect, set on foot a plan for the edu- cation of the youth committed to them, than the representatives of science and literature in the city, which has sometimes been called the Northern Athens, remonstrated, with their gravest argu- ments and their most brilliant satire, against the direction and shape which the reform was taking. Nothing would content them, but that the Uni- versity should be set to rights on the basis of the philosophy of Utility ; a philosophy, as they seem to have thought, which needed but to be pro- claimed in order to be embraced. In truth, they were little aware of the depth and force of the principles on which the academical authorities were proceeding, and, this being so, it was not to be expected that they would be allowed to walk at leisure over the field of controversy which they had selected. Accordingly they were encountered in behalf of the University by two men of great name and influence in their day, of very different minds, but united, as by Collegiate ties, so in the clear-sighted and large view which they took of the whole subject of Liberal Education; and the defense thus provided for the Oxford studies has kept its ground to this day. 5. Let me be allowed to devote a few words to the memory of distinguished persons, under the shadow of whose name I once lived, and by whose 62 OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES doctrine I am now profiting. In the heart of Ox- ford there is a small plot of ground, hemmed in B by public thoroughfares, which has Two defenders of Ox- been the possession and the home of one Society for above five hundred years. In the old time of Boniface the Eighth and John the Twenty-second, in the age of Scotus and Occam and Dante, before Wiclif or Huss had kin- dled those miserable fires which are still raging to the ruin of the highest interest of man, an unfor- tunate King of England, Edward the Second, flying from the field of Bannockburn, is said to have made a vow to the Blessed Virgin to found a religious house in her honor, if he got back in safety. Prompted and aided by his Almoner, he decided on placing this house in the city of Alfred ; and the Image of our Lady, which is opposite its entrance-gate, is to this day the token of the vow and its fulfilment. King and Almoner have long been in the dust, and strangers have entered into their inheritance, and their creed has been for- gotten, and their holy rites disowned; but day by day a memento is still made in the holy Sacri- fice by at least one Catholic Priest, once a mem- ber of that College, for the souls of those Catholic benefactors who fed him there for so many years. The visitor, whose curiosity has been excited by its present fame, gazes perhaps with something of disappointment on a collection of buildings PROFESSIONAL SKILL 63 which have with them so few of the circumstances of dignity or wealth. Broad quadrangles, high halls and chambers, ornamented cloisters, stately walks, or umbrageous gardens, a throng of stu- dents, ample revenues, or a glorious history, none of these things were the portion of that old Cath- olic foundation ; nothing in short which to the common eye sixty years ago would have given tokens of what it was to be. But it had at that time a spirit working within it, which enabled its inmates to do, amid its seeming insignificance, what no other body in the place could equal ; not a very abstruse gift or extraordinary boast, but a rare one, the honest purpose to administer the trust committed to them in such a way as their conscience pointed out as best. So, whereas the Colleges of Oxford are self-electing bodies, the fellows in each perpetually filling up for themselves the vacancies which occur in their number, the members of this foundation determined, at a time when, either from evil custom or from ancient statute, such a thing was not known elsewhere, to throw open their fellowships to the competition of all comers, and, in the choice of associates henceforth, to cast to the winds every personal motive and feeling, family connection, and friend- ship, and patronage, and political interest, and local claim, and prejudice, and party jealousy, and to elect solely on public and patriotic grounds. 64 OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES Nay, with a remarkable independence of mind, they resolved that even the table of honors, awarded to literary merit by the University in its new system of examination for degrees, should not fetter their judgment as electors; but that at all risks, and whatever criticism it might cause, and whatever odium they might incur, they would select the men, whoever they were, to be children of their Founder, whom they thought in their consciences to be most likely from their intellectual and moral qualities to please him, if (as they ex- pressed it) he were still upon earth, most likely to do honor to his College, most likely to promote the objects which they believed he had at heart. Such persons did not promise to be the disciples of a low Utilitarianism; and conse- quently, as their collegiate reform synchronized with that reform of the Academic body, in which they bore a principal part, it was not unnatural that, when the storm broke upon the University from the North, their Alma Mater, whom they loved, should have found her first defenders within the walls of that small College, which had first put itself into a condition to be her champion. 6. These defenders, I have said, were two, of whom the most distinguished was the late Dr. Copleston, then a Fellow of the College, suc- cessively its Provost, and Protestant Bishop of Llandaff. In that Society, which owes so much PROFESSIONAL SKILL 65 to him, his name lives, and ever will live, for the distinction which his talents bestowed on it, for the academical importance to which he raised it, for the generosity of spirit, ! ,, ,., ,.. , . j XL i_l_j Dr ' Copleston, and the liberality of sentiment, and the kind- 2. ness of heart, with which he adorned *'- Damson, who re- plied to Locke as well it, and which even those who had least as to the Reviewers. sympathy with some aspects of his mind and character could not but admire and love. Men come to their meridian at various periods of their lives ; the last years of the eminent person I am speaking of were given to duties which, I am told, have been the means of endearing him to numbers, but which afforded no scope for that peculiar vigor and keenness of mind which enabled him, when a young man, single-handed, with easy gallantry, to encounter and overthrow the charge of three giants of the North combined against him. I believe I am right in saying that, in the progress of the controversy, the most sci- entific, the most critical, and the most witty, of that literary company, all of them now, as he himself, removed from this visible scene, Professor Playfair, Lord Jeffrey, and the Rev. Sydney Smith, threw together their several efforts into one article of their Review, in order to crush and pound to dust the audacious controvertist who had come out against them in defense of his own In- stitutions. To have even contended with such 66 OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES men was a sufficient voucher for his ability, even before we open his pamphlets, and have actual evidence of the good sense, the spirit, the scholar- like taste, and the purity of style, by which they are distinguished. 7. He was supported in the controversy, on the same general principles, but with more of method and distinctness, and, I will add, with greater force and beauty and perfection, both of thought and of language, by the other distinguished writer, to whom I have already referred, Mr. Davison ; who, though not so well known to the world in his day, has left more behind him than the Provost of Oriel, to make his name remem- bered by posterity. This thoughtful man, who was the admired and intimate friend of a very remarkable person, whom, whether he wish it or not, numbers revere and love as the first author of the subsequent movement in the Protestant Church towards Catholicism, 1 this grave and philo- sophical writer, whose works I can never look into without sighing that such a man was lost to the Catholic Church, as Dr. Butler before him, by some early bias or some fault of self-education he, in a review of a work by Mr. Edgeworth on Professional Education, which attracted a good 1 Mr. Keble, Vicar of Hursley, late Fellow of Oriel, and Professor of Poetry in the University of Oxford. [Author's note.] PROFESSIONAL SKILL 67 deal of attention in its day, goes leisurely over the same ground, which had already been rapidly traversed by Dr. Copleston, and, though pro- fessedly employed upon Mr. Edgeworth, is really replying to the northern critic who had brought that writer's work into notice, and to a far greater author than either of tliem, who in a past age had argued on the same side. 8. The author to whom I allude is no other than Locke. That celebrated philosopher has pre- ceded the Edinburgh Reviewers in con- demning; the ordinary subiects in which ** We may easily com- boys are instructed at school, on the bat the theory of Util- ground that they are not needed by them in after life ; and before quoting lectual culture, in being i , i ! i T i ,1 its own end. is useful. what his disciples have said in the pres- f 0r ent century, I will refer to a few pas- A. Locke's argument in sages 01 the master. 'Tis matter of favor of a useful edu- astonishment," he says in his work on cation rests upon the 9 ^ definition of useful as Education, " that men of quality and that which has a direct parts should suffer themselves to be so ~ ** far misled by custom and implicit faith. Reason, if consulted with, would advise, that their children's time should be spent in acquiring what might be useful to them, when they come to be men, rather than that their heads should be stuffed with a deal of trash, a great part whereof they usually never do ('tis certain they never need to) think on again as long as they live; and so much of it as 68 OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES does stick by them they are only the worse for." 9. And so again, speaking of verse-making, he says, " I know not what reason a father can have to wish his son a poet, who does not desire him to bid defiance to all other callings and business; which is not yet the worst of the case ; for, if he proves a successful rhymer and gets once the repu- tation of a wit, I desire it to be considered, what company and places he is likely to spend his time in, nay, and estate too ; for it is very seldom seen that any one discovers mines of gold or silver in Parnassus. 'Tis a pleasant air, but a barren soil." 10. In another passage he distinctly limits utility in education to its bearing on the future profession or trade of the pupil, that is, he scorns the idea of any education of the intellect, simply as such. " Can there be any thing more ridicu- lous," he asks, " than that a father should waste his own money, and his son's time, in setting him to learn the Roman language when at the same time he designs him -for a trade, wherein he, having no use of Latin, fails not to forget that little which he brought from school, and which 'tis ten to one he abhors for the ill-usage it procured him? Could it be believed, unless we have every where amongst us examples of it, that a child should be forced to learn the rudiments of a Ian- PROFESSIONAL SKILL 69 guage, which he is never to use in the course of life that he is designed to, and neglect all the while the writing a good hand, and casting ac- counts, which are of great advantage in all condi- tions of life, and to most trades indispensably necessary? " Nothing of course can be more absurd than to neglect in education those matters which are necessary for a boy's future calling ; but the tone of Locke's remarks evidently implies more than this, and is condemnatory of any teaching which tends to the general cultivation of the mind. 11. Now to turn to his modern dis- B ciples. The study of the Classics had The argument of the , iiii- * 11 *"k * i i Reviewers rests upon been made the basis of the Oxford edu- the definition of useful cation, in the reforms which I have as that hich serves the community at large by spoken of, and the Edinburgh Re- advancing the sum of viewers protested, after the manner of know ^ d ff^ Locke, that no good could come of a system which was not based upon the principle of Utility. 12. " Classical Literature," they said, " is the great object at Oxford. Many minds, so em- ployed, have produced many works and much fame in that department; but if all liberal arts and sciences, useful to human life, had been taught there, if some had dedicated themselves to chem- istry, some to mathematics, some to experimental philosophy, and if every attainment had been hon- ored in the mixed ratio of its difficulty and utility, the system of such a University would have been 70 OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES much more valuable, but the splendor of its name some thing less." 13. Utility may be made the end of education, in two respects: either as regards the individual educated, or the community at large. In which light do these writers regard it? in the latter. So far they differ from Locke, for they consider the advancement of science as the supreme and real end of a University. This is brought into view in the sentences which follow. 14. " When a University has been doing use- less things for a long time, it appears at first de- grading to them to be useful. A set of Lectures on Political Economy would be discouraged in Oxford, probably despised, probably not per- mitted. To discuss the enclosure of commons, and to dwell upon imports and exports, to come so near to common life, would seem to be undignified and contemptible. In the same manner, the Parr or the Bentley * of the day would be scandalized, in a University, to be put on a level with the discoverer of a neutral salt; and yet, what other measure is there of dignity in intellectual labor but usefulness? And what ought the term University to mean, but a place where every science is taught which is liberal, and at the same time useful to Samuel Parr (1747-1825), a prominent English scholar; Richard Bentley (1662-1742), the distinguished English Classical scholar, PROFESSIONAL SKILL 71 mankind? Nothing would so much tend to bring classical literature within proper bounds as a steady and invariable appeal to utility in our ap- preciation of all human knowledge. . . . Look- ing always to real utility as our guide, we should see, with equal pleasure, a studious and inquisitive mind arranging the productions of nature, in- vestigating the qualities of bodies, or mastering the difficulties of the learned languages. We should not care whether he was chemist, naturalist, or scholar, because we know it to be as necessary that matter should be studied and subdued to the use of man, as that taste should be gratified, and imagination inflamed." 15. Such then is the enunciation, as far as words go, of the theory of Utility in Education; and both on its own account, and for the sake of the able men who have _ c - . . . Both of these mews advocated it, it has a claim on the may be met by saying attention of those whose principles I ^S^SS am here representing. Certainly it is what has an end in it- ., tl . . self has its use in itself specious to contend that nothing is 0? / worth pursuing but what is useful; and that life is not long enough to expend upon interesting, or curious, or brilliant trifles. Nay, in one sense, I will grant it is more than specious, it is true; but, if so, how do I propose directly to meet the objection? Why, Gentlemen, I have really met it already, viz., in laying down, that 72 OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES intellectual culture is its own end; for what has its end in itself, has its use in itself also. I say, if a Liberal Education consists in the culture of the intellect, and if that culture be in itself a good, here, without going further, is an answer to Locke's question; for if a healthy body is a good in itself, why is not a healthy intellect? and if a College of Physicians is a useful institution, because it contemplates bodily health, why is not an Academical Body, though it were simply and solely engaged in imparting vigor and beauty and grasp to the intellectual portion of our na- ture? And the Reviewers I am quoting seem to allow this in their better moments, in a passage which, putting aside the question of its justice in fact, is sound and true in the principles to which it appeals: 16. " The present state of classical education," they say, " cultivates the imagination a great deal too much, and other habits of mind a great deal too little, and trains up many young men in a style of elegant imbecility, utterly unworthy of the talents with which nature has endowed them. . . . The matter of fact is, that a classical scholar of twenty-three or twenty-four is a man principally conversant with works of imagination. His feel- ings are quick, his fancy lively, and his taste good. Talents for speculation and original inquiry he has none, nor has he formed the invaluable habit PROFESSIONAL SKILL 73 of pushing things up to their first principles, or of collecting dry and unamusing facts as the materials for reasoning. All the solid and mas- culine parts of his understanding are left wholly without cultivation; he hates the pain of thinking, and suspects every man whose boldness and orig- inality call upon him to defend his opinions and prove his assertions." 17. Now, I am not at present concerned with the specific question of classical education; else, I might reasonably question the justice of calling an intellectual discipline, which embraces the study of Aristotle, Thucydides, and Tacitus, which in- volves Scholarship and Antiquities, imaginative; still so far I readily grant, that the cultivation of the " understanding," of a " talent for specu- lation and original inquiry," and of " the habit of pushing things up to their first principles," is a principal portion of a good or liberal education. If then the Reviewers consider such cultivation the characteristic of a useful education, as they seem to do in the foregoing passage, it follows, that what they mean by " useful " is just what I mean by " good " or " liberal : " and Locke's ques- tion becomes a verbal one. Whether youths are to be taught Latin or verse-making will depend on the fact, whether these studies tend to mental cul- ture; but, however this is determined, so far is clear, that in that mental culture consists what I 74 OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES have called a liberal or non-professional, and what the Reviewers call a useful education. 18. This is the obvious answer which may be made to those who urge upon us the claims of Utility in our plans of Education ; but Taking "useful" to I am not g oin g to leave the subject ean, not " what is here : I mean to take a wider view of it. good" but "what tends , , , to good," we are again Let us take " useful," as Locke takes drawn to the conclusion j t j n i ts proper an( j popular sense, and that a Liberal Educa- tion is in a high degree then we enter upon a large field of useful, for^ thought, to which I cannot do justice What is good is al- in one Discourse, though to-day's is all ways useful since good th ^ t j can iye t j t j is reproductive of good. J ' let us take " useful " to mean not what is simply good, but what tends to good, or is the instrument of good ; and in this sense also, Gentle- men, I will show you how a liberal education is truly and fully a useful, though it be not a pro- fessional, education. " Good " indeed means one thing, and " useful " means another ; but I lay it down as a principle, which will save us a great deal of anxiety, that, though the useful is not always good, the good is always useful. Good is not only good, but reproductive of good; this is one of its attributes ; nothing is excellent, beau- tiful, perfect, desirable for its own sake, but it overflows, and spreads the likeness of itself all around it. Good is prolific; it is not only good to the eye, but to the taste ; it not only attracts PROFESSIONAL SKILL 75 us, but it communicates itself; it excites first our admiration and love, then our desire and our gratitude, and that, in proportion to its intense- ness and fullness in particular instances. A great good will impart great good. If then the in- tellect is so excellent a portion of us, and its cultivation so excellent, it is not only beautiful, perfect, admirable, and noble in itself, but in a true and high sense it must be useful to the possessor and to all around him; not useful in any low, mechanical, mercantile sense, but as dif- fusing good, or as a blessing, or a gift, or power, or a treasure, first to the owner, then through him to the world. I say then, if a liberal edu- cation be good, it must necessarily be useful too. 19. You will see what I mean by the parallel of bodily health. Health is a good in itself, though nothing came of it, and is especially worth seeking and cherishing; yet, J . The usefulness of after all, the blessings which attend its what is good may be presence are so great, while they are so close to it and so redound back upon it and encircle it, that we never think of it except as useful as well as good, and praise and prize it for what it does, as well as for what it is, though at the same time we cannot point out any definite and distinct work or production which it can be said to effect. And so as regards intel- lectual culture, I am far from denying utility 76 OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES in this large sense as the end of Education, when I lay it down, that the culture of the intellect is a good in itself and its own end; I do not exclude from the idea of intellectual culture what it cannot but be, from the very nature of things ; I only deny that we must be able to point out, before we have any right to call it useful, some art, or business, or profession, or trade, or work, as resulting from it, and as its real and complete end. The parallel is exact : As the body may be sacrificed to some manual or other toil, whether moderate or oppressive, so may the intel- lect be devoted to some specific profession; and I do not call this the culture of the intellect. Again, as some member or organ of the body may be inordinately used and developed, so may mem- ory, or imagination, or the reasoning faculty ; and this again is not intellectual culture. On the other hand, as the body may be tended, cherished, and exercised with a simple view to its general health, so may the intellect also be generally exercised in order to its perfect state ; and this is its cultivation. 20. Again, as health ought to precede labor of the body, and as a man in health can do what an unhealthy man cannot do, and as of this health the properties are strength, energy, agility, grace- ful carriage and action, manual dexterity, and endurance of fatigue, so in like manner general culture of mind is the best aid to professional PROFESSIONAL SKILL 77 and scientific study, and educated men can do what illiterate cannot; and the man who has learned to think and to reason and to compare and to dis- criminate and to analyze, who has refined his taste, and formed his judgment, and sharpened his mental vision, will not indeed at once be a lawyer, or a pleader, or an orator, or a statesman, or a physician, or a good landlord, or a man of business, or a soldier, or an engineer, or a chemist, or a geologist, or an antiquarian, but he will be placed in that state of intellect in which he can take up any one of the sciences or callings I have referred to, or any other for which he has a taste or special talent, with an ease, a grace, a versatility, and a success, to which another is a stranger. In this sense then, and as yet I have said but a very few words on a large subject, mental culture is emphatically useful. 21. If then I am arguing, and shall argue, against Professional or Scientific knowledge as the sufficient end of a University Education, let me not be supposed, Gentlemen, A Liberal Education to be disrespectful towards particular 8erves the following uses : studies, or arts, or vocations, and those who are engaged in them. In saying that Law or Medicine is not the end of a University course, I do not mean to imply that the University does not teach Law or Medicine. What indeed can it teach at all, if it does not teach something particular? 78 OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES It teaches all knowledge by teaching all branches of knowledge, and in no other way. I do but say that there will be this distinction as regards a Professor of Law, or of Medicine, or of Geology, or of Political Economy, in a University and out of it, that out of a University he is in danger of being absorbed and narrowed by his pursuit, and of giving Lectures which are the Lectures of nothing more than a lawyer, physician, geologist, or political economist; whereas in a University he will just know where he and his science stand, he has come to it, as it were, from a height, he has taken a survey of all knowledge, he is kept from extravagance by the very rivalry of other studies, he has gained from them a special illumination and largeness of mind and freedom and self-possession, and he treats his own in consequence with a philosophy and a resource, which belongs not to the study itself, but to his liberal education. 22. This then is how I should solve the fallacy, for so I must call it, by which Locke and his dis- ciples would frighten us from cultivat- 1 - _ ing the intellect, under the notion that It leads to the forma- , tion of the good citizen, no education is useful which does not 2 - teach us some temporal calling:, or some It is the best aid to , . , professional skill. mechanical art, or some physical secret. I say that a cultivated intellect, be- cause it is a good in itself, brings with it a power and a grace to every work and occupation which PROFESSIONAL SKILL 79 it undertakes, and enables us to be more useful, and to a greater number. There is a duty we owe to human society as such, to the state to which we belong, to the sphere in which we move, to the individuals towards whom we are variously related, and whom we successively encounter in life; and that philosophical or liberal education, as I have called it, which is the proper function of a University, if it refuses the foremost place to professional interests, does but postpone them to the formation of the citizen, and, while it sub- serves the larger interests of philanthropy, pre- pares also for the successful prosecution of those merely personal objects, which at first sight it seems to disparage. 23. And now, Gentlemen, I wish to be allowed to enforce in detail what I have been saying, by some extracts from the writings to which I have already alluded, and to which I am so greatly indebted. 24. " It is an undisputed maxim in Political Economy," says Dr. Copleston, " that the separa- tion of professions and the division of labor tend to the perfection of every art, to the wealth of nations, to the general comfort and well-being of the community. This principle of division is in some instances pursued so far as to excite the wonder of people to whose notice it is for the first time pointed out. There is no saying to what 80 OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES extent it may not be carried; and the more the powers of each individual are concentrated in one employment, the greater skill and The fact that a Lib- quickness will he naturally display in eral Education is use- performing it. But, while he thus con- ful because it trains a man for membership tributes more ettectually to the accumu- in society and for pro- lation of na tional wealth, he becomes fessional study, I may enforce by quotation himself more and more degraded as a from the writings of ratkmal being> In p ropor tion as his the defenders of Ox- ford, as follows: sphere of action is narrowed his mental , A> powers and habits become contracted ; Dr. Copleston believes that whereas every em- and he resembles a subordinate part of ployment is advanced gome power f u i machinery, useful in its oy the connnina of the individual to that study, place, but insignificant and worthless the individual himself /. ., T <. , ... i* harmed. ou ^ * ^ ^ ' 3e necessary, as it is beyond all question necessary, that so- ciety should be split into divisions and subdivisions, in order that its several duties may be well per- formed, yet we must be careful not to yield up ourselves wholly and exclusively to the guidance of this system ; we must observe what its evils are, and we should modify and restrain it, by bringing into action other principles, which may serve as a check and counterpoise to the main force. 25. " There can be no doubt that every art is improved by confining the professor of it to that single study. But, although the art itself is ad- vanced by this concentration of mind in its service, the individual who is confined to it goes PROFESSIONAL SKILL 81 back. The advantage of the community is nearly in an inverse ratio with his own. 26. " Society itself requires some other con- tribution from each individual, besides the par- ticular duties of his profession. And, if no such liberal intercourse be established, it is the common failing of human nature, to be engrossed with petty views and interests, to underrate the impor- tance of all in which we are not concerned, and to carry our partial notions into cases where they are inapplicable, to act, in short, as so many uncon- nected units, displacing and repelling one another. 27. " In the cultivation of literature is found that common link, which, among the higher and middling departments of life, unites the jarring sects and subdivisions into one interest, which supplies common topics, and kindles common feel- ings, unmixed with those narrow prejudices with which all professions are more or less infected. The knowledge, too, which is thus acquired, ex- pands and enlarges the mind, excites its faculties, and calls those limbs and muscles into freer exer- cise which, by too constant use in one direction, not only acquire an illiberal air, but are apt also to lose somewhat of their native play and energy. And thus, without directly qualifying a man for any of the employments of life, it enriches and ennobles all. Without teaching him the peculiar business of any one office or calling, it enables him 82 OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES to act his part in each of them with better grace and more elevated carriage ; and, if happily planned and conducted, is a main ingredient in that com- plete and generous education which fits a man ' to perform justly, skillfully, and magnanimously, all the offices, both private and public, of peace and war.' " x 28. The view of Liberal Education, advocated in these extracts, is expanded by Mr. Davison in the Essay to which I have already re- Mr. Davison shows ferred. He lays more stress on the that a Liberal Educa- use f u l ness o f Liberal Education in tion is highly useful, for the larger sense of the word than his 1 - predecessor in the controversy. In- It is far higher, even in utility, than Educa- stead of arguing that the Utility of tion for Utility, for knowledge to the individual varies in- Education for Utility versely with its Utility to the public, trains a man for service ne chiefly employs himself on the sug- iw his calling, whereas gestions contained in Dr. Copleston's last sentences. He shows, first, that a Liberal Education is something far higher, even in the scale of Utility, than what is commonly called a Useful Education, and next, that it is necessary or useful for the purposes even of that Profes- sional Education which commonly engrosses the title of Useful. The former of these two theses he recommends to us in an argument from which the following passages are selected: 1 Vid. Milton on Education. [Author's note.] PROFESSIONAL SKILL 83 29. " It is to take a very contracted view of life," he says, " to think with great anxiety how persons may be educated to superior skill in their department, comparatively neglecting or exclud- ing the more liberal and enlarged cultivation. In his (Mr. Edgeworth's) system, the value of every attainment is to be measured by its subserviency to a calling. The specific duties of that calling are ' exalted at the cost of those free and independent tastes and virtues which come in to sustain the common relations of society, and raise the indi- vidual in them. In short, a man is to be usurped by his profession. He is to be clothed in its garb from head to foot. His virtues, his science, and his ideas are all to be put into a gown or uniform, and the whole man to be shaped, pressed, and stiff- ened, in the exact mold of his technical character. Any interloping accomplishments, or a faculty which cannot be taken into public pay, if they are to be indulged in him at all, must creep along under the cloak of his more serviceable privileged merits. Such is the state of perfection to which the spirit and general tendency of this system would lead us. * 30. " But the professional character is not the only one which a person engaged in a profession has to support. He is not always upon duty. There are services he owes, which are neither parochial, nor forensic, nor military, nor to be 84 OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES described by any such epithet of civil regulation, and yet are in no wise inferior to those that bear these authoritative titles ; inferior A Liberal Education neither in their intrinsic value, nor their , trains him for member- mora l import, nor their impression upon * ship in society. society. As a friend, as a companion, as a citizen at large ; in the connections of domestic life; in the improvement and embellishment of his leisure, he has a sphere of action, revolving, if you please, within the sphere of his profession, but not clashing with it ; in which if he can show none of the advantages of an improved understanding, whatever may be his skill or proficiency in the other, he is no more than an ill-educated man. 31. " There is a certain faculty in which all nations of any refinement are great practitioners. It is not taught at school or college as a distinct science; though it deserves that what is taught there should be made to have some reference to it ; nor is it endowed at all by the public; everybody being obliged to exercise it for himself in person, which he does to the best of his skill. But in nothing is there a greater difference than in the manner of doing it. The advocates of professional learning will smile when we tell them that this same faculty which we would have encouraged, is t simply that of speaking good sense in English, without fee or reward, in common conversation. They will smile when we lay some stress upon it; PROFESSIONAL SKILL 85 but in reality it is no such trifle as they imagine. Look into the huts of savages, and see, for there is nothing to listen to, the dismal blank of their stupid hours of silence; their professional avoca- tions of war and hunting are over; and, having nothing to do, they have nothing to say. Turn to improved life, and you find conversation in all its forms the medium of something more than an idle pleasure; indeed, a very active agent in cir- culating and forming the opinions, tastes, and feelings of a whole people. It makes of itself a considerable affair. Its topics are the most pro- miscuous all those which do not belong to any particular province. As for its power and influ- ence, we may fairly say that it is of just the same consequence to a man's immediate society, how he talks, as how he acts. Now of all those who fur- nish their share to rational conversation, a mere adept in his own art is universally admitted to be the worst. The sterility and uninstructiveness of such a person's social hours are quite prover- bial. Or if he escape being dull, it is only by launching into ill-timed, learned loquacity. We do not desire of him lectures or speeches ; and he has nothing else to give. Among benches he may be powerful; but seated on a chair he is quite another person. On the other hand, we may af- firm, that one of the best companions is a man who, to the accuracy and research of a profession, 86 OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES has joined a free excursive acquaintance with various learning, and caught from it the spirit of general observation." 32. Having thus shown that a liberal education is a real benefit to the subjects of it, as members of society, in the various duties and /* is necessary or circumstances and accidents of life, he useful for the purposes goes on, in the next place, to show of Professional Educa- , j , ., ,. tion for that, over and above those direct a. services which might fairly be expected Specialization with- of it it actually subserves the dis- out preliminary liberal training has a cramp- charge of those particular functions, and ^^ n ^ mMf and the Pursuit of those particular advantages, which are connected with professional exertion, and to which Professional Education is directed. 33. "We admit," he observes, "that when a person makes a business of one pursuit, he is in the right way to eminence in it ; and that divided attention will rarely give excellence in many. But our assent will go no further. For, to think that the way to prepare a person for excelling in any one pursuit (and that is the only point in hand), is to fetter his early studies, and cramp the first development of his mind, by a reference to the exigencies of that pursuit barely, is a very dif- ferent notion, and one which, we apprehend, de- serves to be exploded rather than received. Pos- sibly a few of the abstract, insulated kinds of PROFESSIONAL SKILL 87 learning might be approached in that way. The exceptions to be made are very few, and need not be recited. But for the acquisition of professional and practical ability such maxims are death to it. The main ingredients of that ability are requisite knowledge and cultivated faculties; but, of the two, the latter is by far the chief. A man of well-improved faculties has the command of an- other's knowledge. A man without them, has not the command of his own. 34. " Of the intellectual powers, the judgment is that which takes the foremost lead in life. How to form it to the two habits it ought to possess, of exactness and vigor, is Judgment, the chief the problem. It would be ignorant pre- &*<*? sumption so much as to hint at any by the study of a va- routine of method by which these qualities may with certainty be im- My aid and correct , ,. each other. parted to every or any understanding. Still, however, we may safely lay it down that they are not to be got ' by a gatherer of simples,' but are the combined essence and extracts of many different things, drawn from much varied reading and discipline, first, and observation afterwards. For if there be a single intelligible point on this head, it is that a man who has been trained to think upon one subject or for one subject only, will never be a good judge even in that one: whereas the enlargement of his circle gives him 88 OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES increased knowledge and power in a rapidly in- creasing ratio. So much do ideas act, not as soli- tary units, but by grouping and combination; and so clearly do all the things that fall within the proper province of the same faculty of the mind, intertwine with and support each other. Judg- ment lives as it were by comparison and discrim- ination. Can it be doubted, then, whether the range and extent of that assemblage of things upon which it is practiced in its first essays are of use to its power? 35. " To open our way a little further on this matter, we will define what we mean by the power of judgment ; and then try to ascertain among what kind of studies the improvement of it may be expected at all. 36. " Judgment does not stand here for a cer- tain homely, useful quality of intellect, that guards a person from committing mistakes to the injury of his fortunes or common reputation; but for that master-principle of business, literature, and talent, which gives him strength in any subject he chooses to grapple with, and enables him to seize the strong point in it. Whether this definition be metaphysically correct or not, it comes home to the substance of our inquiry. It describes the power that every one desires to possess when he comes to act in a profession, or elsewhere; and corresponds with our best idea of a cultivated mind. PROFESSIONAL SKILL 89 37. " Next, it will not be denied, that in order to do any good to the judgment, the mind must be employed upon such subjects as come within the cognizance of that faculty, and give some real exercise to its perceptions. Here we have a rule of selection by which the different parts of learn- ing may be classed for our purpose. Those which belong to the province of the judgment are re- ligion (in its evidences and interpretation), ethics, history, eloquence, poetry, theories of general speculation, the fine arts, and works of wit. Great as the variety of these large divisions of learning may appear, they are all held in union by two capital principles of connection. First, they are all quarried out of one and the same great subject of man's moral, social, and feeling nature. And secondly, they are all under the control (more or less strict) of the same power of moral reason." 38. " If these studies," he continues, " be such as give a direct play and exercise to the faculty of the judgment, then they are the true basis of education for the active and inventive powers, whether destined for a profession or any other use. Miscellaneous as the assemblage may appear, of history, eloquence, poetry, ethics, etc., blended together, they will all conspire in an union of effect. They are necessary mutually to explain and interpret each other. The knowledge derived from them all will amalgamate, and the habits of 90 OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES a mind versed and practiced in them by turns will join to produce a richer vein of thought and of more general and practical application than could be obtained of any single one, as the fusion of the metals into Corinthian brass gave the artist his most ductile and perfect material. Might we venture to imitate an author (whom indeed it is much safer to take as an authority than to attempt to copy), Lord Bacon, in some of his concise illus- trations of the comparative utility of the different studies, we should say that history would give fullness, moral philosophy strength, and poetry elevation to the understanding. Such in leality is the natural force and tendency of the studies ; but there are few minds susceptible enough to derive from them any sort of virtue adequate to those high expressions. We must be contented therefore to lower our panegyric to this, that a person cannot avoid receiving some infusion and tincture, at least, of those several qualities, from that course of diversified reading. One thing is unquestionable, that the elements of general reason are not to be found fully and truly expressed in any one kind of study; and that he who would wish to know her idiom, must read it in many books. 39. " If different studies are useful for aiding, they are still more useful for correcting each other ; for as they have their particular merits severally, PROFESSIONAL SKILL 9J so they have their defects, and the most extensive acquaintance with one can produce only an intel- lect either too flashy or too jejune, or infected with some other fault of confined reading. His- tory, for example, shows things as they are, that is, the morals and interests of men disfigured and perverted by all their imperfections of passion, folly, and ambition ; philosophy strips the picture too much; poetry adorns it too much; the con- centrated lights of the three correct the false peculiar coloring of each, and show us the truth. The right mode of thinking upon it is to be had from them taken all together, as every one must know who has seen their united contributions of thought and feeling expressed in the masculine sentiment of our immortal statesman, Mr. Burke, whose eloquence is inferior only to his more ad- mirable wisdom. If any mind improved like his, is to be our instructor, we must go to the fountain- head of things as he did, and study not his works but his method; by the one we may become feeble imitators, by the other arrive at some ability of our own. But, as all biography assures us, he and every other able thinker, has been formed, not by a parsimonious admeasurement of studies to some definite future object (which is Mr. Edge- worth's maxim), but by taking a wide and liberal compass, and thinking a great deal on many sub- jects with no better end in view than because the 92 OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES exercise was one which made them more rational and intelligent beings." 40. But I must bring these extracts to an end. To-day I have confined myself to saying that that training of the intellect, which is best for the individual himself, best enables him to discharge his duties to society. The Philosopher, indeed, and the man of the world differ in their very notion, but the methods, by which they are re- spectively formed, are pretty much the same. The Philosopher has the same command of matters of thought, which the true citizen and gentleman has of matters of business and conduct. If then a practical end must be assigned to a University course, I say it is that of training good members of society. Its art is the art of social life, and its end is fitness for the world. It neither con- fines its views to particular professions on the one hand, nor creates heroes or inspires genius on the other. Works indeed of genius fall under no art; heroic minds come under no rule; a Uni- versity is not a birthplace of poets or of immortal authors, of founders of schools, leaders of colonies, or conquerors of nations. It does not promise a generation of Aristotles or Newtons, of Napoleons or Washingtons, of Raphaels or Shakespeares, though such miracles of nature it has before now contained within its precincts. Nor is it content on the other hand with forming the critic or the PROFESSIONAL SKILL 93 experimentalist, the economist or the engineer, though such too it includes within its scope. But a University training is the great ordinary means to a great but ordinary end; it aims at raising the intellectual tone of society, at cultivating the public mind, at purifying the national taste, at supplying true principles to popular enthusiasm and fixed aims to popular aspiration, at giving enlargement and sobriety to the ideas of the age, at facilitating the exercise of political power, and refining the intercourse of private life. It is the education which gives a man a clear conscious view of his own opinions and judgments, a truth in developing them, an eloquence in expressing them, and a force in urging them. It teaches him to see things as they are, to go right to the point, to disentangle a skein of thought, to detect what is sophistical, and to discard what is irrelevant. It prepares him to fill any post with credit, and to master any subject with facility. It shows him how to accommodate himself to others, how to throw himself into their state of mind, how to bring before them his own, how to influence them, how to come to an understanding with them, how to bear with them. He is at home in any society, he has common ground with every class ; he knows when to speak and when to be silent ; he is able to converse, he is able to listen ; he can ask a question pertinently, and gain a lesson seasonably, when 94 OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES he has nothing to impart himself ; he is ever ready, yet never in the way ; he is a pleasant companion, and a comrade you can depend upon; he knows when to be serious and when to trifle, and he has a sure tact which enables him to trifle with grace- fulness and to be serious with effect. He has the repose of a mind which lives in itself, while it lives in the world, and which has resources for its hap- piness at home when it cannot go abroad. He has a gift which serves him in public, and supports him in retirement, without which good fortune is but vulgar, and with which failure and disappoint- ment have a charm. The art which tends to make a man all this, is in the object which it pursues as useful as the art of wealth or the art of health, though it is less susceptible of method, and less tangible, less certain, less complete in its result. OUTLINE OF " THE SPIRIT OF LEARNING " Thesis The American college, having fallen into a state of dis- organization, should be reorganized in such a manner that it will become a place where the spirit of learning may flourish. Outline Proper I. We have fallen into a sympathetic discontent with the college. II. The American college has played a unique part in American life, for A. It has been the seat of ideals. B. It has avoided the narrow concentration of the professional school, and has served as a place of orientation. III. The changes that have taken place in the college, though not valueless, have resulted in almost com- plete disorganization, for A. There has been a quickening of interest, which, however desirable, brought about a state of disorganization. B. The introduction of the elective system re- sulted in a divorce between the studies and college life, and an estrangement of teach- ers from the life of the students. C. The constituency of the college has wholly changed through the growth of a non-book- ish majority. IV. In effecting the needed reorganization, we should seek to make the college a place where the spirit of learning may flourish, for 95 96 OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES A. We have been mistaken in emphasizing in- struction rather than the life of the mind, learning rather than the spirit of learning. B. An acceptance of these ideas would remove a serious misunderstanding between teachers and students, for 1. The teachers desire to impart learning, and the parents desire for their sons what may be got out of the life of the college. 2. The parents are right in this, provided that the life of the college includes the spirit of learning. V. Such a reorganization will involve the following con- siderations : A. The college teacher shall make himself a part of the life outside the class-room. B. Such proposals as that limiting the period of general study to two years are absurd: a college education demands a special environ- ment for a period of four years. C. The undue prominence of athletics and other non-academic activities can easily be ob- viated by bringing study into competition with them. D. The creation of a spirit of learning, the crea- tion of a society of teachers and students, cannot be achieved through legislation. E. Whatever method is used, the nursery atti- tude must be avoided. OUTLINE OF "KNOWLEDGE VIEWED IN RELATION TO PROFESSIONAL SKILL " Thesis Since intellectual culture is useful in being an end in it- self, and since it is useful in training men for membership in society and for professional study, a Liberal Education is superior in utility to an education which aims directly at skill in a calling. Outline Proper I. That the idea of a Liberal Education (which has been set forth in my two preceding discourses) has not been accepted by all great men, may be exemplified by the controversy between the following: A. Certain Edinburgh Reviewers, advocates of education for Utility, and B. Two defenders of Oxford, viz., 1. Dr. Copleston, and 2. Mr. Davison, who replied to Locke as well as to the Reviewers. II. We may easily combat the theory of Utility in Edu- cation by maintaining that intellectual culture, in being its own end, is useful, for A. Locke's argument in favor of a useful edu- cation rests upon the definition of useful as that which has a direct value to the indi- vidual in his calling. B. The argument of the Reviewers rests upon the definition of useful as that which serves the community at large by advancing the sum of knowledge. C. Both of these views may be met by saying that intellectual culture is its own end, since what has an end in itself has its use in itself also. 97 98 OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES III. Taking "useful" to mean, not "what is good" but " what tends to good," we are again drawn to the conclusion that a Liberal Education is in a high degree useful, for A. What is good is always useful, since good is reproductive of good. B. The usefulness of what is good may be illus- trated by the parallel of bodily health. C. A Liberal Education serves the following uses: 1. It leads to the formation of the good citizen. 2. It is the best aid to professional skill. IV. The fact that a Liberal Education is useful because it trains a man for membership in society and for professional study, I may enforce by quotation from the writings of the defenders of Oxford, as follows: A. Dr. Copleston believes that whereas every employment is advanced by the confining of the individual to that study, the individual himself is harmed. B. Mr. Davison shows that a Liberal Education is highly useful, for 1. It is far higher, even in utility, than Education for Utility, for a. Education for Utility trains a man for service in his calling, whereas b. A Liberal Education trains him for membership in society. 2. It is necessary or useful for the pur- poses of Professional Education, for a. Specialization without prelimi- nary liberal training has a cramping effect on the mind, and b. Judgment, the chief of the in- tellectual faculties, is formed only by the study of a variety of divisions of learning, which mutually aid and correct each other. SUMMARY OF "THE SPIRIT OF LEARNING" THE American college, having fallen into a state of disorganization, should be reorganized in such a manner that it will become a place where the spirit of learning may flourish. The sym- pathetic discontent which we now feel for the college has been occasioned by its decline as an instrument in our national life. In the past, it has played a unique part in that life, in being the seat of ideals and, unlike the professional schools, a place of orientation. But the college has under- gone fundamental changes, which, though not valueless, have resulted in almost complete disor- ganization. The principal cause of the changes that brought about this disorganization was the introduction of the elective system. This caused a divorce between the studies and the life of the college, and an estrangement between teachers and students. Meanwhile, the constituency of the col- lege wholly changed, since now men go to college, not for learning, but for the incidental associa- tions of the place. These are the changes, then, that have brought about the disorganization, and have thus created the need of a reorganization. 99 100 OUTLINES AND SUMMARIES In effecting this reorganization, we should hold before us the conception of the college as a place where the spirit of learning may flourish. The chief mistake that we have made is the emphasis we have laid on instruction rather than the life of the mind; we must realize that the object of the college is not learning, but discipline and the en- lightenment of the mind, and that what we should seek to impart, therefore, is the spirit of learning. Accordingly, before we can proceed, we must re- move a serious misunderstanding, that, namely, between the teachers, who desire to impart learn- ing, and the parents of the students, who desire for their sons what may be got out of the life of the college. In a sense the parents are right; they are right in emphasizing the life of the col- lege. But that life should include the spirit of learning. Now, a reorganization which aims to make the college a place where the spirit of learning may flourish, involves several considera- tions. In the first place, the life of the college will never include the spirit of learning until the teacher makes himself a part of the life outside the class-room. Again, the student must live in the special environment which the college demands for four years; such proposals as that limiting the period of general study to two years are absurd. Again, athletics and other non-academic activities, which have been giving us much con- THE SPIRIT OF LEARNING 101 cern, thrive unduly because study does not com- pete with them ; change the environment, introduce the spirit of learning, and they will assume the subordinate position which is their due. Further, it is important for us to realize that such a society of teachers and students as has been de- scribed cannot be achieved through legislation, and that, whatever method is used, we must not resort to the nursery attitude to the employ- ment of artificial assistance. APPENDIX TO THE INSTRUCTOR THE difficulties that beset the student in the writing of outlines and summaries are so formida- ble that they may be considerably reduced without serious loss of mental discipline. The following means perhaps give enough, and not too much, help. I. The Use of Questions. If the instructor has provided himself in advance with a good outline of the essay to be studied, he can easily compose a set of questions of which the answers will be the main headings (group sentences). When the student first reads the essay, and when he is work- ing on the outline, he will find these questions of great value in indicating the main divisions of the thought. After one or two essays have been studied, the instructor might well increase the dif- ficulty gradually by confusing the order of the questions, and by interpolating additional ques- tions, at first only one and finally as many as half a dozen. Here is a set of questions on " The Spirit of Learning " : 103 104 APPENDIX 1. What is our attitude toward the college? 2. What has been the place of the college in Ameri- can life? 3. What changes have occurred in the college, and what has been the effect of these changes? 4. In accordance with what conception should the college be reorganized? 5. By what means may the reorganization be effected? A question that might be interpolated is : Just what does Mr. Wilson mean by " the spirit of learning " ? II. Division of the Work. If the essay is long or difficult, it should be given six or seven days, and the student should submit the summary sen- tences in installments. When five days are enough, the work may be divided as follows : First day Summary Sentences due. Second day Short Outline of Theme due. Third day Group Sentences due. Fourth day Theme due (500 or 600 words). Fifth day Outline of Essay due. The summary sentences and the group sentences need not be returned to the student ; it is assumed that he preserves a duplicate set of each in his notebook. As for the class-room hours, most of them may be given to a careful reading of all or of parts of the essay. The effectiveness of the work will be enhanced if the subjects of the 105 themes are related, however loosely, to the essays. Subjects that might be used in connection with " The Spirit of Learning " are as follows : The Spirit of Learning in My College. The Relation of Learning and Athletics in My College. The Relation of the " Spirit of Learning " to " Col- lege Spirit." College Conversation. Types of College Students. THE END RETURN CIRCULATION DEPARTMENT TO*: 202 AAain Library LOAN PERIOD 1 HOME USE 2 3 4 5 6 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS Renewals and Recharges may be made 4 days prior to the due date. Books may be Renewed by calling 642-3405. DUE AS STAMPED BELOW MKt JUN1719VJ FORM NO. DD6, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY BERKELEY, CA 94720 GENERAL LIBRARY -U.C. BERKELEY BOOOflSMM?! '