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 THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 PRESENTED BY 
 
 PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND 
 
 MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 
 in 2007 with funding from 
 
 Microsoft Corporation 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/fewthoughtsoncotnOObrowrich 
 
A FEW THOUGHTS 
 
 COMMISSION, DIVISIONS OF PROFIT, SELECTION 
 OF LIVES, THE MORTALITY IN INDIA, 
 
 AND OTHER. SUBJECTS RELATING TO 
 
 LIFE ASSURANCE, 
 
 CONTAINED IN A SERIES OF LETTERS RECENTLY PUBLISHED IN THE 
 
 POST MAGAZINE, 
 
 UNDER THE SIGNATURE OF " CRITO." 
 
 BY SAMUEL BROWN, F.I.A. 
 
 LONDON : 
 
 W. S. D. PATEMAN, WINE OFFICE COURT, FLEET STREET, 
 
 1849. 
 
 
B7f, 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 The following letters were originally forwarded to the Post 
 Magazine, (a useful periodical, containing the reports of Life 
 Assurance Companies, and other information interesting to 
 assurers), as the different subjects happened to be brought 
 before the mind of the writer by accidental discussion, or 
 in the course of business. He has been induced to revise 
 them for republication, from the conviction that some of the 
 facts and figures will be found useful for future reference, 
 and that it would be more convenient to have them collected 
 together rather than to search for them, as scattered through 
 the pages of a magazine. 
 
 The rates of Life Assurance premium for foreign risks 
 are still in a very unsatisfactory condition, and many years 
 must elapse before any information, that can be depended 
 upon, will be available for the different companies. In fact, 
 it is doubtful whether any, which can be considered of real 
 value to the offices, will be gathered except from their own 
 experience, collected from as many as are willing to furnish 
 the facts, and combined for the purpose of affording a 
 sufficient number for classification, according to the different 
 climates. In the meantime, however, what is already known 
 may serve as a foundation for more extensive enquiries, or 
 at any rate for additional means of comparing and correcting 
 the results. The letters respecting the mortality in India, 
 therefore, are intended to bring into one point of view such 
 information as has been already given to the public on this 
 subject, and by a general summary of the facts, reduced to 
 one standard of comparison, direct attention to the 
 deficiencies, which still remain to be supplied. These 
 observations form but a very small division of a most 
 extensive and interesting enquiry, to which the attention of 
 the statist can scarcely be more usefully and practically 
 directed. 
 
 M372609 
 
11 PREFACE. 
 
 Another topic, in which a greater portion of the public 
 as well as the offices are interested, is the effect of the 
 Selection of Lives for assurance on the future divisions of 
 profit. The facts examined will probably lead to the con- 
 clusion in the mind of the reader, that a much larger reserve 
 should be made for future years than it is usual to set aside 
 for this purpose, even if the premiums were not so closely 
 calculated for the early experience only of the companies, as 
 they will, in many cases, be found. But when, besides the 
 future fulfilment of engagements contracted, "we consider the 
 confident anticipation of every assurer that he shall receive 
 at each division of profit at least as large an amount as he 
 obtained before, and the suspicious anxiety with which he 
 regards any falling off in the share allotted to him, we see 
 additional reason for urging caution, where it is so easy to 
 commit an error and so difficult to retrieve it. 
 
 These notions may be considered excess of prudence. No 
 doubt amongst the number of Life Assurance companies, 
 which have, within a few years., started into being, there 
 must be many individuals, whose attention is occupied in 
 enquiries similar to those which are touched upon in these 
 pages, and some of whom may be disposed to give them- 
 selves with ardour to the newest opinions which are 
 entertained, as being the results of the latest experience, and 
 who would look upon those which are the most popular to 
 be the most correct. Without stopping to enquire into the 
 soundness of this decision, it is fair to assume that they are 
 all actuated by a sincere desire to ascertain the truth, what- 
 ever it may be, and that they will not at once throw aside 
 views, which may differ from those which they find generally 
 received, till they have at least soberly reflected whether there 
 may not be some reason even in opinions, at present but 
 little in fashion. This candour and deliberation of judgment 
 are more especially required on subjects, with regard to 
 which so few collections of facts, which can be relied on, 
 have yet been made ; and in which so much caution and 
 
TREFACE. Ill 
 
 experience are necessary to deduce the conclusions to be 
 derived from them. It must not be forgotten that in form- 
 ing the rates of premium for Life Assurance from insufficient 
 data, or in dividing profits on a presumed great improvement 
 in human life from the experience of a young society, the 
 errors of the original assumption, if there be any, may 
 continue undetected, till in later years there may be no 
 choice between ruin to the shareholders or the insecurity of 
 the assured. 
 
 To those readers, therefore, who are disposed to reconsider 
 the conclusions at present arrived at, the writer of these 
 pages ventures to appeal for a candid examination of the 
 few facts, relating to the experience of the societies, which 
 he lays before them. There is too much reason to fear that 
 many of the schemes and modifications of Life Assurance in 
 the present day, have been introduced rather by the ardour 
 or the pressure of competition, than by the sober judgment 
 to choose ouly what will, in the end, be mutually beneficial 
 to the companies and the assured ; that the large amount 
 paid away in commission from the savings of assurers, is an 
 unnecessary waste to themselves, and a loss to their families, 
 which they will some day discover and regret; that the 
 opinion which prevails of the great diminution in the rate of 
 mortality, supposed to be found throughout all the ages of 
 assured lives, arises from the want of due reflection on 
 what will probably be the results, when tables deduced from 
 the experience of a few years only, or, as in the case of 
 the Equitable Society, from that of an office carrying on an 
 extensive business at a time when a large proportion of 
 assurances were made for short periods, and under circum- 
 stances very different from those now existing, come to be 
 tested by more complete series of observations hereafter ; 
 that a great proportion of the profits, which were formerly 
 gained by Life Assurance companies, have now ceased to be 
 realised, either from a reduction in the rate of interest, or 
 less frequent forfeiture of policies, or too great diminution 
 
IV PREFACE. 
 
 of premiums, or from more expensive modes of obtaining 
 business ; and, lastly, that considering the great prevalence 
 of the Proprietary over the Mutual system, the public have 
 not reflected sufficiently on the cost at which they are 
 buying the advantages, which the former are presumed to 
 hold out to them over the latter. 
 
 Of these topics some are interesting to parties who are 
 engaged in the management of companies, and others are 
 of importance to the public generally, who are already 
 beginning to understand that their interests are concerned in 
 their becoming better acquainted with the data, essential to 
 the safety and prosperity of enterprises, in which so large 
 a portion of their savings is invested. These several 
 particulars, it is true, could be but slightly touched upon 
 in so small a space, but the reflection of the reader may 
 fill up the sketch, and the opinions expressed, being con- 
 trary to those now so generally in favour, may, perhaps, on 
 that account alone, secure the attention of some who 
 would otherwise pass them over as undeserving of notice. 
 
 The author believes that it is no less important to the 
 companies themselves, that the public should moderate their 
 expectations of receiving the large profits, to which they 
 have been so led or have so habituated themselves to look, 
 as the necessary result of joining a society for the assurance 
 of life. If even one great instance of failure in the accom- 
 plishment of these promises or in the fulfilment of these 
 expectations should occur, the consequences might be 
 disastrous in the extreme, and should the perusal of these 
 letters induce a single actuary to re-examine the collections 
 of facts, on which the great reduction in the rate of 
 premiums is now so generally recommended ; or a single 
 assurer to form a more sober and correct estimate of the 
 future advantages, on which he is unfortunately too ready 
 to speculate, these humble efforts to add a trifle to the general 
 stock of information on a subject so engrossing, will not be 
 unproductive of good. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 On Commission on Life Assurances . . . 1 
 
 On the Division of Profits in Life Assurance Companies . . 8 
 
 On the effect of Selection of Lives in Life Assurance Companies, 
 Letter 1. . . . . . . 15 
 
 Ditto continued, Letter 2. . . .29 
 
 On the Mortality in India : 
 
 Letter 1. — European Officers and Civilians . . . 42 
 
 Letter 2. — European and Native Troops, Bengal and Madras Pre- 
 sidencies . . . . .55 
 
 Letter 3. ,, The Tenasserim Provinces and Ceylon 71 
 
 Letter 4. „ Bombay Presidency . . 83 
 
 On the Capital of Life Assurance Companies, Letter 1. . .92 
 
 Ditto continued, Letter 2. . . . 97 
 
 On Approximations to the Values of Annuities on Joint Lives, Letter 1. 107 
 
 Ditto continued, Letter 2. . . .119 
 
ON 
 
 COMMISSION ON LIFE ASSURANCES. 
 
 To the Editor of The Post Magazine. 
 
 Sir, — The subject of Commission paid by Assurance Companies 
 for the purpose of increasing their business, or, as many are led to 
 believe, for the more patriotic motive of extending the benefit of 
 assurance to the unreflecting public, is forcing itself daily more on 
 our notice. If it be argued, that Commission is not offered in the 
 shape of a bribe, since the members of an honourable profession 
 would scorn the base insinuation, for what purpose is the induce- 
 ment so constantly held out ; more especially by the new companies 
 to whom the accession of business is of the most importance ? Do 
 the offices combine together for the purpose of voluntarily reducing 
 their premiums, or insisting on rewarding the agents for their 
 public spirit and patriotic feelings in thus promoting a great national 
 object ? or is it not rather notoriously the fact, that, either by private 
 or public arrangement, some of the companies continually step 
 ahead of their fellows and hold out the gilded attraction in a still 
 more glittering light. We hear of one office which has advanced 
 from the sober steady five per cent, to an increase of five per cent, 
 more for the first year, and of another which offers 35 per cent, 
 on the first year's premium only, and though a very simple calcula- 
 tion will show us that, at the average age at which parties assure, 
 £5 per cent, per annum is worth more by any Standard Tables of 
 Annuity, than seven years' purchase — (perhaps double this value 
 would be under the mark) — and consequently that the former is a 
 much better bargain for the uncalculating, unselfish adviser than 
 the latter ; yet the assertion which we have made above, that the* 
 temptation must be increased or varied so as to present a more 
 attractive shape, seems fully proved. Where is all this to end ? 
 If the companies are continually to underbid each other, the limit 
 will only be reached where the agents obtain the highest, and the 
 assurers the lowest amount of profit at which the company can 
 
exist. What is to be done next ? Like a competitor, who has 
 run himself out of breath, the company, and its circle of paid 
 supporters will, with mutual vexation, observe their more vigorous 
 opponents pass them in the race, and will stand with regret to 
 watch others with greater strength of purse, overtake them in the 
 rush for professional or public favour. In the meantime, who pays 
 the expenses of this lively contest ? It is clear there are but two 
 parties on whom it is possible they can fall — the proprietors and 
 the assured. Let us enquire what proportion of the burthen the 
 former are likely to bear, and we shall then see the benefit which 
 the latter obtain from a system, which many patronise, perhaps, 
 without a thought that they are personal sufferers by it. 
 
 In a strictly proprietary office, where the assured are guaranteed 
 a given sum, and all the profits are to accumulate for the 
 benefit of the trading body, the expenses must all be paid by the 
 proprietors, and the party already assured is not prejudiced in 
 the bargain, which he has made with them, by any plan that may 
 be adopted, either to increase the number of assurances or 
 enhance the profit derived from them. It is simply for the con- 
 sideration of the Directors whether the profit on the extra number 
 of policies brought in by the agents, pays the expenses of the 
 commission allowed. It would indeed be an ill-managed concern 
 (especially where both examples and warnings exist for their 
 guidance), in which the average profit of the assurances, during 
 the existence of the Society, did not amount to five per cent. 
 Consequently, whatever business could be introduced by agents 
 receiving commission, would produce an advantage to the pro- 
 prietors, and would justify the Directors in maintaining the system 
 of commission to the utmost extent to which it would yield profit. 
 In this case, therefore, the assurer is no sufferer, but at the same 
 time he is no gainer by a well-fee'd agency. But, in an office 
 partly mutual and partly proprietary, new considerations arise. 
 Let us assume that in a company in which the profits are 
 distributed in the proportion of one-third to the proprietors, and 
 two-thirds to the assured, a certain amount of assurances is effected 
 liable to the deduction of five per cent, on the premiums, or what 
 is the same in effect to a reduction of that proportion, which five 
 per cent, bears to the whole of the profit, which these assurances 
 
might have produced, had no commission been allowed. The 
 proprietors will find their Funds increased by one-third of the 
 remaining proportion of the profits accumulating from these 
 particular assurances, whilst two-thirds of the, profits thus reduced 
 will be distributed amongst the whole body of assurers, increased 
 by the members to whom these policies belong. As without the 
 payment to the agents they would have divided two-thirds of the 
 entire profits, they consequently partake only in surplus accumula- 
 tions, diminished in proportion as either the commission or the 
 share of profits secured to the proprietor is increased. Let 
 us suppose a simple case. A person at the age of 40 is brought 
 by an agent to assure his life in an office, using the Northampton 
 Table, and dividing one-third of the profits to the proprietors, and 
 two-thirds to the assured. Let us assume the sum to be assured, 
 £5000, and to simplify the matter, that the assurer pays down a 
 single premium of £2692 2s. If the whole profits on this assurance 
 were A0 per cent., they would amount to £807 12s. 7d. equal to a 
 sum (payable when the policy becomes a claim) of £1500, of 
 which the proprietary body would receive £500, and the assured 
 himself £1000. But if five per cent, commission be paid to the 
 agent, at the time of effecting the assurance, he would receive 
 £134 12s., equivalent to a policy of £250, by which amount the 
 total profits would be reduced. The proprietors would con- 
 sequently receive on the death, only £416 13s. 4d., instead of 
 £500, and the assured only £833 6s. 8d., instead of £1000; but 
 the former would wholly gain their share, whilst the latter would 
 lose £166 13s. 4d. The conclusion is inevitable, that whilst the 
 proprietary body, by the system of paid agency, are enabled to 
 accumulate and divide continually increasing gains, it must be at 
 the expense of the assurers generally, who must either be the 
 dupes or the willing victims of their more acute or interested 
 advisers. If, in a partly proprietary office, the general body of 
 assurers suffer for the increased advantage of a few ; in a purely 
 mutual office they sacrifice the whole sum paid away in commission, 
 unless it can be shown that first — some extraordinary advantage 
 arises from the increase of numbers, though a priori each member 
 is supposed only to produce the profits which he receives back ; or, 
 secondly, what is a more common case, that there arc some classes 
 
 b 2 
 
in the society, sharing in peculiar advantages at the expense of less 
 favoured individuals, and who, by the payment of commission from 
 the common fund, charge the deduction to others, and take the 
 profits to themselves. If the whole body of assurers partook 
 equally of all the profits, it requires no great stretch of under- 
 standing to perceive that a deduction of five per cent, from all the 
 premiums must be equivalent to a deduction of l-20th part of the 
 common accumulations ; or, if the premiums were only calculated 
 to pay the claims, and no more, it would be tantamount to the 
 office being unable to meet its liabilities, since in every instance in 
 which the directors had guaranteed to pay £5000, they would only 
 have accumulated £4750. The increase in the number of assurers 
 produced by the commission would only magnify the evil, and the 
 larger the temptation offered, the greater would be the diminution 
 of the funds. ;^It may be asked then, "In a purely mutual office 
 would paid agency be always against the interest of the company ?" 
 We should be disposed to answer, that the assurers, by common 
 consent, may be justified in spending their own money in any 
 way agreeable to their mutual inclination ; as for instance, if they 
 were to set apart five per cent, of the premiums for the purpose of 
 enjoying a social feast, as was formeily no uncommon rule in the 
 proposed schemes of Benefit Societies, but that the payment of the 
 same sum for commission would in any way tend to the benefit of 
 the company, would be inexplicable, unless an addition of numbers 
 was required for the purpose of security, and to diminish the 
 fluctuations which, in the early stage of every mutual society, 
 might hazard its credit, if not its existence. How far the 
 members of a mutual office, recently established, but the premiums 
 of which are calculated so as to afford a reasonable expectation of 
 future profit, would be acting wisely in depriving themselves of 
 distant accumulations for the purpose of strengthening their 
 present position, and confining within narrower limits, the risks of 
 mortality, at a time when a few extra claims beyond the calculated 
 average might affect their still precarious existence, is a mere 
 point of commercial speculation which the directors, and others 
 best qualified to judge, may be fairly presumed capable of deciding 
 upon. But the continuance in such a course, even if proved at 
 first to be expedient, cannot add to the surplus wealth of the 
 
company, nor does it alter the conclusion we have arrived at in the 
 preceding paragraphs, that for a mutual society to indulge in 
 the luxury of paid agency is a voluntary diminution of their own 
 profits for the benefit of a class who can have no other than a 
 mercenary interest in their success, and who are likely to desert 
 their first choice whenever a greater boon is offered by a competing 
 board. It has been suggested, that the expenses of management 
 do not increase in proportion to the number of members, and con- 
 sequently that, in a mutual office, it would be desirable to pay five 
 per cent, commission to induce the admission of fresh members, 
 and thus diminish the proportion of expenses by spreading them 
 over a larger number of contributors. But this would only be 
 profitable, where the expenses already exceed in per-centage 
 on the premiums the per-centage proposed to be given in 
 commission. If the former were less than five per cent, (and 
 it is presumed that only in the early history of a society 
 could any such proportion be required), it would but add to the 
 expenses to bring in additional members by paying commission 
 out of the existing funds of the office, or would diminish 
 the profits, if paid exclusively out of the premiums of the new 
 assurers. It is a point, too, worthy of long consideration, whether 
 the members of a society would not feel it incumbent upon them 
 to exert themselves to introduce their own friends, without other 
 fee or reward than that of strengthening the company, in which 
 they are interested themselves, and profess to be the best adapted 
 for their friends also, rather than depend upon a system, the effect 
 of which, however it may be intended for a good object, is to act 
 as a bribe, and few will deny that bribery, under whatever name it 
 may be concealed, is both vicious in principle and indefensible in 
 practice. It is a system which it is easy to introduce, but from 
 which we, as yet, know no instance of a society extricating itself. 
 These are some of the principal objections to the practice. We 
 may refer to another, which we have heard made, but to which, it 
 is fair to state, that we cannot attach much importance ; that as 
 the agents are more interested in the quantity than in the quality 
 of the goods supplied, if we may use such a term, the offices 
 might suffer materially by the introduction of bad lives. If 
 directors generally were so eager for the increase of their society as 
 
6 
 
 to forget its permanent safety, so anxious to display, in glowing 
 colours, the rapidity of its early success as to keep out of view its 
 future prosperity, such an objection would not only be tenable, but, 
 even to the eye of the most thoughtless, would so peril their own 
 property, and interests, that the reaction would soon destroy the 
 system, in spite of the most influential support it could receive 
 from the parties interested in its continuance. But we are willing 
 to believe that the directors, even of the most alluring offices, are 
 desirous to maintain their own credit, and to do their duty to the 
 proprietors, and the assured, and that no worse lives find admit- 
 tance into their companies than the few that may be reasonably 
 expected to slip in, in the general scramble for new assurances. 
 It would take longer time and larger space than you can probably 
 spare in your valuable little periodical, to touch upon many other 
 points which this important subject offers for enquiry, but perhaps, 
 at some other time the opportunity may be afforded of resuming it. 
 To our mind, the general conclusion is, that the system of paid 
 agency is one, which many of its warmest supporters would never 
 have adopted, if they had not been urged on by the pressure from 
 without, and of which they would gladly get rid, provided others 
 could be forced into the same abandonment. 
 
 I remain, Sir, your obedient Servant, 
 
 London, October 14th, 1847. CRITO. 
 
 ON THE DIVISION OF PROFITS IN LIFE ASSURANCE 
 COMPANIES. 
 
 To the Editor of the Post Magazine. 
 
 Sib, — It has frequently been assumed, that the members of a 
 Life Assurance Company are scarcely qualified to understand the 
 mathematical reasonings, by which the affairs of the Society are 
 proved to be in a prosperous condition. If these important ques- 
 tions are complicated, as we fear is sometimes the case, in order to 
 present a flourishing account where it might be impolitic to expose 
 the real condition of the company ; the clear understanding of the 
 members may occasionally be perverted by the false arguments, or 
 puzzled by the ingenuity of the parties intent on deceiving them. 
 We believe, nevertheless, that in ordinary cases, an appeal to the 
 
common-sense of well educated Englishmen, accompanied by 
 sufficient explanation to lay the case clearly before them, will in 
 general serve more effectually to maintain the real interests of the 
 society, than any attempts to impose on their credulity, or to take 
 advantage of their ignorance. It is true, that, on some occasions 
 propositions have emanated from general courts, which would imply 
 either a lamentable want of knowledge of the consequences, which, 
 if carried, they would produce, or a too keen perception of the eager 
 desire of gain, by which so many are actuated, and of the lengths to 
 which this uncontrollable passion sometimes carries its unfortunate 
 possessors. Such was the resolution, gravely proposed by a 
 member of the General Court of the Equitable Society, even so 
 recently as the year 1826, as mentioned in Mr. Morgan's "View of 
 the Rise and Progress of the Equitable Society," to divide a million 
 of the surplus, without ascertaining what that surplus might be. 
 But this Company had the advantage of the unusual talents and 
 ability of their actuary, Mr. Morgan, who, by his lucid addresses 
 and the natural influence of a superior mind, backed by the support 
 and strong sense of the majority of the members, saved the com- 
 pany from extremities to which it may be feared others, which are 
 not benefitted by such restraining powers, may some day be re- 
 duced. Other methods of obtaining unusual advantages have from 
 time to time been invented, and, amongst others, the very obvious 
 one of assuming for a Division of Profits a different Table for the 
 valuation of policies from that, by which all the other calculations 
 of the Society are made. We have heard that this proposition is 
 even now being pressed by some of the members in a company, 
 whose affairs are still under discussion. The specious proposal is 
 the more dangerous, as, being concealed under a veil of mathema- 
 tical reasoning, the assurers may be induced to believe that in its 
 adoption they pass the limits neither of justice to themselves nor 
 safety to the company. The question, however, is not whether 
 assuming a certain rate of interest and a certain table of mortality 
 the calculations are correct; but whether these assumptions them- 
 selves are right in principle. The subject is one of general interest, 
 and though it will be impossible in the short space to which we 
 must be restricted, with due regard to your other valuable commu- 
 nications, to touch upon many of the important reflections to which 
 
it leads, we will endeavour generally to point out what we believe to 
 be both the injustice and the impolicy of such a measure. 
 
 In any Life Assurance Company there are but two sources from 
 which profit can be derived ; first, that the premiums have been 
 improved at a higher rate of interest than that which formed the 
 basis for their original calculation ; and secondly, that the number 
 of deaths in the society has been actually less than was estimated 
 by the Table of Mortality, from which the premiums were formed. 
 Profits, under whatever head they may be concealed, must spring 
 from one or the other of these variations from the original assump- 
 tion. As all the new offices have had the benefit of the experience 
 of those companies, which, at an early period, undertook what then 
 appeared the great risk of an untried enterprize, none would have 
 been justified in starting with insufficient premiums; and, conse- 
 quently, all have been presumed to obtain a considerable share of 
 profits, even from their earliest establishment, unless, indeed, the 
 amalgamations, which are occasionally used for puffing in the 
 public papers, disguise a disagreeable truth under the profession of 
 advantage to the assured. Various means have been adopted to 
 increase that portion of the profits, which may be obtained from 
 the premiums, by laying them out on mortgages at a higher rate of 
 interest than was originally expected ; by buying in the funds at a 
 cheaper rate and on the day of division assuming them to be worth 
 their increased value, if they have any, by taking advantage of the 
 depressed state of railway debentures, by loans on personal security, 
 or the security of policies, all of which at present we dismiss with 
 the warning, that, as a general rule, where greater gain can be ac- 
 quired than is to be secured in the Public Funds, it must be with 
 an increased risk of loss, since public bodies move slowly, and are 
 not so adapted to take advantage of the slight and frequent changes 
 which the single individual, intent on his own interest, is so quick 
 to seize. We turn to that portion of the profits which arises from 
 the rate of mortality amongst the members of the company being 
 found less than was computed. The first question that suggests 
 itself is : — Is this a permanent source of profit ? Unfortunately for 
 the company, the answer must be in the negative. The selection 
 of lives would tend to bring together a body of individuals in a 
 higher state of health, and consequently exhibiting a less mortality 
 
9 
 
 at any given age for some years after selection, than would be ex- 
 perienced in the general mass of the nation. 
 
 Whilst, therefore, all men's expectations have been excited, and 
 their desire for gain stimulated by the auspicious commencement, at 
 each succeeding division this source of profit will be diminished, 
 till at last the balance will be entirely on the other side. The 
 surviving members, who have been too sanguine in their hopes, 
 and have divided amongst themselves and their deceased co- 
 partners, the provision which ought to have been made for a 
 mortality, which must necessarily increase with the age of the office, 
 will, with reluctance, have to refund part of their too early 
 acquired gains ; or what will be equally detrimental to the success 
 of the company, fall back for assistance on the proprietary body, 
 where any such exists. These may justly feel disposed to cavil at 
 any appeal which they may assert has been brought on by measures 
 which ought never to have been proposed ; and contend, with more 
 than a show of reason, that they cannot guarantee assurers against 
 the consequences of their own imprudence. They may perhaps 
 have shared in the spoil ; but all experience tends to prove that men 
 will take whatever the follies or thoughtlessness of others may 
 place at their disposal ; but will only give back what the law (not 
 always a wise remedy for the aggrieved party) compels. We admit 
 the temptation is strong. The advantage is immediate — the danger 
 distant. But we contend, that the greater part of the societies 
 have not yet existed long enough to know the perils they incur. 
 Out of 108 companies, enumerated in the Post Magazine 
 Almanack for last year, no less than 36 have been formed within 
 the last ten years. Only 7 have existed more than 50 years, and of 
 these some have but recently adopted the business of assurance on 
 lives. Even the Equitable Society, which has, under the care of its 
 able actuary, Mr. Morgan, published the valuable results of its 
 experience, proves that, with all the skill and anxiety of the 
 Directors in the selection of lives, the mortality beyond the age of 
 60 approaches very close to and in some years even exceeds that by 
 the Northampton Table from which their premiums are calculated. 
 The mortality in the Amicable Society, as exhibited in the important 
 tables prepared by the Registrar, Mr. Galloway, and printed for the 
 
 c 
 
10 
 
 use of the members in 1841, in every age beyond 40, exceeds that 
 in the Equitable Society, and between the ages of 65 and 80 is 
 even greater than that in the Northampton Tables. Extracts are 
 subjoined of two Tables, the first showing the mean duration 
 of life at the age of 40 and upwards, and the second showing 
 the number of deaths, which take place within ten years, out of 
 ten thousand persons who have completed the age stated in the 
 margin. 
 
 It should be explained that Table A of the Experience of the 
 Equitable Society, shows the duration of all Lives assured in the So- 
 ciety from September, 1762, to January 1st, 1829 ; and that Table B 
 includes the Lives of chose persons only who have become members 
 between those periods, and have either continued their assurances 
 to the latter date, or died in the intervening time. The latter 
 would approximate to the Experience of a Society where few of 
 the policies are forfeited or surrendered. Table III. of the 
 Experience of the Amicable Society comprises only those members 
 who were living on the 5th day of April, 1808, the mortality 
 amongst whom is traced down to the 5th day of April, 1841, 
 separately from that amongst the members admitted since the 
 former date. Table IV. of the Experience of the Amicable 
 Society exhibits the decrements of life amongst the two classes 
 united. These two tables, therefore, form a valuable contribution, 
 as showing the effect of the selection of lives on the experience of 
 a Society, — a subject which will be treated of more fully in the next 
 letter. 
 
 TABLE I. 
 
 Showing the mean duration of Life at the respective Ages in the Margin, 
 according to different Tables of Mortality. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Equitable 
 
 Experience, 
 
 Table A. 
 
 Equitable 
 
 Experience, 
 
 Table B. 
 
 Amicable 
 Experience. 
 Table IV. 
 
 Amicable 
 Experience, 
 Table III. 
 
 Northampton 
 
 Carlisle. 
 
 40 
 
 27.4 
 
 25.6 
 
 259 
 
 — 
 
 23.1 
 
 27.6 
 
 50 
 
 20.4 
 
 19.4 
 
 19 
 
 18.2 
 
 18. 
 
 21.1 
 
 60 
 
 13.9 
 
 13.5 
 
 12.9 
 
 12.5 
 
 13.2 
 
 14.3 
 
 70 
 
 8.7 
 
 8.7 
 
 8.1 
 
 8. 
 
 8.6 
 
 9.2 
 
 80 
 
 4.8 
 
 4.5 
 
 4.9 
 
 4.8 
 
 4.8 
 
 5.5 
 
11 
 
 TABLE II. 
 
 Showing, according to different Tables of Mortality, the Number of Deaths 
 which take place within Ten Years, out of 10,000 persons who have com- 
 pleted the Ages stated in the Margin. 
 
 
 Equitable, 
 
 Amicable, 
 
 
 
 Age. 
 
 Total 
 Experience. 
 
 Total 
 Experience. 
 
 Northampton 
 
 Carlisle. 
 
 40 
 
 1175 
 
 1291 
 
 2140 
 
 1336 
 
 50 
 
 1921 
 
 2209 
 
 2867 
 
 1715 
 
 60 
 
 3562 
 
 4069 
 
 3955 
 
 3409 
 
 70 
 
 6111 
 
 6638 
 
 6193 
 
 6031 
 
 80 
 
 9043 
 
 8868 
 
 9019 
 
 8510 
 
 It should be observed, that, whilst the number of deaths on which 
 these calculations were founded was 5144 in the Equitable, it was 
 only 1 792 in the Amicable Society ; and that of the latter number 
 798 were those of members who entered since January, 1808, and 
 consequently when, from comparatively recent selection, the lives 
 may be supposed better than ordinary. In both societies the next 
 ten years may be expected to produce still more important 
 results. 
 
 What is the inference from these, perhaps to some parties, 
 startling and unexpected facts ? Certainly we have no wish to deny 
 that, in the early periods of a society's existence, the experience 
 and carefulness of the Directors may bring together a class of men 
 who one with another may enjoy a greater longevity than the 
 ordinary mass of mankind, and that, during this period, a certain 
 increase of profits will be accumulated, which, with a fair allowance 
 for the future, may enter into the present estimation of profits ; but 
 even the vigilance of the most careful Board may be deceived,where 
 self-interest, that powerful spring of action, is on the other side, 
 and it yet remains to be proved what may be the effect hereafter, 
 when the numerous societies lately sprung up have brought their 
 combined, and what in some cases we fear may prove fatal experience 
 to bear upon a subject, the more important because it is indefinitely 
 deferred. " If we could look into the womb of time, and say 
 which seeds will grow and which will not," this objection might 
 appear futile ; but till then we must deem it serious enough to 
 check the hasty decision of those who consider the life-time of a 
 society as the mere repetition of its infancy, and forget that 
 
 c 2 
 
12 
 
 companies, like men, are subject to decay, and that if their 
 strength is prematurely taxed, the earlier the inevitable fate will 
 advance. 
 
 We pass on to another objection perhaps equally serious ; that 
 by a division on this mode of valuation, all future profits from this 
 source are cut off. The minds of men are progressive and so are 
 their desires and expectations. Companies must either retrograde 
 or advance. They cannot remain stationary, and the advocates 
 of an immediate division of all the profits that can be realized may 
 defeat the object of their own prudence and forbearance, by check- 
 ing the growth of a society from which their children may obtain 
 nothing because they themselves have already eaten the fruit before 
 it was ripe. To illustrate this subject we subjoin the following 
 comparison of the value of £10,000 assured, assuming, as is suffi- 
 cient for our purpose, and as we believe is nearly the truth in most 
 societies, that the average age of effecting an assurance is about 40 
 years, the premium being calculated according to the Northampton 
 Table at 3 per cent., and a year's premium supposed to be just due. 
 
 TABLE III. 
 
 Showing the Value of Policies made at the Age of 40, after different periods 
 
 of existence. 
 
 After 
 Years. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Northampton. 
 
 Equitable, 
 Mr. Morgan's 
 
 Table. 
 
 See llise and 
 
 Trogress. 
 
 Carlisle 
 3 per Cent. 
 
 Carlisle 
 3g per cent. 
 
 10 
 20 
 30 
 
 50 
 60 
 70 
 
 e or Sur- 
 
 1,522 
 3,199 
 5,119 
 
 860 344 
 3,154 2,749 
 5,120 4,874 
 
 134 
 2,501 
 4,638 
 
 Differenc 
 plus . . 
 
 9,840 
 
 9,134 j 7,967 
 
 1 
 706 1,873 
 
 7,273 
 2,567 
 
 
 
 
 9,840 
 
 9,840 
 
 9,840 
 
 9,840 
 
 Let us assume that an individual possessed three policies, which 
 having been severally made at the age of 40, according to the 
 Northampton Rates, have existed respectively 10, 20, and 30 years, 
 and that he was prepared to value the same by different Tables, 
 and pay over the surplus to the party assured. By filling up the 
 intervals of ages with other policies, at all ages and periods of 
 assurance, computed in the same way, the supposition may be 
 
13 
 
 extended to an office and its division of profits. By the first column 
 will be seen the true value which will just afford payment of the 
 claims, provided the actual deaths exactly correspond with the sup- 
 posed mortality. But if the mortality should be discovered to be 
 the same as that according to the experience of the Equitable 
 Society, a surplus of £706 on these three policies might be handed 
 over to the assurer without failing in the engagement to pay the 
 claims ; provided the experience thus assumed was not disproved 
 by a subsequent collection of facts. By assuming for the valuation 
 the Carlisle Table at 3 and 3^ per cent, a nominal surplus of £1,873, 
 and £2,567, in each case respectively might be created ; but if, in 
 spite of this assumption, the mortality continued the same even as 
 in the Equitable Society, a positive deficit would arise in the for- 
 mer case of £1,167, in the latter of £1,861, which the party who 
 had agreed to distribute the surplus thus artificially created, would 
 have to pay out of his own resources, and this on the present value 
 of the three policies, amounting in the former case to £7,967, in the 
 latter to £7,273. This is a large proportion, and let us reflect 
 what would be the consequence to a company if the same system 
 were carried out on an extensive scale. If the mortality remained 
 exactly as computed by the experience already acquired ; the society 
 could offer no further additions from this source to the end of life. 
 The only method to produce a surplus at each successive division, 
 would then be to assume a Table still more favourable to longevity 
 than at the preceding period. But at what expense these nominal 
 accumulations would be made, the diminution of the capital would 
 soon and fatally show. These may perhaps be considered extreme 
 cases ; but what member would be satisfied with having already 
 spent his additions ? and what would be his opinion of the society 
 where no more were to be obtained ? Both the considerations 
 already suggested deserve close attention. Other objections pre- 
 sent themselves on which we have not space to enlarge. In the 
 valuation of the Policies in the Equitable Society, which were 
 printed for the use of the members in 1829, calculated by the 
 Northampton Table and the Equitable Experience, the difference 
 produced between the two valuations was no less than £700,000 on 
 assurances, and additions amounting to nearly £14,800,000 ; but 
 with this singular anomaly, that all the assurances under the exist- 
 
14 
 
 ing age of 37 were not only worth nothing, but even after all the 
 premiums which had been paid, £60,708 according to the latter 
 mode of valuation, was still due by the members to the society ; 
 whilst, by the valuation according to the Northampton Table, the 
 Society would have allowed nearly £176,000 for the surrender of 
 these policies. Is it to be believed, that members of any company, 
 immediately after a division, in case they should wish to dispose of 
 their policies, would be prepared to receive the value, which, for a 
 special purpose, they had just voted them to be worth. We fear 
 not, for in this case, some members, as stated above, would actually 
 have to pay instead of receive. But if not, what society could stand 
 the test of public opinion which on one day should diminish the 
 value of the policies to increase the surplus, and on the next day 
 diminish the surplus reserved to increase the value of the policies ? 
 Let us again suppose that a policy, by some unfavourable chance 
 not entitled to share in the division, had been mortgaged for its full 
 value, according to the usual mathematical rules. On the day of 
 division, the stroke of an actuary's pen is to reduce this policy below 
 its marketable value ; make it, in fact, less than the security it was 
 before, in order to afford a larger profit to more fortunate members ; 
 and the next day, with strange elasticity, it is to resume its former 
 value, and swell once again to its late numerical worth. All this, 
 by its absurdity, renders further comment superfluous. 
 
 These observations have reference only to a society which has 
 ascertained by a careful and skilful investigation, its own experience ; 
 and is reasoning on the propriety of assuming these past results as 
 the measure of its future prospects. But we fear they would have 
 but little weight with those members of a company, where this 
 experience has never been ascertained ; who, in place of it, should 
 choose to assume a fanciful table which may be safe or not, accord- 
 ing as the experience of the society, when discovered, may confirm 
 or not the conclusions arrived at. This is not an imaginary case. 
 If once this relaxation of fixed principles is to be allowed, we can- 
 not see where it is to be arrested. The same liberality of mind, 
 which imagines a more favourable rate of mortality, may imagine 
 also a more favourable rate of interest, and these two elements 
 of ideal profit being once established, we know not where the 
 hungry expectants would stop short of leaving as the future lot 
 
15 
 
 of the company a feeble and dwindling existence, or dividing 
 amongst the living the laborious savings which were to form the 
 heritage of their children after their death. 
 
 I am, Sir, 
 
 Your obedient Servant, 
 London, 20th October, 1847. CRITO. 
 
 ON THE EFFECT OF SELECTION OF LIVES IN LIFE 
 ASSURANCE COMPANIES. 
 Letter 1. 
 To the Editor of The Post Magazine. 
 Sir, — The subject of my last letter naturally led to some 
 reflections on the effect of a careful selection of lives for Assurance, 
 and the results which such selection might be expected to exhibit 
 in a table of mortality formed from the experience of any office, 
 when compared, either with the table, from which the premiums 
 were calculated, or any other standard tables of mortality. This is 
 a very important subject, though it is one on which, perhaps, no 
 definite idea is formed by the assuring public ; and as it is to this 
 class that I have been anxious, through the pages of your useful 
 and interesting periodical, to address the few observations on sub- 
 jects so intimately connected with their interests, which have 
 appeared in your last few numbers, I hope not to appear treading 
 on professional ground, in bringing together and briefly examining 
 the facts which have been already collected. To the greater part 
 of assurers, it appears that all assurance companies must at least 
 flourish. They seem to differ only in the rapidity with which 
 profits may be realised, or in the agreeable variety of modes in 
 which they offer to return them to the happy individual, who has 
 been so privileged as to entrust his own or his children's fortune in 
 hands so qualified to improve it. All the present is tinged with a 
 " couleur de rose ;" and even the future presents a shadowy and 
 indefinite outline of prosperity, which looms the grander in propor- 
 tion to its distance. If, by the dull appeal to facts, it should be 
 our lot to sober down the ardent imagination of some, who are 
 revelling in these aerial dreams, we shall not less deserve their 
 approbation, should they be thereby better prepared for the disap- 
 pointment which may ensue, if they should be amongst the number 
 
16 
 
 who live to feel it. It is not, however, from any desire to excite 
 alarm or unfounded apprehension that we would controul the nights 
 of a too free imagination, but simply to appeal from fancy to reason, 
 and by it, to encourage such moderate hopes as may reasonably be 
 expected to be fulfilled ; and, as the whole theory of life assurance 
 is supposed to be deduced from the observations of facts, to enquire 
 how far those, which have been already collected, warrant the lively 
 anticipations of future and increasing profit, which some, perhaps, 
 promise without believing : and many believe, — too willing to be 
 deceived. 
 
 It has long been noticed, that the mortality amongst assurers and 
 annuitants presented a striking contrast with the tables, from which 
 the premiums were deduced : yet scarcely any attempts have been 
 made to trace the cause of the discrepancy. It was generally sup- 
 posed, that the more refined habits of society, the application of 
 increased medical skill, and the paternal anxiety of government for 
 the people, evinced or intended to be evinced in measures for the 
 cleansing and ventilation of large towns, had so improved the 
 public health since the formation of these useful institutions, that 
 they shared in advantages which they had not reckoned upon on 
 their first establishment. A few only suspected that the diminished 
 mortality might have arisen from causes, the influence of which 
 would cease with the increased age of the society, when the publi- 
 cation of the valuable collection of facts, which the liberality of 
 the Members and Directors of the Equitable Society, and the skill 
 and practical knowledge of its talented actuary, Mr. Morgan, placed 
 within reach of the public, proved the truth of the supposition. It 
 is to the form in which these important facts were presented, that 
 we are indebted for the means of making the comparisons which we 
 have now to examine ; and which, though the groundwork of many 
 elaborate calculations, are so simply arranged, that the results may 
 be easily made clear to the most ordinary capacity. This novel 
 and very useful contribution to the science of Life Assurance 
 has been since followed by the Amicable Society, and the results of 
 their experience have been exhibited in the same form, under the 
 care and revision of their able registrar, Mr. Galloway. These are 
 the two important collections of facts from which it is proposed to 
 deduce the conclusions on the subject of this letter ; since both 
 
17 
 
 being arranged on the same plan, and representing the mortality 
 amongst persons who have been assured, they are the best adapted 
 for comparison one with the other. Since then, however, another 
 very valuable collection has been formed from the combined ex- 
 perience of 17 Life Assurance Companies, and prepared and 
 printed under the superintendence of a committee of actuaries, 
 who deserve the thanks of the community for giving up their 
 valuable time, skill, and labour, to advance what may be con- 
 sidered as a great national object, rather than the private 
 enterprise of a few commercial companies. It will be more con- 
 venient to reserve the consideration of this latter publication 
 for another letter, since the results being founded on the obser- 
 vations of policies and not of persons assured, it will require 
 separate attention, and more space than can be allotted in a 
 single letter. 
 
 The Tables of Mortality, according to the experience of the 
 Equitable Society, extend from the commencement in September, 
 1762, to the 1st January, 1829. The total number of lives assured 
 was 21,398, of whom 6,930 were living on the 1st January, 1829; 
 9,324 had ceased to be members of the society by the surrender, 
 the forfeiture, or the discontinuance of their last policy; and 5,144 
 had died. The total number of persons assured had apparently 
 enjoyed amongst them 266,872 years of life ; but, assuming that 
 one with another, those who discontinued their policies had ceased 
 to be members, some at the beginning and some at the close of 
 the year, half the number may be reckoned to have remained the 
 whole of the last year of their membership. This correction being 
 made, the assurers had been members of the society for an average 
 term of 12 and a quarter years. The annual mortality had been 
 1-96 per cent. Mr. Morgan, in his introduction to the Tables, first 
 pointed out the effect of the selection of lives, at different ages, 
 and has presented us with a Table, showing the mortality amongst 
 members who had attained to the same age, but who had entered, 
 respectively, at 5, 10, 15, &c, years previously, and which classes 
 had been kept distinct for the purpose of affording this comparison. 
 An extract from this Table is subjoined, as showing the effect of 
 care in the selection of lives ; but for greater convenience for 
 
 D 
 
comparison hereafter, 
 portion per cent. : — 
 
 18 
 
 I have reduced the mortality to the pro- 
 
 TABLE I. 
 
 Showing the Mortality per cent, between Quinquennial periods of age, out 
 of 100 persons existing at each period, and admitted respectively at 
 intervals preceding, increasing by five years. 
 
 Between 
 
 the Ages 
 
 of 
 
 Rate of Mor- 
 tality on all 
 
 0n7G2per- 
 sonsAssured 
 
 On743per- 
 
 sonsAssured 
 
 On 615 per- 
 sons Assured 
 
 On 470 per- 
 sons Assured 
 
 On 321 per- 
 sonsAssured 
 
 pel sons taken 
 
 at the Age 
 
 at the Age 
 
 at the Age 
 
 at the Age 
 
 at the Age 
 
 collectively. 
 
 of 30. 
 
 of 35. 
 
 of 40. 
 
 of 45. 
 
 of 50. 
 
 30 35 
 
 .77 
 
 .70 
 
 
 
 
 
 35 40 
 
 1.05 
 
 1.12 
 
 1.09 
 
 
 
 
 40 45 
 
 1.14 
 
 1.39 
 
 1 27 
 
 1.08 
 
 
 
 45 50 
 
 1.35 
 
 1.72 
 
 1.45 
 
 1.22 
 
 1.09 
 
 
 50 55 
 
 1.89 
 
 2.04 
 
 1.75 
 
 1.72 
 
 1.79 
 
 
 55 60 
 
 2.50 
 
 2.94 
 
 3.70 
 
 2. 
 
 2.44 
 
 
 60 65 
 
 3.33 
 
 4.76 
 
 4.35 
 
 3.85 
 
 3.85 
 
 3.57 
 
 This Table alone would suffice to show that a considerable differ- 
 ence exists between the mortality of members, who have only been 
 recently admitted, and those who have been members of the Society 
 for any considerable period, even though both classes should be 
 taken at the same average age. Thus it will be noticed, that the 
 mortality between 45 and 50 years of age amongst persons only just 
 admitted at the age of 45, was only 1.09 per cent. ; and that there 
 was an increase of mortality at the same ages for every additional 
 five years since admission, till it is found that amongst those who 
 had been admitted at the average age of 30, or had been members 
 of the society for 15 years, a mortality is exhibited of 1.72 per cent, 
 between the same ages as the above. The average mortality of all 
 the members combined, whether recently or long admitted, be- 
 tween the same ages, may be seen to be 1.35 per cent. It follows, 
 that in a society newly established, where 135 deaths had been 
 reckoned upon between the ages 45 and 50, and on taking a valua- 
 tion in the first five years, it was discovered that only 109 deaths 
 had actually occurred, if the directors or members, who had not 
 looked on the subject in the light which it is here presented, should 
 insist upon a division of all the funds which had been accumulated 
 to pay this difference in the number of the claims, they would be 
 acting against the interests and future stability of the company. 
 For how would they be able to meet the claims arising from the 
 increased mortality between the same ages after 15 years existence, 
 
19 
 
 which we see, (if it agreed with the experience of the Equitable 
 Society), would be as high as 172 deaths? This, be it observed, is 
 on the supposition that the general average of mortality in the 
 society exactly corresponded with that which had been previously 
 considered probable. The differences are somewhat irregular, 
 probably in consequence of the paucity in the number of observa- 
 tions at each age ; but the general tendency of selection cannot be 
 mistaken, and it is universally found, that if the mortality in the 
 first few years be less, it increases very rapidly after a short period. 
 Thus in examining the above Table, the following results will be 
 noticed : — 
 
 TABLE II. 
 
 Showing the Increase of Mortality, according to years of Membership in 
 100 persons living between the Ages in the margin. 
 
 After 5 Years' Membership. 
 " 10 " M 
 
 ii i 5 u II 
 
 " 30 " " 
 
 Many interesting comparisons might be made of the Tables de- 
 rived from the Experience of the Equitable Society with those 
 previously existing, or some which have been since published, but 
 the only point of view in which we regard them at present, is, as 
 they are the only Tables, with the exception of those of the Amicable 
 Society, which give warning of the mischief which would arise to a 
 young society, if the great diminution of mortality which is sure to 
 be noticed in the first few years, (with ordinary care in the selection 
 of the lives,) should be considered as a permanent source of profit, 
 and no provision made for rapidly increasing claims at the same 
 ages in future years. This point must be most carefully distin- 
 guished from the expected increase of claims which arises from the 
 advancing age of the members. These are duly provided for by 
 the premiums, where they are adequate in the first instance, and 
 properly improved afterwards. The distinction is most important. 
 
 Another mode of showing the increasing risks of a society from 
 the increase of claims at the same ages, when the influence of 
 selection has diminished with the length of membership, will be 
 
 D 2 
 
20 
 
 by examining a short Table of the Mean Duration of the lives 
 
 assured : — 
 
 TABLE III. 
 
 Showing the Expectation of Life in the Equitable Society according to 
 duration of Membership. 
 
 
 By Table A., 
 
 including all the Lives 
 
 assured. 
 
 Of Lives admitted respectively between the Ages of 
 
 Ages. 
 
 25—35 
 
 35—45 
 
 45—55 
 
 55—65 
 
 30 
 40 
 50 
 60 
 70 
 
 34.53 
 27.40 
 20.36 
 13.91 
 8.70 
 
 32.96 
 25.49 
 18.56 
 12.50 
 
 7.78 
 
 27.37 
 
 20.11 
 
 13.67 
 
 8.48 
 
 20.26 
 
 13.93 
 
 8.83 
 
 14.36 
 8.62 
 
 This Table may be considered as a rough approximation to the 
 number of future annual premiums, which one with another the 
 assured existing at the given ages in the margin, would pay to the 
 society, and on inspection it will be found to be fewer at the same 
 ages, as they hare been members of the society for a longer period. 
 The ages between which they entered, may on an average be 
 roughly estimated to be 2J years before the mean age of each class ; 
 thus those of the class from ages 25 to 35, whose expectation is 
 given at the age of 30, may be supposed to have become members 
 at the mean age of 2 7 J, and of the class between 35 and 45 at the 
 mean age of 3 7 J, &c. Let us compare the mean duration of the 
 lives at the age of 60 ; then of those who may be considered as 
 recently admitted, say about 2J years, the number of payments to 
 be expected from each would be on an average 14|, of those who 
 had been members for ten years longer, not quite 14, of those who 
 had been members for twenty years longer, about 13f, and of those 
 who had been members for thirty years longer, only 12J payments. 
 This explanation is but placing in a different light the same subject 
 which we have before considered ; but a totally different arrange- 
 ment of the materials and a different combination of ages lead to 
 the same result, and so far confirm both the view already taken, and 
 the practical usefulness of the observations, from which these conclu- 
 sions have been formed. 
 
 The Tables of Mortality deduced from the Experience of the Ami- 
 cable Society were printed for the use of the members in 1841. 
 They are divided into three Tables ; the first showing the duration 
 
21 
 
 of lives of members, assured for the whole term of life, from the 
 beginning of 1808 to April 5th, 1841, and none of whom have con- 
 sequently been members of the society for more than 33 years. 
 The total number who had entered in this class was 3,530 ; of 
 whom 2,227 were living on the 5th of April, 1841 ; 505 had dis- 
 continued their assurances ; and 798 had died. The total number 
 of years of life enjoyed by these members in the society was appa- 
 rently 40,135 ; but the members having been added at the time of 
 making their assurance, and not, as in the Equitable Society, at the 
 end of the year, half the number living, as well as half the number 
 who discontinued, must be deducted from this number to show the 
 actual years of life passed over in the society, and their term of 
 membership was consequently eleven years. When compared with 
 the membership in the Equitable twelve and a quarter years, this 
 appears a very large proportion, considering that the observations 
 of the former extend over 67 years, and of the latter only 33 years. 
 By a glance at the following comparison, however, the discrepancy 
 will be explained by the number of persons who have ceased to be 
 members by discontinuing their policies, having been in the former 
 society three times as numerous as they are in the latter ; whilst 
 the proportion of deaths is very nearly equal. 
 
 Entered. Living at Date of Observation. 
 
 Discontinued. 
 
 Died. 
 
 Equitable 100 32-4 
 Amicable 100 63 
 
 43-6 
 14-4 
 
 24 
 22'6 
 
 This comparison, though slight in itself, forms a serious subject 
 for reflection, since it leaves the impression, that, either one of the 
 causes which led to a more favourable rate of mortality in the 
 Equitable, namely, the number of assurances existing only over a 
 short period after selection, was greatly reduced ; or that some 
 causes have tended rather to accelerate than retard the increase of 
 mortality in the more recent division of the Amicable Society. 
 The average mortality per annum in this class has been 2*06 per 
 cent. As the Equitable Society, from its longer duration, must 
 have comprised a much greater number of old lives, and the average 
 mortality in 67 years was only 196 per cent, per annum, as we 
 have seen, it is evident that the mortality in the Amicable Society 
 is much higher in proportion than even these numbers would indi- 
 
22 
 
 cate. On this Table Mr. Galloway remarks, " with respect to the 
 series of members admitted since 1808, it is to be observed that it 
 consists entirely of selected lives, that is to say, of persons who at 
 the time of their admission were all apparently free from disease, 
 and that by far the greater part of those who passed through the 
 younger ages, had lived only a few years in the society, or had been 
 recently selected. The mortality might therefore be expected 
 a priori to be favourable in general, and particularly so in early life ; 
 and this is found to be the case, for on inspecting the different 
 columns of Table V., the Amicable Table II. will be seen to belong 
 to the class of Tables, which give the longest mean duration. 
 From the age 25 to 35 it gives nearly the same mean duration as 
 the Equitable Experience, beginning in fact a little higher ; but it 
 is proper to remark, that from the very small number of persons who 
 passed through the ages under 35 (to say nothing of the recentness 
 of their admission), the Amicable Table possesses little weight at 
 those ages. From 40 to 75 it gives the mean duration of life about 
 half a year less than the Equitable Table. Above the last age, it 
 again becomes uncertain from the insufficiency of the data." Table 
 I. of the Experience of the Amicable Society, a description of which 
 is given above, comprising the last 33 years only, may be considered 
 as giving a fair view of far the greater part of companies now 
 existing, presuming that the eagerness of competition or other cir- 
 cumstances have not tended to induce a less careful selection 
 of members. In the same valuable collection, however, we may 
 examine another Table, which exhibits the experience of a company 
 which has long since ceased to introduce new members. This is a 
 position, to which a society will gradually be reduced, if the new 
 members admitted are not sufficient to fill up the vacancies formed 
 by death or discontinuance. By this Table, from the age of 45 to 51 
 the mean duration of life little exceeds that by the Northampton 
 Table, and from that age continues less to the age of 80, after which 
 it again a little exceeds the Northampton to the last age of life. 
 This Table represents the mortality experienced amongst 1088 mem- 
 bers who were living on the 5th April, 1808, of which number, 
 more than half were above the age of 57, -when the observations 
 commenced, and the same proportion had been at that time mem- 
 bers of the Society more than 1 1 years. Mr. Galloway observes, 
 
23 
 
 that the results of this Table present a striking accordance with the 
 mortality exhibited amongst the male inhabitants of towns in Bel- 
 gium, computed by Mr. De Morgan, from the observations of M. 
 Quetelet ; an agreement which he considers might reasonably be 
 expected on account of the similarity of circumstances. The num- 
 ber of persons who were existing on the 5th April, 1808, was 1088; 
 of whom 64 were living on the 5th April, 1841 ; 30 had discon- 
 tinued their assurances ; and 994 died. 
 
 PROPORTION PER CENT. 
 
 Entered. 
 
 Living at Date of Observation. 1 -Discontinued. 
 
 Died. 
 
 100 
 
 5-9 
 
 2-7 
 
 91'4 
 
 In comparing the actual numbers, Table I. Amicable with that of 
 the Equitable Experience, a small allowance must be made on 
 account of the number living in the former, being deduced from 
 the exact ages on entering the society; whilst the lives in the 
 Equitable Society are not taken to account till an average of half-a- 
 year after admission. It follows that the age of 40 in the 
 summary in Table II. of the observations given in Table I. of the 
 Amicable Experience, really represents the mortality at 39j ; and, 
 consequently, in comparison with the Equitable, and other tables, 
 should exhibit a slight difference at the same ages, even were the 
 rate of mortality the same. In Table III., however, the ages 
 correspond exactly. Half the number discontinued, (as before,) 
 and, from the different construction of the Table, the whole 
 number living, must be deducted from the number existing at each 
 age, to give the true number exposed to the risk of mortality in 
 the ensuing year. With this correction, the duration of member- 
 ship of these 1088 persons had been 14-1 years since 1808. The 
 average mortality in this class had been 6*04 per cent, per annum 
 since the same date. Table IV. of the Amicable Experience shows 
 the probabilities and mean duration of life, resulting from the com- 
 bination of the data in the other two Tables. It may be considered 
 as representing the mortality in a company, the numbers of which 
 are stationary, or one in which the old and young members exist in 
 such relative proportion as may be maintained by the constant 
 admission of new members to supply the places, which become 
 vacant by death or the discontinuance of the last policy. It shows 
 
24 
 
 a mean duration of life at nearly all ages less than that of the 
 Equitable Society, especially between the ages 40 to 60 ; and 
 above the age of 55 to near 80 less than that of the Northampton 
 Table. Having in my last letter presented a comparison of the 
 mean duration of life, and of the number of deaths which occur 
 within ten years, out of 10,000 persons at each decade of ages from 
 40 to 80, according to the Equitable, the Amicable, and the 
 Northampton Tables, it will only be necessary at present to make a 
 comparison of the separate classes of ages in the Equitable Society, 
 and of the separate Tables in the Amicable Society. The latter 
 exhibit also the effect of selection, by showing the difference in 
 mortality between lives admitted within the last 33 years, and those, 
 which, having been selected before that time, have remained 
 unmixed with the new members since. The data are perhaps too 
 few to afford any useful results by a similar division into classes 
 of ages, as that of the Equitable Society. 
 
 TABLE IV. 
 
 Showing the Annual Number of Deaths in Decennial periods of age, out of 
 10,000 persons, living at each age, and at different dates from admission, 
 according to the Equitable and Amicable Experience, compared with the 
 Northampton Table. 
 
 Ages. 
 
 EQUITABLE EXPERIENCE. 
 
 Lives I Lives 
 admitted admitted 
 between I between 
 the Ages 'the Ages 
 25&3S. 35&45 
 
 30to40 868 
 40 "50 1405 
 50 " 60 2568 
 60 "70 5160 
 70 "80 11940 
 
 1158 
 2120 
 4463 
 8831 
 
 Lives 
 admitted 
 between 
 the Aafes 
 45&55. 
 
 2155 
 4411 
 8533 
 
 Lives 
 admitted 
 between 
 
 55 & 
 
 s: 
 
 3881 
 9343 
 
 AMICABLE 
 EXPERIENCE. 
 
 rable I 
 Since 
 1808. 
 
 748 
 
 1209 
 
 2175 
 
 4601 
 
 10397 
 
 Table 
 
 III. 
 previous 
 to 1808. 
 
 2799 
 
 5456 
 
 10499 
 
 Total 
 Experi- 
 ence, 
 Equi- 
 table. 
 
 928 
 1243 
 2111 
 4304 
 8994 
 
 Com- 
 bined 
 
 Ex peri 
 ence, 
 
 Amica- 
 ble. 
 
 767 
 
 1374 
 
 2465 
 
 5081 
 
 10314 
 
 North- 
 ampton. 
 
 1858 
 2379 
 3321 
 4907 
 9188 
 
 The portion of this Table, relating to the division of the members 
 of the Equitable Society into different classes, according to their 
 ages of admission, is deduced from the Tables given by the Com- 
 mittee of Actuaries (in the valuable collection of observations 
 which it is proposed to consider in the next letter). The mortality 
 amongst these classes is in accordance with the actual facts, 
 without any adjustment to produce a more regular gradation of the 
 risks. It will consequently be found to vary irregularly at different 
 ages and periods from admission ; but still to bear out the con- 
 
25 
 
 elusions we have arrived at as to the effect of the selection 
 of lives. The remainder of the Table is derived from the 
 observations in the two societies, as they have been corrected for 
 general use. 
 
 The Tables of the Experience of the Equitable Society as thus cir- 
 culated for the use of the members, were introduced to the notice of 
 the public generally in a valuable paper published, by Mr. Edmonds , 
 in the Lancet, October 21, 1837, in which he has printed various 
 Tables showing the gradual increase of mortality in years from admis- 
 sion, and other Tables, exhibiting the effect of selection, and insti- 
 tuting a comparison between the results and his own theoretical tables 
 of "Village" and "Mean" mortality. The object which Mr. Edmonds 
 has in view, is to use these observations and those of the Amicable 
 Society in support of a theory of a constant increase in the rate of 
 mortality for every year of age, first proposed by Mr. Gompertz in 
 1825, and a similar notion to which Mr. Edmonds worked out in a 
 series of Theoretical Tables in 1832, and which, in several valuable 
 papers since, he has examined and compared with the additional 
 observations, as they have been published, or with such as he 
 could himself give to the world. In this paper, Mr. Edmonds has 
 made his computation on the average age of making assurance in- 
 stead of the age on the 1st of January in the following year, from 
 which time only (according to the note in Mr. Morgan's introduc- 
 tion,) the new members are added to the number already existing at 
 their then age, and which will consequently on an average be half- 
 a-year older than that reckoned by Mr. Edmonds. But this error 
 has been corrected and the calculations recast in another paper by 
 Mr. Edmonds in the Lancet of 17th September, 1842; and both 
 these articles may well be compared together. In estimating the 
 rate of mortality, Mr. Edmonds does not take merely the proportion 
 of deaths to those existing at the beginning of any year of age, but 
 adds to the latter half the number of deaths, and half the number 
 who were living at that age at the date when the observations ter- 
 minated, as well as half the number who ceased to be members 
 between that age and the beginning of the next. This shows the 
 increased rate of mortality from year to year, and enables him the 
 better to compare the results of actual experience with his hypo- 
 
26 
 
 thetical table, but reduces the facts or a table framed from them to 
 an inconvenient form for ordinary use. In comparing the two 
 papers, it must be borne in mind that the results in the first paper, 
 owing to the mistake explained, always correspond with an age half 
 a year older than that stated in the margin. The Experience of the 
 Amicable Society is likewise compared with that of the Equitable, 
 and from both Mr. Edmonds draws what he considers to be very 
 strong corroborative evidence in support of his theory of the rate of 
 mortality. He concludes, that the mortality in the Amicable 
 Society, amongst persons who have not been members for more 
 than five years, when compared with that amongst persons of a 
 longer duration of membership, is as 2 to 3 nearly at all ages, 
 whilst in the Equitable Society, in the same divisions of classes, it 
 is as 3 to 4. Mr. Edmonds refers to differing statements made by 
 Mr. Galloway and the Government calculator, the latter stating that 
 the mortality between the ages of 35 and 50 does not increase with 
 the age ; and the former that it increases 6 per cent, for each year 
 of age in the same interval, and he comes to the conclusion " that 
 the truth lies exactly halfway between these contradictory state- 
 ments, the true rate of increase between those ages being 3 per 
 cent, for each year of age ;" — which is his theory of the rate of 
 mortality generally. This theory may be thus shortly explained ; 
 that there are three distinctly marked periods of human life, one 
 from birth to about 8 years, when the mortality decreases 32^ per 
 cent, annually. A second from the age of about 12 to 55, when 
 the rate of mortality increases 3 per cent, per annum ; and lastly, 
 from 55 and upwards, when it increases 8 per cent, per annum. 
 In the comparison which he draws between the Equitable and 
 Amicable Experience, he 'considers that both these Tables mark the 
 third period as commencing at the age of 52, and therefore com- 
 pares his Table of Village Mortality at the age of 55, with that of 
 52 by the tables of the two societies, and every other age in the 
 same manner with the one three years older in his Village Table. 
 With this correction the Amicable Tables agree very closely with 
 his for fifty successive years. He considers that the Equitable 
 Table also changes at the age of 52 ; but corresponds with the 
 Village Table of two years older, and that the mortality in the 
 
27 
 
 Fquitable Society is at almost every age 8 per cent, higher than in 
 the Amicable Society. As both these observations disagree with 
 the theory in showing an increase of mortality at 52 instead of 55 
 years, Mr. Edmonds explains that he had been already disposed to 
 predict that the limit was receding in a much greater degree than 
 the infancy limit would be found receding, but as he does not re- 
 gard the retrocession of the limit to be applicable to all classes, he 
 deems this circumstance to be in favour of the use of his Theoretical 
 Tables by Assurance companies. Unless, however, Mr. Edmonds 
 believes that the experience of other assurance companies will be 
 found different from the two now under review, it would appear 
 that what has been already recorded would rather tend to the con- 
 trary effect ; for if the change to an increased mortality takes place 
 at an earlier age, it is evident that a table of premiums, exactly 
 proportioned to the risk by the Theoretical Tables changing from 3 
 to 8 per cent, at the age of 55, would be inadequate to meet a 
 mortality, which increases in the same manner at the age of 
 52. This discussion, however, places the subject of these 
 observations in a very interesting light; and it is but just to 
 show how nearly the Tables, corrected as I have explained, 
 will be found to agree with the hypothesis. The reader is 
 referred for more full information to Mr. Edmonds* valuable papers 
 quoted above. It may be as well to state that Mr. Galloway has 
 finally adjusted or corrected the logarithms, which represent the 
 probability of living over a year, by the formula proposed by Mr. 
 Gompertz, using for Table III., which comprises only the members 
 existing on 5th April, 1808, one set of constants from age 45 to 93, 
 and for Table IV., which includes also the new members since that 
 date, one set of constants from age 24 to 68, and another from age 
 68 to 93. Before and after the period of change, therefore, the 
 same regularity (though not with the same rate of increase,) ought 
 to be observed as in Mr. Edmonds' table. I have given the mor- 
 tality from the Amicable Table III., in order to show the difference 
 from Mr. Edmonds' hypothesis. Mr. Edmonds contends that his 
 corrections deviate less from the actual facts observed, either by the 
 Equitable or Amicable Tables. As they have been arranged, they 
 certainly produce results which very remarkably coincide with his 
 theory. 
 
 £ 2 
 
28 
 
 TABLE V. 
 
 Showing according to the duration of membership the mortality in five 
 years, by the Equitable and Amicable Experience, out of 100 persons 
 living at the age stated in the margin. 
 
 AMICABLE EXPERIENCE to 1811. 
 
 EQUITABLE EXPERIENCE 
 to 1829. 
 
 
 Since 1808, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Term of Mem- 
 bership. 
 
 Amongst Members. 
 
 Years of Membership. 
 
 Ages. 
 
 Under 
 5 years. 
 
 Above 
 5 years- 
 
 Table III 
 lefore 1808 
 actual facts 
 
 Previous 
 to 1808. 
 
 Since 
 1808. 
 
 |to5£ 
 
 sjtoisj 
 
 Above 
 I5^years 
 
 Total. 
 
 30 
 
 3.65 
 
 
 
 
 3.32 
 
 3.21 
 
 4.67 
 
 
 3.79 
 
 35 
 
 4.83 
 
 
 
 
 4.21 
 
 5.04 
 
 5.39 
 
 
 5.23 
 
 40 
 
 4.07 
 
 6.27 
 
 
 
 5.66 
 
 4.65 
 
 5.86 
 
 7.77 
 
 5.62 
 
 45 
 
 4.36 
 
 7.80 
 
 8.05 
 
 8.14 
 
 6.86 
 
 5.67 
 
 6.59 
 
 8.32 
 
 6.72 
 
 50 
 
 5.43 
 
 8.98 
 
 11.13 
 
 12.76 
 
 9.04 
 
 8.98 
 
 8.99 
 
 10.53 
 
 9.48 
 
 55 
 
 8.52 
 
 13.46 
 
 15.31 
 
 13.17 
 
 12.58 
 
 10.30 
 
 11.99 
 
 13.53 
 
 12.32 
 
 60 
 
 13.88 
 
 18.17 
 
 20.82 
 
 22.39 
 
 19.78 
 
 11.59 
 
 15.78 
 
 18.34 
 
 16.52 
 
 65 
 
 14.25 
 
 25.97 
 
 27.99 
 
 26. 
 
 25.12 
 
 19.98 
 
 23.89 
 
 25.61 
 
 24.55 
 
 70 
 
 
 34.14 
 
 37.84 
 
 38.15 
 
 37.01 
 
 
 31.56 
 
 34.41 
 
 33.76 
 
 75 
 
 
 48.29 
 
 47.77 
 
 48.14 
 
 48.51 
 
 
 47.33 
 
 45.44 
 
 45.61 
 
 80 
 
 
 51.74 
 
 59.89 
 
 66.18 
 
 64.31 
 
 
 
 52.85 
 
 52.85 
 
 85 
 
 
 
 72.36 
 
 73.10 
 
 74.93 
 
 
 
 68.58 
 
 68.58 
 
 TABLE VI. 
 
 Showing the number of persons at the ages stated in the margin, relative 
 to 1000 surviving at age 55, according to the Equitable and A.micable 
 Experience, compared with Mr. Edmonds' Theoretical Table of Village 
 Mortality. 
 
 AMICABLE EXPERIENCE. 
 
 EQUITABLE EXPERIENCE. 
 
 Ages. 
 
 Facts observed. 
 
 Village Table 
 3 years older. 
 
 i 
 
 i Facts observed. 
 
 Village Table 
 2 years older. 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 1,409 
 
 1,427 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 1,344 
 
 1,355 
 
 40 
 
 1,294 
 
 1,289 
 
 1,270 
 
 1,276 
 
 45 
 
 1,207 
 
 1,200 
 
 1,191 
 
 1,191 
 
 50 
 
 1,112 
 
 1,105 
 
 1,106 
 
 1,099 
 
 55 
 
 1,C00 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 60 
 
 866 
 
 865 
 
 872 
 
 875 
 
 65 
 
 689 
 
 700 
 
 721 
 
 719 
 
 70 
 
 510 
 
 513 
 
 541 
 
 539 
 
 75 
 
 320 
 
 325 
 
 358 
 
 353 
 
 80 
 
 166 
 
 166 
 
 195 
 
 190 
 
 85 
 
 59 
 
 62 
 
 92 
 
 76 
 
 Mr. Edmonds contends, that in all Tables, the average increase of 
 mortality is 33 per cent, for every ten years up to the age of 55 ; 
 but, from the inspection of the above Table, it will appear that in all 
 the selected classes the rate of increase is considerably greater in 
 the same period, arising from the mortality commencing at a lower 
 
29 
 
 but advancing to a higher rate than in ordinary Tables. This fact 
 strengthens the suspicion, with which, in most societies, the distri- 
 bution of large and sometimes advertising profits so soon after their 
 establishment, ought to be regarded ; and inculcates the necessity, 
 in all cases, of never dividing without a most careful examination 
 and provident regard for the future. In my next letter, I propose 
 to exhibit a comparison of the mortality by the Equitable and 
 Amicable Experience in years from admission ; and to give a short 
 account of the important Tables prepared by the Committee of Actu- 
 aries from the Combined Experience of seventeen Life Assurance 
 Companies. 
 
 This letter has already extended to greater length than was 
 originally intended. It exposes to view, however, some serious and 
 striking facts. It shows the rapid increase of mortality, which the 
 advanced age of the members or the diminishing influence of selec- 
 tion produces on the Tables of Observations, and adds weight to the 
 repetition of the warning with which we commenced; a warning, 
 which, if attended to in time, may avert the bitter pang of disap- 
 pointment from many who are now indulging in hopes too sanguine 
 to be realized, and in desires too grasping to be satisfied. 
 
 I am, Sir, your obedient servant, 
 
 CRITO. 
 
 London, 4th November, 1 847. 
 
 ON THE EFFECT OF SELECTION OF LIVES IN LIFE 
 ASSURANCE COMPANIES. 
 
 Letter 2. 
 
 To the Editor of The Post Magazine. 
 
 Sir, — On resuming the subject of the last letter, the Selection 
 of Lives for Assurance, I proceed to show, that the mortality in a 
 society must continue to increase annually for many years after its 
 establishment. The provision, which is made for future years, 
 ought to be one, which contemplates the society attained to its full 
 growth ; and, consequently, in the earlier periods of its existence, 
 a continual surplus must accrue, and be carefully improved, with its 
 accumulations, to meet the demands, which at some future time 
 will inevitably be made on the Funds. This rapid increase 
 
30 
 
 of the capital, apparently far beyond the present, and to the view 
 of many members of every company, the probable future claims 
 to which it can be liable, is apt to create an incipient desire to share 
 in what appears to be such a large reserve of surplus, and an 
 unwillingness to lay by, for a future generation, the profits which 
 are presumed to be made by the present, from the premiums being 
 far too high in proportion to the risks actually incurred. Few 
 persons are aware of the length of time, which must elapse, before 
 a society attains its maximum of mortality ; and even the opinion 
 of those best qualified to judge, is too frequently pushed on one 
 side, as dictated by self-interest, by groundless alarm, or by a 
 desire to mystify what appears so clear to the assurer, less 
 prejudiced as he supposes himself to be. To such parties, 
 nothing perhaps will prove so unanswerable (we cannot say satis- 
 factory), as an appeal to actual facts ; though we may preface their 
 introduction by an explanation of what they may be intended to 
 prove. If a company were started to assure lives at every age from 
 birth to extreme old age, and if the places of all the lives, which 
 dropped, were supplied by others, from year to year, without any 
 increase in the numbers of the society, and without any improve- 
 ment in the health of the assured, then the mortality of the 
 first year, would be the same as the last, and there would be no 
 increase in the numbers of the deaths, because the average age of 
 the members would remain the same. But if the admission of the 
 lives to be assured was limited between 20 and 60 years of age, 
 then the new members would be all of younger ages, whilst, from 
 year to year, the older assurers, who survived the first, second, &,c, 
 years from admission, would be gradually advancing in age with the 
 existence of the society. With this advance in age would be found 
 a corresponding increase in the mortality, till the youngest class of 
 the members on admission having attained to the greatest age, to 
 which any member was found to survive in the experience of the 
 society, the mortality would then have reached its maximum. In 
 theory, this period, according to the Northampton Tables, in the 
 case just referred to, would not be attained, until upwards of seventy 
 years had elapsed. In practice, however, some allowance may be 
 made on the ground, that the younger lives may be too few to 
 
31 
 
 survive to the extreme age allotted to them by the Tables ; yet it 
 may be doubted, whether a society could, from its own experience, 
 safely form an estimate of the number of deaths to be finally ex- 
 pected till a period of at least fifty years from the date of its estab- 
 lishment. Various disturbing causes may hasten or retard this 
 period ; but the admission of lives, which one with another, are 
 younger than those which formed the original body of the society, 
 or the general improvement of health amongst the assured, would 
 tend still further to delay its arrival, and render any conclusions, 
 hastily drawn from experience, even after many years from the for- 
 mation of the company, still fallacious. The average mortality of 
 the Equitable Society, during the 67 years from its commencement, 
 as shown in our last letter, had been 1*96 per cent. ; but the aver- 
 age of the four following years, viz., 1829 to 1832, inclusive, as 
 given in Mr. Morgan's Supplement to the Tables, so frequently 
 alluded to, was 2-81 per cent. In illustration of this subject, the 
 following Tables are presented, showing the increase of mortality 
 in each ten years from admission, both by the Equitable and 
 Amicable Experience. It will be seen, that the increase in the for- 
 mer has been nearly 75 per cent, in each decennial period, except 
 the last ; and in the latter, 80 per cent, increase in the second ten 
 years, 90 per cent, in the third, and 70 per cent, in the fourth. 
 To these Tables are subjoined two columns, showing what would be 
 the total experience of each society amongst 100 persons existing 
 together, composed of equal numbers of such members, as had been 
 admitted in each decennial period from the date of the society to 
 that under observation. From these columns it will be seen, that 
 the mortality in the Amicable Society, between 30 and 40 years 
 from admission, was nearly the same as that in the Equitable be- 
 tween 40 and 50 years from admission. These numbers do not 
 give the actual mortality in either society ; because the assumption 
 that members are existing in equal numbers, according to different 
 periods from admission, can never be correct in fact ; since the 
 numbers exposed to the risk of mortality continually diminish, 
 as the mortality itself increases. It is necessary, however, 
 for the purpose of comparison, to reduce them to the same 
 standard. 
 
32 
 
 TABLE I. 
 
 Showing a comparison between the mortality according to the Equitable 
 and Amicable Experience in years from admission. 
 
 
 EQUITABLE EXPERIENCE 
 TABLE A. 
 
 AMICABLE EXPERIENCE 
 SINCE 1808. 
 
 Deaths amongst 
 100 persons exist- 
 ing in equal pro- 
 
 Years 
 from ad- 
 
 3 
 
 BJ'S 
 
 2 6m'C 
 
 8 M ft 
 
 M 
 
 .O O »* 
 
 S ** ° 
 
 s 
 
 CO 
 
 o fc 
 
 JA 
 
 o 
 
 tat 
 
 o br/C 
 
 CO 
 
 ^ go 
 
 -a 
 
 s 
 
 CO 
 
 Is *>' 
 
 « c 
 o S 
 
 portions, accord- 
 ing to Decennial 
 periods from ad- 
 mission. 
 
 mission. 
 
 Equit- 
 able 
 
 Amic- 
 able 
 
 un. 10 
 
 59.83 
 
 156,811 
 
 1,972 
 
 1.26 
 
 68.10 
 
 26,403 
 
 398 
 
 1.51 
 
 1.26 
 
 1.51 
 
 10 " 20 
 
 27.58 
 
 72,279 
 
 1,651 
 
 2.28 
 
 26.47 
 
 10,262 
 
 287 
 
 2.80 
 
 1.77 
 
 2.15 
 
 20 " 30 
 
 10. 
 
 26,203 
 
 1,042 
 
 3.97 
 
 5.19 
 
 2,011 
 
 105 
 
 5.22 
 
 2.50 
 
 3.17 
 
 30 " 40 
 
 2.36 
 
 6,187 
 
 419 
 
 6.77 
 
 .24 
 
 92 
 
 8 
 
 8.70 
 
 3.57 
 
 4.55 
 
 40 •« 50 
 
 .23 
 
 594 
 
 55 
 
 9.26 
 
 
 
 
 
 4.71 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 262,074 
 
 5,139 
 
 
 100 
 
 38,769 
 
 798 
 
 
 
 
 In estimating the mortality of a society in years from admission, it 
 becomes of importance to ascertain whether a larger proportion of 
 lives may not have entered at later periods of life in one society than 
 in another. If this were the case in the Amicable Society, it would 
 in some degree, explain the greater mortality experienced amongst 
 its members, than amongst those of the Equitable Society. By the 
 following Table this conjecture is proved to be in accordance with 
 the fact. 
 
 TABLE II. 
 
 Showing the Proportion per Cent, at different Ages of Members, who 
 
 entered in the Equitable and Amicable Societies. 
 
 A«-es. 
 
 to 
 
 7 
 
 10 „ 
 
 20 „ 
 
 30 „ 
 
 40 „ 
 
 50 „ 
 
 60 „ 
 
 70 &c. 
 
 Equitable. 
 
 •56 
 
 3-70 
 
 25-90 
 
 34-30 
 
 22-60 
 
 10-30 
 
 2-60 
 
 •04 
 
 Amicable. 
 
 •91 
 14-14 
 35-00 
 28-20 
 15-30 
 6-00 
 •45 
 
 100- 
 
 100- 
 
 From this comparison, it appears that out of 21, 398 persons assured 
 only 35.5 percent, entered the Equitable after 40 years of age j 
 whilst out 3,530 assured in the Amicable, 50 per cent, were beyond 
 
the same age when they were admitted into the company : still, as 
 so much greater a proportion of the lives in the latter society were 
 existing within 20 years from admission, when exposed to the 
 chances of mortality, this explanation is not sufficient alone to 
 account for the increased number of deaths, as exhibited above. 
 Enough has been shown to prove that, both by theory and the prac- 
 tical results, in existing companies, the mortality must continue to 
 increase for many years after admission, even if the actual experience 
 of the societies corresponds with the tables used for their calculations. 
 But if a more favourable rate prevailed, the period in which the 
 maximum of mortality would be attained must either be longer 
 deferred, or the claims would increase, at the last, with such rapidity, 
 as after a long course of confidence in growing prosperity, would 
 excite alarm in the minds of those members of the company, who 
 had not considered that this was a consummation which ought to 
 have been foreseen and duly provided for. The continual accumu- 
 lation of the capital, then, in the early existence of a society, which 
 many, not accustomed to the subject, are too apt to consider as the 
 effect of excessive caution, and are sometimes with difficulty 
 restrained from breaking in upon, ought to be regarded as a sacred 
 fund, not to be diminished without the most skilful and diligent 
 enquiry into the future prospects, as well as the past history, of the 
 society. How these future prospects are to be estimated is a ques- 
 tion which we believe cannot safely be settled, till tables be published 
 drawn from a much longer experience than any company has yet the 
 power to offer. Those, which can be relied upon, are, as we have 
 already seen, rather discouraging than favourable, to the nattering 
 hopes which are so generally entertained. 
 
 The Tables, exhibiting the law of mortality deduced from the Com- 
 bined Experience of seventeen Life Assurance offices, which we will 
 now examine, contain many valuable and striking facts ;. though it 
 is to be regretted that the observations do not extend over a greater 
 length of time. We consider, also, that some well-founded objec- 
 tions may be made to the observations referring only to policies, not 
 to the lives assured. The proportion of policies to lives assured 
 probably differs but little within the first few years after the com- 
 mencement of a society ; but as the members advance in age, it is 
 reasonable to expect that the proportion will be different. If these 
 
34 
 
 Tables should hereafter be eontinued, the difference will probably 
 be found to be much greater at a period when it may not be con- 
 venient to alter an arrangement once adopted. It should also be 
 remembered, that it is towards the extremity of life, when the obser- 
 vations in any table are liable to irregularities from the paucity of 
 numbers, that the proportion of policies will be the greatest, and 
 likely still further to derange the results of the observations. Let 
 us suppose, for instance, that two members were living at extreme 
 age, the one holding one policy, the other four on his life : if the 
 former failed, in any given year, the mortality would be but 20 per 
 cent. ; but if the latter it would be 80 per cent. ; whilst if the lives , 
 and not the policies, had been under observation, the correct ratio of 
 mortality would be 50 per cent. An assurer, also, holding two or 
 more policies and suddenly dropping one, would by that policy be 
 withdrawn from the number living, and consequently increase the 
 apparent risks of life at his age ; and he and other members would, 
 thenceforth, appear subject to an increased rate of mortality, though 
 it does not follow that his health is affected because circumstances 
 induce him to discontinue his policy. If an assurer, also, be 
 included in a class entered some years previously, and by a new 
 policy is united with a class, just being formed, he would appear, in 
 one case, subject to a law of mortality different from what he is 
 in the other. He may indeed be considered as chosen a second 
 time, and consequently equivalent to another select life at his pre- 
 sent age ; but the chances are greatly against the probability that 
 three or four individuals selected at different times, should all expire 
 in the same year, and yet this is an assumption made in every case 
 where three or four policies are effected upon one life. Although 
 it may be true that the repetition of the same life in the tables 
 was unavoidable, where an individual might have assured his life 
 in different offices, and thus, when their experience was combined, 
 would, without being distinguished, be in the same position, as if he 
 were assured by more than one policy in a single office ; still the 
 enumeration of the lives only in the latter case would be a step 
 nearer to correctness, even though the exact truth could not be 
 ascertained. This subject, it appears, however, was debated in the 
 Committee of Actuaries, and these and other objections no doubt 
 allowed their full weight. The abilities and experience of those 
 
35 
 
 gentlemen must be our guarantee that these Tables are presented in 
 a manner the best adapted to serve the end proposed, or, at least, in 
 the best form which was attainable amidst the obstacles and difficulties 
 naturally to be expected in an undertaking, where a public benefit 
 was to be procured, with the least possible disregard to the interests 
 and convenience of the private companies concerned. 
 
 The Committee of Actuaries was appointed at a meeting of per- 
 sons interested in the subject, and proceeded, by well prepared forms, 
 to collect the facts and observations from the offices, that had agreed to 
 contribute their experience ; but it was not till after the middle of 
 the year 1841, that the whole returns were received ; nor from the 
 diversity of classification, and other circumstances, could the tables 
 be prepared in their present shape until 1843. The particulars are 
 divided into six classes, Town, Country, and Irish, each of these 
 being classed in assurances on male and female lives. The total 
 number of policies, in which the sexes were distinguished, was 
 40,616 ; of which 25,462 were in existence at the termination of 
 the experience ; 11,226 policies had been discontinued ; and 3.928 
 had become claims by death; 36,414 were on the lives of males, 
 and 4,202 on the lives of females. 
 
 Proportion per Cent 
 
 Entered. 
 
 Living. 
 
 Discon- 
 tinued. 
 
 Died. 
 
 Males. 
 
 Females. 
 
 100 
 
 62.7 
 
 27.6 
 
 9.7 
 
 89.7 
 
 10.3 
 
 In the remainder of the returns, the sexes were not distinguished, 
 and to these were added the observations of the Equitable Society, 
 which then increased the number of policies to 83,905 ; of which 
 44,877 were in existence at the termination of the experience ; 
 25,247 had been discontinued ; and 13,781 had become claims by 
 death. It should be noticed that the Tables of the Equitable 
 Society, being observations on lives and not on policies, must have 
 had the effect of somewhat increasing the number of deaths in 
 proportion to the number existing at any age ; since, had all the 
 policies, made for short terms in the earlier periods of the Equitable 
 Society, been taken into account, the number of years of life en- 
 joyed by the assurers would appear to be greatly increased. This 
 
 f 2 
 
36 
 
 strengthens the objection, which we have before urged to the com- 
 bination of policies with lives assured. The materials have been 
 arranged with great skill so as to exhibit various important results. 
 The Combined Town Experience, which includes the Amicable 
 Tables (liable, however, to the same objection which we have ven- 
 tured to offer on the combination of the Equitable tables), com- 
 prises 48,702 assurances ; whilst the total experience of all the 
 offices is exhibited in another Table, comprising the large number 
 of 83,905 assurances. This number would be ample to afford most 
 important and interesting results, and more than sufficient for a 
 guide to the operations of future societies, if the duration of the 
 offices had allowed of any judgment being formed of the maximum 
 of mortality, to which the societies might hereafter be subject. The 
 observations, with which we began this letter, however, throw a 
 doubt on the present value of these returns for any immediate pur- 
 pose of practical utility ; since, laying on one side the Tables of the 
 Equitable and Amicable Societies, which had been previously 
 printed, and from their different method of compilation, are clearly 
 more fitted for separate examination, ten out of the fifteen remain- 
 ing companies, which contributed their experience, had been formed 
 within twenty years preceding the. date of these enquiries. The 
 causes of death would also have formed an interesting subject of 
 enquiry, especially as some offices are now undertaking the risks of 
 diseased and unhealthy lives ; but the lists were too deficient to 
 allow of any classification being made. The average duration of 
 the policies in nearly one-half of the experience was only five and a 
 half years, and including that of the Equitable and Amicable toge- 
 ther, not eight years and a half. The returns made by the British 
 Commercial and the Sun were confined to assurances on Irish lives. 
 The observations on these extend to 27 years from admission, 
 whilst those of the other companies were for 23 years only. 
 
 From all these observations, some unexpected results were ob- 
 tained. 1st. It has been generally assumed, that the salubrity of 
 the country air, and the freedom from the excitement, anxieties, 
 confinement in close situations of business, and other evils, incident 
 to a residence in large towns, were favourable to a greater 
 longevity : — yet the mortality annually at all ages taken together is 
 less in town assurances than in those in the country. 2ndly. 
 
37 
 
 Female lives from the experience of the Government Annuity 
 Office and other sources of information, were always judged to 
 be of longer duration than male lives ; — yet the mortality among 
 assured females is greater than that amongst males ; and 3rdly, as 
 might probably have been suspected, the mortality amongst 
 Irish lives is greater than that either amongst town or country as- 
 surances, and very nearly approaches at all ages taken together, to 
 within 5 per cent, of the Northampton Table ; so long and so 
 loudly decried, as proving by its exorbitant charges, the never- 
 failing source of wealth and profits to the older companies. Under 
 the age of 60 the Irish assurances exhibit a mortality rather less 
 than that of the Northampton Tables ; at every age above 60, the 
 mortality is greater amongst these assurances. The number of 
 Irish male lives assured was 8391 ; of females, 845 ; being about 
 the same proportion as in the other Tables stated above. 
 
 The Tables are not sufficient to exhibit the increasing mortality 
 in years from admission, as we have previously given those of the 
 Equitable and Amicable Society ; but the following summary is 
 presented to show the value of the enquiries, as far as they have 
 been conducted, and the interesting character of the facts which 
 have been brought together. 
 
 TABLE III. 
 
 Showing the mortality in Decennial periods of age, according to the 
 Experience of Seventeen Life Assurance Companies. 
 
 
 
 TOWN 
 
 , COUNTRY. & IRISH COMBINED. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 IRISI 
 
 MALE AND 
 
 ONLY, 
 
 
 MALES. 
 
 FEMALES. 
 
 FEMALE. 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 Ji . 
 
 cu 
 
 M 
 
 
 Js 
 
 V 
 
 M 
 
 CO 
 
 
 -s . 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 Is 
 
 
 
 ■3 . 
 
 CO 
 
 "eS 
 
 
 8 
 
 en 
 
 M 
 
 a 
 
 
 ll 
 
 — 
 
 "3 
 
 O) o 
 
 05 
 
 si 
 
 II 
 
 ■ 
 3 
 
 
 >» 
 
 II 
 
 s 
 
 5 
 
 I! 
 
 u 
 
 73 
 
 
 
 X. 
 
 
 s o. 
 
 
 *t~ 
 
 
 3 g. 
 
 M 
 
 K^ 
 
 
 s c- 
 
 ^, 
 
 
 
 B"3 
 
 •< 
 
 11 
 
 m 
 
 * o 
 
 < 
 
 fl 
 
 0> 
 
 «% 
 
 e 
 
 Is 
 
 c3 
 
 1/ 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 Q 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 Q 
 
 d 
 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 Q 
 
 10 under 
 
 20 
 
 2375 
 
 19 
 
 25 
 
 15 
 
 M0 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 281 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 20 „ 
 
 30 
 
 19101 
 
 166 
 
 307 
 
 151 
 
 2009 
 
 33 
 
 32 
 
 16 
 
 2703 
 
 44 
 
 44 
 
 22 
 
 30 „ 
 
 40 
 
 00813 
 
 604 
 
 1138 
 
 641 
 
 3S70 
 
 61 
 
 72 
 
 41 
 
 11285 
 
 162 
 
 212 
 
 120 
 
 40 „ 
 
 50 
 
 61646 
 
 900 
 
 1457 
 
 878 
 
 5387 
 
 85 
 
 129 
 
 77 
 
 1550 i 
 
 333 
 
 369 
 
 221 
 
 r>o „ 
 
 60 
 
 3c>054 
 
 916 
 
 1240 
 
 679 
 
 5207 
 
 115 
 
 172 
 
 95 
 
 13240 
 
 425 
 
 436 
 
 241 
 
 oo „ 
 
 70 
 
 15094 
 
 63 1 
 
 705 
 
 590 
 
 3223 
 
 119 
 
 153 
 
 128 
 
 7176 
 
 349 
 
 339 
 
 284 
 
 7(J „ 
 
 80 
 
 2420 
 
 199 
 
 193 
 
 171 
 
 642 
 
 56 
 
 51 
 
 47 
 
 1363 
 
 124 
 
 108 
 
 100 
 
 80 „ 
 
 90 
 
 8 J 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 19 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 41 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 90, &c. 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 199620 
 
 3451 
 
 5081 
 
 3321 
 
 21167 
 
 477 
 
 621 
 
 412 
 
 51599 
 
 1446 
 
 i520 
 
 998 
 
 
 
 
 1.000 
 
 1.472 
 
 .91; 
 
 
 1.000 
 
 1.302 
 
 .864 
 
 
 1000 
 
 1.051 
 
 .690 
 
38 
 
 By the following Tables, it will appear, that the mean duration 
 of life amongst the town and country assurances, is nearly the 
 same, though the difference is slightly in favour of the former. 
 The Irish Table comprises both male and female lives. 
 
 TABLE IV. 
 
 Showing the mean duration of life according to the Experience of Seventeen 
 Life Assurance Companies. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Males. 
 
 Females. 
 
 Town. 
 
 Country. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Northampton 
 
 20 
 
 39.84 
 
 35.86 
 
 41.22 
 
 40.33 
 
 34.95 
 
 33.43 
 
 30 
 
 33.17 
 
 31.73 
 
 34.84 
 
 34.20 
 
 29.71 
 
 28.27 
 
 40 
 
 26.06 
 
 26.36 
 
 27.53 
 
 27.38 
 
 23.36 
 
 23.08 
 
 50 
 
 19.41 
 
 20.05 
 
 20.58 
 
 20.48 
 
 17.76 
 
 17.99 
 
 60 
 
 13.47 
 
 13.78 
 
 14.23 
 
 14.03 
 
 12.67 
 
 13.21 
 
 70 
 
 8.34 
 
 7.93 
 
 8.61 
 
 8.48 
 
 7.92 <| 8.60 
 
 TABLE V. 
 
 Showing the annual number of deaths out of 10,000 persons living at each 
 age in Decennial periods of age, according to the Experience of Seventeen 
 Life Assurance Companies. 
 
 Ages. 
 
 Males. 
 
 Females. 
 
 Town. 
 
 Country. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 20 to 30 
 
 899 
 
 1677 
 
 922 
 
 1008 
 
 1479 
 
 30 " 40 
 
 976 
 
 1572 
 
 863 
 
 1030 
 
 1387 
 
 40 " 50 
 
 1482 
 
 1575 
 
 1257 
 
 1308 
 
 2157 
 
 50 " 60 
 
 2521 
 
 2238 
 
 2120 
 
 2101 
 
 3283 
 
 60 " 70 
 
 4453 
 
 3984 
 
 3936 
 
 3917 
 
 5063 
 
 70 " 80 
 
 10181 
 
 11859 
 
 9310 
 
 10568 
 
 10981 
 
 This Table may be compared with one, given in the last com- 
 munication on the same subject, containing the results of the 
 Equitable, and Amicable experience, and the proportion of deaths 
 by the Northampton Table between the same ages. By the 
 comparison it will be perceived, that, in spite of the short duration 
 of the offices previous to the end of the observations, the 
 mortality in each class exceeded that by the Equitable Tables up 
 to the age of 60, and was much higher again above 70 ; that the 
 mortality amongst females up to the same age, considerably exceeds 
 that, either by the Equitable, or the Amicable Tables, except by 
 the latter between 50 and 60, and though the mortality amongst 
 females is greatly diminished between 60 and 70, it again rises at 
 the older ages much beyond the rate in the two Tables mentioned ; 
 and that the mortality amongst Irish assurances, at each interval of 
 age below 60, exceeds that of the Equitable Society by 50 per 
 cent, on the deaths. It must be borne in mind, too, that the 
 
39 
 
 observations on these latter assurances have, one with another, 
 extended only over a period of 25 years. If the arguments, by 
 which, at the commencement of this letter, it was shown, that the 
 mortality will probably continue increasing for nearly double that 
 period, be well considered, it will appear clear that the offices, 
 which have been recently extending their business in this class of 
 assurances, will either have to form a separate fund for them as for 
 a special risk, with proportionate higher premiums, or will, we 
 fear, as in most of the other concerns of that ill-fated country, 
 have to provide for the claims at the expense of the English 
 proprietors and members. 
 
 The collection of facts, which we have thus briefly described, is 
 extremely interesting ; and if it be looked upon as an instalment of 
 future information,orthe publication, as an example to be followed by 
 other companies, whose longer experience will add to their practical 
 value, the public will have cause to be grateful for the labour and 
 skill, thus gratuitously bestowed for the advancement of their 
 interests. Every good, however, may be abused till it becomes an 
 evil. If the publication of these observations, manifestly im- 
 perfect as they are, and as even fresh additions to them must 
 continue for many years to come, and ill-adapted as they are to 
 afford deductions of theories, by which any extensive public com- 
 pany ought to be regulated, is used as the means of exciting the 
 public to look for increasing profits at reduced rates, or to set up, 
 as a standard rate of mortality for all the future, the experience of 
 little more than twenty years, the mischief may exceed the benefit 
 they are calculated to produce. The Committee of Actuaries 
 themselves, men celebrated in their profession, whose judgment, 
 skill, and complete acquaintance with the subject in question, 
 entitle their opinion to the greatest credit, have, with the fear of 
 this misapplication before their eyes, given a very judicious 
 warning against the hasty adaptation of these facts to practical 
 purposes ; yet, in spite of this weighty advice, some companies 
 have already advertised Tables of Premiums, deduced from the 
 observations, with a margin which appears to us scarcely sufficient 
 to cover the fluctuations of the early mortality of a society, much 
 less the increase, which we have shown, may be reasonably 
 expected in a few years. 
 
 In public companies, the responsibilities of which are deferred to 
 
40 
 
 so distant a period, and in which the consequences of an imprudent 
 commencement will be felt, not by the present, but by some future 
 generations — companies, in which so many millions of capital are 
 invested, and the failure of which would lead to unequalled 
 depression and misery in classes of society the least qualified to 
 bear it, widows and orphans left destitute by their fall — it has been 
 debated, whether government ought not to interfere to ensure for 
 the public the safety at least, to which they are entitled, if not the 
 fulfilment of all the promises, by which they have been allured. 
 The interference of government in commercial concerns has not 
 often been happy. The supply of the commodities, luxuries, and 
 all the other requirements of mankind, is better adjusted, in pro- 
 portion to the demand, by the self-interest, which is prompt to 
 discover the wants of society, and hastens to provide for them. 
 If they should even be anticipated, and the miscalculating speculator 
 be deceived by false information, or suffer loss by error in 
 judgment, the detriment to the country generally is but small ; 
 since others have perhaps discovered the right direction of the 
 public will, and have profited by it in their stead. If, therefore, a 
 number of societies have sprung up to take advantage of the new 
 impulse of the nation's mind towards a prudent provision for the 
 future, when the excitement caused by the ardour of competition 
 has ceased, the sobered judgment of the public will discern the 
 steady companies, to whom they can trust the future welfare of their 
 families, from the ephemeral and mushroom enterprises of 
 speculators, who, by high sounding titles, and varnished tales, fill 
 the ear of the greedy aspirer after gain, whilst they profit by his 
 unsuspecting eagerness, to fill their own pockets, ere they vanish 
 from the scene. 
 
 Although it may be a debateable point, whether the interposition 
 of government would be of any avail to check the career of 
 imprudence, unless the good sense of the public (which, indeed, 
 would be sufficient without the assistance of authority), would 
 lend itself to their aid ; still there can be no doubt, that they are 
 bound, by all their professions of regard to the public interest, to 
 place at the disposal of the people all the information, that may be 
 in the possession of the state, likely to prove of service in 
 promoting such great national objects. In the Government 
 Annuity office, must be continually increasing collections of facts, 
 
41 
 
 which, if published in the form of the Tables, which we have already 
 examined, would throw great light on the many interesting topics 
 here discussed, and which many persons, interested in these 
 pursuits, have long endeavoured in vain to have rendered available 
 to the public in the simple form, by which alone they could be 
 made useful for comparison. The Tables, which were prepared by 
 Mr. Finlaison, the Government calculator, and ordered by the 
 House of Commons to be printed in 1829, contain observations on 
 the lives of Government Annuitants in several different classes, 
 and the elaborate calculations made from them are correct no doubt 
 to the ten millionth part of a pound, as they are printed ; but they 
 do not enable us to ascertain the rate of mortality at the same age 
 according to different periods from admission, or, in other words, to 
 trace the effect of selection on Tables of Mortality, formed from 
 Annuitants, in the same manner as those of the Equitable and 
 Amicable societies afford facilities for such enquiries amongst 
 Assured Lives. Without disparaging, therefore, that gentleman's 
 laborious services, the publication of the materials in some such 
 form would be a great boon to the public, for individuals might, 
 from the original facts, discover many peculiar laws, and form 
 comparisons, by which much light might be thrown on these 
 abstruse subjects, and society be greatly benefited by the result. 
 It is not beyond the province of our rulers to afford every support 
 to those better feelings of our nature, which it was the original 
 object of assurance companies to foster and promote. It is the 
 duty of every government to check, as far as possible, that cold 
 and sordid selfishness which fixes all its thoughts on the enjoyment 
 of the present, and to bring into repute instead, that prudence, 
 foresight, and self-denial, which by a provident regard for the 
 future, would, at some cost to ourselves, improve the condition and 
 increase the happiness of those who are destined to succeed us. 
 These are virtues, which deserve encouragement ; for whilst they 
 adorn the lives of individuals, they elevate the character of a 
 people, and when they are wanting, the painful example of a 
 neighbouring kingdom is unfortunately too near at hand to prove 
 to us, that the happiness, the dignity, and the independence of the 
 nation may perish too. I am, Sir, your obedient servant, 
 
 London, Nov. 17, 1847. CRITO. 
 
 G 
 
42 
 
 ON THE MORTALITY IN INDIA. 
 
 EUROPEAN OFFICERS AND CIVILIANS. 
 
 * Letter 1. 
 
 To the Editor of The Post Magazine. 
 
 Sir, — A century and a half has not yet elapsed, since a company 
 of merchants, with a capital of £30,000 divided into 101 shares, 
 set foot upon a land then little known, with the purposes of legiti- 
 mate traffic and peaceful trade. Their first adventure consisted of 
 the cargoes of five ships in merchandise and bullion, and the result 
 was encouraging. In 1611, they obtained from the Mogul permis- 
 sion to establish factories in four different places. Since then, 
 possession has been added to possession, and one kingdom has suc- 
 cumbed after another, till the territory of this company of princely 
 merchants is computed to comprise above 600,000 square miles, and 
 their sway to extend over 80 millions of inhabitants ; besides allies 
 and tributaries,who may number 50 millions more. Such an empire, 
 obtained by means so moderate, and with a rapidity of conquest 
 
 * This and the three following Letters on the Mortality and Sickness of 
 Europeans and Natives in our Indian territories, contain merely a com- 
 pilation of the principal facts which have been collected on this subject, 
 reduced to the same standard of comparison, and showing only the results, 
 clear of the multitude of figures, which will be found in the original Tables. 
 Reference is, therefore, made to the different works in which these Tables 
 are given at large, that the reader who desires to prosecute the subject may 
 turn to the authorities quoted. The writer was led to the comparison of 
 these data by a few observations and some enquiries addressed to him in a 
 private letter from a Medical Officer at Madras, and conceived that it might 
 be convenient to many actuaries to be able to turn at once to a general 
 summary of facts relating to this subject. They may be useful for the 
 present ; but he sincerely hopes, for the advancement of science, and the 
 interests of the public, that the valuable collection of documents, extracted 
 with immense labour from the books of the East India Company, and in the 
 possession of Mr. Neison, whose important labours have been referred to in 
 the letters, may shortly be given to the world. They will, by their com- 
 pleteness, and the variety of information they afford, supersede all that has 
 yet been written respecting the mortality amongst both the Military and 
 Civil Officers of the Company, together with the effects of the climate on 
 the male and female constitution. The services which Mr. Neison has 
 already rendered to the cause of statistical science, have been acknowledged 
 by those from whom praise would come with greater weight than from the 
 present writer, and the practical usefulness of such a publication would be 
 only another proof of the talents and industry of that gentleman, by which 
 society has already profited so largely. 
 
43 
 
 so unheard of, is unexampled in history, and for its acquisition re- 
 quired that desperate enthusiasm in the instruments, which prompts 
 men to the boldest and most hopeless enterprises, without counting 
 the cost, or hazarding a thought of defeat. India was a world of 
 romance — a region of enchantment — an El-dorado,where the dreams 
 of the most extravagant avarice, or the most unbridled ambition, 
 might be alike realized. No doubt, in the early part of the history 
 of our successes there, some such feeling as animated the Spaniards 
 to achieve, with a handful of adventurers, the conquest of the new 
 world, acted upon the stirring spirits of this country, and sent men 
 forth, dazzled with the brilliant career before them, and reckless of 
 life, to run a violent but rapid course of glory. No wonder that 
 during this period of excitement but little regard was paid to those 
 statistical enquiries, which would demonstrate the waste of life 
 with which these great advantages were obtained, or the amount of 
 physical sufferings which necessarily attended the employment of 
 Europeans in a climate to which they were not inured, and amidst 
 privations and distresses for which no sympathy was felt, and no 
 remedy proposed. These sufferings were the lot of thousands : 
 whilst the glory and the profit fell into the hands of a few. Of late 
 years, however, a great change has come over the minds of men, 
 and whilst national objects have been by no means neglected, more 
 attention has been paid to the health and comfort of the humbler 
 instruments by whom the destinies of kingdoms are reversed. It 
 is only within a very few years that enquiries have been made into 
 the sanatory condition and the mortality of the European and Native 
 troops in India ; and the few scattered notices which have appeared 
 are totally inadequate, at present, to give a general idea of the 
 varieties of climate to be encountered in the wide divisions of so 
 vast an empire. These inquiries have, however, awakened attention 
 to the subject, and are important, because, as will be seen, it is 
 almost entirely by the aid of military returns that we shall be en- 
 abled to form some judgment of the effect produced by the climate 
 of India on Europeans exposed to its influence, We propose to 
 bring together and examine such observations as have been already 
 made ; and by comparing the results with each other, the value of 
 the information acquired will be more readily perceived, and the 
 deficiencies to be hereafter supplied more easily pointed out. Inde- 
 
 g 2 
 
44 
 
 pendent of the important application of these results to purposes of 
 military economy, it will not fail to be seen that they are not less 
 interesting to those assurance companies which have either many of 
 their members exposed to such risks, or have it in contemplation to 
 extend their business into the wide sphere here opened to view. 
 Many, no doubt, under the guidance of the experienced and talented 
 men by whom their affairs are directed, have already procured 
 sufficient information to enable them to decide on these points ; but 
 to judge from the widely varied rates demanded for Indian risks, 
 either very different conclusions have been drawn from the same 
 facts, or they possess private intelligence, which, seeing the poverty 
 of our present information, they may be induced, for the interests 
 of science, to communicate to the public. This trifling con- 
 tribution to the general store, will not, in either case, be without 
 its use. 
 
 Amongst the most important Tables, are those published in the 
 Statistical Journal for May, 1847, drawn up by Colonel Sykes, to 
 whose indefatigable perseverance, liberal mind, and scientific attain- 
 ments, we are indebted for many other valuable papers, throwing 
 light on the peculiarities and internal economy of our vast Indian 
 Empire. The Reports by Colonel- Tulloch on the Sickness, Mor- 
 tality, and Invaliding of Her Majesty's troops serving in various 
 parts of the world, will ever remain memorials of skilful and 
 laborious research ; and the conclusions which he has drawn from 
 the facts, and their practical application as evinced in the improve- 
 ment, (where his suggestions have been put in force), of the health 
 and condition of the troops in so many of our colonies, and by the 
 alleviation of suffering and the diminution of mortality, of which 
 they have been the proximate cause, will add to his name as a man 
 of intellect and science, the still nobler title of friend of humanity. 
 The report which, on this subject,we shall have more particularly to 
 notice, is that on i% The Sickness, Mortality, and Invaliding amongst 
 Her Majesty's troops serving in Ceylon, the Tenasserim provinces, 
 and the Burman Empire." Other notices on this subject will be 
 found scattered in the pages of the Statistical Journal ; in Annesley 
 on the Diseases of India, and in papers by Mr. Edmonds, Mr. 
 Woolhouse, and other writers. All the documents, however, which 
 have yet been published, are only trifling contributions on this very 
 
45 
 
 important topic ; but, as it will be seen that some of the following 
 Tables are drawn from the records of the East India Company, 
 there must exist in their possession collections of facts, from which 
 the Statistical Department lately established, will be enabled to 
 supply the serious deficiencies, and correct the numerous errors to 
 which the vague sources of information at present existing must 
 undoubtedly be liable. Time will be required to bring together 
 and collate the immense stores of information which lie buried in 
 the Reports and Documents, laid by amongst their archives, and 
 which will probably be brought to light by the establishment 
 of this new branch of their official business : but it is difficult 
 to over estimate the importance of its formation, both for the 
 interests of science, and the future advantage of India and this 
 country. 
 
 In order to simplify the subject as much as possible, we propose 
 to divide it into two parts : — 1st. The Mortality amongst Europeans, 
 whether military or civil, in the three Presidencies ; and 2nd. The 
 Mortality in the Native army, in the three Presidencies, arranged 
 in the same periods of service as those of the European troops, so 
 as to examine and compare it with that amongst Europeans, placed 
 under similar circumstances, bringing together in the course of the 
 investigation any other notices which will throw light on these 
 enquiries. In order to save space, we shall merely present the 
 results of the observations, reduced to the same standard, since any 
 reader, desiring to pursue the subject further, will, of course, avail 
 himself of the sources of information to which we refer, and will 
 there find the original collections of facts. 
 
 A return made to an order of the House of Commons in 1846, 
 represented the total military force employed in India as follows : — 
 
 Return of the total strength of Her Majesty's Troops, Cavalry and Infantry, 
 in each of the Three Presidencies of India, on 1st May, 1845. 
 
 
 BENGAL. 
 
 MADRAS. 
 
 BOMBAY. 
 
 TOTAL. 
 
 
 Cavalry. 
 
 Infantry 
 
 Cavalry. 
 
 Infantry 
 
 Cavalry. 
 
 Tnfantry 
 
 
 European Officers . . 
 Non-commissioned, 1 
 rank and file . . J 
 
 70 
 1959 
 
 367 
 11117 
 
 34 
 721 
 
 264 
 7313 
 
 32 
 694 
 
 196 
 5345 
 
 963 
 27149 
 
46 
 
 Return of the strength of the European and Native Corps of the Regular 
 Indian Armies, on 1st May, 1845. 
 
 European Officers 3,151 
 
 .. Ditto Non-commissioned, Rank and File 11,115 
 
 Native Commissioned, Non-commissioned, and Rank and File . . 235,684 
 
 But ^f nee then we have been favoured with the copy of a Return, 
 which brings down the number to October, 1845 ; and by which it 
 will be seen that an increase had been made in all ranks : — 
 
 
 Bengal. 
 
 Madras. 
 
 Bombay. 
 
 Total. 
 
 European Officers 
 
 Ditto, Non-commissioned and ) 
 
 Rank and File j 
 
 Native Commissioned, Non-com- ) 
 
 missioned, and Rank and File . / 
 
 2,846 
 19,175 
 
 133,586 
 
 1,736 
 12,016 
 
 63,447 
 
 973 
 7,948 
 
 43,322 
 
 5,555 
 39,139 
 
 240,355 
 
 
 155,607 
 
 77,199 
 
 52,243 
 
 285,049 
 
 The mortality amongst officers and civilians in the three presi- 
 dencies, will first engage our attention, and, for this purpose, we 
 must turn to a very valuable paper, by Mr. Edmonds, published in 
 the Lancet of 23rd June, 1838. The Tables which he gives, are 
 drawn from the East India Registers for 20 years, from 1809 to 
 1828 inclusive. These registers contain the name and rank of 
 every officer, and of the regiment to which he is attached, if living, 
 and the date of his death, if deceased. They afford, therefore, 
 ample materials for the deduction of the mortality in the different 
 ranks. The ages of the officers are not stated ; but as the appoint- 
 ment of cadets is fixed to be made between the ages of 16 and 18, 
 it is found, that the average age at which they arrive in India, is 
 within a very small fraction of 18, and which it is therefore quite 
 sufficient to assume as the commencement of Indian experience. 
 Lieutenants must have resided three years longer in order to attain 
 that rank ; and captains may be reckoned to have been in the country 
 12 or 13 years on an average. It has frequently been asserted 
 and believed, that the effects of climate were so fatal on the first 
 introduction to the country, as to level the distinctions of age, and 
 raise the mortality of the young to that of the old. It will be seen, 
 however, by inspection of the Table, that the mortality increases 
 with the rank, and consequently with the age, in the same manner, 
 though not at the same rate, as that of similar classes in this coun- 
 try. The mortality amongst officers of infantry exceeds that of 
 
47 
 
 cavalry or engineers, and amongst medical men, that of the average 
 of military officers of all ranks. In order to afford a comparison 
 drawn from another source, a column is subjoined, showing the 
 mortality amongst the same class, proved by an investigation ijiade 
 by the Secretary of the Bengal Government, and quoted by Colonel 
 Tulloch in the Statistical Journal for November, 1838, containing 
 out of 1184 deaths of officers, in the Presidency of Bengal, the num- 
 ber who died per cent, of each rank. The average age of different 
 ranks of officers are here given; Lieutenants 18 to 33, Captains 36, 
 Majors 40, Lieutenant- Colonels 51, Colonels 61. Mr. Griffith 
 Davies, however, by a more minute calculation, fixes the average 
 ages of officers in Bengal, as follows : — Ensigns 19, Lieutenants 26, 
 Captains 37, Majors 48, Lieutenant-Colonels 51. 
 
 TABLE I. 
 
 Showing the average annual mortality per cent, amongst different ranks of 
 Officers in the Three Presidencies, as given by Edmonds, and the same 
 for Bengal from Prinsep's observations. 
 
 Ensigns . 
 Lieutenants 
 Captains . 
 Majors 
 
 EDMONDS' TABLES. 
 
 Avemge annual mortality per cent, of 
 Officers, during 20 years, 1809 to 1828. 
 
 Average 
 Aee. 
 
 19 
 26 
 37 
 
 48 
 
 All the above ranks . . . 
 Same of Cavalry and Artillery 
 Lieutenant-Colonels \ « , 
 Colonels . . . . J acc ' ' 
 Assistant Surgeons .... 
 Surgeons ..,...• 
 Civil Servants under 45 . . 
 " above 45 . . 
 
 Bengal, 
 
 2.95 
 2.80 
 3.48 
 4.10 
 
 3.05 
 2.13 
 
 4.67 
 
 3.21 
 3.84 
 2.02 
 498 
 
 Madras. Bombay 
 
 3.60 
 4.39 
 4.53 
 
 4.88 
 
 3.37 
 4.05 
 4.14 
 
 4.98 
 
 4.32 
 3.61 
 
 4.94 
 
 4.45 
 4.54 
 1.94 
 5.13 
 
 4.02 
 3.41 
 
 5.75 
 
 4.29 
 4.04 
 2.73 
 5.92 
 
 Total. 
 
 3.26 
 3.58 
 3.98 
 4.53 
 
 3.67 
 
 2.85 
 
 4.95 
 
 3.79 
 4.13 
 2.10 
 5.14 
 
 PRLNSEP. 
 
 Deaths 
 
 per cent. 
 
 per annum 
 
 amongst 
 
 Officers. 
 
 Bengal. 
 
 2.34 
 2.75 
 3.45 
 4.10 
 
 4.84 
 5.94 
 
 From an examination of this Table, it will appear, that the most 
 healthy locality for officers is the Presidency of Bengal : Bombay 
 ranks next in salubrity ; and the greatest mortality of all ranks of 
 officers up to Majors prevails in the Presidency of Madras ; but 
 amongst Majors and the Civil Servants the mortality is greatest in 
 the Presidency of Bombay. It is generally supposed, that the mor- 
 tality of officers bears a certain fixed proportion, about one third 
 
48 
 
 less than that of private soldiers. On the average of all the stations 
 (with the exception of Sierra Leone), enumerated in Colonel Tul- 
 loch's reports, this proportion was ascertained to be as 12 to 19 per 
 1000; but we shall be able hereafter to consider this point more 
 conveniently when we examine the mortality of European troops in 
 India. It may be mentioned, however, that the proportion will 
 probably be found higher in India since the officers have not the 
 same opportunities and facilities of returning home as in other 
 countries. 
 
 The requirements of assurance companies have led gentlemen, 
 connected with these pursuits, to take the lead in investigations, 
 which are capable of far more general application than to the 
 immediate purposes for which they have been prosecuted. Medical 
 science and political economy are alike benefited by their labours. 
 In addition to Mr. Edmonds' valuable observations, we have other 
 Tables drawn from similar sources, one by Mr. Woolhouse, from the 
 " Alphabetical List of officers in the Indian army with the dates 
 of their respective promotion, retirement, resignation or death, 
 whether in India or Europe, from the year 1760 to 1834 inclusive, 
 corrected to Sept. 30, 1837," published by Dodwell and Miles ; and 
 another by Mr. Christie, which he introduced in a paper read before 
 the Statistical Society in 1838; and which was printed in the 
 volume of their proceedings for that year. Mr. Woolhouse has 
 assumed, as before, the age of cadets to be 18 when first brought 
 under observation. 
 
 The total number of officers who died or were withdrawn from 
 observation was : 
 
 Bengal 6,017 
 
 Madras ..... 4,260 
 
 Bombay 2,003 
 
 Total. . . 12,280 
 In his adjusted tables of observation, he has united the two 
 latter Presidencies, partly because the numbers for Bengal differed 
 materially from those of Madras and Bombay, when the two latter 
 are separated, and are nearly equal when they are united; and 
 partly because the numbers for Bombay alone were too few to claim 
 confidence in their value as a separate experience, and because on 
 examination he found the facts observed in the two latter Presi- 
 dencies, led to very similar results. It should be mentioned, how- 
 
49 
 
 ever, that this conclusion is different from that to be drawn from 
 the Table given above, and from that of the general mortality of the 
 European armies, as we shall see hereafter. 
 
 Some very useful Tables have been presented in the reports of 
 Mr. Griffith Davies, on the Bengal Medical Retiring Fund in 1839, 
 and on the Bengal Military Fund in 1844. The former contains a 
 table by the late Robert Richards, of the mortality amongst 
 Military and Medical officers at Bombay, annually from 1789 to 
 1821. The mortality amongst the Military officers for the average 
 of 33 years, being 3.54 per cent., and amongst Medical officers 
 4.40 per cent. Mr. Davies assumes an increase of 1 per cent, at 
 each age, on the Table of Mortality amongst the Military in India, 
 given by Mr. Christie (and prepared from data furnished to him by 
 Captain Henderson) as applicable for a Life Table of Medical 
 officers only. In the second report named above, Mr. Davies con- 
 siders, that he might have formed a Table of Mortality from the 
 experience of the contributors to the Fund, but for certain reasons 
 he preferred collecting the data from the list of the Bengal army 
 then recently published by Messrs. Dodwell and Miles, the same 
 source as the Table of Mr. Woolhouse. The total number of lives 
 observed was 6,017, who must have all entered the service at the 
 assumed age of 18^ years. The data with regard to the wives of 
 members, furnished to him in the documents forwarded, were not 
 sufficient to compute from them the interesting table, which more 
 complete observations hereafter may perhaps afford. He has there- 
 fore given a table, showing the mortality amongst the wives of 
 members, drawn from a similar table, which he had prepared in 
 1839, for the Madras Military Fund. With regard, however, to 
 the widows of members, the documents supplied sufficient inform- 
 ation from the record of 500 widows to enable him to draw up a 
 very important table, showing the rate of mortality and of re- 
 marriages in this class. The Expectation of life amongst them is 
 almost as high as that of the Government Annuity Tables for 
 females, as prepared by Mr. Finlaison. 
 
 The materials for another valuable Table, prepared by Mr. 
 Christie in 1836, were obtained in consequence of an application to 
 continue a policy of assurance, commenced in India, on more favour- 
 able rates on account of the return of the assurer to England, on his 
 
 H 
 
50 
 
 retirement from the service. To most of his enquiries, it was sug- 
 gested in reply, that the Northampton Table would, under such 
 circumstances, afford a fair rate for the depreciation of health, 
 which the climate of India might have effected on the constitution ; 
 but having obtained permission to search the records of the India 
 House for further information, he extracted a list of all the officers, 
 who had retired from the Indian army, between the years 1760 and 
 1836. All medical and clerical gentlemen were excluded, as it was 
 difficult to ascertain their ages. The number of lives observed was 
 930. Beyond the age of 82, he has adopted the Carlisle Table. The 
 deductions are interesting, both to Europeans serving in India, and 
 to their numerous friends, to whom the cheering conclusions he 
 arrives at, may be made known. He found that, though these lives 
 are subject to greater mortality than the selected lives of the Equit- 
 able Society, or to that of the -Carlisle Table, they are considerably 
 superior to those represented by the Northampton Table. Whatever 
 credit may be due to the prudence of individuals, who withdraw from 
 a climate injurious to health, before its effects are made manifest on 
 the constitution, it is still satisfactory to know, that those who 
 escape are not, as a body, so injured by its insalubrity as has been 
 generally supposed. In the following Table will be found a com- 
 parison of all the observations which have been above enumerated , 
 and to which I beg to draw the reader's particular attention, as 
 bringing into one view the results of the most authentic information, 
 which. has hitherto been obtained on this subject. 
 
 TABLE II. 
 
 Showing the proportion of deaths out of 100 persons living at each age, 
 according to different observations. 
 
 
 MR. GRIFFITH DAVIES' 
 
 woolhouse's 
 
 MR. CHRISTIE'S 
 
 
 PRIN- 
 
 
 
 TABLES. 
 
 TABLE. 
 
 TABLES. 
 
 c 
 
 
 h 
 
 
 
 SEP. 
 
 pa 
 cs 
 -< 
 
 is 
 
 B 
 
 pq 
 
 "c3 :-" 
 
 o 
 m 6 
 
 Is 
 
 * 
 
 ■a 
 
 »,5o 
 
 •-. 3 > 
 
 1 ra 
 
 .1 *£ 
 
 3*33 
 
 3.2 a 
 
 <• « 2 
 
 13 
 
 bo 
 a 
 a> 
 
 n 
 
 •0 
 e . 
 
 d £ 
 
 d 
 OS c! 
 
 •- a 
 
 T3 
 
 I! 
 
 h 
 
 Military Officers in 
 ndia, on an average of 
 all the Presidencies, 
 apt. Henderson'* data 
 
 5 
 
 a 
 t. 
 
 si 
 
 ■"• CO 
 CO 
 
 |s 
 
 cod 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t-i u 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Males 
 
 Femls 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20.29 
 
 27.26 
 
 10 95 
 
 10.78 
 
 70.52 
 
 34.30 
 
 9.50 
 
 27.35 
 
 33.13 
 
 10.96 
 
 30.54 
 
 15.61 
 
 20.39 
 
 30.39 
 
 31.10 
 
 15.61 
 
 1 1.31 
 
 28.40 
 
 38.75 
 
 15.61 
 
 31.29 
 
 39.03 
 
 12.84 
 
 35.55 
 
 18.58 
 
 20.16 
 
 40.49 
 
 37.79 
 
 22.41 
 
 12.16 
 
 22.70 
 
 40.01 
 
 22 39 
 
 38.81 
 
 47.13 
 
 17.64 
 
 49.13 
 
 23.79 
 
 35.20 
 
 50.59 
 
 47.88 
 
 31.65 
 
 14.82 
 
 17.02 
 
 42.39 
 
 31.66 
 
 48.90 
 
 38.15 
 
 28.13 
 
 46.40 
 
 33.21 
 
 41.40 
 
 60.69 
 
 61.85 
 
 46.80 
 
 26.31 
 
 26.31 
 
 49.54 
 
 46.80 
 
 73.75 
 
 54.16 
 
 46.77 
 
 65.20 
 
 49.07 
 
 
 70.79 
 
 92.77 
 
 88.55 
 
 66.37 
 
 66.37 
 
 92.52 
 
 88 55 
 
 113.33 
 
 103.39 
 
 93.36 
 
 138.34 
 
 91.88 
 
 
51 
 
 The very close approximation under the age of 60, between the 
 Tables of Mortality of the Bengal Military Officers, prepared by Mr. 
 Griffith Davies and Mr. Woolhouse, is no more than might be 
 expected, as they have been formed from the same publication ; but 
 it affords a satisfactory proof of the care and accuracy with which 
 both Tables have been constructed. Above the age of 60, it is 
 probable that the facts were too few to be available without correc- 
 tion, and the different methods pursued may account for the varia- 
 tion after that age. The probabilities of dying at each age, 
 according to the original observations given in the appendix to Mr. 
 Griffith Davies' Report, will be found to approach much more 
 nearly than in the corrected Table to those given by Mr. Wool- 
 house. 
 
 Mr. Davies' Table of the Mortality in the Military and Medical 
 Departments in Madras (Male Life) will be found to show generally 
 a somewhat lower rate of mortality than that of Mr. Woolhouse. 
 The rate of mortality amongst Female Lives, as given by the 
 former, under the same head, is precisely the same, (except a slight 
 diminution between the ages 20 to 29,) as that of the Wives of 
 Military officers in Bengal ; which was no doubt considered to be 
 sufficiently near to actual experience to serve for the calculations 
 relating to the Fund. The rate of mortality between the same 
 ages, according to the Northampton Table, has been added for 
 comparison, because that Table is still used by several of the Assu* 
 ranee Companies, and many others which profess to charge the 
 assurer very low rates of premium, do, by means of loading the 
 original Table with a heavy per-centage to cover the expenses and 
 afford the probability of profits, approach very nearly in their rates 
 to those deduced from the Northampton Table. But it may be 
 desirable also to compare the increased rate of mortality from the 
 climate of India with the actual Experience of Life Assurance 
 Offices in this country, which we noticed in the preceding letter. 
 For this purpose we must take the actual facts observed in the 
 Actuaries' Tables, because their Adjusted Table G comprises 
 the lives of Females, and the greater part of the Tables of 
 Mortality in India, which we have examined, refer only to Male 
 Lives. 
 
 h 2 
 
52 
 
 TABLE III. 
 
 Showing the excess of Mortality in India, out of 100 persons (Males) living 
 at every Age, above that of Assured Male Lives, according to the Expe- 
 rience of the Life Assurance Companies. 
 
 
 Expe- 
 rience 
 
 Davies. 
 
 "WOOLHOUSE. 
 
 CHjaiSTIE. 
 
 PlUNCEP. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 of 17 
 Offices. 
 
 Bengal. 
 
 Madras. 
 
 Bengal. 
 
 Madras 
 
 and 
 Bombay. 
 
 The Three 
 Presiden- 
 cies. 
 
 Retired 
 Officers. 
 
 ! Civil 
 Servants. 
 
 20.29 
 
 9. 
 
 18.3 
 
 25.3 
 
 18.4 
 
 24.1 
 
 21.5 
 
 2. 
 
 11.4 
 
 30.39 
 
 9.8 
 
 21.3 
 
 29. 
 
 21.5 
 
 29.3 
 
 25.8 
 
 3.1 
 
 10.4 
 
 40.49 
 
 14.8 
 
 23 
 
 25.2 
 
 24. 
 
 32.3 
 
 25 3 
 
 2.8 
 
 20.4 
 
 50.59 
 
 25.2 
 
 22.7 
 
 17.2 
 
 23.7 
 
 12.9 
 
 11.2 
 
 2.9 
 
 16.2 
 
 60.69 
 
 44.5 
 
 17.3 
 
 5. 
 
 29.2 
 
 9.6 
 
 20.7 
 
 2.2 
 
 
 By this comparison it would appear, that out of an equal number of 
 persons existing at every age, the greatest excess of mortality 
 caused by the climate of India is generally between the ages 30 to 
 50, and according to Mr. Woolhouse's observations, that the excess 
 in the Madras and Bombay Presidencies under the age of 50 is one 
 third greater than in the Presidency of Bengal ; and that below the 
 age of 40, the excess of mortality amongst Military Officers will 
 generally be found more than double that of the Civil Servants of 
 the Company. Recommending this little Table to the more careful 
 examination of those who are interested in Life Assurance, we may 
 conclude this comparison by the following Table of the Mean 
 •Duration of Life amongst the classes compared in Mr. Davies' 
 Tables. 
 
 TABLE IV. 
 
 Showing the comparison of the Mean Duration of Life amongst Males and 
 Females in India. 
 
 Ages. 
 
 Madras 
 Military 
 Officers.' 
 
 Bengal 
 Military 
 Officers. 
 
 Wives 
 of ditto. 
 
 Widows 
 of ditto. 
 
 Mean 
 Duration of 
 Widowhood. 
 
 Northamp- 
 ton. 
 
 20 
 
 23.48 
 
 25.68 
 
 35.97 
 
 42.42 
 
 20.67 
 
 33.43 
 
 30 
 
 21.26 
 
 22.31 
 
 29.57 
 
 36.71 
 
 29.23 
 
 28.27 
 
 40 
 
 19.28 
 
 18.79 
 
 23.73 
 
 30.55 
 
 27.50 
 
 23.08 
 
 50 
 
 16.63 
 
 15.33 
 
 18.41 
 
 23.87 
 
 23.38 
 
 17.99 
 
 60 
 
 13.1 
 
 12. 
 
 13.57 
 
 16.89 
 
 16.89 
 
 13.21 
 
 70 
 
 8.56 
 
 8.53 
 
 8.86 
 
 10.40 
 
 10.40 
 
 8.60 
 
53 
 
 We proceed in the few following remarks to notice the mortality 
 of civilians in India. In all the British dominions, the mortality 
 amongst military men during times of peace is found to exceed that 
 of the civil population between the same ages in England. This 
 fact may perhaps be explained by considering that the greater part 
 of the troops are quartered, both for convenience and military 
 policy, in large towns and in localities, in which a much greater 
 amount of mortality will be found than the average of the country 
 at large, and the same causes, which would affect the health of the 
 inhabitants, may be supposed to influence in some degree also that 
 of the military quartered amongst them. Amongst the civilians of 
 India, as a body holding a rank which allows a better comparison 
 with military officers than the general population of a country, some 
 small allowance must be made, in consequence of a wider difference 
 being permitted in the ages of appointment ; but even this may be 
 assumed on an average only two years older than that of cadets, or one 
 with another to be 20 years of age. The following comparison will 
 shew a considerable difference in the mortality between the civil 
 and military population on their first arrival in India. It will 
 be perceived, that the rate of mortality amongst the latter con- 
 siderably exceeds that amongst the former, especially in the first 
 year, though their average ages are two years younger. 
 
 1st year of residence 
 
 2nd 
 
 3rd 
 
 4th 
 
 Civilians 
 Deaths per cent. 
 
 1.95 
 2.35 
 2. 
 2.2 
 
 Military 
 Deaths per cent. 
 
 3.19 
 2.45 
 2.55 
 
 2.48 
 
 From this it might be inferred that the effects of the climate on 
 young lives depend rather on the nature of the service than on the 
 age of arrival. It is to be hoped, however, and it is probable 
 that more recent observations would show a much nearer propor- 
 tion. In the following Table a considerable diminution of mortality 
 will be observed at the period of 10 and 15 years service. This 
 arises from the permission to return to Europe for 3 years, when 
 probably some of the more unhealthy lives are removed from obser- 
 vation. 
 
54 
 
 TABLE V. 
 
 Showing the average 
 
 Annual 
 
 Mortality per 
 
 cent, of each class amongst 
 
 
 
 Civil Servants in India. 
 
 
 
 Prinsep. 
 
 Edmonds. 
 
 Ages. 
 
 Bengal Presidency. 
 46 years to 1836. 
 
 20 years to 1823. 
 
 
 Years of Service. 
 
 Death per cent, 
 per annum. 
 
 Bengal. 
 
 Madras. 
 
 Bombay. 
 
 Total 
 
 20.25 
 
 1 
 
 to 5 
 
 1.99 
 
 2.30 
 
 1.03 
 
 2.74 
 
 2.07 
 
 25.30 
 30.35 
 
 5 
 10 
 
 
 2.08 \ 
 1.66/ 
 
 1.58 
 
 1.55 
 
 2.34 
 
 1.83 
 
 35.40 
 40.45 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 „ 20 
 „ 25 
 
 2.34 | 
 3.54/ 
 
 2.08 
 
 2.87 
 
 3.35 
 
 2.47 
 
 45.50 
 Above 50 
 
 25 
 30 
 
 „ 30 
 & up. 
 
 3.64 | 
 4.86/ 
 
 4.33 
 
 4.16 
 
 5.79 
 
 4.51 
 
 Above 55 
 
 
 
 
 6.40 
 
 7.33 
 
 6.45 
 
 6.65 
 
 
 At all 
 
 ages. 
 
 2.51 
 
 2.38 
 
 3.17 
 
 2.57 
 
 A few observations have been made, from which may be anticipated 
 
 the improvement, which may be expected in the general health 
 
 of officers serving in India, by an occasional transfer to the more 
 
 healthy stations, of which many exist, even in a country where the 
 
 general effects of the climate have been hitherto so disastrous. 
 
 The climate of the Neilgherrie Hills, for instance, is as temperate 
 
 as that of Great Britain, and the range of the thermometer even 
 
 less. Out of 147 sick officers treated between February, 1831 and 
 
 1834, only four died, which is at the rate of 2.7 per cent., whilst 
 
 the ordinary mortality of the troops in Great Britain is 1.57 per 
 
 cent, of strength annually, and that of the Foot-guards still higher, 
 
 being 2.16 per cent, annually. Until a greater number of facts be 
 
 collected, we must leave this subject for future consideration. We 
 
 will conclude with presenting our readers with the following 
 
 interesting Table, quoted from Mr. Griffith Davies' Report, showing 
 
 the difference existing between the mortality of single and married 
 
 officers. 
 
 Average Annual Mortality per cent, amongst Officers in the Bengal 
 Presidency, from 1824 to 1842. 
 
 Single. Married. 
 
 Colonels 7.02 ) 4.85 ) 
 
 Lieutenant-Colonels 6.38 [ 4.12 3.92 [ 3.75 
 
 Majors . 2.76) 2.96) 
 
 Captains 4.18) 2.55 
 
 Lieutenants 3.74 [ 3.76 2.86 \ 
 
 Ensigns 3.61 ) 1.59 
 
55 
 
 In the three following letters, it is intended to exhibit a com- 
 parison of the sanatory condition of the European forces, employed 
 in the three Presidencies of India, and, by what has already been 
 effected, to point out the improvement, of which their condition is 
 still susceptible. It has been too much the fashion to charge upon 
 Providence the evils,which the follies or vices of men have brought 
 upon themselves. The license of enjoyment, which strews the 
 path of life with the snares of death, is not to be attributed solely 
 to the difference of climate. The lives of men are more in 
 their own keeping, and, with a heavier responsibility, than they are 
 willing to admit, and when they have availed themselves, without 
 success, of the aids which their own common prudence or the 
 advancement of science can suggest to remedy the evils which 
 beset them, it will be time to complain of the neglect of govern- 
 ment or the decrees of unavoidable fate. 
 
 I am, Sir, your obedient servant, 
 
 CRITO. 
 
 London, December 7th, 1847. 
 
 EUROPEAN AND NATIVE . TROOPS. 
 
 Letter II. 
 To the Editor of The Post Magazine. 
 
 Sir, — The superior comforts and advantages enjoyed by officers 
 and civilians in India, naturally lead to the conclusion that the 
 mortality ascertained to prevail amongst these classes, as 
 examined in my last letter, should be greatly exceeded by the 
 mortality amongst the private soldiers of European regiments 
 stationed in that country. 
 
 In a country so widely extensive as our East Indian possessions, 
 comprehending plains, in one of which, that of the Ganges, 60 
 millions of inhabitants are said to be located ; and mountains, which 
 in some places rise to the height of 20,000 feet, all varieties of cli- 
 mate may be expected to exist. It is not intended to point out the 
 effect of different localities on the health of Europeans, further than 
 can be ascertained by the returns of the grand divisions of the country 
 into the three Presidencies, Bengal, Madras, and Bombay. In 
 the narrow space to which w« must here be confined, this distinction 
 
56 
 
 will be amply sufficient to prove the risks of mortality to which 
 European soldiers, as a body, are exposed ; and from the returns of 
 the Native troops, the vast saving of human life which is effected 
 by the employment of soldiers born to the climate. By examining 
 the various classes of diseases, to which these different bodies of 
 troops are subject, some interesting results have already been drawn, 
 and suggestions offered, which, if followed out, may hereafter lead 
 to most important changes, both in the provisioning and in the 
 distribution of the forces ; and perhaps tend to the same saving of 
 human life, which has been accomplished in her Majesty's troops, 
 serving in the West Indies. 
 
 The following observations only profess to be a compilation of 
 the most important facts, which have been collected by different 
 writers, or printed in the shape of Government Returns. I have 
 merely deemed it necessary to use the results, after reducing them 
 to the same standard for the purpose of comparison, because in this 
 form they will less distract attention by the multitude of figures, 
 and because whoever wishes to make a more thorough investigation, 
 will prefer to turn to the original papers, to which reference is 
 made. In the course of these enquiries, several interesting subjects 
 have been barely touched upon, such- as the prevailing classes of 
 diseases, or the healthiness or insalubrity of particular stations, to 
 which the attention of the medical officers in the Company's service 
 is beginning to be most usefully directed ; but which will require 
 time, talent, and persevering zeal to bring to a successful issue. It is 
 easy to collect information ; but it requires some plan and unity of 
 design to be able to combine for any useful purpose, under the 
 same heads, facts gathered from so wide a field of enquiry by the 
 labours of scientific men, with methods and views so differing from 
 each other. 
 
 In February, 1847, a very valuable return was made by the 
 Secretary of the East India Company to an order of trie House of 
 Commons, " showing the sickness, mortality, and invaliding in the 
 Hon. East India Company's armies in the Presidencies of Bengal, 
 Madras, and Bombay respectively, from 1825 to 1844 inclusive;" 
 distinguishing the ordinary deaths from deaths by cholera. To 
 this and the other documents referred to in the last letter, must be 
 added the admirable Prize Thesis by Arthur Saunders Thomson, 
 
57 
 
 M.D., entitled " Observations on the Influence of Climate on 
 Health and Mortality," and the excellent " Statistical Report on 
 the Sickness and Mortality among the Troops serving in the 
 Madras Presidency," by T. Graham Balfour, M.D., reprinted from 
 the " Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal." This ably written 
 treatise, besides a re-arrangement of the different stations, into 
 those on the sea coast, on the plains, and on the Table-lands, 
 includes topographical and descriptive accounts of every station, 
 with observations on the temperature, the prevailing winds, the 
 situation of the barracks, and other circumstances, by which the 
 health of the troops is likely to be affected. From these sources 
 the following comparison of the mortality amongst Europeans and 
 natives may be made. In the general summary of results, the 
 average mortality per cent, is used in a different sense from the 
 mean mortality per cent, in the last line of the Tables ; the former 
 signifying the number of deaths, which actually occurred per 
 annum in every 100 of the force for the whole period; the latter, 
 the mean of the deaths in 100 of the force in each year, which is 
 necessary for the sake of comparing the excess of mortality in one 
 year or period of years above another. 
 
 1. Bengal Presidency. — The maximum strength of the 
 European troops returned in the above-mentioned years, was in 
 1844, 5,034 men ; the minimum force was in 1827, 3,793 men. It 
 should be observed that these are the troops belonging to the East 
 India Company, and do not include Her Majesty's forces serving 
 in India. The maximum number of admissions into Hospital was 
 in 1841, when 11,202 admissions occurred amongst 4,751 men, 
 being about 235 to every 100 soldiers. The minimum of admissions 
 was in 1827, being only 927 in a force of 3793 men, not so much 
 as 1 in 4 ; though the mortality in that year was greater than the 
 average, and out of 927 admissions, the deaths, including cholera, 
 were as high as 325. This small number of admissions into 
 Hospital is very remarkable, though it is correctly copied from the 
 Return made by the Secretary of the East India Company to the 
 Order of the House of Commons, and commented upon by Colonel 
 Sykes, in his examination of this document, without any suggestion 
 of its being an error ; but I have been favoured by a note from 
 Dr. Balfour, who points out that this number " is obviously wrong, 
 
 i 
 
58 
 
 for it reduces the sickness which is usually double that of troops at 
 home to one-fourth of the average of the cavalry in the United 
 Kingdom ; and that for one year only, whilst there is no diminution 
 at all in the same proportion in any other year, or in any of the 
 other Presidencies. From a careful examination of the Return, I 
 conceive the mistake to have arisen from a type being dropped ; 
 and that most probably a 6. If the supposition is correct, the 
 numbers would be 6927 in that year, being in the ratio of 185 per 
 cent, of the strength." It seems more than probable that some such 
 correction is required, and if the suggestion made by Dr. Balfour 
 be the truth, this year will be above the average both in the 
 admissions into Hospital and the mortality. The number of 
 admissions into Hospital for 20 years was 158,160 on a strength of 
 88,380. For every 100 soldiers there were 179 admissions in the 
 year. 
 
 The highest mortality, including cholera, was in 1825, being 12J 
 per cent. ; but in that year the invaliding was not above the 
 average, and the deaths by cholera were not half the average. The 
 minimum of mortality was in 1829, being only 5.16 per cent. ; but 
 the invaliding was above the average, being 4.6 per cent. 
 
 The maximum of deaths from cholera only, was in 1843, 2.13 
 per cent. : — the minimum in 1830 being only 0.24 per cent; not 1 
 in 400 soldiers. The average was 1.15 per cent. 
 
 On the average of 20 years the number of deaths per annum, 
 including cholera, was 7.38 per cent, and the invaliding 3.6 per 
 cent. A regiment was consequently entirely renewed every nine 
 years. 
 
 By reference to the last letter on " the Mortality in India ;" the 
 mortality amongst private soldiers, as just stated, will be seen to be 
 nearly 2 J times as great as that amongst officers of all ranks up to 
 that of Major in the same Presidency ; a disproportion so unusually 
 great as to require a strict enquiry into the causes which have either 
 led to such fatal results amongst the private soldiers or to the 
 diminished rate of mortality amongst the officers. It may also be 
 noticed, as a singular circumstance, that whilst the average mor- 
 tality amongst officers in this Presidency is less than either of the 
 other two, the mortality amongst private soldiers is nearly double 
 that of Madras, and nearly 50 per cent, higher than that of Bombay. 
 
59 
 
 Colonel Tulloch, in a paper read before the Statistical Society, 
 stated the deaths in her Majesty's regiments serving in this Presi- 
 dency, in 1844-5, to be 8.58 per cent., which is even considerably 
 higher than that amongst the East India Company's European 
 Troops. 
 
 In the Table given below a very striking difference is perceptible 
 in the mortality of the Native troops when compared with the 
 European. The following general summary will aid the reader in 
 clearly understanding the facts. 
 
 Native Troops. — The average force for the 20 years was 
 102,321, and the average number of admissions into hospital per 
 annum 55,036, being nearly 54 to 100 soldiers, or every soldier 
 may be considered as admitted at least once in every two years. 
 The maximum of admissions was in 1842, being rather more than 
 87 admissions to 100 soldiers. The average for the two following 
 years being also very high, Colonel Sykes is inclined to think that a 
 portion of these troops must have been employed in the conquest of 
 Scinde, with the Bombay regiments, and consequently exposed to a 
 greater amount of sickness. The minimum of admissions was in 
 1827, the same year and the same average (unless the correction 
 be made as suggested), as occurred in the European troops, viz., 
 not one in four. 
 
 The average number of deaths per annum from all causes for the 
 20 years was 1.79 per cent. The maximum was in 1834, 2.69 per 
 cent. ; the minimum in 1826, 1.30 per cent. In that and the 
 following year, however, the number of deaths from cholera was 
 unusually small, being little more than 1 in 1000. Exclusive of 
 ckolera, the lowest mortality from other causes was in 1843, being 
 only 1.04 per cent. 
 
 The average mortality for the 20 years from cholera was only .22 
 per cent. ; not one fifth of that which prevailed amongst European 
 troops. The highest mortality from cholera only, was in 1833, .33 
 per cent., being, with the single exception of the year 1830, lower 
 than the lowest mortality from the same cause amongst European 
 troops ; whilst in the year 1831, not 3 in 10,000 of the native 
 troops perished by this much feared disease. These facts are re- 
 markable, for it has been a general impression, that the strength of 
 constitution and more substantial nourishment of the European 
 
 i 2 
 
enabled him to struggle with greater success against the ravages of 
 this dreadful scourge. The diet of the Hindoos, who are univer- 
 sally non-consumers of animal food, was supposed to be inadequate 
 to support nature under this disease ; yet in the proportions of 
 different castes, which Colonel Sykes has given, in 74 native regi- 
 ments of infantry, the Christians constitute only 1.34 per cent., and 
 lohammedans 15 5 per cent., leaving the remainder, more than 
 83 per cent., composed of Hindoos, (of which the Brahmins supply 
 31, the Rajpoots nearly 35, and the Hindoos of inferior castes about 
 17 per cent,) 
 
 In confirmation of the small proportion of deaths by cholera, to 
 which Colonel Sykes has already drawn attention, he has in a recent 
 number of the Statistical Journal given an analysis of the report for 
 rong to the Bengal Government, of the mortality in 
 the Jails of the 24 Pergunnahs, Calcutta. The report contains the 
 number of cases, and the number of deaths from this cause an. 
 the prisoners for every month of 31 years, from 1811 to 1847, both 
 inclusive; and the average of the whole period only exhib: 
 mortality of one per cent, on the strength — the average mortality 
 from all causes being 7.11 per cent., or more than half as much 
 again as the mortality of the inhabitants of Calcutta generally. The 
 of cholera were on an average 1 1 ~ per cent, of the strength, 
 and out of 100 attacked, only 8.86 proved fatal. The extremely 
 hot and the extremely cold months appear to have added to the 
 fatality of the disease ; but, in these opposite seasons, " the 
 are fewest in the cold months, and most numerous in the hot 
 months." It should be remembered, that as there was not one 
 year in ivhich cholera was wholly absent from the Jails, and 
 may be expected that the disease, if contagious, must in such a 
 situation have been most severe in its ravages, the conclusion 
 arrived at with regard to this fearful disease is truly encoura_ 
 " that for no one year, nor for any one month, in the whole period 
 of 3 1 years, has the intensity of the mortality been comparable to 
 that which is occurring in Edinburgh, in London, and the provinces 
 it the present moment.'' 
 
 To return to the Tables we were examining, the invaliding 
 small ; the mean for 20 years being only 1.5 per cent. Adding the 
 invaliding to the mortality, a regiment would be renewed in 30 
 
61 
 
 years, or upwards of 3000 European recruits would be required 
 where 1000 natives would suffice to maintain the same military 
 force. As it is computed, that each recruit costs the East India 
 Company nearly £100 in expenses, training, passage money, &c, 
 before he becomes an efficient soldier, it may be easily perceived of 
 how great importance are any observations, which have for their 
 object to ascertain the causes of the great mortality amongst Euro- 
 peans in India, and to suggest the means by which it may be 
 diminished. 
 
 The following Table contains a summary of the facts presented to 
 parliament. In the original document the details are given lor each 
 year; but it is considered sufficient for our purpose to combine 
 them in periods of five years. 
 
 TABLE I. 
 
 Showing the Mortality per cent, amongst European and Native Troops in 
 the Bengal Presidency. 
 
 
 Europeans. 
 
 Natives. 
 
 Deaths by Cholera only. 
 
 
 Deaths 
 from all 
 causes. 
 
 Invalided. 
 
 Deaths 
 from all 
 causes. 
 
 Invalided. 
 
 Europeans. 
 
 Natives. 
 
 1825-9 
 1830-4 
 1835-9 
 1840-4 
 
 7.77 
 7.04 
 6.93 
 7.44 
 
 5.3 
 2.8 
 2.5 
 3.8 
 
 1.56 
 
 2.18 
 1.96 
 1.51 
 
 1.66 
 
 2.12 
 
 ' 1.04 
 
 1.18 
 
 .65 
 1. 
 
 1.08 
 1.44 
 
 .13 
 .24 
 .25 
 .24 
 
 Mean . . 
 
 7.29 3.6 
 
 1.80 
 
 1.50 
 
 1.09 
 
 .22 
 
 -Jn the prize essay of Dr. Thomson, to which reference has been 
 made, the mean mortality of British troops employed in the Presi- 
 dency of Bengal for seven years from 1826 to 1832, is quoted from 
 an article by Dr. Burke, in the Edin. Med. Journal, as 57 per 1000, 
 (the average force for each year being 8700 men), and for the single 
 year 1833, at 53 per 1000. Lieutenant- Colonel Tulloch, in a paper 
 in the United Service Journal for February, 1835, estimated the 
 mean mortality amongst British troops in India at 63 per 1000. 
 But as the result in our Table given above is the average of so long 
 a period as 20 years, we may assume that 73 per 1000 is more 
 nearly correct ; and since the mortality in the British army may be 
 estimated at 15 per 1000, the excess to be attributed to the differ- 
 ence of climate must be set down at nearly 58 per 1000, or nearly 
 
62 
 
 four times greater than that which prevails in Great Britain. 
 Happily some of the causes, which produce this great increase, may- 
 be removed by attention to diet, to the situation of the barracks, and 
 other circumstances by which the health of the European soldier is 
 injuriously affected. Of the proportion of deaths given by Dr. 
 Burke, 15.4 per 1000 were attributed to different classes of fevers ; 
 18.4 per 1000 to diseases of the bowels; and 11.5 per 1000 to the 
 cholera, the latter agreeing very nearly with the average for 20 
 years from 1825 to 1844. 
 
 With regard to the admissions of European soldiers into Hos- 
 pital, the average of the seven years 1826 to 1832 is given by Dr. 
 Burke as 1717 per 1000. In the year 1826, he states them so high 
 as 2192 ; and in 1827, as 1876 per 1000. The former is above the 
 rate of admission given in the Government returns for that year, but 
 the latter very nearly agrees with the correction proposed by Dr. 
 Balfour, and confirms the accuracy of his suggested alteration. The 
 attacks of sickness amongst European troops in Bengal appear to 
 be on an average more than twice as numerous as when in their own 
 country ; and the severity of disease much greater, for whereas in 
 this country only 1 death is stated to occur in about 70 cases treated, 
 it was found, on the average of the seven years, that 1 in 30 proved 
 fatal. If the year 1833 could be taken as an average year, 129 in 
 every 1000 of the European troops were constantly sick; whilst 
 amongst the native troops, the number very little exceeded 
 that in England constantly sick, the former being 47, and the 
 latter 44. Amongst European troops the average time that *i 
 patient is confined to the Hospital would be 47 days in the year in 
 Bengal; whilst, in England, it is only 18 J days. 
 
 Madras Presidency. — European Troops. — Pursuing the 
 examination of the returns to Parliament before alluded to, we 
 shall find that the Presidency of Madras is decidedly healthy when 
 compared with that of Bengal ; for the mortality, either from the 
 more careful selection in the localities for stations, or from natural 
 advantages favourable to health, is but little more than half, and 
 the invaliding not two-thirds of that in the latter Presidency. The 
 mean strength was 5060. 
 
 The average number of admissions into Hospital was 134 to 
 every 100 soldiers. The greatest number of admissions was in 
 
1834, and the least in 1832 ; being in the former year nearly two 
 admissions to every soldier, and in the latter little more than one. 
 
 The average per-centage of deaths for the 20 years from all 
 causes was 3.85. The greatest number of deaths was in 182-5, 
 during war, when it rose so high as 11.84 ; and even deducting the 
 deaths by cholera it would still remain in that year more than three 
 times as great as the average number. The smallest number of 
 deaths was in 1835 and 1838, being in each of the two years only 
 2.12 per cent. ; a mortality not equal to that of the Foot-guards in 
 England. 
 
 The average per-centage of deaths from cholera only for the 20 
 years was nearly .43 per cent. ; being, as will be seen hereafter, 
 only four-fifths of the losses by the same disease amongst the native 
 troops in this Presidency, and little more than one-third of that 
 amongst European troops in Bengal. The maximum of deaths by 
 this disease was in 1825, 1.38 per cent., and the minimum in 1835-6 
 — when only two deaths occurred amongst 10,000 men, which does 
 not exceed the lowest average amongst the Native troops in Bengal 
 for the whole 20 years. 
 
 The average Invaliding was 2.076 per cent., which being added 
 to the average mortality, shows that a regiment in Madras will not 
 be renewed in less than 17 years; or that, one with another, the 
 soldiers will serve very nearly twice as long as in the European 
 regiments in Bengal. 
 
 According to Colonel Tulloch's returns, the same healthy condi- 
 tion characterises her Majesty's forces employed in this Presidency, 
 only 627 deaths being recorded in a force of 15,385 men, for the 
 two years 1845-6, or 4.07 per cent. ; being less than half the pro- 
 portion, which occurred in the two years above quoted in Bengal. 
 Considering that the mortality amongst officers is stated to be 
 higher in this Presidency than in either of the others, a careful 
 enquiry into the causes of the comparative healthiness of the men 
 appears to be a duty incumbent on the military or medical author- 
 ities. 
 
 Native Troops. — The average strength of the Native troops for 
 the 20 years was 59,813. 
 
 The total number of admissions into Hospital during the whole 
 period was 904,325 on a strength of 1,156,250; or in each year 78 
 
' 64 
 
 admissions occurred on an average in every 100 soldiers. The 
 maximum of admissions was in 1825, being 118 to 100 soldiers ; 
 and the minimum in 1831, being less than 59 in the same number. 
 
 The average mortality was 2.14 per cent., being greater than that 
 amongst the native troops in Bengal ; though the mortality of 
 Europeans is the reverse. The maximum was 434 in 1825, and 
 the minimum 1.25 in 1830. 
 
 By cholera only, the average number of deaths was .603 per 
 cent., being upwards of one -third more than the "deaths amongst 
 Europeans in this Presidency from the same cause, and more than 
 two and a half times as great as the average amongst Native regi- 
 ments in Bengal from this disease. The maximum was 1.38 per 
 cent, in 1843, and the minimum in 1835, when only two men died 
 of cholera in a force of upwards of 49,000, being little more than 
 the proportion of 4 to 100,000. 
 
 The invaliding amongst the Native Regiments was nearly one- 
 third greater than in Bengal, being 2.03 per cent. ; which added to 
 the average mortality gives 4.17 per cent, per annum, whence it 
 appears that a native regiment would be entirely renewed every 25 
 years, or 5 years less than the native regiments in Bengal. A very 
 great disproportion exists between the. relative numbers of Hindoos, 
 and other castes, when compared with the Bengal armies. From 
 1837 to 1840, in the cavalry, the Moosulmen bore a proportion to 
 all other castes as 7 to 1, and in the infantry as 1 to 1 j. This may 
 in some measure account for the increased rate of mortality by 
 cholera, for as these castes are not subject to the same restrictions 
 as to diet which prevail amongst the Hindoos, an additional confir- 
 mation is afforded to the supposition that the cholera is more fatal 
 where animal food and spirituous liquors are freely indulged in. 
 
 In vol. 2 and 3 of the Journal of the Statistical Society are con- 
 tained some very complete and valuable returns from this Presidency, 
 drawn up by a committee of the society from returns presented by 
 Mr. Annesley, late President of the Madras Medical Board. That 
 gentleman states in a note to the Secretary of the Statistical Society, 
 that in 1822 he received a copy of the medical returns from 1815 to 
 1822, and that on his return to India in 1829, being greatly 
 interested in the subject, he prosecuted his researches into the 
 records of the Medical Board from 1829 to 1838. The former 
 
65 
 
 returns he published in 1825 in a valuable work on the "Diseases 
 in the different stations and divisions of the Madras Army ;" and 
 the latter are the papers which have been prepared with great care 
 and the results published by the Statistical Society. The returns 
 include the whole of the European troops from 1793 to 1838. 
 The observations amongst the troops serving on the Tenasserim 
 Coast, which, though under the same Presidency, is so far removed, 
 and the climate of which differs so materially, have been separated 
 and presented in a different report. They comprise the returns 
 for the years 1829 to 1838. Those of the rest of the Madras 
 Presidency include observations on the Native troops from 1822 to 
 1838. 
 
 The total extent of the East India Company^ possessions in the 
 Madras Presidency is estimated at 250,000 square miles, exclusive 
 of 78,000 square miles in Assam, Arracan, and the Tenasserim 
 Coasts, on the opposite shores of the Bay of Bengal. The Carna- 
 tic is exposed to the N.E. Moonsoon, which commences about the 
 middle of October, with periodical rains, which last till the end of 
 December. From this time till February is the cold season, which 
 is healthy and pleasant. In March and April the southerly or long 
 shore winds prevail, with clouds of dust, inducing slight febrile 
 attacks. The S.W. Moonsoon, which commences in May, bringing 
 the periodical rains, extends over the greater part of the Peninsula. 
 In the Carnatic the hot season continues during May, June and 
 July; August and September are also close and sultry. The Madras 
 Presidency is divided into seven military divisions, for each of which 
 the returns are given in Mr. Annesley's valuable work, together 
 with the description of the climate, the different stations, and the 
 diseases most prevalent in each. To the pages of the Statistical 
 Journal the reader may be also referred for the enumeration of the 
 different wars and other circumstances which have affected the 
 mortality in different years. Our limits will only allow of a general 
 summary, and a comparison with the returns of the East India 
 Company, which we have already examined. 
 
 From 1793 to 1838 the average force of Europeans was 9,800 
 men. This includes both her Majesty's troops in the service of the 
 East India Company, and the regiments recruited for the company 
 in England, and as the details are not separated they may conse- 
 
66 
 
 quently be expected to differ, in some slight degree, from the 
 previous results, which relate only to the latter description of force. 
 It will appear, both from this and from a previous statement, that the 
 mortality in her Majesty's troops is greater than amongst those of 
 the Company; since by the combination of the two the general 
 average is increased. The returns as presented by the Statistical 
 Society are divided into different terms of years, corresponding with 
 "the most important changes in the operations of the army." 
 These are 1793 to 1800, the Conquest of Mysore ; 1801 to 1809, a 
 general war in the Carnatic, distinguished among other events by 
 the battles of Assay and Argaum, in which the Duke of Wellington, 
 then Colonel Wellesley, began his career of fame. These wars 
 ended in a great accession of territory. In 1810 to 1820, the con- 
 quests of the Isles of France and Bourbon, and the Island of Java, 
 were effected, and expeditions undertaken against the Mahratta 
 States ; in 1822 to 1830, the Burmese war ; and in 1831 to 1838 a 
 small expedition against the Coorg Rajah. In each of these periods 
 a portion comprised years of peace, varying from two to five years. 
 In order not to confuse the reader, we subjoin here the general 
 mortality in each of these periods ; and afterwards subdivide the 
 observations into the years corresponding with those of the East 
 India Company's returns, so as to present a comparison between the 
 two. 
 
 TABLE II. 
 
 Showing 
 
 the Mortality per cent, amongst the Troops in the Madras 
 
 
 
 Presidency. — Statistical Soci< 
 
 ?ty's Returns. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Europeans. 
 
 Natives. 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Constantly 
 sick. 
 
 Admitted into 
 Hospital. 
 
 Died. 
 
 Admitted into 
 Hospital. 
 
 Died. 
 
 1793 
 
 to 
 
 1800 
 
 10.0 
 
 
 6.8 
 
 
 
 1801 
 
 l< 
 
 1809 
 
 10.7 
 
 
 8.0 
 
 
 
 1810 
 
 << 
 
 1821 
 
 10.5 
 
 
 6.3 
 
 
 
 1822 
 
 n 
 
 1830 
 
 
 259. 
 
 7.1 
 
 83.4 
 
 1.74 
 
 1831 
 
 << 
 
 1838 
 
 
 187. 
 
 4-3 
 
 67.2 
 
 1.73 
 
 In one of the reports of Mr. Finlaison, the average reported sick 
 at 74 monthly musters in Great Britain, was in the Cavalry 4.02 
 per cent., in the Foot-guards 4.26 per cent., and in the Infantry 
 generally 4.98 per cent. It will be noticed in the above Table, how 
 great is the diminution of strength in the Army from the above 
 
67 
 
 cause, as well as the large proportion of admissions into hospital, 
 when compared with the average of nearly the same period of years 
 already stated. 
 
 The average mortality in the whole period from 1793 to 1838 was 
 6.6 per cent., the greatest being in 1799, during the conquest of 
 Mysore, 14.3 per cent., and the next in 1824, during the Burmese 
 war, 13.3 per cent. It is gratifying to observe the improvement, 
 which has taken place since 1830. Deducting the five years from 
 1822 to 1826, the period of service in the Burmese war, the follow- 
 ing comparison is made with troops in Great Britain. 
 
 Admissions 
 
 into 
 
 Hospital. 
 
 Deaths. 
 
 Europeans in Madras 
 
 Dragoons and Dragoon Guards in the United ) 
 Kingdom x . . . / 
 
 18.38 
 9.29 
 
 4.8 
 1.4 
 
 showing only double the amount of sickness, but evidently of a more 
 fatal character, as the deaths in India were 3 J times as numerous as 
 those in Great Britain. During the whole period of 46 years, 21 
 were years of war, and 25 of peace. In the former the average 
 mortality was 8.2 per cent, per annum, in the latter 5.5 per cent, 
 per annum. 
 
 "We proceed to consider the average of mortality, derived from 
 the same returns, amongst the Native troops from 1822 to 1838. 
 The comparison with the European regiments has been given above. 
 It will be perceived, that the proportion of sickness has diminished 
 during the last 10 years, and the mortality is less than is stated in 
 the returns furnished by the East India Company to Parliament. 
 The mean strength of the native army is also different. From 1825 
 to 1838 inclusive, over which period both returns extend, the former 
 shows a strength of 931,171, and the latter only 786,831. 
 
 The average admissions into Hospital during the period of 1 7 
 years was 77.3 per cent., very nearly the proportion in the latter 
 returns. Excluding the period of the Burmese war, the average 
 was only 61.5 per cent, "being exactly one-third of the proportion 
 among the European force in the same years, and one-third less 
 than among the Dragoons and Dragoon Guards in the United 
 Kingdom." 
 
 k 2 
 
68 
 
 The average annual mortality was 1.8 per cent., or including the 
 Burmese war, 1.6 per cent. 
 
 During 7 years of war, the mortality was 2.2 per cent, per annum, 
 and during 10 years of peace 1.5 per cent., nearly the same «as that 
 of the army of Great Britain. 
 
 With regard to the diseases, which prevail in the Madras Presi- 
 dency, some very important results are obtained from these returns, 
 extending over the years 1827 to 1838, and their comparative influ- 
 ence on Europeans and Natives ; but as this would lead us into a 
 wide field of inquiry, the following Table will be sufficient to show 
 the effects of the more fatal classes. 
 
 TABLE III. 
 
 Showing the admissions into Hospital, and deaths per cent, of strength, 
 amongst the Troops in the Madras Presidency, and in the United King- 
 dom, by the more fatal classes of diseases. 
 
 
 Madras Presidency. 
 
 United Kingdom. 
 
 
 Europeans. 
 
 Natives. 
 
 Dragoons, &c. 
 
 
 Admitted. 
 
 Died. 
 
 Admitted. 
 
 Died. 
 
 Admitted. 
 
 Died. 
 
 Fevers 
 
 34.9 
 
 3.8 
 
 11.6 
 
 31.4 
 
 2.7 
 
 .55 
 .23 
 
 .56 
 
 1.76 
 .76 
 
 18.9 
 .4 
 
 •• l 
 
 3.2 
 .9 
 
 .35 
 
 .07 
 .01 
 
 .20 
 .40 
 
 7.5 
 
 14 
 
 Diseases of Lungs . 
 
 " Liver . . 
 
 •' Stomach 
 
 and Bowels 
 
 Cholera 
 
 14.8 
 .8 
 
 9.4 
 
 .4 
 
 .77 
 .04 
 
 .08 
 .12 
 
 
 
 Of all Diseases . . 
 
 183.8 
 
 4.86 
 
 61.6 
 
 1.61 
 
 92.9 1.40 
 
 The cholera, according to those returns, appears to have been 
 much more fatal amongst European than Native troops ; a result 
 which, though agreeing with the observations in Bengal, differs 
 widely from the average in the returns to Government. It will also 
 be seen, that though the attacks are less numerous, they are of a 
 much more fatal character amongst the Natives, the proportion of 
 Natives attacked being only one -third that of Europeans, but the 
 mortality of the former being more than one-half of the latter by 
 this disease. The most remarkable difference to be observed is in the 
 disease of the Liver, which, so fatal to the Europeans, is scarcely 
 noticeable amongst the Natives. Amongst the Europeans the dis- 
 ease is more fatal at Madras than at any other colony except Sierra 
 J^eone. Even there, the admissions are less numerous, being but 8.2 
 
69 
 
 per cent.; though the deaths are rather more than in Madras, being 
 .6 per cent. Another peculiarity, exhibited in the above Table, is the 
 comparative rarity of diseases of the Lungs, not merely amongst the 
 Natives but Europeans also, rendered still more singular by the fact, 
 that, in all the other stations in which Native are quartered with Eu- 
 ropean troops, they generally lose nearly 50 per cent, more than the 
 latter by this disease ; and in the Mauritius the proportion of deaths 
 amongst the Negro troops is more than double that amongst the 
 European troops. Dr. Balfour has pointed out that the term Native 
 troops, as used in the Report, must not in all these stations be consi- 
 dered as natives of the country ; for that the Black Troops in the West 
 Indies and the Mauritius are not native troops ; and that the greater 
 mortality by this class of disease amongst them, therefore, shows 
 merely the different influence of the climate of these colonies on a 
 white and a black immigrant population ; that the only native troops 
 quartered with Europeans, are the Royal Malta Fencibles, the Cape 
 Mounted Rifles, and the armed Lascoreyns in Ceylon ; no sufficient 
 evidence existing as to the effect of Pulmonary disease amongst 
 the first ; its prevalence amongst the second confirming the 
 remark made above ; but the last enjoying a very marked exemp- 
 tion, compared with the Europeans, the deaths being in the 
 proportion of only 16 to 41. The other Black Troops in Cey- 
 lon, though immigrants, enjoy a similar exemption, but not to 
 the same extent. From this, however, the Caffre Negro Troops 
 must be excepted, diseases of the Lungs being more than twice as 
 fatal amongst them as amongst the Europeans. Diseases of the 
 brain, generally supposed to arise from intemperance, in which 
 Europeans unfortunately indulge to excess, whilst it is scarcely known 
 amongst the natives, produces in the Madras Presidency amongst 
 the former nearly seven times more, both of admissions and deaths, 
 than amongst the latter. Without going further into detail, we 
 close this slight though important inquiry with the following Table, 
 exhibiting the proportion of mortality per cent, by the Tables pre- 
 sented to Parliament, for the same years as were given for Bengal, 
 subjoining to it a comparison of the facts, as nearly as possible for 
 the same periods of years, from Mr. Annesley's observations as 
 arranged by the Statistical Society. 
 
70 
 
 TABLE IV. 
 
 Showing the Mortality per cent, amongst the Troops in the Madras 
 Presidency. 
 
 
 Beturns from the East India Company. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Europeans. 
 
 Natives. 
 
 By Cholera only. 
 
 Mortality 
 from all 
 causes. 
 
 Invaliding. 
 
 Mortality 
 from all 
 causes. 
 
 Invaliding-. 
 
 Europeans. 
 
 Natives. 
 
 1825.9 
 1830.4 
 1835.9 
 1840.4 
 
 6.43 
 3.89 
 2 59 
 2.82 
 
 2.1-6 
 1.94 
 2.11 
 2.13 
 
 2.47 
 1.86 
 2.08 
 2.17 
 
 2.23 
 1.52 
 2.07 
 2.16 
 
 .41 
 .64 
 .23 
 .42 
 
 .60 
 
 .52 
 .46 
 
 .78 
 
 Mean. 
 
 393 
 
 2.09 
 
 2.14 
 
 1.99 
 
 .42 
 
 .59 
 
 
 Returns by the Statis- 
 tical Society. 
 
 Admissions into Hospital. 
 
 
 General Mortality. 
 
 East India Company's 
 Beturns. 
 
 Statistical Society's 
 Beturns. 
 
 
 Europeans. 
 
 Natives. 
 
 Europeans. 
 
 Natives. 
 
 Europeans. 
 
 Natives. 
 
 1825.9 
 1830.4 
 1835.9 
 
 7.65 
 5.28 
 3.92 
 
 2. 
 
 1.56 
 1.8 ; 
 
 178. 
 
 133.4 
 
 123. 
 
 83.1 
 67.7 
 86.2 
 
 263.6 
 187.5 
 179.6 
 
 89.6 
 
 57.9 
 
 73.5 
 
 The returns by the Statistical Society extending only to 1838, 
 the above comparison terminates with the latter years. It is not 
 necessary in this place to enter into the causes of the difference 
 between the two sets of observations. The more important one, 
 that of Europeans, probably arises from the combination of her 
 Majesty's troops with those of the company. It is gratifying, how- 
 ever, to observe by both returns, that the mortality from general dis- 
 eases appears to have diminished of late years ; though the fact that 
 deaths by cholera have increased, both in the Presidencies of Bengal 
 and Madras, and, as we shall afterwards see, in that of Bombay 
 demands an anxious and searching enquiry. For further observa- 
 tions on the mortality and the most prevalent diseases in this 
 Presidency, the reader is referred to the excellent report by the 
 Committee of the Statistical Society, and as to the effects of the 
 different classes of diseases in the varying climates of the sea-coast, 
 the plains, and the table-lands, to Dr. T. Graham Balfour's admira- 
 ble essay, which has been before alluded to. 
 
 It was impossible to confine these observations within the limits 
 
71 
 
 originally intended ; and the enquiry into the mortality in Ceylon, 
 the Tenasserim Provinces, and the Bombay Presidency, in which 
 we shall have to examine an important table of the mortality 
 amongst the native troops, arranged according to their ages, must 
 be reserved for another letter. 
 
 The facts contained in this letter are worthy of being preserved 
 for future reference, by all those, who from associations of friend- 
 ship, ties of relationship, or personal recollections, take an interest 
 in the handful of Europeans whose destiny it is to control and 
 maintain our authority in this mighty empire ; and they are en- 
 couraging, as tending to prove, that the attention of government 
 and increased medical experience, have been already rewarded by 
 the diminution of the evils incident to suffering humanity, and give 
 promise of still greater success in the future. 
 
 I remain, Sir, your obedient servant, 
 
 CRITO. 
 
 London, 28th Jan., 1848. 
 
 THE TENASSERIM PROVINCES AND CEYLON. 
 
 Letter 3. 
 
 To the Editor of The Post Magazine. 
 
 Sir, — Tenasserim Provinces. — The Tenasserim Provinces on 
 the Eastern shores of the Bay of Bengal are generally supplied 
 with troops from the Presidency of Madras. They originally 
 formed part of the Birman Empire, and were ceded to the East 
 India Company in 1827, by the treaty of Yandaboo, on the success- 
 ful termination of the war with Birman. Independent of their 
 important position, by which the East India Company are enabled 
 to maintain a formidable force on the confines of what might become 
 a troublesome enemy, they have hitherto afforded reason to hope 
 that they may form efficient sanitary stations, in spite of many 
 peculiarities, which might lead to a different conclusion. It is in 
 this point of view only, that we propose to consider them. These 
 provinces extend from about 10° to 17° 40' N. latitude, and are 
 about 450 miles long, by a breadth of 50 to 70 miles, (as far as 
 can be ascertained, for we are at present, but imperfectly acquainted 
 even with our own possessions,) except in the Southern extremity, 
 
72 
 
 where they become reduced in breadth to 10 or 12 miles. They 
 are mostly uncultivated, covered with thick forests, with occasional 
 open plains of coarse grass. When first delivered over to the 
 British, it was computed, that the whole population did not exceed 
 30,000 souls on a territory of upwards of 33,000 square miles ; but 
 since the establishment of cantonments at Moulmein, many of the 
 natives passed over from Rangoon and Martaban, and upwards of 
 30,000 are now reckoned to be living under British protection, 
 on our side of the Saluen alone. These are mostly natives of Pegu 
 or Thalians, who, having shown great partiality for the British 
 during the war, feared the vengeance of the Burmese, and con- 
 sidered themselves safer under British protection. In this neigh- 
 bourhood there are at present 20 Thalians to 1 Birman. Tenasserim 
 is the place of banishment or penal settlement for India, and 2,000 
 convicts have been sent there, principally Thugs. On the term of the 
 banishment expiring many have settled and married native women 
 in the country. 
 
 The principal stations are at Moulmein on the Saluen river ; at 
 Tavay; and at Mergul, situated 100 miles south of Tavay on the 
 Tenasserim river. 
 
 Moulmein is situated 30 miles up. the Saluen river, where it is 
 nearly a mile broad, and near the junction of the two rivers, the 
 Attaran and the Gyne. The cantonments are on sloping ground, 
 about a quarter of a mile from the native town, backed by a ridge 
 of low hills, which extend to the sea coast. The distance in the 
 straight line being only nine miles from the sea, the station is 
 visited by cool and refreshing breezes, which may counteract the 
 general character of the ground, which is alluvial soil, and so level 
 that it is reckoned that 5,000 square miles are annually under 
 water by the overflowing of the rivers. The quantity of rain that 
 falls is almost incredible. It is computed at 200 inches annually, 
 about five times the quantity that falls in Great Britain, of which 
 160 inches fall in the four months of the height of the Monsoon. 
 The temperature is considerably below the average of the tropical 
 climates. In the wet season the moisture is described to be so 
 great, that " metals are constantly in a state of corrosion, wearing 
 apparel is completely saturated, and articles of wool or leather 
 are covered with mould in the course of a single night." 
 
16 
 
 The troops stationed here usually consist, according to the return, 
 of one of her Majesty's regiments of the line ; a regiment of East 
 India Company's Native Infantry ; a small body of Gun Lascars 
 and Pioneers ; and a company of European Artillery. 
 
 The following extract from an interesting description of Moulmein 
 by William Henry Scales, Esq., a Medical Officer in the Hon. Com- 
 pany's Service, written in 1843, when stationed on the spot, may 
 prove useful to the reader : — * The situation of Moulmein is 
 exceedingly picturesque, and by nature strong and capable of being 
 easily fortified. There have been many extra batteries erected in 
 the course of last year, on the brow of the hill forming the Eastern 
 boundary which cover the plain, so that it would be impossible for 
 any force to make an attack from the plain unless in a dark night. 
 Gun-boats are continually on the river during the night, and go up 
 a short distance so as to be a security against any sudden attack. 
 There are in addition one of H.M's sloops stationed here, two or 
 three armed schooners, and almost always an armed steamer. The 
 troops now stationed at Moulmein, consist of H.M's 84th Regiment, 
 1000 strong; two Native Regiments, of about 800 men each; the 
 Talien Rifle Corps of about 300 men ; and a company and a half 
 of Artillery, consisting of about 150 Europeans and 300 Natives. 
 The only force that appears to be insufficient is the Artillery, and 
 that has been strengthened lately by half a company. 
 
 " The climate is decidedly a cool one compared with India ; and 
 this is owing, in my opinion, chiefly to there being (strictly speaking) 
 no land winds. From the situation of the town, nearly surrounded 
 by water, it is quite evident, that any hot wind must become 
 cooled in its passage across such a body of water, consequently a 
 North wind is an exceedingly cold one, owing I expect to its passing 
 for many miles over the river Saluen, which above Martaban is 
 some miles in breadth. The same observation may apply to a 
 North-east wind ; and the only one that can be called a ' land wind' 
 is an Easterly wind, and from this Moulmein is fully protected ' by 
 the ridge of hills before spoken of.' " 
 
 European Troop . — The mean strength of the European force 
 from 1829 to 1838 was 974, excluding the year 1835, when the re- 
 turns were incomplete on account of Her Majesty's 62d Regiment 
 being transferred to the Bengal Presidency till November in that 
 
74 
 
 year. In 1834, the mortality was very great, in consequence of the 
 arrival of the above regiment, which had suffered greatly on the 
 march from Bangalore to Masulipatam. On arriving at the latter 
 place, they were attacked by fever and dysentery, and when ordered 
 to Moulmein, 17 out of 380 died on the voyage. 
 
 The average number of admissions into Hospital was 159 per 
 cent, per annum, and the deaths 3.46 per cent. On comparing this 
 with the average for the Madras Presidency, a great advantage will 
 be noticed in favour of Moulmein. Colonel Tulloch, from the 
 returns to the War Office, agrees in the average of admissions, but 
 gives the annual average of deaths from 1827 to 1838 at 4.47 per 
 cent.; but this includes the year 1827, the first formation of the 
 settlement, when a great number of deaths were to be attributed to 
 the previous sufferings of the troops and to the difficulty of obtain- 
 ing fresh provisions. Excluding this year, the average of deaths was 
 only 3.3 per cent. By an abstract of the deaths in a detachment of 
 the East India Company's Artillery from 1827 to 1838 the average 
 mortality appeared to be only 2.9 per cent. Excluding the years 
 1834-5 the greatest sickness was in 1837, 179 per cent. ; and the 
 least in 1833, 102 per cent. The highest average of deaths (exclud- 
 ing 1834, when it was so high as 1-9 per cent.) was in 1832, 4.87 
 per cent., and the least in 1831, 2.5 per cent. 
 
 Native Troops. — The average strength of the Native troops in 
 Moulmein for 10 years was 1156. The average annual number of 
 admissions into Hospital amongst them was 80.4 per cent, and 
 the deaths 1.46 per cent. The mortality in the last five years 
 amongst the Native troops, shows a great increase, being, when 
 compared with the first five years, as 1.62 to 1.26 per cent. 
 
 At Tavay and Mergui an insurrection broke out in 1829, when 
 for a time these towns fell into the hands of the insurgents. They 
 were soon retaken, and since then a small force has been stationed 
 at each. At both places, the general description of the country 
 very much resembles that of Moulmein, except that in Mergui the 
 barracks are situated on a hill above the town, and exposed to cool 
 and refreshing breezes from the sea. At Tavay the total force from 
 1829 to 1836 was only 253 Europeans, and at Mergui 226. In this 
 number there occurred only 4 deaths which could be traced to 
 disease, being not equal to 1 per cent. 
 
15 
 
 At Penang, 'of Europeans only, a small force of artillery is 
 stationed, amongst whom the average of deaths for 10 years was 
 only 1.77 per cent., though the number of admissions into Hospital 
 was a third more than at Moulmein, being 219 per cent. 
 
 Of Native troops in Penang, Singapore, and Malacca, the average 
 strength from 1829 to 1838 was 1994. In 1832-3 these troops were 
 engaged in active service in Malacca, and deducting these two 
 years the average annual admissions became 86.7 per cent., and the 
 deaths 1.68 per cent. 
 
 The following Table comprises all these scattered observations 
 collected and compared in the same periods of years, as far as they 
 can be reduced to the same standard. 
 
 TABLE I. 
 
 Showing the Mortality per cent, of Strength amongst European and Native 
 Troops in the Tenasserim Provinces, Penang, &c. 
 
 
 Moulmein. 
 
 Tenasserim Pro- 
 vinces. 
 
 Penang. 
 
 Penang, Singapore 
 and Malacca. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Europeans. 
 
 Natives. 
 
 H.M.'s Troops. 
 
 1827 to 1836. 
 
 Tulloch. 
 
 Europeans. 
 
 Natives. 
 
 
 Admitted. 
 
 Died. 
 
 Admitted. Died. 
 
 Admitted. 
 
 Died. 
 
 Admit'd Died. 
 
 1 
 
 Admitted. 
 
 Natives. 
 
 1829 
 
 1830 to 4 
 1835 
 1336 to 8 
 
 172. 
 
 in. 
 
 4.33 
 3.18 
 
 3.54 
 
 107. .96 
 87. 1.27 
 
 i 62. ! 1.78 
 
 1827-9 178 
 137 
 
 1835-6 177 
 
 7.50 
 
 3.10 
 2.90 
 
 231. 
 263. 
 
 161. 
 
 2.11 
 1.41 
 
 130 
 113 
 
 67 
 
 2.48 
 2.23 
 
 1.49 
 
 Mean. : 
 
 159. 
 
 Excludin 
 Year lfi 
 
 3.50 
 
 =r the 
 34. 
 
 79. 
 
 1.44 
 
 149 
 1829 to 1 
 
 3.16 
 336 
 
 219. 
 
 1.62 
 
 96.6 
 
 1.96 
 
 With respect to the most prevailing diseases, it will be unnecessary 
 to go further into details, than to state generally, that in spite of the 
 moisture of the climate, rheumatism appears to prevail less amongst 
 Europeans at Moulmein, than in the Madras Presidency; the admis- 
 sions and deaths being each only two-thirds ; but amongst Natives 
 the reverse is the case, in the proportion of 8.7 to 5.3 admissions 
 and .15 to .08 deaths per cent. This may arise from the greater 
 coolness of the climate, injurious as may be expected to native 
 constitutions, besides being deprived of the care and attendance 
 which the Sepoy enjoys with his family at home. Hitherto these 
 Provinces have been remarkably free from cholera. It began 
 
 l 2 
 
76 
 
 in 1827 amongst the native troops, and extended itself to the Euro- 
 pean ; but since then has not shown itself as an epidemic. The 
 general result is, that the climate of the Tenasserim coast is more 
 favourable to Europeans than Madras, the deaths at Moulmein 
 showing a decrease of one-third ; but with regard to the natives, 
 the returns exhibit scarcely any improvement, and even that appears 
 to have diminished of late years. 
 
 Ceylon. — For the greater part of the observations on the Mor- 
 tality of this island, we are indebted to the valuable report of 
 Colonel Tulloch, already adverted to ; and which deserves an 
 attentive perusal by those interested in the subject. Ceylon, which 
 finally fell into our possession in 1815, is situated between 5° 54' 
 and 9° 50' N. Lat. and 79° 50' and 82° 10' E. Lon. Its extreme 
 length is 270, and the breadth is 145 miles, containing altogether 
 about 24,664 square miles, being nearly equal in extent to Ireland. 
 The centre of the island is occupied by a mass of lofty and broken 
 mountains, rising several thousand feet high, and as may be 
 supposed, the inhabitants in this part are few in number, not 
 exceeding an average of 6 to the square mile : whilst on the low 
 ground on the sea shores, and at the mouths of the various rivers, 
 which run into the sea, much land has been brought into cultivation, 
 and at Galle and Colombo the inhabitants number 150 to the 
 square mile. The fall of rain on the South West Coast averages 70 
 to 80 inches per annum ; but as the North East Moonsoon passes 
 over a much greater quantity of land, it is less impregnated with 
 moisture, and on the North East coast the fall of rain is but 50 to 
 55 inches annually. In the interior of the island the rain and 
 dews are abundant throughout the year. 
 
 The European troops, in this command, generally consist of three 
 complete regiments, or of the service companies of four regiments, 
 with two companies of Artillery, and a detachment of Sappers and 
 Miners. In the early part of our possession, an extra degree of 
 mortality was experienced in consequence of harassing duties, 
 attendant on slight insurrections in different parts of the island ; on 
 marches performed through uncleared districts, abounding in fever 
 and other local disorders ; on scarcity and badness of provisions; 
 and the difficulty of obtaining medical assistance for the different 
 detachments, into which it was necessarv to divide the forces. Arrack 
 
77 
 
 also was served freely out to the soldiers, for which, since 1831, a 
 substitute has been found in coffee. The alteration in these causes 
 of unhealthiness and the general improvement in stations and 
 barracks will suffice to explain the great difference in the health of 
 the troops, which is perceptible in late years. 
 
 European Troops. — The average strength per annum of these 
 forces in the island for 20 years, from 1817 to 1846, was 2149. 
 The average number of admissions into Hospital was 167.8 per 
 cent, and the mortality 6.98 per cent, per annum, according to the 
 medical returns. The returns to the War-office comprise all those 
 deaths which did not come under the observations of the Medical 
 officers, and swell the average to 7.5 per cent. The admissions 
 into Hospital will consequently appear to be twice as great, and the 
 average of deaths five times as numerous as in the United King- 
 dom. The lowest mortality was in 1833, being only 3 per 
 cent. ; and the highest in 1818, nearly 22. per cent. The 
 most fatal diseases were fevers and cholera. In 1818, on the 
 Patipalar river, all the Europeans of one detachment, except four, 
 were in the Hospital with remittent fever, and when a small force 
 of 32 men and an officer were sent to defend the post, the fever 
 began within 1 1 days after their arrival, and attacked every one, 
 including the officer, of whom one-half fell victims within a month. 
 It will be seen hereafter how singularly free the Negro troops are 
 from this class of diseases. 
 
 Amongst diseases of the lungs consumption is as common as in 
 Canada or Great Britain. The number attacked was .5 per cent., 
 and the proportion of deaths to admission was as 10 to 18. The 
 following Table shows the comparison of mortality by Pulmonary 
 diseases amongst European troops in different parts of the 
 world : — 
 
 TABLE II. 
 
 Showing the Mortality per cent, of Strength by Pulmonary Diseases. 
 
 West Indies 
 
 Jamaica . . . . . . .70 
 
 Canada ...... .45 
 
 Gibraltar . . . . . . .43 
 
 Malta 42 
 
 Ceylon . . . . . . .34 
 
 Cape ...... .28 
 
 Diseases of the liver form a much greater source of sickness in 
 
 .91 
 
78 
 
 the Eastern than in the Western hemisphere, and the same remark 
 applies, as far as Ceylon is concerned, to the diseases of the stomach 
 and bowels ; the proportion of deaths by dysentery, the most fatal 
 of these complaints, being nearly 50 per cent, more than in the 
 West Indies, though the number attacked is not very widely 
 different. 
 
 
 Diseases of the Liver. 
 
 Dysentery. 
 
 
 Admitted. 
 
 Died. 
 
 Admitted. 
 
 Died. 
 
 "Windward and Leeward Command . 
 
 2.20 
 5.50 
 
 .18 
 .49 
 
 20.60 
 21.10 
 
 1.60 
 2.30 
 
 
 
 Cholera has, at various times, visited all parts of the island. In 
 1829, it began amongst the Malays, engaged in large numbers in the 
 pearl fishery, and from them spread rapidly amongst the small force 
 of Malay troops employed to protect the fishery. One-fourth of 
 the latter were cut off, but the detachment of the 61st European 
 Regiment escaped. From the history of the cholera in this island 
 no conclusions can be drawn, either as to the influence of climate or its 
 contagious character, though careful observations have been made. 
 In 1819, the weather had been wet and cold ; in 1829 and 1832, on 
 the contrary, it was hot and dry. Facts equally contradictory were 
 observed as to its being contagious or not. The remarks, however, 
 of Colonel Tulloch deserve attention, that " those in immediate 
 contact with the sick in hospitals suffered less than the soldiers in 
 barracks;" and " that of the drunken and irregular part of the 
 soldiers, a fourth part were attacked, and from five to six per cent, 
 died ; whilst of the sober and well conducted only a fifth part was 
 attacked, and from three to four per cent, only died." 
 
 It has frequently been maintained that, with a lengthened 
 residence in tropical countries, the constitution becomes more fitted 
 to endure the vicissitudes, and is hardened to the effects of the 
 climate ; but Colonel Tulloch gives various Tables, proving that 
 the mortality increases more rapidly than the usual proportion, both 
 with advanceof age and length of residence. The same remark 
 applies to each of the more important class of disorders. Amongst 
 the recruits under one year's residence in Ceylon, the mortality was 
 4.4 per cent. ; under two years 4.87 per cent. ; and above two years 
 
79 
 
 4.92 per cent. The last column of the following Table may be 
 compared with one of the mortality of officers in India, given in 
 the previous letter, making an allowance for the slight difference of 
 ages : — 
 
 TABLE III. 
 
 Showing the Mortality per Cent, of the Strength by different Diseases 
 according to Ages. 
 
 Ag-e. 
 
 Fever. 
 
 Diseases of 
 Liver. 
 
 Dysentery. 
 
 All Diseases. 
 
 Cholera in 
 1832. 
 
 Under 18 " 
 18 to 25 
 25 " 33 
 33 " 40 
 40 " 50 
 
 .31 
 
 .58 
 
 .93 
 
 2.53 
 
 .16 
 
 .53 
 
 1.00 
 
 3.16 
 
 1.00 
 2.02 
 3.12 
 2.53 
 
 2.33 
 2.40 
 5.50 
 8.64 
 12.66 
 
 1.54 
 
 6.35 
 
 12.20 
 
 6.25 
 
 The average number for 20 years constantly sick amongst European 
 troops was 6.7 per cent. The average sick time to each soldier 
 was 24f days in the year. The average duration of each attack of 
 sickness was 14 J days, being rather shorter than in the United 
 Kingdom, where this time extends to 16 days. The greatest 
 increase of sickness is at the commencement of the North East and 
 South West Monsoons, when under the influence of the rains, the 
 vegetation increases with amazing rapidity. The average number 
 of Europeans invalided from 1817 to 1824 was about 3.5 
 per cent, annually ; since that time the number has been consider- 
 ably less in consequence of stations for invalids having been 
 selected in the island. 
 
 Before proceeding to examine the mortality amongst the 
 Black troops, it may be interesting to compare that of the European 
 officers with the European soldiers, exposed to the same climate, 
 and during the same periods of years. The average mortality from 
 l r 18 to 1836, was 4.6 per cent, per annum amongst the officers, 
 and 7.5 per cent, amongst private soldiers ; but as the returns were 
 incomplete for the first seven years, the following Table shows the 
 comparative liability to disease from 1824 to 1836. This period 
 appears to have been more healthy than the first seven years 
 amongst officers, since (adding omissions for remote stations) 3.33 
 per cent, only died per annum ; and each officer on an average 
 was attacked with sickness once in the year. Officers appear to be 
 
80 
 
 less liable to all kinds of sickness, though the attacks of fever, when 
 they occur, are more fatal. The comparative exemption of officers 
 from cholera is remarkable here as it is in all the other colonies, where 
 observations have been made ; but in diseases of the brain, though 
 suffering little more in number of attacks than private soldiers, yet 
 the mortality is three times as great. A similar result has been 
 noticed in the stations in the West Indies. 
 
 TABLE IV. 
 
 Comparison of Sickness and Mortality per cent, of Strength, amongst 
 Officers and Private Soldiers. 
 
 
 Officers. 
 
 Privates. 
 
 
 Admitted. 
 
 Died. 
 
 Admitted. 
 
 Died. 
 
 
 20.20 
 5.60 
 2.10 
 
 16.50 
 
 1.10 
 
 .20 
 
 .95 
 .10 
 .10 
 .55 
 .46 
 .10 
 
 37.80 
 7.80 
 4.90 
 
 35.90 
 1.00 
 1.90 
 
 1.41 
 
 Diseases of Lungs 
 
 „ liver 
 
 „ Stomach and Bowels . . . 
 
 „ Brain v 
 
 Cholera 
 
 .49 
 .42 
 2.08 
 .16 
 .55 
 
 
 
 Black Troops. — These consist of four classes, Malays, Natives 
 of India, Negroes, and Natives of the island. 
 
 1. Ceylon Regiments, composed of Malays, who are described 
 as stoutly made, capable of bearing great fatigue, and of energetic 
 character, rarely addicted to intemperance, but some of them 
 indulging in the use of opium. From 1818 to 1836, the average 
 force was 1823 ; the admissions into hospital 105.6 per cent., being 
 less than two -thirds of those amongst Europeans ; and the deaths 
 2.48 per cent, per annum. By the war-office returns, however, it 
 appears that the total deaths were 2.7 per cent., but as these com- 
 prised two companies of invalids, Colonel Tulloch thinks that, making 
 allowance for this fact and the incorporation of three companies of 
 Negroes in 1825, the average mortality amongst the Malays would 
 not exceed two per cent. The Negroes are mostly natives of Goa 
 or Mozambique, stout, muscular men, five feet six inches, to five 
 feet eight inches in height. The mortality amongst them was 6.1 
 per cent., being higher than that amongst any of the Black troops ; 
 and as they appear healthy men and receive rations the same as the 
 European troops, this great loss of life cannot be explained. From 
 their remarkable exemption from fever, a peculiarity common to 
 
81 
 
 Negroes in all parts of the world, they are employed as pioneers in 
 clearing the jungle, forming roads, &c. As this mortality is given 
 for the years 1816 to 1820, it is possible that they now partake in 
 the increased healthiness, apparent amongst the troops of late 
 years. This description of force was first introduced by the Dutch 
 Government, and it is mentioned as a singular fact, that no 
 descendants can be traced of the 9000 imported by the Dutch 
 before 1803, and that of 4,000 or 5,000 imported since by the 
 British Government, only 200 or 300 remain, though negro women 
 have been brought over, and the soldiers are mostly married men. 
 
 The Pioneer Corps are principally natives of Madras and Bengal. 
 From 1821 to 1833 the average annual number of admissions 
 amongst them was 156.3 per cent., nearly the same as that of Euro- 
 peans; and the mortality 4.05 per cent., or by the War office re- 
 turns, 4.3 per cent. This large mortality is accounted for by the 
 nature of their occupation, clearing the forests and jungles, forming 
 roads, &c, the unhealthy localities they are often compelled to reside 
 in, their filthy habits, want of shelter and proper food, and (from 
 their being mostly of low caste) their unrestrained indulgence in 
 ardent liquors 
 
 The Gun Lascars, employed in dragging the guns and taking 
 care of the ordnance stores, though they are of the same class of 
 men, yet being employed under the superintendence of European 
 officers, and living mostly in barracks, with regular duties, and good 
 diet, experience less sickness than even the natives of Ceylon ; the 
 admissions being only 109.6 per cent. : and the total mortality 1.37 
 per cent. 
 
 The armed Lascoreyns are natives of Ceylon, raised in 1818 
 amongst the inhabitants friendly to British rule, and employed in 
 protecting the revenue, and in the duties of police for the interior. 
 Their services are not arduous. They live in barracks, but both the 
 sickness and mortality, experienced amongst them, appear unusually 
 high for natives in their own country; the former being 126.3 per 
 cent, per annum, and the latter by the War office returns 2.58 per 
 cent. 
 
 We shall conclude by presenting to the reader a general com- 
 parison of the mortality amongst European and Black Troops in 
 
 M 
 
82 
 
 Ceylon, as nearly as possible, arranged in periods corresponding with 
 those given in the last letter. 
 
 TABLE V. 
 
 Showing the Mortality per cent, of Strength amongst European nd Black 
 Troops in Ceylon. 
 
 
 Her Majesty's Troops. 
 
 Malays. 
 
 Pioneer Corps. 
 
 
 Constantly 
 Sick. 
 
 Admitted. Died. 
 
 i 
 
 Admitted. 
 
 Died. 
 
 Admitted. 
 
 Died. 
 
 1817-9 
 
 8.26 
 
 228. 
 
 14.00 
 
 176. 
 
 4.95 
 
 
 
 1820-4 
 
 7.32 
 
 159. 
 
 7.14 
 
 108. 
 
 2.40 
 
 1821-4 161. 
 
 5.37 
 
 1825-9 
 
 7.5 
 
 178. 
 
 5.04 
 
 101. 
 
 2.38 
 
 141. 
 
 2.76 
 
 1830-4 
 
 4.7 
 
 137. 
 
 4.80 
 
 91. 
 
 1.98 
 
 1830-3 175. 
 
 3.50 
 
 1835-6 
 
 5.1 
 
 130. 
 
 4.45 
 
 102. 
 
 2.25 
 
 
 
 In a recent report, which Colonel Tulloch presented in September, 
 1847, to the Statistical Society, showing the improvement in health 
 which had taken place in various stations, he mentions that the 
 average mortality in the years 1844-5 amongst European regiments 
 in Ceylon, was reduced to 4.42 per cent., which being compared 
 with the average for the 20 years preceding 1836, 7.5 per cent., 
 show r s a reduction in the number of deaths of more than 3 per 
 cent, per annum of the strength ; so that the mere saving of human 
 life is equivalent to twice the number of deaths which occur in the 
 British army at home. A similar result occurred in the same period 
 in the Ceylon Rifle regiment, composed principally of Malays, where 
 the mortality, from an average of 2.7 per cent, in the 20 years 
 preceding 1836, was reduced to 2.1 per cent, in the two years 1845 
 and 6. 
 
 In drawing attention to these valuable reports of Colonel Tul- 
 loch, as exhibiting the comparative effects of climate on different 
 classes of the men, it may not be out of place to observe, that the 
 mortality amongst soldiers appears to be the' best series of observa- 
 tions from which an unbiassed judgment can be formed. Inde- 
 pendent of the different bodies of troops being nearly of the same 
 average ages, their duties being easily defined, their diet regulated, 
 and their health subject to the most careful medical superintendence, 
 it is the interest of Government to ascertain the causes of every 
 change by which their health may suffer, or their efficiency be pro- 
 
83 
 
 moted, and thus a variety of elements exists for an uniformity of 
 observation which would be wanting were a comparison instituted 
 amongst the civil populations of different countries. All the most 
 important facts, reduced to the same standard of comparison, have 
 been collected in this and the two preceding letters, and the reader 
 will find in the documents referred to, other details and observations 
 well worthy of his attentive perusal. It will only remain to notice, 
 in a concluding letter, the sickness and mortality in the Presidency 
 of Bombay. 
 
 I remain, Sir, 
 
 Your obedient servant, 
 
 CRITO. 
 London, 8th February, 1848. 
 
 EUROPEAN AND NATIVE TROOPS IN THE BOMBAY 
 PRESIDENCY. 
 
 Letter IV. 
 
 To the Editor of The Post Magazine. 
 
 Sib, — Having in the three preceding letters examined the per- 
 centage of mortality amongst the troops both in the Presidencies 
 of Bengal and Madras and their dependencies, as well as that of 
 officers and civilians in all the three Presidencies, it only remains 
 to collect the facts relating to the health and mortality of the 
 troops in the Presidency of Bombay and the adjoining countries, in 
 which a portion of these forces has been employed. In addition to 
 the return to the order of the House of Commons dated 16th June, 
 1845, to which we have before alluded, we must avail ourselves of 
 " the vital statistics of the Bombay Native army at every age, from 
 20 to 52, for the years 1842, 1843, and 1844," presented by Col. 
 Sykes in a valuable paper published in the tenth volume of the 
 Statistical Journal. As these tables have been worked out from 
 the original observations by Mr. Neison it would be unjust to pass 
 oveT without notice the deserved compliment which Col. Sykes 
 pays " to the indefatigable perseverance, love of his subject, and 
 readiness to oblige," with which his valuable coadjutor so freely lent 
 the aid of his great talents and practical experience in investigating 
 this interesting subject. 
 
 M 2 
 
84 
 
 The principal features of the Bombay Presidency are the Western 
 Ghauts or Hills, forming the boundary of the Deccan towards the 
 Sea. They extend from about twenty-one to eleven degrees north 
 latitude. At their commencement, they may be 60 miles from the 
 coast ; but in the neighbourhood of Bombay, they approach within 
 30 miles, and south of fifteen degrees they almost touch the coast 
 in many places. They are covered with thick forests of valuable 
 wood, teak, and in one part sandal wood, and are traversed by 
 numerous streams which in the rainy season become furious 
 torrents. The tract along the sea shore is covered with sand, on 
 which cocoa-nut and palm trees are abundant, and in the small 
 valleys amongst the hills rice is much cultivated after the rains. 
 The south-west monsoon sets in about the beginning of June, is at 
 its height in July, and terminates in October. The annual quantity 
 of rain in Malabar amounts to 116 inches, at Bombay to 64 inches, 
 and further north still less. The mean annual temperature at Bom- 
 bay is about 80°. The territories annexed to the Presidency of 
 Bombay extend to about 15° north latitude, and the climate of this 
 coast is considered healthy, in spite of the cultivation of rice and 
 the abundance of rain. ^ 
 
 European Troops. — According to the returns first named, the 
 maximum strength was in 1843, 5022 men, but the average force 
 for 20 years, 1825 to 1844, was 2549, on which number the average 
 admissions into hospital were 4436, being the proportion of 174 
 per cent. On reference to the previous letters, this proportion will 
 be found to be nearly the same as the average admissions amongst 
 Europeans in Bengal ; but nearly a third more than those in the 
 Madras Presidency. The maximum of admissions was in 1837, 
 and the minimum in 1841. 
 
 The average per-centage of deaths from all causes including 
 cholera, was 5.08 per cent., nearly one-third less than the mortality 
 in Bengal, but nearly one-third more than the mortality in the 
 Madras Presidency. The maximum was in 1826, 11.52 per cent., 
 and the minimum in 1830, and 2, — 2.48 and 2.43 per cent, respec- 
 tively. 
 
 By cholera only, the mean mortality for 20 years was .56 per 
 cent., being only half the mortality by the same disease in Bengal, 
 but nearly a third more than in the Madras Presidency. The 
 
85 
 
 maximum per-centage of deaths by cholera, in the Bombay Presi- 
 dency, was in 1842, when it rose so high as 1.91 per cent. ; but in 
 1825, not a single death occurred in a force of nearly 2000 men. 
 
 The average invaliding per annum for 20 years, was 3.16 per 
 cent, which being added to the total average mortality gives 8.23 
 per cent. ; which is equivalent to supposing that a regiment would 
 be entirely renewed in little more than 12 years, being three years 
 longer than an European regiment in Bengal, but Jfive years less 
 than one stationed in the Madras Presidency. 
 
 The average strength of her Majesty's regiments in Bombay for 
 the two years 1845-6 was 5517; and the mortality amongst them 
 was estimated by Colonel Tulloch at 10.52 per cent., being double 
 that of the average of European troops in the Company's service. 
 In 1845, the mortality was 13.05 per cent. ; in 1846 7.15 per cent. 
 But some of her Majesty's regiments had been exposed to the 
 climate of Scinde, and suffered under its effects, or were still sta- 
 tioned there ; and, without knowing the proportion of each force, it 
 would be unjust to draw any conclusions from so short a period, or 
 to institute any comparison without more complete information. 
 
 Native Tkoops. — The average number of native troops em- 
 ployed during the 20 years, 1825 to 1844, was 31,448; the 
 greatest number being 49,873 in 1844, during the military opera- 
 tions in Scinde. 
 
 The average number of admissions into hospital was 91.7 per 
 cent., but in the year 1839, when the occupation of Scinde took 
 place, the average number was 105 per cent., and in 1840, 113 per 
 cent. The average of admissions is much higher than either in the 
 Presidency of Bengal or Madras, being in the former only 54 per 
 cent., and in the latter only 78 per cent., as we have already 
 shown. 
 
 The average number of deaths for the 20 years, from all causes, 
 including cholera, was 1.29 per cent, per annum, being rather more 
 than two-thirds of the deaths in Bengal, and about three-fifths of 
 those in the Madras Presidency. By comparing the mortality with 
 the admissions into hospital, it will appear, that no great reliance 
 can be placed on the latter to prove the fatality of diseases, since 
 the average of deaths is the smallest where the number of admis- 
 sions is the greatest. The comparative facilities afforded for 
 
86 
 
 admissions, or the different regulations of the service, may account 
 for great variation in the proportions ; but the statement may be 
 useful, as showing the relative diminution of force in the army from 
 sickness, as it is to be presumed that soldiers not in the hospital 
 are compelled to take some portion of their share in the service. 
 The greatest mortality was in 1839, a year of active warfare, 2.38 
 per cent. ; but leaving out the year 1843, when it was as low as .69 
 per cent., not one half of the mortality in the British army at home, 
 and which is probably an incomplete return, the year 1831 shows 
 the least mortality, being only .78 per cent. 
 
 The mortality by cholera only, averaged .28 per cent., being 
 rather more than in Bengal, but not half the mortality from the 
 same cause in the Madras Presidency. 
 
 The average invaliding was comparatively high, 3.31 per cent., 
 being twice as high as in Bengal. Adding the invaliding to the 
 mortality, the average result is 4.6 per cent. ; or, one with another, 
 a regiment would be entirely renewed in 22 years, being eight years 
 less than in the Bengal, and three years less than in the Madras 
 Presidency ; but still nearly twice as long as an European regiment 
 in the same Presidency. 
 
 The following Table exhibits a comparison of the mortality 
 
 amongst European and Native troops, arranged in the same periods 
 
 as those for the other Presidencies in the last two letters, and with 
 
 which it may be properly examined. It is stated that in 1842, the 
 
 returns from Scinde were incomplete ; but it would appear by the 
 
 results that 1841 and 1843 were also defective. 
 
 TABLE I. 
 
 Showing the Mortality per cent, of Strength of the European and Native 
 Troops in the Presidency of Bombay. 
 
 
 Europeans. 
 
 Natives . 
 
 Deaths from 
 Cholera only. 
 
 Admissions into 
 Hospital. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Deaths 
 from all 
 causes. 
 
 Deaths 
 
 Invalided, from all 
 
 causes. 
 
 Invalided. 
 
 Europeans 
 
 Natives 
 
 Europeans 
 
 Natives. 
 
 1825.9 
 1830-4 
 1835-9 
 1840-4 
 
 7.11 
 3.19 
 5.21 
 5.32 
 
 4.45 
 2.94 
 2.94 
 2.71 
 
 1.39 
 0.97 
 1.44 
 1.37 
 
 , 2.98 
 4.18 
 3.20 
 3.30 
 
 .44 
 .38 
 .50 
 
 .87 
 
 .28 
 .30 
 .30 
 .33 
 
 237. 
 
 207. 
 
 228. 
 
 97. 
 
 88. 
 
 86. 
 
 89. 
 
 103. 
 
 Mean 
 
 5.21 
 
 3.26 l 1.29 
 
 I 
 
 3.41 
 
 .55 
 
 .30 
 
 192. 
 
 92. 
 
87 
 
 • The difference between the mortality of Europeans and Natives 
 is still very great. On the average of the last five years the former 
 will appear to be nearly four times the latter. This difference will 
 probably be greatly decreased, as the gradual removal of troops to 
 stations, which experience points out as conducive to health, may 
 be expected to produce a favourable effect. The hills, which rise 
 above the Concan to the height of 4000 feet, are much frequented 
 by invalids in the hot season ; and though the heavy rains, which 
 fall in the hills, may have prevented the establishment of canton- 
 ments, yet a sanatorium has been formed at Malcolmpett, at the 
 height of 4,500 feet, on the Mahabaleshwar hills, about 25 miles 
 from the coast, and has proved of the greatest service. The rain, 
 however, which falls here, averages 239 inches annually, and at 
 Randalla, 1740 feet above the sea, it averages 168 inches. Further 
 eastward, at Poonah, only 23.4 inches fell, when the mortality 
 amongst the European troops was only 2.3 per cent. These troops 
 were removed here and to other stations from the Island of Bombay 
 and Kolabah, where the mortality had been very great. The change 
 is another proof of the advantage to which the prosecution of these 
 enquiries may be expected to lead. 
 
 The documents, from which the tables of mortality according 
 to ages of the Native troops in the Bombay Presidency, were 
 compiled, were drawn up by the Military Auditor General in 
 Bombay, General Barr. It is unnecessary here to enter into 
 a full description of the original returns. They are complete 
 for the years 1842, 3, and 4, and were prepared for the purpose of 
 ascertaining the climate of Scinde on the health of the troops. The 
 general results may be stated as follows. 
 
 The average strength for three years was 33,053, and the average 
 mortality, including Cholera, was 2.70 per cent. The mortality 
 appears to have been gradually diminishing, being in each of the 
 three years respectively 3.3, 2.7, and 2.25 per cent. In Tables I. II. 
 and III., the absolute mortality of the Native army in Bombay, and 
 the proportion dying per cent, at each age from 21 to 52 is given, 
 and in Tables IV. and V., the mortality amongst the troops in 
 Scinde is distinguished from those not in Scinde at all during the 
 three years referred to. The average mortality per cent, is also 
 given in quinquennial periods of age ; but we have rearranged them 
 
88 
 
 into classes corresponding with the periods of age, quoted in pre- 
 vious letters, so as to allow of a more accurate comparison being 
 instituted. The average mortality per annum at all ages amongst 
 the troops in Scinde was 4.33 per cent., and amongst those not in 
 Scinde 1.97 per cent. Colonel Sykes observes, that, inclusive of the 
 climate of Scinde and the cholera, the average mortality of the troops 
 in the Presidency of Bombay is less than that of the Royal troops 
 serving in the Ionian islands, the latter being 2.83, and the formeralso 
 2.79 per cent. But a still greater difference will be observed by 
 comparing these results with the mortality for a longer series of 
 years, given from another source in the Table above. 
 
 To those who are acquainted with the country, the following 
 Table, showing the proportions to the districts which supply soldiers 
 to the Bombay army, and the castes of which they are composed, 
 will be interesting. The Concan is the low land at the foot of the 
 Ghauts north and south of Bombay, and the Deccan is the Mahratta 
 country above the Ghauts, from which Colonel Sykes is surprised 
 to find so small a proportion of the soldiers enlisted. The Jews are 
 described as valuable from their steadiness and ability. 
 
 TABLE -II. 
 
 Showing the Proportions per cent, of Country and Caste of the Native 
 Soldiers in the Bombay Army. 
 
 
 Country. 
 
 Christians 
 
 Jews 
 
 Moosulmen 
 
 Hindoos 
 
 Low Castes 
 
 Parsees 
 
 Caste. 
 
 Concan 
 
 Goozrat 
 
 Deccan 
 
 Hindoostan 
 
 Madras 
 
 Malabar 
 
 37.6 
 1.7 
 6.4 
 
 52.2 
 
 .8 
 
 1.3 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.00 
 
 8.90 
 
 76.07 
 
 13.00 
 
 .03 
 
 
 100. 
 
 100. 
 
 The next Table deserves consideration, as containing almost the 
 only authentic observations, which have yet been brought together, 
 of the mortality amongst the Natives of India according to ages. 
 By an abstract from the Madras Athenaeum, which was reprinted 
 in the Post Magazine for the 12th of February, 1848, it appears, 
 that Natives of India are assured at one office in the Presidency of 
 Bombay, at rates of Premium considerably under those charged for 
 Europeans in the same Presidency. From the comparison of all 
 
89 
 
 the previous Tables, there can be no doubt of the safety of such 
 
 reduction on a general scale; but whether the benevolent 
 
 anticipations of Colonel Sykes with regard to diffusing the benefits 
 
 of assurance amongst the civil population in the service of 
 
 government, could be realized from the present observations, 
 
 remains still doubtful. It will be seen that the mortality per cent. 
 
 at different ages varies much, and in a manner different from that 
 
 of ordinary Tables. It is probable, therefore, that some causes 
 
 may be at work amongst the troops, which would not affect the 
 
 civil population. At the same time, these Tables form interesting 
 
 records of facts, and may lead to subsequent and more important 
 
 inquiries. 
 
 TABLE IIL 
 
 Showing the Mortality in the Native Army in the Bombay Presidency in 
 100, existing at each Age. 
 
 
 Proportion per cent. 
 
 Deaths per cent, at each 
 
 
 
 
 
 existing at different Ages. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Actuaries' 
 
 
 North- 
 
 Ages. 
 
 
 
 Table. 
 
 and Wales. 
 
 ampton 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Table. 
 
 
 Whole 
 
 In 
 
 Not in 
 
 Whole 
 
 In 
 
 Not in 
 
 Males. 
 
 Males. 
 
 
 
 Army. 
 
 Scinde. 
 
 Scinde. 
 
 Army. 
 
 Scinde. 
 
 Scinde. 
 
 
 
 
 21.24 
 
 44.98 
 
 42.34 
 
 46.24 
 
 10.13 
 
 16.31 
 
 7.40 
 
 3.50 
 
 2.81 
 
 6.06 
 
 25.29 
 
 19.92 
 
 23.23 
 
 18.36 
 
 14.25 
 
 21.74 
 
 9.55 
 
 4.37 
 
 4.10 
 
 8.14 
 
 30.34 
 
 7.65 
 
 9.29 
 
 6.85 
 
 13.34 
 
 17.50 
 
 10.52 
 
 4.29 
 
 5.06 
 
 8.86 
 
 35.39 
 
 14.06 
 
 14.16 
 
 14.02 
 
 13.74 
 
 23.92 
 
 8.92 
 
 5.47 
 
 5,47 
 
 9.72 
 
 40.44 
 
 8.19 
 
 7.28 
 
 8.63 
 
 15.02 
 
 23.74 
 
 11.69 
 
 6.38 
 
 7.05 
 
 11.13 
 
 45.49 
 
 3 81 
 
 2.99 
 
 4.19 
 
 16-12 
 
 21.54 
 
 14.39 
 
 8.44 
 
 7.18 
 
 12.66 
 
 50,52 
 
 1.39 
 
 .71 
 
 1.71 
 
 9.73 
 
 18.55 
 
 7.62 
 
 5.32 
 
 4.29 
 
 8.83 
 
 
 100. 
 
 100. 
 
 100. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Amongst the regiments, not serving in Scinde in 1844, were 
 included six regiments, which had been employed in that country 
 in 1842 and 1843, and from the sickness contracted whilst there f 
 the mortality on their return was nearly the same as whilst they 
 were in that country. This would require a deduction of .58 per 
 cent. from the total mortality of the army "not in Scinde," reducing it 
 from 1.97 to 1.39 per cent., which is not widely different from the 
 male population of England and Wales, and under the mortality of 
 the Northampton Table, of Dundee, of France, and the city of 
 Glasgow, as computed by Mr. Neison. On examining the above 
 there will be noticed first, the very singular diminution of numbers 
 existing between the ages of 30 and 34, when compared with the 
 
90 
 
 periods before and after ; secondly, that though the total under the 
 
 age of 29 is nearly the same both "in Scinde " and "not in 
 
 Scinde," yet the proportion existing between 25 and 29 is much 
 
 greater, and the proportion under 25 much less in the former 
 
 territory ; thirdly, that of the army " not in Scinde," the mortality 
 
 per cent, at each age, under the age of 35, is about 20 per cent. 
 
 greater than that of the Northampton Table ; but above ,that age, 
 
 by uniting the periods of five into ten years, it is nearly the same 
 
 as the latter table : and, lastly, that below the age of 29, which 
 
 comprised 65 per cent, of the whole army, the mortality "in Scinde " 
 
 was about two and a quarter times as great as that of the troops 
 
 "not in Scinde." 
 
 The following general summary of facts, computed by Mr. 
 
 Edmonds, for all the three Presidencies, is taken from the paper 
 
 before referred to, published in the Lancet, for June 17th, 1838, 
 
 showing the proportions of sickness and deaths which occurred 
 
 during the years 1827, 1828, and 1829, in the total army of the 
 
 East India Company, amounting to 11,877 Europeans and 77,442 
 
 Native Troops. 
 
 TABLE IV. 
 
 Showing the proportion of Sickness and Mortality per cent, of Strength 
 amongst European and Native Troops in all India. 
 
 Europeans 
 
 Natives . 
 
 Cases of 
 Attack. 
 
 186.6 
 54.6 
 
 Constantly 
 Sick. 
 
 9.20 
 3.22 
 
 Deaths in 
 One Year. 
 
 5.33 
 1.43 
 
 Deaths in 
 100 cases. 
 
 2.86 
 2.63 
 
 Mean Dura- 
 tion of each 
 case in Days. 
 
 18.0 
 21.6 
 
 This little Table will afford a general measure of comparison 
 with the results more recently given for each Presidency. In the 
 original Table some of the classes of diseases are distinguished 
 under each of- the above heads, and lead to some curious results ; 
 as, for instance, that the duration of each case, though on the 
 general average longer amongst Natives than Europeans, is, by the 
 more severe diseases, such as fever, dysentery, &c, less in the 
 proportion of 14 to 17; whilst the milder diseases are longer 
 amongst the Natives, in the proportion of 28 to 21 days. 
 
 In this and the preceding letters, want of space would not allow 
 of our examining more in detail the causes, which have produced 
 the great mortality of Europeans in India, when compared with 
 
91 
 
 that of Natives ; but the facts which have been brought together 
 deserve attentive consideration. They prove that the indulgence 
 in stimulating food and exciting drinks, intended to increase the 
 appetite and support the strength, have a contrary effect. The 
 substitution of porter and coffee, as beverages, in lieu of the ardent 
 spirits, which formerly were so freely served out, has been found to 
 have the most beneficial effect on the health of the European troops ; 
 and the most healthy even amongst the Natives are those, who, by 
 their religious observances, are restricted to farinaceous or vegetable 
 diet and total abstinence from spirituous liquors. It is not intended 
 to infer that the great sickness and mortality experienced by 
 Europeans in a tropical climate, is entirely attributable to their 
 habits of life, still less that they should, without any precautions, 
 reduce themselves to the diet of the Natives ; but it must be borne 
 in mind, that formerly more stimulating food and beverage was re- 
 commended than the soldier would even be allowed in this country, 
 and what was originally intended for his good, may, by his own 
 excesses, have led to habits fatal to the constitution. Perhaps a 
 still more important enquiry for the European troops is that into 
 the causes of unheal thiness in particular stations. The removal of 
 these causes, or, where that is impracticable, the choice of different 
 stations, may lead to a vast improvement in the sanitary condition 
 of the army in India. It has been shown that localities exist, 
 frequently in the neighbourhood of unhealthy stations, where the 
 mortality scarcely exceeds that experienced amongst British troops 
 at home. Several valuable reports from different stations, 
 furnished by talented medical officers in the Company's service, 
 have been printed at the Calcutta press ; but for want of uniformity 
 in plan and observation are not easily combined into one. The 
 result, however, as far as the examination has proceeded, is most 
 cheering, and the climate of India, formerly considered so fatal, is 
 already beginning to lose its terrors, and we shall probably find, 
 that the European, with the exercise of common prudence and self 
 restraint, may enjoy a comparative healthiness little inferior to that 
 in his own country. 
 
 I remain, Sir, your obedient servant, 
 
 CRITO. 
 London, February 21st, 1848. 
 
 n 2 
 
92 
 
 ON THE CAPITAL OF LIFE ASSURANCE COMPANIES. 
 
 Lktter I, 
 To the Editor of The Post Magazine. 
 
 Sir, — In considering the question of the Capital of Assurance 
 Companies, it is of the utmost importance to distinguish between 
 the accumulation of premiums after the payment of the annua! 
 claims and expenses of management, and that, which is the more 
 correct application of the word — the sum either borrowed or 
 reserved, which the company employs for the purpose of obtaining, 
 securing, or increasing their business. To those, who are accus- 
 tomed to the management of these concerns, this distinction may 
 appear unnecessary, because by them the mistake is not liable to be 
 made. But the mere assurer so frequently falls into error on this 
 subject, that it is by no means an uncommon expression from his 
 lips, " what a large capital such a society has," when he merely 
 means to assert, that it possesses a certain amount of stock in the 
 public funds, or laid out on mortgages. He is perfectly ignorant, 
 whether the society may not be at the same time in a state of insol- 
 vency, and consequently possesses no capital at all. It cannot be 
 too often and too forcibly impressed on the mind of the ordinary 
 assurer, that the amount of stock in the funds or other securities, 
 which he is pleased to consider as capital available for any purpose, 
 but especially for the purpose of being divided amongst the mem- 
 bers, if in their opinion it is increasing too fast, is no guide what- 
 ever to the actual condition of the society. One company may- 
 have doubled the value of its accumulations, and yet be in a state of 
 bankruptcy by having more than doubled the present value of its 
 liabilities; % whilst another, with a much slower apparent increase, 
 may be in a position to give a large per-centage of bona fide profits 
 out of a fund, which may appear a miserable pittance, when 
 compared with that of its more dashing neighbour. We proceed, 
 however, to consider for the benefit of the assuring public ; first, 
 what is the meaning of the Capital of a Life Assurance Company 
 and what is its object ; secondly, at what cost is it obtained ; and 
 thirdly, what are the advantages to be derived from its employ- 
 ment. 
 
 1. The two questions, comprised under the first head, are so 
 
intimately connected, that they may be almost considered and 
 answered as one. Capital may be employed in a variety of ways. 
 In manufactures, it is the sum which is necessary to purchase the 
 raw material and pay for the wages of the workmen, and the neces- 
 sary expenses of the establishment in which their labour is carried 
 on. The difference between this outlay and the increased value 
 which is given to the raw material by the skill of the workman 
 forms the profits or the interest on the capital invested* But there 
 are other investments of capital, in which the reasons for the wide 
 difference in the profit which it returns, are not at first sight so 
 clearly intelligible, amongst which may be enumerated the different 
 species of the Public Funds, Shares, Foreign Stocks, Railway 
 Debentures, &c. In these, the owner expects to receive such an 
 annual rate of interest for his money, as will bear some proportion 
 to the risk which he runs, of not obtaining the full amount which 
 he has invested, whenever he wishes to withdraw his original 
 capital. In Proprietary Assurance offices, the capital which he 
 advances, is required solely for the purpose of taking off from the 
 assurer the risk of those sudden and violent fluctuations in mor- 
 tality, which may occur more particularly in the early stages of a 
 society, when the number of members is not sufficient to afford an 
 equable and average number of deaths. The premiums, which will 
 be adequate in the long run to pay all the claims, may not, at this early 
 period, have accumulated to a sufficient sum to meet the demands 
 arising from an unusual amount of mortality. The capital, of 
 which we speak, is therefore employed in giving confidence to the 
 assurer, that the engagement made with him by the company will 
 be faithfully fulfilled, and that if the premiums already received, 
 laid out at interest, be not sufficient to afford payment of his claim, 
 he shall have this additional security on which he may rely. The 
 risk which the lender of the capital runs is twofold ; — that of the 
 actual risk of a number of deaths above the average, occurring out 
 of a number of lives, too small to afford the fair average of the popu- 
 lation, from which the Tables of Premiums may be constructed ; — 
 and secondly, that the managers of the company, relying on having 
 a fund, on which they can fall back in case of need, may be less 
 careful in the selection of lives, in order to give a temporary eclat or 
 halo of prosperity at the commencement of an undertaking, and 
 
94 
 
 thus increase the growth of the society. The lender of the capital, 
 in the terms which he makes with the society, consequently incurs 
 both these risks, for which he expects to be fairly remunerated. 
 We have here only considered the lender of the capital as a single 
 individual, since it is immaterial in theory into how many shares 
 the amount required may be divided. All the partners are supposed 
 to be placed on the same footing, and to have agreed amongst them- 
 selves, as to the termson whichthey are willing to make their advances. 
 The consideration of what may be deemed a just return for the risks 
 which they run, will come more properly under the second head, 
 where it may be illustrated by a few practical examples, of the cost 
 at which the public are buying this kind of security, yet it may be 
 not out of place here to remark, that in a well constituted proprie- 
 tary office, where the premiums are adequate in themselves to cover 
 the ordinary risks, the greatest peril which the proprietors incur is 
 in the early infancy of the company. As the numbers increase, the 
 doctrine of averages will prove that the deviations from the mean 
 number of deaths become contracted, in proportion, within narrower 
 limits. If the society should comprise a very large number of 
 members, the variations from the average in the number of deaths 
 will be so small, that a mere trifle set apart from the funds of the 
 society, year by year, would be sufficient to assure their own fluctu- 
 ations, and enable them to dispense with the security of the proprie- 
 tary body altogether. Yet it is singular, that in almost every case, 
 the proprietors, who in the first instance generally act sufficiently 
 on the rules of common sense and fair commercial dealing to require 
 an adequate return for the early risks which they incur, instead of 
 diminishing their claims with the growth of the society, share 
 largely in its increasing prosperity, and the less their capital is in 
 danger or their shares liable to calls , the more they obtain for its nomi- 
 nal use. It is true, that if the directors or assurers, believing that 
 the large accumulation of the early premiums and the diminished 
 mortality experienced are to be considered as proofs that the pre- 
 miums have been computed at much too high a rate, should divide 
 a portion of their surplus, without a due regard to the provision 
 necessary for the more advanced and more fatal ages, the share- 
 holders may again have to run the risk which ought to have passed 
 away, and may find themselves at last compelled to provide a 
 
95 
 
 guarantee against losses which they have, in many cases, helped to 
 create. But this is an event, which could only arise through bad 
 management, or from a combination of circumstances controlling 
 that watchful regard for their future interests, which it is presumed 
 that Directors, Shareholders, and Assurers are all, in general, anxious 
 to keep in view. 
 
 The capital, contracted to be supplied by the body of sharehol- 
 ders for the purposes above named, is seldom fully paid up. It is 
 customary for the shareholders to pay a certain proportion, usually 
 not exceeding a tenth part of the whole amount subscribed, and to 
 enter into engagements to pay the remainder whenever due notice 
 is given to them that it is required. By this means, the company 
 is saved from the heavy payments of interest, which would fre- 
 quently be a serious drain on their resources, since they could 
 seldom obtain a larger rate of interest than is yielded by the Public 
 Funds, whilst the shareholders, from the reasons before given, 
 expect an additional interest in proportion to the peculiar risk 
 which they believe they run. The difference between the two rates 
 of interest must be paid by the company out of the premiums received 
 from the assurers. It may be asserted by some parties, that no diffi- 
 culty will be experienced in obtaining 5 per cent, interest on lending 
 out, on good security, the capital borrowed from the proprietors ; but 
 as the very object of the engagement with the shareholders is to have 
 the money always available in case of sudden losses, it would 
 scarcely be prudent either to tie up any amount, where the sum 
 invested could not be immediately realized, or to seek for high rates 
 of interest with increased chances of loss. In whatever way it may 
 be invested, however, it is evident that any amount of capital, 
 larger than is absolutely necessary to render the assured safe, in the 
 event of their own accumulations failing them for the time to meet 
 a particular claim or claims, must be a drag and hindrance to the 
 increase of their business. It checks the growth of the society by 
 diminishing the amount of profit returned to the assured, and a 
 prudent management, if their interest be the same with that of the 
 members, will look closely into every item of unnecessary expen- 
 diture. It is more than probable, that the greater part of the 
 proprietary companies are formed, how r ever, by the shareholders 
 themselves, and the terms are consequently such as to afford them, 
 
96 
 
 for the use of their capital, the most favourable terms, which the 
 public are willing to. allow. In most cases the payment of a 
 small portion only of the shave is greatly in their favour, for as the 
 sum appropriated for dividend or bonus upon the shares is in 
 general a proportionate part of the profits, and the amount of which 
 remains the same whether it is to be divided over a greater or a 
 smaller portion of the capital, it, in the latter case, very much 
 enhances the value of the share in the market by increasing the per- 
 centage receivable on the sum actually advanced. Indeed, in this 
 sense, the smaller the amount called up, the more profitable will 
 the result be to the shareholder. But, on the other hand, the 
 assurers may find themselves in a proportionably worse position. 
 The shares in the first instance allotted to persons of whose ability 
 to meet their engagements the Directors have obtained satisfactory 
 evidence, may pass into the hands of others, who are buying them 
 merely as a profitable speculation, and neither intend nor may have 
 the means to complete the contract, to pay up the remainder, when 
 called upon. In case the society should, by a continual course of 
 misfortune or mis-management, have to fall back upon their share 
 holder's assistance, they would probably find that the great 
 inducements held out to the public by a large and guaranteed 
 capital, were merely nominal ; and that repudiation and trickery, 
 such as have so recently disgraced the character of the railway 
 world, would again be the established order of the day. Happily 
 they have hitherto escaped this fate, because hitherto all the good 
 fortune has been on the side of the proprietary bodies ; so much so 
 that, by far the majority of the new companies which have lately 
 sprung up, have been established on this plan of assurance. 
 
 There remains to be noticed a species of capital, which, though 
 not so clearly at first sight, yet in reality, answers the same pur- 
 pose ; and is to all intents the same protection or guarantee in a 
 Mutual as the subscribed capital is in the Proprietary company. 
 This is the Reserved fund, which, at each division of profits, is set 
 aside to form a security against unusual risks of mortality. This 
 is necessarily larger than need be laid by in a proprietary office ; 
 but where the society consists of a numerous body of members, may 
 with safety be gradually so reduced as to form a very small 
 proportion to the surplus actually divided ; always, however, with 
 
97 
 
 the proviso that the Directors have to deal only with a known or 
 established rate of mortality. If it should so happen, that the 
 mortality is increasing from year to year, whilst the number of 
 members remained stationary or actually diminished, a larger 
 reserve would be necessary to meet the increased risk of fluctuation 
 from the average. This is a point, which in a young society, and 
 every one may be called so which has not yet existed for forty or 
 fifty years, would require careful and anxious consideration. In 
 comparing the guarantee afforded by the reserve in the Mutual, with 
 the capital in the Proprietary company, it must be remembered, 
 that in the former the assurers are themselves receiving the annual 
 interest upon the fund set apart, whilst in the latter they are paying 
 away to other parties. As it will be perceived hereafter, that the 
 profits given up to the shareholders, frequently amount even in a 
 very few years, without reckoning the annual interest, to more than 
 the proportion of their shares which they have paid up, it is evi- 
 dent that the assurers might with equal safety have retained it 
 under their own control, for division amongst themselves when the 
 limits of insecurity had been passed. This, however, is a subject 
 which comes more properly under the second head of enquiry, and 
 which it will require another letter fairly to examine. 
 
 I remain, Sir, your obedient Servant, 
 London, April 14, 1848. CRITO. 
 
 ON THE CAPITAL OF LIFE ASSURANCE COMPANIES. 
 
 Letter II. 
 To the Editor of the Post Magazine. 
 Sir, — In continuation of the last letter on this subject, we come 
 now, in the second place, to the consideration of the question, at 
 what cost to the public the system of guaranteeing security to the 
 assurer,by the bargain made with the shareholder, is obtained. Now 
 it is evident that where no trickery is resorted to, to enhance the 
 price, or give a false quotation to shares, the real and intrinsic 
 value of all stocks is that which they bear on the public market. 
 Capitalists soon discover what will afford them the best and most 
 certain rate of interest, and an open competition quickly depresses 
 or raises the shares of an undertaking from the fictitious to the real 
 value. In first introducing to the public notice an undertaking, the 
 merits of which are known only to a few, it is possible that the 
 
98 
 
 craft or skill of interested and designing men may enable them to 
 take advantage of public credulity, and dispose of their shares at a 
 premium, which sinks as the real truth gradually, but necessarily 
 becomes known. Whenever it is noticed, that for a considerable 
 period a security, which the holder believes to be as certain as the 
 government funds, is sold at a discount to his imaginary value, so 
 as to pay a much larger interest to the purchaser, he may be sure, 
 that in the long run it is exposed to a peculiar risk which may not 
 be perceptible at first sight. In all these cases we speak of the 
 security referred to, as being open to fair and public competition, 
 when it will almost universally be found, that monied men will 
 neither allow that which is intrinsically good to escape their notice, 
 nor, on the other hand, continue to bid a high price for that which 
 does not possess the elements of stability or prosperity in itself. 
 How stands the case then with Proprietary Life Assurance offices ? 
 The answer is, that the shares of nearly all have quickly risen to a 
 considerable premium, and have reraained so, in spite of all the 
 changes which have taken place in other descriptions of property. 
 The risk to which the holders are liable, of being called upon to 
 pay up the difference, is of course estimated in the price of the 
 day, in the same manner as in railway shares, where the liability to 
 future calls is now the cause of so great depression in the value of 
 all the unfinished lines. The inference is, then, that the assurers 
 are almost in every instance paying more for the guarantee of the 
 shareholders than it is really worth, since it enables the latter to 
 obtain a premium so considerable. Every purchaser at the advanced 
 prices places himself in the position of the original shareholders as 
 to liability, and the premium is, in fact, the measure of the value, 
 which the assurers are giving away out of their own pockets, and 
 for which they receive no return whatever. The case stands thus : 
 A sells to B a property, which C is ready to buy of the latter at a 
 greatly advanced rate, and C would consequently have made better 
 terms with A than B has done. To this it may be replied that when 
 B made the bargain, he was not aware that it would have turned 
 out so favourable to himself. True, but when we see that nearly 
 all similar bargains have been so greatly in favour of the share- 
 holders against the assured, it is not unreasonable to conclude that 
 the latter have not sufficiently considered their own position, or 
 profited by the experience which has preceded them. Indeed, in 
 
99 
 
 the prospectus, recently published, of a newly proposed company, 
 the large profits gained by all previous proprietary bodies are held 
 out as a reason for an additional company being sure of success. 
 From whom are these large profits made ? Let the public reflect and 
 answer. It will perhaps hardly be imagined that in 41 companies 
 only enumerated in Mr. Lewis Pocock's useful little work,-" Familiar 
 explanations on the nature, advantages, and importance of Life 
 Assurance," published in 1842, the nominal guaranteed capital was 
 nearly £40,000,000 sterling ; and on looking over a number of 
 prospectuses at the end of 1847, we find 71 offices with a nominal 
 capital of very nearly £56,000,000. Can it be imagined that this 
 amount is ever intended to be called up ? If not, for what purpose 
 does it figure in prospectuses, except to persuade the assurers that 
 if the amount of profit may appear large on the capital actually 
 paid up, it is just that it should be so, because the distant liability 
 to complete the payment of this enormous sum is part of the im- 
 plied contract, and must be remunerated accordingly. On this 
 reasoning it would be both judicious and profitable to the share- 
 holders to double this nominal capital, if advertising such an exten- 
 sion would enlarge the business of the offices ; for the risk would 
 be diminished, and the profits increased. It is difficult to collect a 
 perfect account of the total amount of capital so guaranteed ; of 
 the proportion paid up, and of the present value of the shares ; but 
 the few following cases, extracted from WetenhaH's official list, will 
 sufficiently bear out the preceding observations. 
 
 TABLE I. 
 
 Showing the Prices of Shares in Proprietary Life Assurance Companies, on 
 the 4th April, 1848.— From Wetenhall's List. 
 
 Albion 
 
 Alliance 
 
 Atlas 
 
 British Commercial 
 Clerical, Medical, 
 
 and General 
 
 Ea^le 
 
 Globe 
 
 Guardian 
 
 Imperial 
 
 Law 
 
 Legal and General 
 Medical, Invalid, 
 
 and General 
 Rock . 
 
 No. of 
 
 Shares. 
 
 2,000 
 50,000 
 24,000 
 12,00* 
 
 5,000 
 
 20,000 
 Stock. 
 20,000 
 7,500 
 10,000 
 20,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 Amount 
 
 of 
 Shares. 
 
 £ 
 
 500 
 ICO 
 50 
 
 100 
 
 50 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 
 50 
 
 -so 
 
 5 
 
 Propor- 
 tion 
 paid up 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 100 
 
 36 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 Price. 
 
 £ s. d 
 
 75 
 
 17 10 
 
 11 2 G 
 
 5 17 
 
 20 
 
 5 17 6 
 
 119 
 
 41 10 
 
 14 10 
 
 45 
 
 4 10 
 
 2 10 
 
 4 5 
 
 Nominal 
 capital. 
 
 £ 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 1.200,000 
 
 000,000 
 
 500,0001 
 
 Total 
 paid tip, 
 
 Loss to 
 Value. the 
 
 Assurers 
 
 £ 
 
 100 000 
 
 £ 
 150,000 
 
 550,000 875,000 
 128,000 339,000 
 
 .60,000 
 50,000 
 
 70,500 
 100,000 
 
 1,000,000 100,000 117.500 
 1,000,000 1,000,000 1,190,0(0 
 
 2.0CO.000, 730.000J 890,000 
 
 750,000! 75,000! 108,750 
 
 1;000,000 10(1,000 450,0(0 
 
 1.000,000! 40,000 90,000 
 
 500,000 20,000| 25,000 
 
 1,000,000! 100,000| 850,000 
 
 £ 
 
 50,000 
 325,000 
 211,000 
 
 10,500 
 
 50,000 
 
 17,500 
 190,000 
 160,000 
 
 33,750 
 350.000 
 
 50,000 
 
 5,000 
 750,000 
 
 16,550,0 03053,01 :.202,7£0 
 
 2 
 
100 
 
 In order that no invidious distinction may appear to be made, the 
 preceding table is taken from a public printed document, and com- 
 prises only those offices to which the prices of the shares were 
 affixed on the date named. There are some against which the 
 number of shares is not given, and others of which the prices are 
 not quoted. What is actually stated is, therefore, merely a sample 
 of what a complete list would be ; but it is probable the result 
 would be nearly in the same proportion. Some of the companies 
 combine the business of fire and life assurance, and consequently 
 profess to need a larger capital ; but as the same doctrine of 
 averages governs the rate of premiums in each, and the mutual 
 system is as applicable to one as the other, the general conclusion 
 showing the large amount of profit, obtained by proprietary com- 
 panies, can hardly be disproved. It is possible, that in some of the 
 offices the number of shares has never been allotted, and if the re- 
 serve were thrown upon the market, the value of the rest would 
 probably be diminished. But this objection w T ould scarcely be 
 suggested by the companies themselves ; for if so, what becomes of 
 the guarantee to the assurers, which depends upon the shares being 
 in the hands of responsible parties, liable to pay up the calls ? The 
 general result of this short table is that upon a paid up capital of 
 £3,053,000, the profit to the proprietary bodies at the prices of the 
 day is £2,202,750 ; being an average gain of upwards of 72 per 
 cent, in the value of the capital, without reckoning the large interest 
 which has been already received, and which has tended to create 
 this enormous increase. In one of these offices, the Guardian, it 
 appears that the original call paid was only £10, and the difference 
 £530,000, though quoted as calls paid up, is really profit, which 
 has accrued upon the shares. This would reduce the proportion 
 actually paid to £2,523,000, and increase the present amount of 
 profit to upwards of 108 per cent. It must not be forgotten that 
 the value thus given is at a period when the public funds have 
 fallen in little more than three years, since January, 1845, nearly 
 20 per cent., and when all other property may consequently be ex- 
 pected to share in the general depreciation. All this amount of 
 guaranteed capital in the thirteen companies alluded to, must be in 
 addition to the amount arising from the accumulation of the annual 
 premiums : and which must of necessity in these, as well as in 
 
101 
 
 every other case in which the shares are at a premium not fictitious, 
 be not only sufficient to meet the liabilities of the company, but, 
 after estimating the value of all claims, to afford a large surplus to 
 the assurers, as well as to the shareholders. If not, the division, 
 which thus enhances the value of the shareholder's property, must 
 be made out of the premium fund, without regard to the claims that 
 may come upon it ; and in that case, woe betide the unfortunate 
 shareholders who are buying at what must then be deemed the 
 present ruinous prices. We do not believe that any respectable 
 companies are resorting to such a dishonest method of increasing 
 the value of the shares, and are compelled to conclude that the as- 
 surers are really paying for this excessive guarantee, whilst they are 
 themselves enjoying a state of prosperity, which, with prudent 
 management, goes far to prove the purchased security an extrava- 
 gant and unnecessary waste of their funds. 
 
 This brings us to a few observations on the third and last ques- 
 tion, namely, — the advantages to be derived from a proprietary 
 body and a Guarantee Fund ? We are justified in assuming, that 
 on the establishment of every office, care has been taken to ascer- 
 tain that the tables of mortality proposed for the calculations are 
 such as will nearly represent the mortality likely to be experienced 
 amongst the members of the company. If any difference be sup- 
 posed, it is always in favour of the society. It must also be assumed, 
 that in the formation of the table of premiums, the lowest rate of 
 interest has been taken, which, it is probable, will be realized by the 
 investment of the annual surplus. In the latter case, there can be 
 no excuse for falling into an error against the offices, since the prices 
 of the Government funds for so many years may prove an almost 
 c"ertain guide. We may safely conclude, that every company 
 reckons with confidence on obtaining the rate of interest assumed. 
 In fact, therefore, the premiums are of themselves sufficient to 
 cover the ordinary risk which is incurred by the company, and the 
 only guarantee given by the proprietary body, is against a degree of 
 mortality in any particular year, so great as to swallow up all the 
 previous accumulations of premiums and leave the company unable 
 to meet the engagements contracted in the policies. Now there 
 are several advantages enjoyed by the company, which, without any 
 guaranteed capital at all, form in fact a species of reserved fund to 
 
102 
 
 meet this very contingency. First, when the Society is in its earlier 
 stages, the difference, at all ages, between the premium for as- 
 surance for the current year, and that which is paid to cover a more 
 distant risk in the extremity of life, in policies made for the whole 
 continuance, is the largest, and consequently of itself affords a 
 surplus to meet the fluctuations in the amount of claims. Thus, at 
 the age of 40, by the Northampton Tables, the premium to assure 
 £100 for the whole continuance of life, is £3.397 ; whilst the pre- 
 mium to cover the risk of paying the same sum in one year only, is 
 £2.028, being a difference or surplus above the actual risk incurred 
 of £1.369, or 67J per cent, on the latter sum. That is to say, that 
 where a payment of £10,000 in the year was calculated upon, the 
 premiums for continuance would allow of an actual payment of 
 £16,750 ; or when 100 deaths were expected, would provide for so 
 large a number as 167, without drawing at all upon the Guarantee 
 Fund. Since no office accepts assurances up to the very extremity 
 of life, a similar difference will be found at every assurable age, 
 diminishing slightly by the Northampton Table as we advance to- 
 wards the older ages. The following little Table will shew the 
 manner in which a surplus fund would thus be created in the first 
 year of assurance ; according to the Northampton rates, for every 
 £100 assured. In offices charging a lower rate of premium at the 
 younger ages, the surplus is considerably greater. 
 
 TABLE II. 
 
 Showing the difference between the Annual Premium for continuance and 
 for One Year only, accordiug to the Northampton Rates. 
 
 Premiums. 
 
 
 Age. 
 
 Whole Life, 
 
 One Year. 
 
 Difference. 
 
 Per cent, on the latter, 
 I 'rem iu in, 
 
 30 
 40 
 50 
 GO 
 
 £ 
 2667 
 3.397 
 4.630 
 6.366 
 
 £ 
 1.672 
 2.028 
 2.754 
 3.90S 
 
 £ 
 
 .995 
 1.369 
 1.776 
 2.458 
 
 59 
 67 
 61 
 63 
 
 It is true, that this surplus diminishes from year to year, as the 
 age of the assurer increases, thus in the above table, a party assur- 
 ing at the age of 30, would pay £2.667, and would continue to pay 
 the same premium during life. When he has attained to the age 
 of 40, and has consequently been ten years assured, £2.028 would 
 
103 
 
 assure him for the year; the difference is, therefore, .639 instead of 
 .995. At the age of 50 the difference is beginning to be on the 
 other side ; but our object is to prove that a surplus arises from the 
 premiums alone, which allows of a very wide fluctuation against the 
 office, at a time when the Guarantee Fund of the shareholders 
 would otherwise be running the greatest risk. As the numbers of 
 the assurers increase, the variation from the average number of 
 deaths becomes less and less. We cannot do better on this head 
 than refer the reader generally to the very valuable and popular 
 " Essay on Probabilities" by Professor de Morgan, a little work 
 which for its sound sense and practical character, if it be not al- 
 ready, deserves to be, in the hands of every one, interested in these 
 subjects. Instead of going into an explanation in this place, of the 
 mathematical reasoning, it will perhaps be sufficient to show by 
 one or two practical examples, the very trifling fluctuation which 
 takes place from year to year in the mortality amongst a large 
 
 number of lives. 
 
 TABLE III. 
 
 Showing the Deviations from the Average Mortality in England for Seven 
 Years, and in the Equitable Society for Four Years, and from the Policies 
 written off in the Equitable Society for Seven Years. 
 
 
 Fiom the Registrar 
 
 
 
 
 General's Seventh Re- 
 
 Mortality per cent. 
 
 Number of Policies written 
 
 
 port. Deaths per cent. 
 
 in the Equitable Society, 
 
 off from the oldest 5000 
 
 
 in England. 
 
 in the years 
 
 in the Equitable Society, 
 
 
 
 1829 to 1832. 
 
 from 1840 to 1846. 
 
 
 Males. 
 
 Females. 
 
 
 1838 
 
 2.340 
 
 2.140 
 
 1829 
 
 2.561 
 
 1840 
 
 268 
 
 1839 
 
 2.279 
 
 2.096 
 
 1830 
 
 2.745 
 
 1841 
 
 247 
 
 1840 
 
 2.375 
 
 2.205 
 
 1831 
 
 2.743 
 
 1842 
 
 269 
 
 1841 
 
 2.238 
 
 2.083 
 
 1832 
 
 3.211 
 
 1843 
 
 232 
 
 1842 
 
 2.239 
 
 2.095 
 
 
 
 1844 
 
 249 
 
 1843 
 
 2.198 
 
 2.041 
 
 
 
 1845 
 
 251 
 
 1844 
 
 2.236 
 
 2.074 
 
 
 
 1846 
 
 247 
 
 Mean 
 
 2.272 
 
 2.105 
 
 2.815 
 
 252 
 
 Greatest ex- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cess above 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 the average .103 
 
 -.100 
 
 
 .396 
 
 
 17. 
 
 By this it will be seen that in the population of England, esti- 
 mated on the 1st of July, 1841, at 15,928,000 the greatest variation 
 in excess above the average mortality in 7 years, was little more than 
 4| per cent, amongst males, and 4§ per cent, amongst females. The 
 mean number of living from 1829 to 1832 in the Equitable Society 
 
104 
 
 was 6,740 ; and the greatest excess of mortality above the average 
 was in 1832, which it will be recollected was a year of unusual 
 sickness. The excess in this year was so great as 14 per cent. ; 
 and may be considered as one of those extreme fluctuations to 
 which an established assurance office would be subject. The ex- 
 cess above the average number of policies, written off from the 
 oldest 5000 policies in seven years, is not equal to 7 per cent, in any 
 one year. These two latter statements are taken from printed 
 documents of the Society ; the first from the publication to which 
 we referred in a former letter on the selection of lives, and the 
 latter from a paper given away with the Prospectuses. The 
 general conclusion then is, that as the assurers increase in number, 
 the fluctuations of mortality diminish or become contracted. 
 
 There remains yet another point in favour of the office, and that 
 is discrimination in the selection of lives. Most of the tables of 
 premiums, except those formed from the actual experience of the 
 offices, are formed on the supposition that the tables of mortality 
 from which they are drawn, represent the average rate of mortality 
 in the population, from whom the assurers are selected. If the 
 Directors, therefore, by the skill of their medical officers, are en- 
 abled to choose only those lives which are above the average 
 degree of health, it results, both in theory and practice, that the 
 mortality in the first few years at least should be considerably in 
 favour of the company. Against all this, it may be urged, that the 
 public would rather purchase security at any price. It may be so, 
 if they are ignorant of the extreme improbability that their own 
 funds should be inadequate to meet the early claims ; but if they 
 consider these reasonings, which we trust are made simple and 
 clear enough for the ordinary man of business, they may deem on 
 the contrary, that the guarantee of other parties may be purchased 
 too dearly, and that it would be quite as safe and far more profit- 
 able for each living member to contribute his proportion of the 
 claim of the deceased member, in the improbable case that they 
 should be so unfortunate as to have lost the whole of the accumu- 
 lations of their own funds. They may rely upon it, that, with a 
 due number of members and proper management, such an event 
 must have been preceded by a general calamity or sickness, such 
 as would render doubtful even the guarantee of the most respect- 
 
105 
 
 able proprietary. One argument may be, and has been strongly 
 urged in prospectuses in favour of some Proprietary companies, that 
 the shareholders are compelled by their agreement to assure or to 
 keep on foot assurances, in proportion to the amount of their 
 shares. To this it may be answered, that as they take the profit in 
 a double capacity, both as shareholders and assurers, this can in no 
 wise benefit the other members of the company. It only places 
 them in the very singular position, so far as these policies are con- 
 cerned, of guaranteeing themselves payment of their own claims. 
 In other cases it is stated, that there is both a Guarantee Fund and 
 a Reserved Fund ; thus the Clerical, Medical, and General distribute 
 one-half of the profits to the assurers, one-sixth to the proprietors, 
 and one-third is reserved ; the Westminster and General gives four- 
 fifths of the profits to the assured, one-tenth to the subscribers, and 
 one-tenth to the guarantee, or, what may be called, the reserved 
 fund. This appears to be equivalent to saying that the assurers 
 maintain a reserved fund for their own benefit, and a guarantee 
 fund for the benefit of the proprietors, who thus enjoy the remu- 
 neration for the latter without incurring the risk. Is our object 
 then to point to any violent derangement of existing proprietary 
 companies ? Certainly not. This would indeed be to patronize 
 revolution on an extensive scale, and of this we have enough 
 already. What is theoretically good, it may yet be the very wan- 
 tonness of mischief to force into immediate practice. Rights may 
 be established — engagements contracted — legal and equitable 
 difficulties may lie in the way of the alteration of a system, which 
 might nevertheless be proved to be defective by reasoning, which 
 cannot be denied. The attempt to correct hastily even an acknow- 
 ledged evil may end in a thousand mischiefs more fatal than those 
 existing. Bickerings and disputes might lead to want of confidence, 
 and want of confidence to ruin ; but if the assurers, in a well 
 established company, had it in their power, by mutual agreement 
 with the shareholders, to persuade them to give up their claims for 
 a more than just — a liberal compensation, they might hereafter 
 obtain for themselves the full benefit of their own resources, which 
 are now being paid away for what cannot but be considered in many 
 cases, merely imaginary advantages. A few of the offices have 
 already had the wisdom to propose some such amicable arrange- 
 
 p 
 
106 
 
 ments, and the shareholders the good sense to accede to them. 
 The assurers in the Economic, for instance, in 1844, paid off their 
 shareholders with 100 per cent, profit, and are now flourishing as 
 a purely mutual company. The Westminster and General also 
 propose that the subscribed capital shall be eventually paid off, and 
 the Society thenceforth conducted on mutual principles. The 
 Imperial from 1820 to 1841, divided profits only once in every ten 
 years, and the shareholders then received one-third of the surplus, 
 but, at the latter period, an Act of Parliament was obtained 
 enabling them to divide every five years, and the shareholders 
 voluntarily consented to receive one-fifth instead of one-third of the 
 profits. The shareholders in the Victoria have in the last year, 
 voluntarily reduced their claims from one-half to one-fifth of the 
 profits, but are entitled to receive 5 instead of 4 per cent, on the 
 paid up capital, a moderate and judicious compensation. The 
 directors of the Rock have advertised their intention of applying to 
 Parliament for power to make, with the concurrence of their share- 
 holders, some very important and extensive alterations, which will 
 offer much greater advantages to the public, and probably open up 
 a new career of prosperity to the company. These are merely cited 
 as instances, that the difficulties are not insuperable, and that the 
 advantages of the course suggested are recognized even in existing 
 companies. The assurers may at least, in all future bargains with 
 proprietary bodies, consider whether the terms hitherto granted 
 have not in general been somewhat exorbitant, but if on reflection, 
 they are satisfied with the result, we can only congratulate the 
 shareholders on having had the good fortune so " to win the favour 
 of a discerning public." 
 
 I remain, Sir, 
 
 Your obedient servant, 
 
 CRITO. 
 London, April 20th, 1848. 
 
107 
 
 ON APPROXIMATIONS TO THE VALUES OF 
 ANNUITIES ON JOINT LIVES. 
 
 Letter I. 
 
 To the Editor of The Post Magazine. 
 
 Sir, — I do not remember any work, in which the following very 
 simple method of obtaining an approximation to the values of 
 annuities on joint lives at the next higher or lower rate of interest, 
 from any Tables of Mortality, from which the values of annuities 
 on Joint Lives are already calculated, for three rates of interest 
 (with equal intervals), or at the two next higher or lower rates, 
 where those at four rates per cent, (with equal intervals), have been 
 already computed. From the very great labour necessary to form 
 such Tables, involving, from the combination of each age with 
 every other age, the necessity of several thousand calculations, any 
 approximation which needs but a small amount of time and labour, 
 and does not greatly err from the truth, will be of great assistance 
 to those who may occasionally require the values of annuities on 
 Joint Lives at rates one or two per cent, higher than those given in 
 existing Tables. This approximation is derived from the calculus 
 of finite differences, and the rule is so exceedingly short and simple, 
 that even if it should happen to be already known to some of your 
 readers, whose professional studies have led them to improvements 
 in the application of the doctrines of Life Assurance, it deserves 
 to be more generally spread abroad. 
 
 The rule is merely this : — 
 
 Rule 1. — Having the Values of Annuities on Joint Lives at Three Rates of 
 Interest (with equal intervals) from any Table of Mortality given, — to 
 find an Approximate Value at the next Higher or at the next Lower Rate 
 of Interest. 
 
 For the first, — From the value at the lowest given rate of interest, deduct 
 three times the difference between the values at the other two rates. 
 
 For the second, — Merely reverse the operation. To the value at the highest 
 rate of interest, add three times the difference between the values at the 
 other two rates. 
 
 In the former case, the error will always be a plus quantity, and 
 in the latter a minus quantity. 
 
 The result in each case will be an approximate value for every 
 combination of ages, so near the truth as to appear quite surprising, 
 from the small amount of labour required in the computation. 
 
 This rule possesses many advantages in the particular cases 
 ■ ' p 2 
 
108 
 
 named, over the approximations at present given in the standard 
 works on Annuities, which we will presently examine. 
 
 First, — Its extreme shortness and simplicity, and that it is equally applicable 
 
 to Single Lives as to Joint Lives. 
 Second, — That it may be known to a certainty, on which side of the truth 
 
 the error lies. 
 Third, — Considering merely the difference in ages, that the error is always 
 
 the greatest where the pairs of Joint Lives are at equal ages (not a 
 
 frequent occurrence), and diminishes in proportion as the difference in the 
 
 ages is greater. 
 Fourth, — Considering the ages merely, — that the error is always greatest at 
 
 the youngest lives, and diminishes with every increase of age. 
 And Fifth, — That the error always diminishes in proportion, as the value 
 
 sought is at a higher rate of interest (the most frequent case required). 
 
 The principal point to be considered is the comparative accuracy 
 of the results by this rule, and in order to explain this by Tables, 
 to which the reader can refer, I will take the values of Single and 
 Joint Lives from the Northampton and Carlisle Tables, the former 
 being given for 3, 4, 5, and 6 per cent, in Dr. Price's " Observa- 
 tions on Reversionary Payments," and the latter, for every com- 
 bination of ages, in " Milne's Treatise," — both of which, will be 
 found reprinted in Mr. David Jones's very useful work on the 
 " Values of Annuities and Reversionary Payments." To compare 
 with these I have also added the yalues of Single and Joint Lives, 
 deduced from the combined experience of several of the Life 
 Assurance Companies, from which a complete collection of Tables 
 has been computed and published by Mr. Jenkin Jones. I have 
 only given the comparison from Mr. Edmonds' Table for Single 
 Lives, and at the equal ages of Joint Lives, because it is probable 
 that as his Tables are formed upon the hypothesis of a certain 
 Law of Mortality, and the probability of dying in a year increases 
 at every age in a regular progression up to the age of 55 ; and 
 thence with the same law, but at an increased rate, to the end of 
 life, a rule could be found which would give the exact value at any 
 given rate of interest for Joint Lives as well as Single Lives. 
 
 The following Tables, therefore, show the values of Annuities on 
 Joint Lives at 6 per cent., deduced by the rule above given, from the 
 values at the same ages at 3, 4, and 5 per cent. ; and to prove its 
 general application, also the values of Single Lives, from the North- 
 ampton and Carlisle Tables ; in every case marking the error, which 
 may be verified by turning to the correct values in the original 
 Tables. 
 
109 
 
 TABLE I. 
 
 Values of Annuities on Single Lives at 6 per cent., deduced from those at 
 3, 4, 5, per cent. 
 
 Northampton. 
 
 Carlisle. 
 
 Error by Milne's 
 approximation 
 from the Expec- 
 tation. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Value of 
 Annuity. 
 
 Error.+ 
 
 Value of 
 Annuity. 
 
 Error. + 
 
 10 
 30 
 50 
 70 
 90 
 
 13.511 
 
 11.795 
 
 9.451 
 
 5.720 
 
 1.689 
 
 .226 
 .113 
 .034 
 .004 
 nil. 
 
 14.764 
 
 13.169 
 
 10.676 
 
 6.004 
 
 2.268 
 
 .316 
 .149 
 .045 
 .006 
 .002 
 
 -1.212 
 
 - .651 
 
 - .345 
 
 - .023 
 
 TABLE II. 
 
 Values of Annuities on Single Lives at 8 per cent., deduced from those 
 at 5, 6, 7, per cent. 
 
 
 Northampton. 
 
 Carlisle. 
 
 
 Value of Annuity, j Error. + 
 
 Value of Annuity. 
 
 Error, -f 
 
 10 
 30 
 50 
 70 
 90 
 
 10.811 .197 
 9.643 .059 
 8061 .020 
 5.177 .001 
 1.624 -.001 
 
 11.476 
 
 10.571 
 
 9.014 
 
 5.412 
 
 2.135 
 
 .142 
 .073 
 .027 
 .002 
 .002 
 
 In comparing the error by Milne's approximation, deduced from 
 
 the Expectation, with that produced by using the preceding rule, 
 
 the errors in the latter, must be considered all minus ; Mr. Milne's 
 
 values being those at 3 per cent., and the errors, by the rule, of 
 
 the values at 3 per cent., deduced from 4, 5, and 6 per cent., being 
 
 just the reverse of those at 6 per cent., deduced from 3, 4, and 5 
 
 per cent. 
 
 TABLE III. 
 
 Values of Annuities on Joint Lives, at 6 per cent., deduced from those 
 at 3, 4, and 5 per cent. 
 
 
 Northampton. 
 
 Carlisle. 
 
 Experience of 
 Offices. 
 
 Edmonds' Mean 
 Mortality. 
 
 Ages. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Value. 
 
 Error. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Error. 
 
 Value. Error. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Error. 
 
 10.10 
 
 11.476 
 
 .131 
 
 13.225 
 
 .189 
 
 13.036 
 
 .185 
 
 12.709 
 
 .161 
 
 80.30 
 
 9.415 
 
 .055 
 
 11.251 
 
 .078 
 
 11.543 
 
 .080 
 
 10.705 
 
 .063 
 
 50.50 
 
 7.037 
 
 .007 
 
 8.638 
 
 .021 
 
 8.295 
 
 .015 
 
 7.913 
 
 .014 
 
 70.70 
 
 3.790 
 
 .009 
 
 4.028 
 
 nil. 
 
 3.751 
 
 nil. 
 
 3.532 
 
 .001 
 
 90.90 
 
 .899 
 
 .004 
 
 1.025 
 
 nil. 
 
 .673 
 
 nil. 
 
 .833 
 
 nil. 
 
110 
 
 Difference of Ages Ten Years. 
 
 Ages. 
 
 Northampton. 
 
 Carlisle. 
 
 Value . 
 
 Error, -f- 
 
 Value. 
 
 Error, -f 
 
 10.20 
 
 30.40 
 
 50 60 
 
 70.80 
 
 10.804 
 8.826 
 6.198 
 2.597 
 
 .085 
 .031 
 .009 
 .001 
 
 12.744 
 
 10.579 
 
 7.136 
 
 2.926 
 
 .150 
 .053 
 .009 
 .G01 
 
 Difference of Ages Twenty Years. 
 
 10.30 
 30.50 
 50.70 
 70.90 
 
 10.304 
 7.985 
 4.826 
 1.458 
 
 12.089 
 9.584 
 5.420 
 1-831 
 
 .116 
 .030 
 .005 
 nil. 
 
 Difference of Ages Thirty Years. 
 
 10.40 
 30.60 
 50.80 
 
 9.578 
 6.848 
 3.041 
 
 .041 
 .011 
 .002 
 
 11.234 
 7.657 
 3.610 
 
 .067 
 .012 
 .003 
 
 Difference of Ages Forty Years. 
 
 10.50 
 
 8.569 
 
 . .021 
 
 10.067 
 
 .039 
 
 30.70 
 
 5.182 
 
 .002 
 
 5.651 
 
 .003 
 
 50.90 
 
 1.589 
 
 .001 
 
 2.155 
 
 .002 
 
 The preceding Tables are useful, not merely for examples, but in 
 practice ; because, as the error always diminishes after any given 
 age, and at any higher rate of interest at the same age, whoever 
 uses the approximation will see at a glance whether it will come 
 sufficiently near to the correct value, according to these Tables of 
 observation, to answer his purpose. 
 
 If greater accuracy be required, the following equally simple and 
 almost equally short rule, may be applied to deduce from the four 
 rates, which are published, the value of Annuities on the Joint 
 Lives at the next higher or next lower rate. 
 
 -R n \e 2.— Having the Values of Annuities on Joint Lives at Four Rates of 
 Interest (with equal intervals), from any Table of Mortality given, — to 
 find an Approximate Value at the next Higher or the next Lower Rate of 
 Interest. 
 
 Begin with the lowest value, and take the differences between the values 
 at the given rates of Interest ; call these differences b, c, d, — then add to 
 the first value four times d, and deduct twice the difference between 
 b and c. 
 
Ill 
 
 The result will be very near indeed to the value at the next lowest rate of 
 
 interest. 
 If the value sought be a lower value, take the differences, beginning with 
 
 the highest value, and merely reverse the first sign in the above rule, 
 
 deducting four times d, instead of adding it. 
 
 The errors by the former rule were, in every case, the third 
 difference of the first term of the series of values ; by this rule 
 they will be the same as the fourth difference, and seldom exceed 
 a fourth or a fifth part of the former errors. It should, however, 
 be particularly remarked, that the approximate value by the latter 
 rule, (whether the series of values be increasing, or decreasing,) 
 will in every case be less than the truth. 
 
 The reader must judge whether they will in either case be too 
 great for his object ; but they appear to me to be so small, that the 
 approximate value, even by the first rule, is sufficiently near for 
 every ordinary purpose of business. I have not thought it neces- 
 sary to show how any more distant term could be obtained by a 
 more general rule ; because the error would be too great, if the 
 values at much higher rates of interest were sought to be deduced 
 from existing Tables, and as the chief advantages of the rules 
 given are the few operations they require, and their great simplicity, 
 they would lose in favour, perhaps, by the calculator having to take 
 out a greater number of differences. 
 
 I now proceed to show how the rules are formed. They are both 
 
 derived from the common theorem, in the calculus of finite differences, 
 
 n— 1 
 
 a n =: a -\- n A a -\- n. A 2 a 
 
 2 
 n . n — 1 . n — 2 
 
 -\ A 3 a . . . (n -\- 1 terms) 
 
 2 . 3 
 
 by taking only n terms of the series, and neglecting the last as 
 
 comparatively very small ; and being in fact, in every case, the 
 
 difference between the approximate and the correct value, or the 
 
 error which we have noticed in the examples. 
 
 Let the values at the given rates of interest be, a, a lt a 2i and let a n be the 
 value sought. 
 
 a a x a 2 
 
 First differences Aa A«! 
 
 Second difference A 2 a 
 
 Then, if the series is increasing, 
 
 a 4. 3 A a + 3 A 2 a -\- A 3 a = a n 
 
 take only the first three terms: but A a -\- A 2 a = A a lt and therefore 
 3 A a -|- 3 A 2 « == 3 A «i ; and consequently (neglecting the last term), 
 
 a -f- 3 A a i = a n very nearly. 
 
112 
 
 When the series of values is decreasing, the first difference will be — the 
 second -\- ; and — Ao-f A 2 at — Aa x : therefore, in a decreasing series, 
 
 a — 3 A a 1 — a n very nearly. 
 
 This is the expression from which the first rule is derived, when only three 
 values are given. 
 
 For the second, in which four values are given, the series and the 
 differences will be carried one term further : thus, 
 
 a a x a 8 a 3 
 
 Aa Aa^ Aa 2 
 
 A 2 a A-a x 
 
 A 3 a 
 
 Then, if the series is increasing, 
 
 a -f 4 A a -f 6 A 2 a + 4 A 3 a -+- A*a = a n 
 
 Take only the first four terms. But A a -\- A 2 a =: A a x ; and A a a -\- A'a 
 l : therefore, 
 
 4 A a -f 4 A«a = 4 Aa 2 
 
 -f- 2 A 2 a -f- 4 A 3 a = +4 A 2 ^ — 2 A 3 a 
 
 4 A a -j- 6 A 2 a -f- 4 A 3 a = 4 Aa^ + 4 A 2 a 2 — 2 A 2 a 
 
 but 4 A a A -f 4 A 8 ^ =4Aa a ; and consequently 
 
 a -\- 4 A a^ — 2A s a = 8„ very nearly. 
 
 If the series of values is decreasing, every alternate sign in the equation 
 will be reversed, the first differences being minus ; thus, 
 
 a — 4 A a + 6 A 2 a — 4 A 3 a + A*a 5= a» 
 
 By reasoning in the same manner as before, it will be found that 
 
 — 4 A a + 6 A 2 a — 4 A 3 a = -4Aa 1 +4 A 3 d 1 — 2 A 2 a 
 
 but — 4Aa l -|-4A 2 a 1 ss — 4Aa 4 ; arfd consequently, when the series of 
 values is decreasing, 
 
 a — 4 A a a -\- 2 A^a = a M very nearly. 
 
 It will appear plain from the two equations, why, by the first 
 rule, the error in the approximation is always a minus quantity 
 when the series of values is increasing, and plus when it is 
 decreasing; because, in the former case, the third difference 
 being plus and neglected in the approximation, will leave the value 
 found less than the truth; whereas, in a decreasing series, the 
 third difference being minus, and neglected in the approximation, 
 will leave the value found more than the truth. 
 . By the second rule, one term more being taken, the fourth 
 difference will, in each case, be a plus quantity, and being neglected 
 in the approximation, will leave the value found in each case less 
 than the truth. 
 
 It will easily be perceived, from the preceding reasoning, that 
 another rule may be given to deduce the values of annuities on 
 joint lives, at eight per cent, or at one per cent., having, as before, 
 the values at three, four, five, and six per cent. It might be 
 
113 
 
 sufficiently correct for a rough approximation, where the lives are 
 
 past the middle ages, or where there is a great difference in their 
 
 ages ; but as the errors in this case would be five times the fourth 
 
 difference, added to the fifth difference, the result would scarcely 
 
 be near enough to the truth to render it generally useful. In a 
 
 descending series of values, also, the error will be greater than in an 
 
 ascending series. In each case, however, the errors will be minus. 
 
 By applying the rule to the differences of the logarithms, instead 
 
 of those of the natural numbers, the error will be very small 
 
 indeed. 
 
 Rule 3 — Having the values of annuities on the Joint Lives at four rates of 
 interest (with equal intervals) — to deduce the values at the second lower 
 or second higher rate. 
 
 For the first : — take the differences as in Rule 2, beginning with the lowest 
 value. Then, add to this value five times, b, and ten times the difference 
 between c, and d. 
 
 For the second : — 'take the differences, beginning with the highest value, 
 and proceed as above, merely reversing the sign of b, and deducting five 
 times b, instead of adding it. 
 
 Example. — Carlisle Table. Single Life Annuities. 
 
 
 8, from 3, 4, 5, 6, per cent. 
 
 3, from 5, 6, 7, 8, per cent. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Error. — 
 
 Error by 
 Log. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Error.— 
 
 Error by 
 Log. 
 
 10 
 40 
 70 
 
 10.797 
 9.758 
 5.403 
 
 .537 
 .117 
 
 .007 
 
 .038 
 .012 
 
 23.149 
 
 17.035 
 
 7.110 
 
 .363 
 .108 
 .013 
 
 .006 
 .042 
 
 I now proceed to give examples for the two former rules, and 
 
 choose the Carlisle Table, as showing wider differences between 
 
 the values than the Northampton Table. I have also given the 
 
 rates at 7 and 8 per cent., in order to exhibit more clearly the 
 
 amount and nature of the error in the approximation. 
 
 Carlisle Table. — Single Life Annuities. — Age 40. 
 
 Rates per cent. 3 4 5 6 7 8~~ 
 
 Values 17.143 15.074 13.390 12.002 10.845 9.875 
 
 First differences 2.069 1.684 1.388 1.157 .970 
 Second .385 .296 .231 .187 
 
 Third .089 .065 .044 
 
 Fourth .024 .021 
 
 Fifth difference .003 
 
 By the first rule, from the values of the Annuity at 3, 4, and 5, deduce the 
 value at 6 per cent. 
 
 17-143 — (3 X 1-684) = 12-091 
 Error -f- -089 = the third difference. 
 
 Q 
 
114 
 
 By the same rule, from the values at 5, 6, and 7, deduce the value at 4 per 
 cent. 
 
 10-845 + ( 3 X 1*388) = 15-009 
 Error — -065 = the third difference. 
 
 By the second rule, from the values at 3, 4, 5 and 6 per cent., deduce the 
 value at 7 per cent. 
 
 17-143 _ (2 x "385 -f 4 X 1*388) = 10 821 
 Error — -024 ==. the fourth difference. 
 
 By the second rule, from the values at 4, 5, 6, and 7, deduce the value at 
 3 per cent. 
 
 10-S45 -f 4 X 1-684 — 2 X "231 = 17-119 
 Error — -024 = the fourth difference. 
 
 In the application of these two rules to practical purposes, it is 
 evident that for the former there are required Tables of Annuities 
 at three rates of interest (with equal intervals), and for the latter 
 at four similar rates. Where a greater number is published, it 
 will be easy to extend the principle on which they are grounded, to 
 ensure a very close degree of accuracy for the next or the two 
 following /ates with but little addition to the labour of 
 calculation. For the computations on Single Lives most works on 
 Annuities contain Tables at three or four rates of interest at least ; 
 but it is for the saving of the time and labour in the ordinary mode 
 of approximating to the values of Annuities on Joint Lives, that I 
 would venture to recommend these simple rules, and the number 
 of such Tables is more restricted. The following are the only 
 Tables of the kind to which at present I could suggest their 
 application. 
 
 1. — The Northampton Tables, in Dr. Price's Works, showing the values of 
 Annuities on the Joint Continuance of Two Lives, at 3, 4, 5, and 6 per 
 cent, interest. 
 
 2. — Milne's Carlisle Table, for the same and at the same rates. 
 
 Both these Tables are republished in Mr. David Jones's Treatise. 
 
 3.— Edmonds' Theoretical Tables of Mean Mortality for the same rates of 
 interest. 
 
 4. — Tables of Annuities for the Joint Lives, deduced from the experience of 
 the Life Assurance Companies, and published by Mr. Jenkin Jones, for 
 the above rates. 
 
 There are other Tables of Annuities on Joint Lives, deduced 
 from vaiious observations, but no other work, which I can call to 
 mind, containing those for three or more rates of interest (at equal 
 intervals), from the same observations, with the exception of a 
 Table in Simpson's Select Exercises, deduced from the Probabilities 
 
115 
 
 of Life in London, and republished by Dr. Price, and also in 
 Baily's work on Life Annuities ; but which Tables would now be 
 of no practical value. Baron Maseres, in 1783, published two 
 Tables of Annuities on Joint Lives, computed to six places of 
 decimals, from De Parcieux's observations, at 3J and 4J per cent. 
 These will be found reprinted in Baily's " Doctrine of Life 
 Annuities and Assurances." There is also in Dr. Price's works, a 
 Table of the values of Annuities on Joint Lives from 
 the Sweden observations (males and females collectively), at 4 
 per cent., which is likewise copied in Baily's work. In the 
 Registrar General's Sixth's Report, Mr. Farr gives the values of an 
 Annuity at 3 per cent, on the Joint Lives of a Male and Female at 
 equal ages, or the Female being 10 or 20 years younger than the 
 Male, deduced from the English Life Table, which was formed from 
 the mortality in England for one year, and the number living at the 
 last Census ; and a similar Table for the Joint Continuance of a 
 Male and Female Life, computed at 3 and 5 per cent., from the 
 observations at Chester, i3 published by Mr. David Jones, in the 
 treatise before referred to. 
 
 As far as I can remember, therefore, there are no Tables available 
 for the three rules given in this paper, except the four Tables 
 numbered ; but two of them are in such constant use, that if the 
 values of Annuities on Joint Lives at 7 and 8 per cent, should be 
 required, they would probably at present be used in preference to 
 any of the more recent Tables. 
 
 It remains only to examine the approximations to the values of 
 Joint Lives at present recommended in standard works. Dr. 
 Price, in his " Observations on Reversionary Payments," vol. I., 
 page 227, 7th edition, gives a rule to ascertain the values of the 
 Joint Lives, as derived from the Expectation, on the hypothesis of 
 an equal decrement of life annually ; and in note (L) at the end of 
 the same volume, will be found the formula, which Mr. Morgan has 
 explained in another note. The value of an annuity on the Joint 
 Lives, at any given age, and at any one rate of interest, being 
 computed, then the difference between this value and that derived 
 from the Expectation, according to the rule, must be added to or 
 deducted from the value obtained by the same rule, at the required 
 rate of interest, according as the correct value is more or less than 
 
 Q 2 
 
116 
 
 that derived from the hypothesis in the first instance. Dr. Price 
 considers that, by this rule, the deduced values are sometimes 
 almost the same with the correct values ; that generally they do 
 not differ more than one-twentieth or one-thirtieth of a year's 
 purchase ; that in Joint Lives they differ less than in Single lives ; 
 and that the values come equally near to one another, whatever the 
 rate of interest may be. Milne, vol. I., page 266, referring to Dr. 
 Price's hypothesis, concludes, with him, that u as the values 
 between different rates of interest are nearly equal, and the proximate 
 ones are determined from them by the same method of approxima- 
 tion, it is evident that the error in one approximation must be very 
 nearly equal to that in the other, and consequently that the 
 difference between them will be much less than either of the 
 errors themselves." This approximation requires the value of an 
 Annuity on the Joint Lives to be deduced twice from the Ex 
 pectations, on the hypothesis of an equal decrement of life 
 annually — once at the rate of interest, at which the correct value is 
 known; and secondly — at that at which the value is sought. Mr. 
 Milne's formula somewhat shortens the rule delivered by Dr. 
 Price, and I give it in words at length. 
 
 Price's and Milne's approximation to the values of Joint Lives. 
 
 Rule. A.dd half a year to the perpetuity and the Expectation of the older 
 life, and deduct from the sum the Expectation of the younger life. Mul- 
 tiply the last difference by the present value of an Annuity certain of £1, 
 for a term equal to the complement (or twice the Expectation) _ of the 
 older life divided by the said complement, and deduct the product from 
 the perpetuity. 
 
 Multiply the last difference by £1, increased by its interest for a year, and 
 divided by the Expectation of the younger life, and deduct the product 
 from unity. 
 
 This last difference, multiplied by the Perpetuity, will be the approximate 
 value of an annuity on the Two Joint Lives, deduced from their Expec- 
 tation. 
 
 Having ascertained the approximate values of the Joint lives by this rule, at 
 the two different rates of interest, find the difference between them, and 
 add it to, or deduct it from the correct value at the known rate of interest, 
 according as the value deduced from the Expectation is greater or less than 
 the correct value known. 
 
 These operations are somewhat long and laborious, but the rule 
 possesses the great advantage of being applicable to any table, from 
 which the Expectations of life at all ages, and the values of Annui- 
 ties for Joint Lives at one rate of interest only, have been computed ; 
 since it is found that the difference is not very great between the 
 
117 
 
 approximate and correct value, at whatever rate of interest the latter 
 may be required. In the Appendix to the Registrar General's Sixth 
 Report, 1844, p. 590, Mr. Farr gives a Table of the Expectations of 
 the Joint Lives of a male and female, deduced from the English 
 Life Table ; and, in Mr. David Jones's work, will be found the 
 Curtate Expectation of the Joint Lives (*' being the average number 
 of years, which the two lives jointly complete, exclusive of the frac- 
 tion, which they jointly enjoy, of the year in which the joint exist- 
 ence fails"), computed from the Carlisle Table, for every yearly 
 difference of age. It is probable that these Expectations may be 
 used in the same manner as those of a Single Life (for which see 
 Milne's treatise), as a substitute for the long operation required by 
 the above rule. As an instance of which, it may be stated, that 
 the value of an Annuity on the Joint Lives of 30 and 40 by the 
 Carlisle Table at 5 per cent, deduced from the correct value at 4 
 per cent., and using the Curtate Expectation above mentioned 
 + .5 is found to be 11.610, differing only -.003 from the true 
 value. 
 
 I shall conclude with one other approximation, suggested by 
 Baron Maseres, in his work on the principles of " The Doctrine of 
 Life Annuities," published in 1783. In this work, the learned 
 Baron, in his desire " to explain these principles in an easy and 
 familiar manner, so as to make them intelligible to as many readers 
 as possible, without having recourse to Algebra, or the books written 
 on the Doctrine of Chances," has become rather prolix and weari- 
 some. Computations are seldom considered as very lively reading, 
 and when we have to follow every step of the process to the mil- 
 lionth part of £1, they may end in being fatiguing, if not confusing. 
 This minute attempt at accuracy, also, appears unnecessary, where 
 the result of the approximation itself frequently differs more than 
 4 per cent, from the correct value. Still the work is that of an in- 
 genious mathematician, and the approximation referred to, which is 
 described in p. 546, is so much shorter than Milne's, that if it can 
 be found by other tables to be rather nearer the truth than it appears 
 to be by De Parcieux's Tables, it is worthy of attention. Maseres, 
 having computed the values of joint lives at 3 J and 4| per cent., 
 considers that we can obtain sufficiently near values at three, four, 
 and five per cent., by assuming that the values will form pretty 
 
118 
 
 nearly an arithmetical progression, or that they decrease by nearly 
 
 equal differences. But above five, or under three per cent., he is 
 
 inclined to think this method not sufficiently correct, and he gives a 
 
 formula, which, after getting rid of the equivalent quantities, and 
 
 expressing it in a more convenient notation, may be described as 
 
 follows : — 
 
 Let r =r £1 with its interest for a year. 
 
 A = the younger life, B the older, and B the value 
 of an annuity on the older life 
 p p x z=. the probability of living a year at the age of A, 
 
 and at one year older than A 
 q q x = the same at the age of B, and one year older 
 than B 
 r—q l 
 then B.p. =z the value of Annuity on the Joint Lives nearly. 
 
 m • f— -Pi*7i 
 
 This rule, expressed in words,will be (A being the younger and B the older 
 life) : — 
 
 Approximation to the value of an Annuity on Two Joint Lives by 
 
 Maseres. 
 
 Rule. — From £1 increased by its interest for a year, deduct the probability 
 of a life one year older than B living a year ; and also the probability of two 
 lives, each one year older than the given lives, both living a year, and divide 
 the former remainder by the latter. 
 
 Multiply the quotient into the probability of A living a year, and also into 
 the value of an Annuity on the life of B. The product will be the value of 
 an annuity on the joint lives nearly. 
 
 This rule requires only for its application the values of Annuities 
 for Single Lives, and the Table of Observations from which they 
 are deduced. It dispenses with the Expectations, and, it will be 
 seen, is much shorter than Price's and Milne's rule, and, like those, 
 it professes to apply to any table, and at any rates of interest. It 
 does not appear, however, to approach so near to the truth 
 by De Parcieux's Table, from which Maseres has made his compu- 
 tations, nor by the Northampton Table, from which the following 
 comparison of all the rules is given. 
 
 True values of Joint Lives compared with approximations, Northampton 
 
 3 per cent. 
 
 Ages. 
 
 True value. 
 
 Deduced from 4,5,6, 
 
 per cent. Rule 2. 
 
 Error. — 
 
 Price's approxima- 
 tion from 4 per cent. 
 Error. 
 
 Maseres' approxi- 
 mation. Error. 
 
 15.15 
 40.40 
 60.60 
 15.40 
 30.60 
 50.60 
 
 15.229 
 
 10.763 
 
 6.606 
 
 12.459 
 
 8.378 
 
 7.461 
 
 .109 
 .030 
 .013 
 .039 
 .011 
 .009 
 
 -.045 
 -.008 
 +.086 
 -.091 
 +.018 
 +.010 
 
 +.413 
 -.453 
 -.585 
 -.256 
 -.577 
 -.104 
 
119 
 
 In conclusion, I may observe, that though the rules which I have 
 given, deducing the values from those at three or four existing rates 
 of interest, can only be used with sufficient accuracy in the next or 
 in the two next rates, either higher or lower, yet in these they will 
 save so much time and labour, that I cannot but believe their pub- 
 lication may be useful to many persons engaged in the business of 
 Life Assurance. 
 
 I remain, Sir, 
 
 Your obedient servant, 
 
 CRITO. 
 London, 15th January, 1849. 
 
 ON APPROXIMATIONS TO THE VALUES OF 
 ANNUITIES ON JOINT LIVES. 
 
 Letter II. 
 
 Sir, — Before proceeding to show that the formula for approxi- 
 mating to the values of annuities on Joint Lives is equally applic- 
 able to fractional values of w, or to rates of interest at any 
 intermediate values to those which are known, I may remark, that 
 in the course of taking out the differences to prove the practical 
 usefulness of the former rules, I had noticed, that by using the 
 ratios of increase or decrease from the value at one rate of interest 
 to that at another, instead of the mere differences of the values, a 
 greater approach to correctness, might be obtained, and conse- 
 quently that with a slight addition of labour, the rule might be 
 applied with much advantage to the differences of the logarithms, 
 instead of those of the natural numbers. I am gratified also, in 
 acknowledging a suggestion to the same effect, made by Mr. Ed- 
 monds, who correctly anticipated that the deviation from the true 
 value would by this method be still less. Above the age of 50, for 
 either single or joint lives, the errors are so small by applying the 
 rule to the differences of the natural numbers, that it is unnecessary 
 to resort to the trouble of taking out the logarithms ; but below 
 that age, if greater exactness be required, I repeat the rule as ap- 
 plied to logarithms, and add some examples of the nearer approxi- 
 mation to the true values, which may be obtained by its use in this 
 manner. 
 
120 
 
 Having the values of Annuities on Joint Lives at three rates of interest 
 (with equal intervals) given, to find an approximation to the value at 
 the next higher or the next lower rate : 
 
 Rule, for the former : — From the logarithm of the value at the lowest given 
 rate of interest, deduct three times the difference between the logarithms 
 of the values at the other two rates. 
 
 For the latter : — To the logarithm of the value at the highest given rate of 
 interest, add three times the difference of the logarithms of the values at 
 the other two rates. 
 
 Comparison of the errors by the above rule, as applied to the logarithms or 
 the natural numbers : 6 deduced from 3, 4, and 5 per cent. 
 
 Annuities on Single Lives. 
 
 Age. 
 
 10 
 
 so 
 
 50 
 
 Northampton. 
 
 Error 
 By natural number. By log 
 
 .226 
 .113 
 .034 
 
 .035 
 .018 
 .003 
 
 Carlisle. 
 
 Error 
 By natural number. By Log - . 
 
 .316 
 .149 
 .045 
 
 .052 
 021 
 008 
 
 Annuities on Joint Lives. 
 
 Ages. 
 
 Northampton. 
 
 Carlisle. 
 
 Em 
 By natural number. 
 
 r 
 
 By Log. * 
 
 Error. 
 By natural number. 1 By Log. 
 
 10.10 
 30.30 
 50.50 
 
 .131 
 .055 
 .007 
 
 .035 
 .018 
 .001 
 
 .189 
 .078 
 .021 
 
 .031 
 .012 
 .005 
 
 10.20 
 30.40 
 
 .085 
 .031 
 
 .016 
 .006 
 
 .150 
 .053 
 
 .023 
 .006 
 
 10.30 
 30.50 
 
 .065 
 .019 
 
 .012 
 .003 
 
 .116 
 .030 
 
 .022 
 .004 
 
 10.40 
 
 .041 
 
 .006 
 
 .067 
 
 .009 
 
 We now come to the application of the formula to the fractional 
 values of n, or to the values at rates of interest intermediate to 
 those already known. The formula remains the same as before, 
 and n may represent any rate oF interest lying between the rates of 
 3 and 6 per cent., or with the slight variation from the truth which 
 our examples have shown, even between one or two per cent, above 
 or below these known rates. Greater exactness may be obtained 
 by using the differences between the values at four rates of interest, 
 but I believe that in practice it will be found quite sufficient to 
 

 The co-efficient 
 of the first dif- 
 ference of a. 
 
 The co-efficient 
 of the second 
 difference of a. 
 
 n =r | then 
 
 « = 1 M 
 
 n = If „ 
 »=1| „ 
 
 
 + i 
 
 + f 
 
 :! 
 
 + f 
 
 
 
 -h 
 
 + & 
 + § 
 
 121 
 
 take only the differences between the values at three of the known 
 rates, for those at any rate between them. My present object is 
 therefore only to give a few rules, expressed in words, to obtain the 
 values most frequently required, and to prove the close approxima- 
 tion, computed from only three rates of interest, by examples from 
 existing tables. 
 
 Let the lowest given value be called a. 
 
 (1) Let n 
 (2) 
 (3) 
 (4) 
 (5) 
 (6) 
 
 Rule 1. — Having the values of Single and Joint Lives at 3, 4, and 5 per cent, 
 to find the value at 4§ per cent. 
 
 Beginning with the lowest given value, take the differences between the 
 values of 5 and 4, and 4 and 3 per cent. Call the former difference b, and 
 the latter c, and also take the difference between b and c, which call d. 
 
 In this case n in the formula = k. 
 
 Then add to the given value at 5 per cent. | of b, and deduct from the sum 
 ioftf. 
 
 Carlisle. Single Lives. Age 40 
 
 Kates per cent. 5 4 3 4^ 3^ 
 
 Values . . 13.390 15.074 17.143 14.189 16.053 
 
 1st difference 1.684 2.069 
 
 2nd difference .385 
 
 Example 13.390 + 1^ — £ 8 JL = 14.184 Error -.005 
 2 8 
 
 Rule 2. — Having the same values given, to find the value at 3§ per cent. 
 
 In this case n in the formula =. 1| 
 
 Using the same notation as above, add f of b to | of d, and then add three 
 times their sum to the lowest given value. 
 
 Example 13.390 + 3 fll 6 _^-f _'i?£^ 3 = 16.060 Error 4- .007 
 V 2 8 / 
 
 With only the three differences called b, c, d, which are required 
 for the working of these rules, it will be found shorter and more 
 convenient in fractional rates per cent, to use the second difference 
 of a, instead of reducing the equation to terms of the first difference, 
 as was the case in Rule I. given in the former letter. 
 
 I believe that no tables of Life Annuities have been printed at 
 rates differing from each other less than half per cent., either for 
 Single or Joint lives. We cannot, therefore, readily find examples 
 of the comparative correctness of the rule* applied to annuities on 
 
 R 
 
122 
 
 Lives at rates which vary by only a quarter per cent., but in a work 
 published about ten years ago by Mr. Peter Hardy, the highly 
 talented Actuary of the Mutual Life Assurance Society, entitled 
 " The Doctrine of Simple and Compound Interest, Annuities and 
 Reversions, analytically and practically explained"* will be found 
 tables of the amounts and present values of sums and annuities at 
 compound interest, for every ± per cent, up to 5 per cent. Taking 
 from this work the present values of annuities certain, the following 
 table will show the errors arising from the rule in deducing the 
 values at 4^ and 4J per cent, from the values at 3, 4, and 5 per 
 cent. Any other terms of years or rates might be assumed, but I 
 did not wish to overload this paper with figures beyond what are 
 necessary to show the practical working of the rule where the 
 errors can be compared with the true values according to existing 
 tables. The remainder of the examples are taken from the Carlisle 
 Table, from which the values of annuities on Single and Joint lives 
 have been computed at 3| and 4^ per cent., and will be found in 
 Mr. David Jones's work before referred to. 
 
 Deduced by the rule from the values at 3, 4, and 5 per cent. 
 Annuities certain. 
 
 10 
 20 
 30 
 40 
 
 4| per cent. 
 Value. Error 
 
 7.8161 
 12.7293 
 15.8158 
 17.7529 
 
 4£ per cent. 
 Value. Error. 
 
 8.0107 
 13.2933 
 16.7756 
 19.0697 
 
 .0001 
 .0010 
 .0034 
 .0075 
 
 * In referring to this little work, I cannot but express my regret, in com- 
 mon with many others, that Mr. Hardy should have been prevented by his 
 important official duties, or active occupations, from continuing the " Trea- 
 tise on the Doctrine of Life Assurance and Annuities," of which this 
 valuable Essay is stated to be only the introduction. From the clearness 
 and elegance of the mathematical reasoning in these preliminary chapters, 
 and from a short Essay on " A new and General Notation for Life Contin- 
 gencies," also published in 1840, which contains the most comprehensive 
 and masterly system of notation which has yet been proposed by any writer 
 on the subject, the public will be prepared to judge of the high qualifications 
 which he would bring to the task, whilst those members of the profession 
 who, having the pleasure of knowing him, are still more intimately 
 acquainted with his distinguished abilities and great mathematical attain- 
 ments, would welcome the completion of the proposed work, as one which 
 could not fail to add to the improvements of all preceding writers, and to 
 place in the clearest light that which still may be obscure to the young 
 student. The practical experience of the accomplished author for so many 
 years in the business both of Assurance and Reversionary Interest Com- 
 panies, and in all cases which come before the notice of an Actuary, would 
 invest the treatise with a ralue which the book of a mere closet mathema- 
 tician could not be expected to possess. 
 
123 
 
 Carlisle Table. Annuities on Single Lives. 
 
 Ages. 
 
 i\ per cent. 
 
 Error. — 
 
 3$ per cent. 
 
 Error. + 
 
 10 
 30 
 50 
 70 
 
 17.999 
 
 15.715 
 
 12.236 
 
 6.517 
 
 .023 
 .011 
 .003 
 nil 
 
 21.421 
 
 18 132 
 
 13.558 
 
 6.911 
 
 .026 
 .011 
 .004 
 nil 
 
 Carlisle Table. Annuities on Joint lives. 
 
 10.10 
 
 15.842 
 
 .013 
 
 18.422 
 
 .015 
 
 30.30 
 
 13.131 
 
 .006 
 
 14.814 
 
 .006 
 
 50.50 
 
 6.661 
 
 .002 
 
 10.486 
 
 nil 
 
 70.70 
 
 4.277 
 
 .001 
 
 4.459 
 
 nil 
 
 Having thus shown by examples how useful the Theorem which 
 I pointed out in my last letter will be found both from its near ap- 
 proximation to the truth, its simplicity, its shortness, and the 
 facility with which it can be retained in memory, I will leave it to 
 the reader to pursue the subject at greater length, if it should be 
 thought to deserve more attention. 
 
 I remain, Sir, 
 
 Your obedient servant, 
 
 CRITO. 
 London, 14th March, 1849. 
 
124 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 A. 
 
 Page. 
 Admissions into Hospitals in Bengal Presidency, amongst European 
 Troops . . . . . . . . . 57 
 
 ,, „ Native Troops 59 
 
 „ in Madras Presidency, amongst European Troops 62 
 
 „ „ Native Troops . 63 
 
 ,, at Moulmein, amongst European Troops . . 74 
 
 „ „ Native Troops . . 74 
 
 „ in Ceylon, amongst European Troops . .77 
 
 „ ,, Black and Native Troops . 80 
 
 „ „ Pioneer Corps . .81 
 
 „ „ Gun Lascars . . .81 
 
 ,, „ Armed Lascoreyns. . . 81 
 
 ,, in Bombay Presidency, amongst European Troops 84 
 
 ,, . ,, Native Troops . 85 
 
 Ages, Mortality according to, amongst Native Troops in Bombay 
 
 Presidency . . . . . . . .87 
 
 Amicable Society — Comparison of mean duration of life amongst old 
 
 and recent members with Northampton Table . . .10 
 
 „ Experience of, as examined by Mr. Edmonds . 26 
 
 „ „ corresponds with Edmonds' Village 
 
 Table, two years older . . . .26 
 
 „ Proportion entering at different ages . . 32 
 
 Annesley, Dr., Medical Returns from Madras Presidency . . 64 
 
 Approximations to the_Values of Annuities on Joint Lives' . .107 
 
 „ Rule, having the values at three rates of interest, to 
 
 deduce the value at the next higher or lower rate . 110 
 
 ,, „ at four rates . . . 113 
 
 „ „ applied to the Logarithms of the Values . 120 
 
 -„ „ „ to fractional rates of Interest . .121 
 
 . 114 
 . 115 
 . 117 
 
 „ Tables, to which the rules can be applied 
 
 „ by Dr. Price .... 
 
 ,, by Baron Maseres 
 
 Average Mortality, Deviations from, amongst Lives and Policies very 
 
 small 104 
 
125 
 
 B. 
 
 Page. 
 Balfour, Dr., Statistical Report on the Sickness and Mortality amongst 
 
 the Troops serving in the Madras Presidency . . .57 
 
 Bengal Presidency, Mortality amongst'European Troops in .57 
 
 „ „ Native Troops . . .59 
 
 Bombay Presidency, General description of . . .8 
 
 Mortality [amongst European Troops in .84 
 
 „ H.M.'s Troops . . .85 
 
 „ Native Troops . . .85 
 
 „ Do., according to ages . 87 
 
 ,, Do., of Troops in Scinde, 
 
 and not in Scinde. . . . .88 
 
 Burke, Dr., Mortality in Bengal, and admissions in Hospital amongst 
 
 European Troops . . . . . . .62 
 
 C. 
 
 Capital, Accumulation of in early years of a Society, important. . 33 
 
 „ of Shareholders not to be tied up in doubtful investments . 95 
 
 „ Difference between, and the accumulation of premiums . 92 
 
 „ Employment of, in Proprietary Assurance Companies . .93 
 
 „ Amount of, in Proprietary Companies . . . .99 
 
 Ceylon, Description of . . . • . -76 
 
 „ Mortality amongst European Troops in . . . .77 
 
 „ „ Native and Black Troops in. . .77 
 
 „ „ Pioneer Corps. . . . .81 
 
 „ „ Gun Lascars . . . . .81 
 
 „ „ Armed Lascoreyns . . . .81 
 
 Cholera, Mortality from, in Bengal Presidency, European Troops. . 58 
 
 „ „ ,, Native Troops . . 59 
 
 ,, „ in the Jails, Calcutta . . . .60 
 
 ,, „ in Madras Presidency, European Troops . 63 
 
 ,, „ „ Native Troops . . 64 
 
 „ „ in Ceylon . . . . .78 
 
 „ „ in Bombay Presidency, European Troops . 84 
 
 ' „ ,, Native Troops . . 86 
 
 Companies, Life Assurance, large proportion recently formed . . 9 
 
 Diseases amongst the Troops in Madras Presidency, more fatal classes . 68 
 
 „ „ inMoulmein . . . .75 
 
 „ „ in Ceylon ... .78 
 
 „ „ according to ages . . 79 
 
126 
 
 E. 
 
 Page. 
 Edmonds' Theory of Mortality explained. . . . . 2& 
 
 Equitable Society, Mean Duration of Life in, compared with Northamp- 
 ton Table . . . . . . . .10 
 
 „ Experience of, as examined by Mr. Edmonds . 25 
 
 M ,, corresponds with Edmonds' Village 
 
 Table, 3 years older . . . .26 
 
 „ Proportion of Members entering at different ages . 32 
 
 Experience, Description of Tables of Mortality according to that of 
 
 Equitable Society. . . . . . . .17 
 
 „ ,, ,, Amicable Society 20 
 
 ii „ Do., amongst older Members. 22 
 
 „ Combined, of 17 Life Assurance Companies . .33 
 
 ,, „ Description of . .35 
 
 „ ,, Objections to their being founded on Policies, 
 
 not Lives assured . . . .33 
 
 „ „ Compared with Equitable and Amicable Ex- 
 
 perience . . . . .38 
 
 G. 
 
 Galloway's Tables of Amicable Experience, adjusted by Gompertz's 
 
 formula . . . . . . . . 27 
 
 Guarantee Fund, of Proprietary Companies how employed . .101 
 
 „ in Mutual Offices, formed by excess of premiums for 
 
 life above the risks for the current year . .102 
 
 „ and Reserved Fund together, a benefit to Shareholders 105 
 
 I.J. 
 
 India, Return of Military Force employed in . . .46 
 „ Average age of different ranks of officers in . . .47 
 India, Mortality in, works on, referred to. . . . .44 
 ,, increases with the age . . . .47 
 Mr. Edmonds' Tables of . . . .46 
 Mr. Woolhouse's Table . . . 48 49 
 Mr. Griffith's Daviess Tables . . .49 
 ,, ,, amongst Medical Officers . . 49 
 ,, ,, Amongst Wives and Widows . . 49 
 ,, „ His Table compared with Mr. Wool- 
 house's . . . .51 
 ,, ,, Mean duration of different classes . 52 
 Christie's Table . . . . .49 
 ,, Compared with the Experience of 17 Companies . 52 
 ,, Excess of, produced by climate . . .52 
 
Page. 
 
 
 61 
 
 . 
 
 53 
 
 ,,,] 
 
 53 
 
 ilU 
 
 54 
 
 37 
 
 39 
 
 
 107 
 
 02 
 
 67 
 
 63 
 
 67 
 
 . 
 
 17 
 
 *y 
 
 21 
 
 . 
 
 23 
 
 127 
 
 India, Mortality in, amongst European and Native Troops 
 
 „ amongst Civilians .... 
 
 ,, „ compared with that of Officers . 
 
 „ amongst Military Officers in Bengal, married and 
 
 single . .... 
 
 Irish Lives, Assurances on, not profitable . . a 
 
 Joint Lives, Rules for approximations to the values of Annuities on 
 
 M. 
 
 Madras Presidency, Mortality amongst European Troops in 
 
 m „ Native Troops. 
 
 Membership, Average duration of, in Equitable Society . 
 
 „ ,, compared with that of Amicable Society 
 
 „ „ amongst the old members of Do. 
 
 Mortality, Diminution of, in early years of a Society, not to be con- 
 sidered a permanent source of profit. . . .19 
 
 ,, Increase of, for many years after establishment of a Society 
 
 explained . . . . . . .30 
 
 ,, Maximum of, not attained for 50 years at least . .31 
 
 „ in Equitable and Amicable Societies, in each 10 years from 
 
 admission . . . . . . .31 
 
 „ Increase of, in Ceylon, with length of residence . . 79 
 
 „ Diminution of in 1844-5 by Col. Tulloch's Return . . 82 
 
 „ amongst European Officers compared with Private Soldiers 
 
 in Ceylon . . . . . . .79 
 
 Moulmein, Description of . . . . . . .73 
 
 „ Mortality amongst European Troops in . .73 
 
 „ „ amongst Native Troops . . . .74 
 
 O. 
 
 Officers, Proportion of Mortality amongst, compared with private soldiers 48 
 „ „ in Bengal Presidency . . 58 
 
 „ ,, of Sickness „ in Ceylon . . .79 
 
 Penang, Mortality amongst European Troops in . . .75 
 
 ,, Native Troops . . . .75 
 
 Profit, Average of, on shares in Proprietary Companies . .100 
 
 Profits of a Company, whence derived . . . . .8 
 
 ,, from Selection of Lives, likely to be diminished 
 
 with the age of the Society . . 9, 11 
 
 „ from using a different Table for the valuation, 
 
 may leave nothing for future division . 1 3 
 
128 
 
 Page. 
 R. 
 Reserved Fund, in Mutual Companies, similar to the Share Capital 
 in Proprietary Companies . . . . . .96 
 
 » h Dividends on, received by the 
 
 assured . . .97 
 
 Risks, incurred by shareholders, in the early periods of a Proprietary 
 
 Company . . . . . . , .94 
 
 S. 
 
 Selection of Lives, Effect of, pointed out by Mr. Morgan . .17 
 
 „ in favour of an office at starting , . . 104 
 
 „ shown by Table of Expectation of Life, according to 
 
 ,, duration of membership . . .20 
 
 Shareholders, required to keep up assurances, guarantee themselves . 105 
 
 „ paid off by the assurers in various companies . . 106 
 
 Shares, Proportion of, generally paid up . . . .95 
 
 ,, Advantages of calling up only a small instalment on . . 96 
 
 ,, Risk to the Assurers, of the remainder not being paid up . 96 
 
 „ Price of, in public market, sign of real value . . ,98 
 
 ,, Table of prices . . . . . . .99 
 
 „ Premium on, shows the assurers are paying too much for the 
 
 guarantee . . .. . . . .98 
 
 „ if not allotted, no guarantee to assurers . . . 100 
 
 „ Average profit on, in Proprietary Companies . . .100 
 
 T. 
 
 Tenasserim Provinces, general description of . . .72 
 
 Tulloch, Colonel, Reports on the Sickness, Mortality, and Invaliding of 
 H.M.'s troops . . . . . . .44 
 
 TABLES. 
 
 Selection of Lives and Comparison of the Experience of Companies. 
 
 Table I. — Comparison of Mean Duration of Life by the Equitable, 
 
 Amicable, Northampton, and Carlisle Tables . . 10 
 
 II. — Mortality within 10 years, out of 10,000, at the ages in 
 
 the margin, by ditto. . . . . .11 
 
 III.— Value of £10,000 policy, made at age 40, after 10, 20, 
 and 30 years, by Northampton, Equitable, and Carlisle 
 Tables, compared . . . . .12 
 
 I. — Mortality per cent., between quinquennial periods of age, out 
 of 100 persons existing at each period, and admitted res- 
 pectively at intervals preceding, increasing by five 
 years (Equitable Experience) , . . .18 
 
129 
 
 Page. 
 Table II. — Showing the increase of Mortality according to years of 
 Membership, in 100 persons, living between the ages 
 stated in the margin (Equitable Experience) . .19 
 
 III. — Showing the Expectation of Life, in the Equitable Society, 
 
 according to duration of Membership . . .20 
 
 IV. — Showing the annual number of deaths, in decennial periods 
 of age, out of 10,000 persons, living .at each age, and at 
 different dates from admission, according to the Equitable 
 and Amicable Experience, compared with the Northamp- 
 ton Table . . . . . . .24 
 
 V. — Showing, according to the Duration of Membership, the 
 mortality in five years, by the Equitable and Amicable 
 Experience, out of 100 persons, living at the ages stated 
 in the margin . . . . . .28 
 
 VI. — Showing the number of persons at the ages stated in the 
 margin, relative to 1000 surviving at the age 55, accord- 
 ing to the Equitable and Amicable Experience, com- 
 pared with Mr. Edmonds' Theoretical Tables of Village 
 Mortality . . . . . . .28 
 
 I. — Showing a comparison between the mortality, according to the 
 
 Equitable and Amicable Society, in years from admission 32 
 
 II. — Showing the proportion per cent., at different ages, who 
 
 entered in the Equitable and Amicable Societies . 32 
 
 III. — Showing the mortality, in decennial periods of age, accord- 
 ing to the Experience of 17 Life Assurance Companies 37 
 
 IV. — Showing the Mean Duration of Life, according to the 
 
 Experience of 17 Life Assurance Companies . . 38 
 
 V.— Showing the annual number of deaths, out of 10,000, living 
 at each age, in decennial periods of age, according to 
 the Experience of 17 Life Assurance Companies . 39 
 
 Mortality in India. 
 
 I. — Showing the average annual mortality per cent., amongst 
 different ranks of officers, in the three Presidencies, as 
 given by Mr. Edmonds, 1809 to 1828, and the same for 
 Bengal, from Prinsep's observations . . .47 
 
 II. — Showing the proportion of deaths out of 100 persons 
 living at each age, according to different observations 
 (Davies, Woolhouse, Christie, Prinsep) . . 50 
 
 III. — Showing the excess of mortality in India out of 100 
 persons (Males), living at each age, above that of 
 assured Male Lives, according to the Experience of the 
 Life Assurance Companies . . . .52 
 
 S 
 
130 
 
 Page. 
 Table IV. — Showing the comparison of the Mean Duration of Life, 
 
 amongst Males and Females in India . . .52 
 
 V. — Showing the average annual mortality per cent, of each 
 
 class, amongst Civilians in India . . .54 
 
 I. — Showing the mortality per cent., amongst European and 
 
 Native Troops, in the Bengal Presidency . . 61 
 
 II. — Showing the mortality per cent, amongst the Troops in the 
 
 Madras Presidency (Statistical Society's Eeturns) . 66 
 
 III. — Showing the Admissions in Hospital, and deaths per cent. 
 of strength, amongst the Troops, in the Madras 
 Presidency, and in the United Kingdom, by the more 
 fatal classes of diseases . . . „ .68 
 
 IV. — Showing the mortality per cent, amongst the Troops in the 
 Madras Presidency (Returns from the East India Com- 
 pany, and the Statistical Society, compared) . . 70 
 
 I. — Showing the mortality per cent, of strength, amongst 
 European and Native Troops, in the Tenasserim 
 Provinces, Penang, &c. ; . . .75 
 
 II.— Showing the mortality per cent, of strength, by Pulmonary 
 
 Diseases, in different parts of the world . .77 
 
 III. — Showing the mortality per cent, of strength, in Ceylon, by 
 
 different diseases, according to ages . . .79 
 
 IV. — Comparison of Sickness, and mortality per cent, of strength, 
 
 amongst officers and private soldiers in Ceylon . 80 
 
 V.— Showing the mortality per cent, of strength amongst 
 
 European and Black Troops in Ceylon . . 82 
 
 I. — Showing the mortality per cent, of strength amongst 
 
 European and Native Troops in the Bombay Presidency 86 
 
 II, — Showing the proportion per cent, of Country and Caste of 
 
 the Native soldiers in the Bombay Army . . 88 
 
 III. — Showing the mortality in the Native Army, in the Bombay 
 
 Presidency, in 100 existing at each age . . .89 
 
 IV.— Showing the proportion of sickness, and mortality per cent, 
 of strength amongst European and Native Troops in 
 India (Edmonds) . . . . .90 
 
 GENERAL TABLES. 
 
 I. — Showing the prices of Shares in Proprietary Life Assurance 
 Companies, on the 4th April, 1848 (from Wetenhall's 
 List) 99 
 
 II.— Showing the difference between the Annual Premium for 
 Continuance and for One Year only, according to the 
 Northampton rates . . . . .102 
 
131 
 
 Page 
 
 Table III.— Showing the deviations from the average mortality in 
 England for seven years, and in the Equitable Society 
 for four years, and from the policies cancelled in the 
 Equitable Society for seven years . . .103 
 
 I.— Values of Annuities on Single Lives, Northampton and 
 Carlisle Tables, at 6 per cent., deduced by the rule for 
 the approximation, from those at 3, 4, 5 per cent. . 109 
 
 II.— 1)6. at 8 per cent., from 5, 6, 7, per cent. . . . 109 
 
 III. — Do. on Joint Lives (Northampton, Carlisle, Experience of 
 17 Offices, and Edmonds' Mean Mortality), at 6 per 
 cent, deduced from those at 3, 4, 5, per cent. . . 109 
 
W. S. D. Pateman, Printer, Wine Office Court, Fleet Street. 
 
COLONIAL LIFE ASSURANCE COMPANY, 
 
 (-REGISTERED AND EMPOWERED UNDER ACT OF PARLIAMENT, 
 7 AND 8 VICT., CAP. 110.) 
 
 CAPITAL, ^6-500,000. 
 
 Established for (he purpose of effecting Assurances on the Lives of Persons Resident in or about to 
 proceed to the Colonies of Great Britain, India, or other places abroad. 
 
 Governor— THE RIGHT HON. THE EARL OF ELGIN ^AND KINCARDINE. 
 
 Edinburgh, 1, GEORGE STREET.— London, 4a, LOTHBURY.— Glasgow, 35, ST. 
 VINCENT PLACE. 
 
 EDINBURGH BOARD OF DIRECTORS. 
 "WILLIAM STUART WALKER, Esq., Chairman. 
 
 ALEXANDER J. RUSSEL, Esq., C.S. 
 GEORGE MERCER, Esq. of Gorthy. 
 JAMES DUNCAN, Esq. Merceant, Leith. 
 PETER RAMSEY, Esq. Banker. 
 GEORGE MOIR, Esq. Advocate. 
 
 JAMES HAY, Esq. Merchant, Leith. 
 ARCHIBALD HORNE, Esq. Accountant. 
 J. MACALPINE LENNY, Esq. of Dalswinton. 
 CHARLES PEARSON, Esq. Accountant. 
 JAMES ROBERTSON, Esq. W.S. 
 
 GEORGE ROSS, Jun. Esq., Advocate. 
 
 Medical Adviser— HENRY MARSHALL, Esq., Deputy Inspector-General of Army Hospitals . 
 
 Actuary— WILLIAM THOMAS THOMSON, Esq. Auditor— CHARLES PEARSON, Esq. 
 
 Secretary— HENRY JONES WILLIAMS, Esq. 
 
 LONDON BOARD. 
 THE RIGHT HON. THE EARL OF MINTO, Chairman. 
 
 D. LAING BURN, Esq. 12, Kensington 
 
 Palace Gardens. 
 ALEX. MACGREGOR, Esq. 31, Chester 
 
 Street, Grosvenor Place. 
 PETER EWART, Esq., 82, King William 
 
 Street. 
 
 ALEX. GILLESPIE, Esq. of Gillespie, Moffat, 
 
 and Co., 5, Gould Square. 
 T. HOLDSWORTH BROOKING, Esq. of 
 
 Robinson and Brookings, 3, Alderman's Walk. 
 JOHN SCOTT, Esq. 4, Hyde Park Street, 
 
 Hyde Park. 
 
 Medical Adviser— J)T. WOODFALL. Secretary— JOHN G. AULD, Esq. 
 
 Bankers— Messrs. COUTTS and Co. 
 
 THE COLONIAL LIFE ASSURANCE COMPANY has been established for the purpose 
 of extending to the Colonies of Great Britain, and to India, the full benefit of Life Assurance • 
 and for the purpose of giving increased facilities to persons visiting or residing in foreign countries! 
 
 Before the establishment of the " Colonial," Life Assurance in the Colonies was almost un- 
 known ; and where its protection was afforded, the rates demanded were so exorbitant as to be 
 almost a complete bar to such transactions 
 
 For the purpose of giving increased facilities also in the Company's transactions, the 
 Directors have appointed local Boards of Management and Branch Offices, where Assurances 
 may be effected and Premiums paid, in the different places to which they have extended their 
 business. 
 
 PROTECTIVE ASSURANCES— WHOLE.WORLD-LICENCE. 
 Persons effecting Life Assurance Policies as a security for money advanced, generally run 
 the risk of the party going beyond the limits of his policy, and incurring a forfeiture. The 
 Colonial Company are ready to grant Policies at a slightly increased rate of Premium (varing 
 from 5s. to 10s. per cent J covering the risk of a party proceeding to any part of the world at an 
 after period, provided always that the Company are satisfied that the party has no present 
 prospect or intention of going to any unhealthy Climate. The Company will also grant " Whole 
 World Licences " to persons having the intention of proceeding abroad, at rates of Premium 
 corresponding to the circumstances of each case. 
 
 Every other information may be obtained at the Offices of the Company, 4a, Lothbury, 
 London ; 1, George Street, Edinburgh ;"35, St. Vincent Place, Glasgow ; or at any of the Agencies 
 in the Colonies. 
 
 WILLIAM THOMAS THOMSON, Actuary 
 JOHN G. AULD, Secretary to the London Board, 
 
CHURCH OF ENGLAND 
 
 LIFE AND FIRE ASSURANCE I N S T I TU T ION",- 
 
 LOTHBURY, LONDON. 
 
 Empowered by Special Act of Parliament, 4 and 5 Vic., Cap. CXIl. 
 SUBSCRIBED CAPITAL, ONE MILLION. 
 
 (Av LIST OF THE PEOPEIETOE8 ENBOLLED IN THE HIGH COURT OF CHANCEBI.J 
 
 DIRECTORS. 
 MAJOR JAMES OLIPHANT, H.E.I.C, Chairman. 
 
 MAJOR JAMES ADAIR. 
 
 THE VERY REV. THE DEAN OF EMLY, 
 
 REV. W. HARNESS, M.A. 
 
 J. HOPKINSON, Esq. 
 
 BENJAMIN JACKSON, Esq> 
 
 REV. H. J. KNAPP, D.D. 
 
 JAMES LAMB, Esq. 
 
 CAPTAIN MACDOUGALL. 
 
 WILLIAM AMBROSE SHAW, Esq. 
 
 GEORGE SLOANE, Esq. 
 
 EDWARD HEATHCOTE SMITH, Eso> 
 
 REV. H. T. TUCKER, M-.Ax 
 
 JOHN WALKER, Esq. 
 
 SIR WILLIAM WHITE, 
 
 Bankers— '. 
 
 REV. RICHARD WOOD, B.D, 
 
 Auditors— Ri S. CAHILL, Esq.; and M. R. SCOTT, Esq. 
 
 HERRIES* FARQUHAR, and Co.-; and COMMERCIAL BANK OF 
 
 LONDON. 
 
 Solicitors— Messrs. E. and C. HARRISON, 
 
 Secretary— WILLIAM EMMENS, Esq, 
 
 SCOTTISH BRANCH. 
 Edinbubgh- OFFICE, 55, GREAT KING STREET. 
 Agent and Secretary— WILLIAM F. SKENE, W.S. 
 
 Glasgow— OFFICE, 24, GORDON STREET. 
 Agent and Secretary— ROBERT BAIRD, Jun. 
 
 INDIAN BRANCH. 
 
 CALCUTTA COMMITTEE. 
 
 JAMES STEUART, Esq. I J. SPENCER JUDGE, Esq. 
 
 ANDREW HAY, Esq. Wm. McADAM STEWART, Esq. 
 
 Dr. DUNCAN STEWART, 
 
 Agents and Secretaries— Messrs. COLVIN, AINRLIE. COWIE, and Co. 
 
 MADEAS COMMITTEE. 
 
 EDWARD F. ELLIOT, Esq. I ROBERT FRANCK, Esq. 
 
 WALTER ELLIOT, Esq, Rev. G. W. MAHON. 
 
 RAMSEY SLADEN, Esq. 
 
 Agents and Secretaries— Messrs. PARRY and COMPANY. 
 
 SPECIMEN OF RATES. 
 
 HOME. 
 
 INDIAN. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Seven Years. 
 
 Life. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Civil. 
 
 Military. 
 
 Seven Years.! Life. 
 
 1 
 
 Seven Years, 
 
 Life. 
 
 25 
 30 
 35 
 40 
 
 £ s. d. 
 1 2 9 
 1 3 7 
 1 5 2 
 1 8 2 
 
 £ s. d, 
 
 1 17 6 
 
 2 2 7 
 2 9 1 
 2 17 8 
 
 25 
 30 
 35 
 40 
 
 Rs. 
 
 28 
 31 
 34 
 38 
 
 Rs. 
 38 
 46 
 47 
 53 
 
 Rs. 
 
 37 
 
 39 
 
 43 
 
 97 
 
 Rs. 
 45 
 49 
 53 
 59 
 
 Prospectusses, the necessary Forms, and every requisite Information for effecting Assur- 
 ances, may be obtained on application to tbe Secretary at the Head Office in London, or to the 
 Agents and Secretaries in Scotland and India as above. 
 
 WM. EMMENS, Secretary. 
 
BRITISH MUTUAL 
 
 'LIFE ASSURANCE SOCIETY, 
 
 V7, NEW BRIDGE STREET, BLACKFRIARS. 
 
 DIRECTORS. 
 
 HENRY CTJRREY, Esq., 4, Lancaster Place, 
 22, Brook Street, and St. Thomas's Hospital 
 
 SRALPH ET WALL, Esq., Andover, and Nurs- 
 ling, near Southampton. 
 
 THOMAS EVANS, Esq., M.D., Stockwcll 
 
 Park House, Surrey. 
 -JOHN S. FELTOE, Esq., Belvidere Walk, 
 Larrtbeth. 
 
 «EORGE GODWIN, Esq., F.R.S., F.S.A., 
 Alexander Square, Brompton. 
 
 HON. WILLIAM GORE, wnton Crescent, 
 
 Belgrave Square. 
 THOMAS HAMBER, Esq., Barnsbury Park, 
 
 and Court of Bankruptcy. 
 JOHN LODGE, Esq., Ivy House, Godstone, 
 LIEUT -COL. MONTRESOR, Ospringe House, 
 
 Kent. 
 GEORGE ALFRED WALKER, Esq., St. 
 
 St. James's Place, St. James's. 
 
 Bankers.— Messrs. MASTERMAN and Co., Nicholas Lane, Lombard Street. 
 
 Physician.— NICHOLAS PARKER, Esq., M.D., Finsbury Square. 
 
 Surgeon.— ROBERT GRUEBEE SHUTE, Esq.,F.R.C.S., Mecklenburgh Square. 
 
 Solicitors.— Messrs. MILLAND and MACERELL, Cordwainer's Hall, City. 
 
 Resident Secretary.— CHARLES JAMES THICKE, Esq. 
 
 The plan of this Office will be found to embrace all the solid advantage of Life Assurance at 
 the least possible expense, while the equitable adjustment of the premiums to the several ages, 
 and the peculialy mode of distributing the surplus, secure to the Members— 
 
 A BONUS ANNUALLY, <in shape of low. premiums,) equal to those of other offices 
 granted every three, five, or seven years, and the PROSPECT OF A LA.RGER BONUS than 
 can possibly be obtained at those offices in the equitable and beneficial distribution of the profits. 
 
 Assurances may be effected for any sum from £20 to £5,000 >. upon any known system of 
 Orffe Assurance. 
 
 No entrance or Admission-money required. 
 
 A Life may be assured at any age for any certain time, or for the whole continuance of life, 
 •upon payment of either a gross sum, or by annual, half-yearly, or quarterly payments, to be 
 continued during the whole term of life, or during a limited number of years. 
 
 Annuities, immediate or deferred, or endowments to children, or sums to be received at any 
 *pecifled age, may be contracted for on equitable terms. The prices may be obtained on parti- 
 culars being stated. 
 
 The sum Assured may be made payable to the individual himself, onfhis attaining 60, or 
 any specified age; if he should die before that time, his representatives will reap the benefit of 
 bis Assurance in the usual way. 
 
 Where a Policy for the whole term of life shall be in force seven years, the fair value of 
 the policy will be paid on its being surrendered, or a new policy given in lieu of it, correspond- 
 ing to the premium previously paid, no further premiums being required in either case ; by this 
 provision, the objection to Life Assurance, from the fear that at some future time the party may 
 <*e unable to continue the payment, is effectually removed. 
 
 All payments are-made payable on one of the quarter days. 
 
 •Claims payable in three months after satisfactory proof of death shall have been given. 
 
 A Board of Directors and Medical officers are in attendance on Tuesdays, at Two o'clock, 
 and every facility is afforded for effecting Assurances on any other day. 
 
 A liberal commission allowed to Solicitors, and others, introducing business to the Society. 
 
 Forms of Proposals, and every information, may be obtained on application to any of toe 
 -Agents, or-at the Offlee, No. 17, New Bridge Street, Blackfriars, or by letter to the Secretary. 
 
GREAT BRITAIN 
 
 MUTUAL LIFE ASSURANCE SOCIETY. 
 
 IN DIA AND LONDON 
 
 LIFE ASSURANCE COMPANY, 
 
 14, WATERLOO PLACE, AND 52, KING WILLIAM STREET, CITY. 
 
 THE CHI9HOLM, Chairman. 
 
 RICHARD HARTLEY KENNEDY, Esq. Deputy Chairman. 
 
 DIVISION OF PROFITS. 
 
 This Society is established on the tried and approved principle of Mutual Assurance. A 
 Division of Profits was declared at a General Meeting of Members held on the 26th May last, 
 agreeabiy to the Deed of Settlement, when a Bonus of 30 per cent, was given in reduction of 
 future premiums on Participating Policies which had been in force five years, and hereafter this 
 Society will make an Annual Division of Profits. 
 
 Credit is allowed for half the Annual Premium for the first five years. 
 
 The following Table exemplifies the effect of the present reduction :— 
 
 Age when 
 
 Amount 
 
 Annual Premium 
 
 Reduction of 
 
 Annual Premium 
 
 Assured. 
 
 Assured. 
 
 hitherto paid. 
 
 30 per cent. 
 
 now payable. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 20 
 
 1,000 
 
 20 17 6 
 
 6 5 3 
 
 14 12 3 
 
 30 
 
 1,000 
 
 25 13 4 
 
 7 14 
 
 17 19 4 
 
 40 
 
 1,000 
 
 33 18 4 
 
 10 3 6 
 
 23 14 10 
 
 50 
 
 1,000 
 
 48 )6 8 
 
 14 13 
 
 34 3 8 
 
 INDIA AND LONDON LIFE ASSURANCE COMPANY. 
 
 capital, £250,000, in 5000 shares, £50 each. 
 
 This Company assures the lives of healthy persons in any part of the world, at as low rates 
 of premiums as can be taken consistently with perfect security, whilst for the accommodation of 
 the assured, a Half Premium Table (No, 2) has been constructed, affording greater advantages 
 to parties assuring for short periods, with tbe option of continuing for the remainder of life. 
 
 Also Invalid Lives, whether afflicted with mental or bodily infirmities. 
 
 And Lives of Naval and Military Officers and Civilians in India, in any of the Colonies, or 
 other parts of the world . 
 
 Annuities granted, and Endowments for Widows and Children, on a plan peculiar to this 
 
 EXTRACT FROM THE TABLES FOR AN ASSURANCE OF 1000 RUPEES, OR rf'lOO 
 
 Age. 
 18 
 25 
 35 
 45 
 
 Military or 
 Civilians. Naval Officers. 
 
 Rupees 29 .- Rupees 38 
 
 „ 33 42 
 
 „ 42 ,. 50 
 
 ,. 55 62 
 
 London. 14, Waterloo Place. 
 
 R. IRVINE, Manager. 
 
WESTERN 
 
 LIFE ASSURANCE AND ANNUITY SOCIETY, 
 3, PARLIAMENT STREET, LONDON. 
 
 DIRECTORS, 
 
 HENRY E. BICKNELL, Esq., 28, Upper 
 
 Bedford Row. 
 WILLIAM CABILL, Esq., Newlngton Place, 
 
 Surrey! 
 THOS. SOMERS COCKS, Jun., Esq,, M.P. 
 
 Charing Cross. 
 GEORGE HENRY DREW, Esq., Bermondsey 
 
 Street. 
 WILLIAM EVANS, Esq., Chesham Street, 
 
 Belgrave Square. 
 WILLIAM FREEMAN, Esq., MUlbank St. 
 FRANCIS FULLER, Esq., 29, Abingdon 
 
 Street, and Addington. 
 
 JOSEPH HENRY GOODHARN, Esq., Upper 
 Tooting. 
 
 THOMAS GRISSELL, Esq., New Palace Yard* 
 Westminster. 
 
 JAMES HUNT, Esq., 3L, Parliameut Street. 
 
 J. ARSCOTT LETHBRIDGE, Esq., Green- 
 wich Hospital. 
 
 EDMUND LUCAS, Esq., MUlbank Street. 
 
 JAMES LYS SEAGER, Esq., MUlbank. 
 
 JOHN WHITE, Esq., MUlbank Street, and 
 
 JOS. CARTER WOOD, Esq., Artillery Place, 
 Westminster. 
 
 TRUSTEES. 
 
 W. WHATELEY, Esq., Q.C., Great George Street, Westminster.— L. C. HUMPHREY, Esq. v 
 
 <Q.C, Great Queen Street, Westminster.— GEORGE DREW, Esq., Bermondsey and Streatham, 
 
 Consulting Countel.— WILLIAM P. WOOD, Esq., M.P., 3, Stone BuUdings, Lincoln's Inn. 
 
 Conveyancing Counsel.— SAMUEL JAY, Esq., 10, Old Square, Lincoln's Dm. 
 
 Physician.— WILLIAM R. BASHAM, M.D., 17, Chester Street, Grosvenor Place. 
 
 Surgeons.— ALFRED LEGGATT, Esq., Ebury Street, Eton Square— GEORGE D. POLLOCK 
 
 Esq., 39, Bruton Street, Berkley Square. 
 
 Bankers.— Messrs. COCKS, BIDDULPH, and Co., Charing Cross. 
 
 Solicitor.— J. C. LETHBRIDGE, Esq., 25, Abingdon Street, Westminster. 
 
 Actuary and Secretary.— ARTHUR SCRATCHLEY, Esq., M.A., F.R.A.S 
 
 VALUABLE NEW PRINCIPLE.— Payment of Premiums may be occasionally omitted 
 without forfeiting the Policy, on a new and valuable plan, adopted by this Society only, as fuUy 
 detailed in the Prospectus. 
 
 PROPOSALS are entertained by this Society for every variety of ASSURANCE, or 
 ANNUITY, contingent in one, two, or three lives. Policies of Assurance are granted from £50 
 up to .£5000. The payments of Premiums may be made Annually, Half -Yearly, Quarterly, 
 or Monthly, or may be compounded for by one single payment, commonly caUed the single 
 premium, or they may be made on descending or ascending scales. 
 
 MILITARY and NAVAL MEN (not in Actual War Service) are assured at the ordinary 
 rates. 
 
 ENDOWMENTS for CHILDREN, on their attaining the age of 14, or 21, and PROVISIONS 
 for OLD AGE, (by which a party secures a sum, payable to himself, on attaining the age of 60, 
 65, or to his family, in oase of previous death,) are granted by this Society, on apian, presenting 
 several ADVANTAGES not offered by other Societies. 
 
 PARTIES desirous of providing for the RENEWAL FINE in their LEASES, can do so with 
 faciUty in this Society. 
 
 TEMPORARY POLICIES of Assurances are granted to Borrowers in BUILDING 
 SOCIETIES, upon a new plan, offering peculiar advantages to the FamUies of the Borrowers, 
 and Security against the heavy loss their deaths would occasion. 
 
 Prospectuses, and further information, can be obtained, free of expense, from the Actuary > 
 3, ParUament Street, London, or from any of the Society's Agents in the country. 
 
 * Now ready, Price 6s., 8vo., {Copywright.) 
 
 A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON BENEFIT BUILDING SOCIETIES; with Rules and 
 Tables, intended for the use of Officers and Members. By A, Soratchley, M.A., Actuary to 
 the Western Life Assurance Society, 3, ParUament Street, Westminster. 
 London: JOHN W. PARKER, West Strand. 
 
 MEMBERS OF BUILDING SOCIETIES, in London or the Country, who are desirous 
 ■of ascertaining whether the Associations they belong to are conducted upon sound and equitable 
 principles, or at present are in a safe position, can obtain (gratis) the necessary inves tigation 
 papers, and the correct form of the LiabiUty and Assest Account, which should be made out 
 Annually by their Society, on applying personally, or by letter, with two postage stamps, to 
 the Actuary, No. 3, Parliament Street, London. 
 
COLLEGIATE SCHOOL, 
 
 BRIXTON LODGE-BRIXTON, SURREY. 
 
 The premises are in the highly respectable neighbourhood of Brixton, Surrey, four miles south 
 of the Royal Exchange, on the Brixton Road; and the grounds, \the class-rooms, dining-hall, 
 and bed-rooms, are spacious, and well adapted to the requirements of a large establishment ) 
 
 Principal— J. HOOPER HARTNOLL, 
 
 (OF THE UPPER NAUTICAL SCHOOL, ROYAL HOSPITAL, GREENWICH.) 
 
 Classics— William S Horry, L.L.D., St. John's, Oxon. 
 Mathematics (and Greek Lecturer) — Thomas Atkinson, M.A., Scholar of Corp. Ch. Coll., 
 
 Cambridge. 
 
 English Literature, Language, and Composition— Mr. Haktnoll. 
 
 French Language— -Mon. Cordelier Victor, of the College de la Fleche. 
 
 German Language— Dr. Horry. 
 
 Navigation and Nautical Astronomy— Mr. Hartnoll. 
 
 Fortification and Military Drawing— -Mr. Atkinson. 
 
 Drawing Master— Mr. Adkins. Dancing Master— Mr. Seaton. 
 
 Drill Master— Sergeant Wilkinson. 
 
 The general course of instruction adopted in the school is varied according to the Pupil's 
 probable destination in life.— When it is intimated that a youth is intended for employment in 
 the Commercial world, less extensive application to the classics affords additional time for atten- 
 tion to those particular branches of instruction which have a direct bearing upon Commercial 
 operations.- Pupils intended for the Legal or Medical Profession, are carefully advanced in the 
 Latin and Greek Languages.— Those who are to proceed at a suitable age to one of the Univer- 
 sities, are introduced to the higher classical authors. 
 
 Mathematics, and the application of Mathematical Laws to Natural Philosophy,~occupy a 
 prominent place in the course and it may be desirable to intimate to gentlemen connected with 
 Life Assurance Societies, who are anxious to educate their sons, with a view to their being 
 qualified for undertaking the duties of Actuary, that every facility, for the purpose, is afforded 
 in this establishment. 
 
 Pupils destined for the Royal Navy, or Mercantile Marine, derive the benefit of the Prin- 
 cipal's long experience in the Upper Nautical School, at Greenwich : and as he is intimately 
 acquainted with the qualifications required for the admission of Students into the Military 
 Academies, it may be observed that Young Gentlemen preparing to enter the Service, under 
 the new regulations, or to proceed direct to India, enjoy peculiar educational advantages in 
 Brixton Lodge. 
 
 The French and German Languages are attended to, under resident Masters, with a 
 diligence apportioned to their importance as branches of modern education ; whilst earnest 
 attention is given to secure for the pupils a graceful style of penmanship, the advantage of good 
 reading, a thorough acquaintance with their own language, facility in composition, and other 
 adjuncts in education too frequently disregarded in public schools. 
 
 The extensive experience of the Principal of this Establishment, and the Professional 
 reputation of his Colleagues, render it unnecessary to enter into details respecting the mode 
 of instruction pursued in it. Systems of education are, not unfrequently, the resources of in- 
 dolence, or the expedients of quackery. The organization, natural strength, and flexibility of 
 the mind, are as varied as the corresponding qualities of the body ; and no man will ever be- 
 come an efficient instructor until he has acquired that quickness of perception of the natural 
 powers and dispositions of young persons which enables a teacher to engage the confidence 
 and affection of his Pupils. 
 
 As an impression exists in some quarters that the Business of this School is limited to 
 Students of advanced age, Mr.HARTNOLL deems it proper to observe that the greatest advan- 
 tage a teacher can enjoy is to have the laying of the foundationon which the future superstruc- 
 ture is to be raised. 
 
 TERMS. 
 
 Pupils under 11 years of age, 45 Guineas per annum— above 14 years of age, 50 Guineas per an. 
 
 Weekly Boarders, 30 Guineas ;— Day Boarders, 20 Guineas; — Day Pupils, 12 Guineas per an. 
 
 Laundress, 15s. per quarter. Seat in church, 5s. per quarter. 
 
 It is requested that all articles of dress be properly marked ; and each young gentle 
 is to be provided with a silver table-spoon, six towels, comb, brushes, and linen clothes bag. 
 
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