I u\«-rini.r $-B "^5 ^DD \> LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. Received IAN 3 1893 . jgg ^Accessions No. l{^ ^to . Class No. Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/developmentlessoOOdegrrich DEVELOPMENT LESSONS. "gov "gtViCUtXS. ON SIZE, FORM, PLACE, PLANTS, AND INSECTS. CONTATNIN-G THE IHTSTRUCTION OF SUPT. FRANCIS W. PARKER, THE ORIGINATOR OF THE «' QUINCY SYSTEM" OF TEACHING, AND DEVELOPMENT LESSONS BASED ON THE "OSWEGO SYSTEM" OF TEACHING, AND LECTUEES ON THE SCIENCE AND THE AKT OF TEACHING. A GUIDE FOR NORMAL SCHOOLS, INSTITUTE IN- STRUCTORS, TEACHERS' INSTITUTES, TEACHERS, AND PARENTS. BY ESMOND V. DeGRAFF, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, PATERSON, N.J. ; CONDUCTOR OP TEACHERS' INSTITDTES; AUTHOR OF THE "SCHOOL-ROOM GUIDE," "PRACTICAL PHONICS," " SONG WAVE," ETC. MARGARET K. SMITH, M GRADUATE OP THE OSWEGO STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, NEW TOBK- ^^■&.A..K^S> ILLUSTRATED. NEW YORK: A. LOVELL & CO. 1886. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1883, by A. LOVELL & CO., in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. J. S. Gushing & Co., Printbbs, Boston. TO OF ILLINOIS, as a noble example of the high and honorable position which is attainable by a wise improvement of the study of THE SCIENCE AND THE ART OF TEACHING, and with the hope that the great army of teachers in the United States may be stimulated to greater efforts by his worthy example, THIS VOLUME is most respectfully dedicated by THE AUTHORS. PREFACE, r I REACHING is regarded as a Science and an Art. As such it may be taught like other sciences and arts, and may be presented in a book, to be studied and applied. This volume is the result of an earnest attempt to present the subjects so that the lessons given may be used by all classes of teachers. ORIGIN. The book is the outgrowth of years of faithful labor in the school- room, in teachers' institutes, and in the superintendency of schools. The lessons have been given frequently before teachers and normal training classes, but have not hitherto been collected into a volume. CLASSIFICATION OF THE WORK IN EACH LESSON. The classification of each lesson, — 1. Object; 2. Point; 3. Matter; 4. Method, — enables the inexperienced, as well as the experienced, teacher to present the lessons successfully. The author has fully expanded a method of doing the work, and has given explicit direc- tions to assist and govern the teacher. OBJECT. It has not been the aim to give many lessons on the different subjects, but to give typical lessons. The work is designed to be used as a text-book on Teaching. It is to be studied, and mastered, by those teaching and those preparing to teach. In its preparation special effort has been made to classify and de- VI PREFACE. velop the different subjects, so that it may be a guide to the acquire- ment of modern methods of instruction, — a vade mecum for normal ■ school teachers and pupils. The time has passed lohen talks and lec- tures alone meet the wants of modern teachers; and with this view in mind it will prove a valuable aid to students and parents. More than fifty development lessons are given on the different sub- jects, and these will enable the teacher to formulate and present other lessons of a similar character. Teachers are asking, "How can we best prepare ourselves for our work?" We answer, that it is the hope of the author that the present work will aid all who seek after the natural methods. "QUINCY WORK." Special pains have been taken to present and illustrate the work of the Quincy schools. The secret of the success attained in those schools is found in the truism of Comenius : " Things that have to he y done should he learned hy doing them.'' The " Quincy Work," alone, is a compendium on teaching. The author has taken great delight in presenting the work of Francis W. Parker, the model superintendent of schools, the wise benefactor, and the ablest champion of the rights of children. LECTURES ON THE SCIENCE AND THE ART OF TEACHING. Nature and Contents. — A work for teachers should be moulded by the wants of the teachers. The author has endeavored to bear this in mind when formulating the instruction contained in these lectures. Specific instruction has been given on How to teach Reading, Spell- ing, Phonics, Language, Geography, Arithmetic, etc. The methods to be used, results to be obtained, and cautions to be observed, are defi- nitely set forth. The student teacher should carefully study these, until they become a part of his educational vocabulary. PREFACE. Vii No attempt has been made to be merely original. The endeavor has been to present the modern methods of teaching. To Francis W. Parker, for his kindness in pennitting me to use his work and instruction to teachers, I desire to express the hope that this book may be of value to the teachers of our country; that it may aid in building up a better system of education, and inspire all who use it to a greater degree of improvement and professional culture. The author would extend his grateful acknowledgments for encouragement, sincerely hoping that his efforts may contribute to the cause of education. ESMOND V. DeGRAFF. 16 AsTOR Place, New York. July, 1883. CONTEI^TS. I. DEVELOPMENT LESSONS. PAGB SENSES 1 1. Sight. 3. SmeU. 6. Touch. 2. Sound. 4. Taste SIZE 5 1. Large. 4. Short. 7. Wide. 2. SraaU. 6. Thick. 8. Narrow. 8. Long. 6. Thin. FORM 9 Introduction. 1. Lines, etc. 8. Oblongs, etc. 2. Converging lines, etc. 9. Circles, etc. 3. Angles, etc. 10. Radius, etc. 4. Adjacent Angles, etc. 11. Secant, etc. 5. Triangles, etc. 12. Solids, etc. 6. Equilateral Triangles, etc. 13. Cone, etc. 7. Quadrilaterals, etc. PLACE 79 1. Patterning. 5. Moulding. 2. Position. 6. Map-drawing. 3. Right and Left. 7. Use of Maps. 4. Points of the compass. PLANTS 90 Introduction. 1. Seed. 3. Stem. 6. Flower. 2. Root. 4. Bud. 7. Fruit. 5. Leaf. X CONTENTS. PAGE INSECTS 129 Grasshopper. 1. Size, etc. 4. Mouth, etc. 8. Legs, etc. 2. Parts, etc. 5. Thorax, etc. 9. Abdomen, etc. 3. Head, etc. 6. Wings, etc. 10. Uses, etc. 7. Under wings. Cricket. II. QUINCY SCHOOL WORK 181 IIL LECTURES ON THE SCIENCE AND THE ART OF TEACHING 241 IV. SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 271 V. THE NEW DEPARTURE IN THE COMMON SCHOOLS OF QUINCY 287 LESSOlSr oil THE SEITSES. LESSON I. OBJECT. To cultivate Perception, Conception, Comparison, Memory, and Lan- guage. POINT. To develop idea of, and teach the senses, Seeing, Feeling, Taste, Smell, and Hearing. MATTER. 1. Seeing, Feeling, Taste, Smell, and Hearing are called the Senses. 2. We find out (or perceive) through the senses. MATERIALS. Apples, candy, sugar, salt, vinegar, flowers, etc. METHOD. Teacher. (Having presented objects, and had children talk about them.) John, you may take one of these apples. (Ch. does so.) Which apple did John take ? Child. He took the red apple. T. How did you find out that the apple is red ? Ch. I found it out by looking at it. T. Tell me that in another way. Ch. I found it out by seeing (or sight). T. What else can you find out about the apple by seeing? (T. write on board word seeing.^ Ch. I can find out whether it is a large or small apple. T. What else can you find out about the apple by seeing? Ch. I can tell the shape of the apple by seeing. T. What shape is it? Ch. It is round. T. What else can you find out about it by seeing? LESSON ON THE SENSES. Ch. I can tell whether it is smooth or rough. Ch. I can tell whether it is shiny or dull. T. When you say the apple is large, of what of the apple are you speaking ? Ch. I am speaking of the size of the apple. T. And when you say it is round, of what are you speaking ? Ch. I am speaking of the shape of the apple. T. And when you say it is smooth and glossy, of what of the apple are you speaking ? Ch. I am speaking of the surface of the apple. T. When you say it is red, of what are you speaking ? Ch. I am speaking of the color of the apple. T. Now name all the things you have found out about the apple by seeing. Ch. We have found out the size, shape, color, and kind of surface of the apple by seeing. T. John, you may tell us something more about the apple. Ch. It is a hard apple. T. How do you know it is hard ? Ch. I feel it. T. Howidid John find out that the apple is hard? Ch. He found out that the apple is hard by feeling. (T. write on board word feeling.) T. What else can you find out about the apple by feeling? Ch. I can find out whether it is a large or small apple. T. Of what of the apple are you speaking when you say it is large or small? Ch. I am speaking of its size. T. What else can you find out about it by feeling ? Ch. I can find out its shape. T. What shape is it? Tell without looking. Ch. It is round. T. Touch something on the table without looking, and tell me its shape. Ch. (Takes a book.) This book is flat. T. WTiat else can you find out about the apple by feeling ? Ch. I can find out whether it is rough or smooth, r. Which is it? Ch. It is smooth. T. Now mention all the things you have found out about the apple by feeling. Ch. I have found out by feeling the size, shape, and sm-face of the apple, and that it is hard; LESSON ON THE SENSES. 3 T. How many of these things did you find out by seeing ? Ch, We found out the size, shape, and surface of the apple by seeing and by feeling. T. Mention one thing you found out by feeling that you did not by seeing. Ch. We found out that it is hard by feeling, but did not find that out by seeing. T. What did you find out about it by seeing that you did not find out by feeling ? Ch. We found out the color and the glossy surface by seeing, but we could not find that out by hearing. T. In what other way can you find out something about this apple ? Ch. I could find out something by eating it. T. You may eat a piece of it. (Gives piece to each.) Well, what have you found out ? Ch. It is a sour apple. T. How do you know that it is sour ? Ch. I can taste it. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. How did he find out that this apple is sour ? Ch. He found it out by tasting. (T. write on board word tasting.) T. While tasting it, what else did you observe besides that it is sour? Ch. It is juicy. T. How did you find that out ? Ch. I found it out by feeling. (Children may think they perceive juiciness rather by taste than feeling, but if they are led to talk about the nature of juiciness, they will soon perceive the truth.) T. In what other way can you find out something about this apple ? Ch. We can smell it. T. You may do so. (Ch. does so.) What have you found out? (Ch. may not be able to explain what he perceives by smelling, in which case the T. will lead him to state that apples have a fra- grant odor, which distinguishes them from other fruits.) T. You may tell all that you have learned about this apple. Ch. It is large, round, smooth, glossy, hard, red, sour, and fragrant. T. How did you find out all these things ? Ch. We found them out by seeing, feeling, tasting, and smelling. T Take something from the table, and tell what you find out about it, by seeing. (Children take different things, and describe using only sense of sight. T. have them take a picture and state all they find out about it, by seeing. Then have them describe objects, using only feeling. Have them state what they find out by tasting different tnings. T. should have present, sugar, salt, apices, and other articles, so as to get the terms sweet, salt, pung' 4 LESSON ON THE SENSES. ent, sour, bitter^ etc. Have them use terms hot and cold, as per- ceived through touch. Have flowers and other articles present that will enable them to distinguish different odors.) T. Name all the means you know by which we find out things. Ch. We find out things by seeing, feeling, tasting, and smelling. T. Who can think of another means by which we found out things ? Ch. We find out things by hearing. (Class decision. T. confirm. T. write on board word hearing. Have children tell what they can hear.) T. Who can give one name that will apply to all these powers, by which we find out things ? Ch. (or T.) Seeing, feeling, taste, smell, and hearing, are called senses. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board full state- ment.) T. Of what use are the senses to us ? Ch. We find out things through the senses. (T. give the term per- ceive, instead of " find out.") Note. — As soon as children perceive the use of the senses, very use- ful and very interesting lessons may be given upon sensations perceived by each of the senses. As language exercises, the pupils may make statements upon the different sounds they can hear. These statements may be as follows : — We can hear the dog bark or howl. We can hear the cat mew. We can hear the cow low. We can hear the bu'ds sing. We can hear the bells ring. We can hear the wind blow. We can hear the clock tick. The teacher will at once perceive the amount of observation in one such lesson, and if the work is done carefully, the children will gain an entirely new understanding of their powers. Have the children state different things they can see, feel, taste, and smell, in the same way, and lead them to understand that we observe and perceive through any and all of the senses. LESSOl^ O]^ SIZE. LESSON I. OBJECT. To cultivate Perception, Conception, Comparison, Judgment, Memory, and Language. POINT. To develop idea of, and teach. Large, Small, Long, Short, Thick, Thin, Wide, Narrow. MATERIALS. Pieces of ribbon, boxes of different sizes, bottles of different sizes, pencils, sticks of candy, strings, pointers, books, etc. The objects compared must always be of the same kind, but of dif- ferent sizes. METHOD. Teacher. (Having presented different objects, and had children talk about them.) John, you may find one of the bottles. (Ch. does so.) T. James may find another. (Ch. does so.) T. Which bottle did John find? Child. He found the big bottle. (T. give term large for big. Write on board word large.) T. And which bottle did James find ? Ch. He found the small bottle. (Ch. may say " the little bottle," in which case T. gives term small. Write on board word small. The teacher will take care that the difference in size is the chief difi- ference between the bottles, and let that be sufficiently great to be readily observed. The teacher will observe that the children know these words, and need only to be taught to apply them correctly.) T. Find a large box. Ch. This is a large box. T. Find a small box. Ch. This is a small box. 6 LESSON ON SIZE. T. Look round the room and find something that is large and some- thing that is small. Ch. This is a large apple and this is a small apple. T. (Presenting a larger one.) If that is a large apple, what shall we call this ? Ch. It is a larger apple. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. (Producing a still larger apple.) And what shall we call this ? Ch. That apple is larger than either of the others ; or, that is the largest apple. T. Show me something that is large. Ch. This is a large book. T. Show me a larger book. Ch. This is a larger book. CA. This is the largest book. (Work similarly for smaller and smallest.) T. (Presenting two pieces of candy of same thickness but different lengths.) Which of these would you rather have ? Ch. I should rather have the long piece. (Write on board word long.) T. Why? Ch. Because there is more of it. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. (Pointing to short piece.) Since you call that the long piece, what shall we call this ? Ch. That is the short piece. (Write on board word short.) T. (Presenting a piece that is shorter.) And what will you caD this? Ch. That is a shorter piece. T. (Presenting a still shorter piece.) What will you call this ? Ch. That is the shortest piece. T. Find a long pointer. Ch. This is a long pointer. T. Find a short one. Ch. This is a short one. T. Find something else that is long. Ch. This is a long ribbon. T. Find a longer ribbon. Ch. This is a longer ribbon. T. Find the longest ribbon. Ch. This is the longest ribbon of all. (Have children find objects in the room that are short ; have them use shorter and shortest.) Note. — If child should use large, instead of long, have him show the way in which it is large, and he will at once be able to use the word long. Have children apply long and short to a variety of objects, fingers, hair, lines drawn on the hoard, etc. LESSON ON SIZE. 7 T, (Presenting pieces of ribbon of different widths.) Mary, you may take one of these. (Ch. does so.) T. Which piece did she take ? Ch. She took the wide piece. (Write on board word wide. Possibly Ch. may say, she took the large piece, in which case have her show in which way it is large ; and when she shows the direction, tell her that we use the word wide to denote size in this direction.) T. Since you call that the wide piece, what will you call this ? Ch. That is the narrow piece. (Write on board word narrow.) T. (Presenting piece of ribbon wider than the first.) You called that a wide piece ; what will you call this ? Ch. It is a wider piece. T. (Presenting a still wider piece.) And what will you call this ? Ch. That is the widest piece. (Get terms narrower and narrowest in similar manner.) T. Find something on the table that is wide and something that is narrow. (Children do so, stating what they have done.) T. Look round the room and find something that is wide and some- thing that is narrow. (Children do so, stating fully each time. T. drill on comparative and superlative of wide and narrow, as in previous cases.) T. (Presenting blocks of different thickness, but same shape and size otherwise.) John, which block will you have ? Ch. I will take the thick block. (Write on board word thick.) T. What will you call this ? Ch. That is a thin block. (Write on board word thin. Have pupils use comparative and superlative of each. Drill as before, by hav- ing children apply terms to different objects in the room. Then lead them to apply several terms to the same object ; as, This is a long, narrow, thin ribbon. This is a short, wide, thick ribbon. This is a large, thick box. This is a small, thin box. Drill upon all the words. Have children recall objects they have seen, and apply the terms to them. The work given here under size would probably take one or two weeks, as little children would probably not be able to do more in one lesson than learn to use the words long and short.) Note. — After the work on Comparative size. Absolute size may be taught. Lead Ch. to appreciate the yard first. Have Ch. state how he can buy a yard of ribbon or cloth at tM-stOfSr^sSiaiye him show how ^n^^.^%. S LESSON ON SIZE. long a yard is. T. show yard-measure. Have Ch. measure a string. This string is a yard long. Apply to other things. Then have Ch. use half yard, then quarter of a yard. Make table : — 2 half yards make 1 yard. 4 quarter yards make 1 yard. 2 quarter yards make ^ yard. Next teach foot. Lead Ch. to see that 3 feet make 1 yard. Next teach inch. Lead Ch. to state that 12 inches make 1 foot. Have pupils apply inch, foot, and yard: — This table is 4 feet long, and 3 feet wide. This box is 6 inches long, 4 inches wide, and 2 inches high. LESSONS OE" FORM. Note 1. — In practical life ability to acquire is preferable to simple possession ; so, in intellectual matters, the same preference exists, but in a greater degree. Note 2. — It is best not to give pupils knowledge ready made, but to teach the way to get it. Note 3. — The mere exercise of memory may arouse curiosity, but deadens intellectual activity. Note 4. — Knowledge is more firmly fixed in the mind by observation than by memorizing alone. Note 5. — Teachers often make the mistake of trying to teach pupils advanced knowledge, and of supposing that immature minds are able to digest and assimilate. They forget that young pupils have not sufficiently developed ideas for such instruction, and that consequently they ought not to proceed with them from the general to the particular, but should first establish a foundation of individual observations which can finally be united into a general statement. This may be termed systematic instruction — teaching the principles which are the results of generalizing from indi- vidual observations. Laws or Principles when classified and arranged form a system. Methodical instruction, or Method, is the mode of reaching these principles ; or, rather, it is the perfect adaptation of instruction to the mind of the pupil. This is the Inductive Method, — a method that brings together into one general idea a sufficient number of isolated, individual observations to establish a principle, — and a method that should be used before per- mitting the use of reverse operation ; viz. : deduction from the laws obtained from individual cases. From the above considerations the following method is offered: — First. The first thing necessary is Practice in Observing. Note. — The constant t xercise in carefully observing objects of study should of course be progressive, from the easy to the difficult. 10 LESSONS ON FORM. Second. The second thing necessary is the habit and power of describing things observed, accurately. Note. — Hand in hand with observation goes training in describing the things observed. Third. The third thing necessary is to study individual things by them- selves ; afterwards comes a comparison of these things previously studied separately, so as to bring out their resemblances and differences. One single observation accurately made and described is of more value mentally to the pupil than many anecdotes and illustrations. It is not the teacher, but the pupil who ought to make the description of the things under observation ; that is, the thing he has himself observed, not the things with which he has burdened his memory without observation. Repeating from memory things not observed by tlie pupils themselves, and mere reciting of school-book information, are the wrong ways of teaching. Before commencing lessons in Form, the pupils should be led to under- stand the Senses ; and should have such lessons upon objects as will lead them to appreciate such words as object, length, height, breadth, depth, and thickness. In this connection they may be led to understand the use of the word dimensions. Possibly a course of lessons in Size would be the best preparation for the study of Form. Through all the work the teacher must guard against haste. In a lesson lasting twenty, or even thirty minutes, a class of young children will seldom learn more than three new termS, and any attempt to hurry them must result in their gaining words without the underlying ideas. They should always be led to appreciate the necessity for a new word before it is given them. In order that children may acquire early habits of correct expression, the teacher must have them pronounce very distinctly, and must be care- ful that they make full statements. Fragmentary answers or remarks indicate indistinct ideas as well as disconnected thoughts. As a means of cultivating the judgment, as well as of holding the attention of all the children, frequent class decision is judicious. The teacher's confirmation of correct judgment should, of course, immediately follow a class decision, as no child should be permitted to remain uncertain whether he is right or wrong. The teacher must arrange the matter for dr velopment as clearly and concisely as possible, and, before meeting her (^lass, must make a definite plan for each lesson ; yet she must take care that this plan shall admit LESSONS ON FORM. H such modifications as circumstances may require. A box of forms is, of course, necessary, and in connection with the forms the teacher will make use of many familiar objects as means of illustration. LESSOX I. OBJECT. 'Vo cwXiivsiie Perception, Conception, Comparison, Memory, and Language. POINT. To develop idea of, and give terms, Surface, Faces, Straight and Curved Faces, Edge {Straight and Curved). MATTER, General Statements. 1. That part of an object which we can see or touch is called the surface- 2. The different inclinations of a surface produce faces. 3. A face whose direction is always the same is called a straight face. 4. A face whose direction changes continually is called a curved face, 5. The meeting of tioo faces forms an edge. 6. The meeting of two straight faces forms a straight edge. 7. The meeting of two curved faces forms a curved edge. METHOD. Teacher. (Presenting a box to class.) What have I ? Child. You have a box. T. (Passing her hand over it, taking care to touch every part.) Wliat am I doing to this box ? Ch. You are touching the box. T. How do you know that ? Ch. I can see you touching it. T. What senses are you using in order to know that? Ch. I am using the sense of sight. T. You may touch the box. (Ch. does so, T. taking care that she passes her hand over every part.) T. How many senses has John used in examining this box ? Ch. He has used two senses, sight and touch. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Then what has John done to the box? Ch. John has seen and touched the box. 12 • LESSONS ON FORM. T. You may show me some other part of this box which you can see and touch. Ch. I cannot. T. Why? Ch. I cannot get at it. T. You may show me the part of this ball which you can see and touch. (Ch. does so ; other children showing parts of slate, desk, etc., passing their hands carefully over the parts.) T. Who can tell me whether those objects have parts which we can- not see and touch ? Ch. They have, but we cannot get at them. (Class decision. T. con- firm.) T. Who knows what that part of an object which we can see and touch is called? (Ch. may say the outside, but the teacher cor- rects that by opening a box and showing that they may see or touch the inside of some objects ; then she gives the term surface, which the class repeat, the teacher taking care that they pronounce the word distinctly.) T. What is a surface ? Ch. That part of an object which we can see or touch is called the sur- face. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) T. Show me the surface of your slate, desk, ball, etc. (Ch. does so, each time making statement. This is the surface of the slate, This is the surface of the ball, etc. T. drills until she is certain that the term is understood ; then children read written definition.) T. (Passing her hand over one side of box.) What am I doing ? Ch. You are touching one side of the box. T. (Passing her hand over another part of box.) What am I doing now ? Ch. You are touching another part of the box. T. Compare the direction of the part I am now touching with the di- rection of the part which I first touched, and tell what you think. Ch. The direction of the part you are now touching is dilferent from the direction of the part you first touched. (Class decision. T. confirm and explains, saying : We call the different directions of these parts the different inclinations of the surface.) T. How does the inclination here (at the side), or the inclination here (at the end), compare with the inclination here (at the bottom)? Ch. They both differ from that inclination (at the bottom). (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Show me the different inclinations of the surface of this object (presenting different objects to children, and leading them to make full statements) . LESSONS ON FORM. 18 T. Who can tell what the different inclinations of a surface make? (produce?) (In answer the child will probably give the word parts^ which the teacher corrects by leading him to see that any place he touches is a part of the whole surface. Then, if the child cannot tell, she gives the term faces, and the child makes the full statement: The different inclinations of a surface make (produce) /ace^. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) T. (Presenting objects.) Show me the faces of this object. (Ch. does so, stating : " This is a face," " This is a face," etc.) T. (Presenting box.) Notice carefully, as I pass my hand along this face, and tell me what is true of its change of direction. Ch. It does not change its direction; or, its direction is always the same. (Class decision. T. confirm. T. have children find other faces whose direction is always the same.) T. (Presenting a cup or bottle.) How does the direction of this face compare Math the direction of the other ? Ch. It is different. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. How does it differ ? Ch. The direction of this face is not always the same. T. Since the direction here is not always the same, what may you say this face does ? Ch. It changes its direction. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Now look closely, and show me just where this face changes its direction. (Ch. cannot find the place, and at length states that the direction changes everywhere, or " all the time," when T. asks for class decision, which she confirms, using the word continually instead of the expression " all the time.") T. Who can tell what a face, whose direction is always the same, is called? Ch. A face whose direction is always the same is called (T. or Ch. give term) a straight face. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) T. Find several faces whose direction changes continually. (Ch. finds several, making full statements about them.) T. What is a face, whose direction changes continually, called ? Ch. A face, whose direction changes continually, is called (T. or Ch. give term) a curved face. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) T. What prevents this face from going farther outward in this direction? (Passing her hand over the top of the box.) Ch. The side face meets it and stops it. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. And what prevents it going out in this direction ? (Passing hand over towards the ends.) 14 LESSONS ON FORM. Ch. The end face meets it and stops it. T. How many faces meet here ? Ch. Two faces meet there. T. Show me other places where two faces meet. (Ch. does so, showing several, and making full statements.) T. Who can tell me what the meeting of two faces makes (forms) ? Ch. The meeting of two faces forms (Ch. or T.) an edge. (Simul- taneous recitation. T. write on board.) T. How many kinds of faces have you learned ? Ch. We have learned two kinds of faces, straight faces and curved faces. T. The meeting of two faces forms an edge ; now what kind of an edge does the meeting of two straight faces form ? Ch. The meeting of two straight faces forms a straight edge, and the meeting of two curved faces forms a curved edge. (Class decision. T. confirm.) The teacher may drill by having pupils show her surfaces, faces (straight and curved), and edges of different kinds, and l)y hav- ing them read the statements written on the board. Then she may erase statements, and have children recall definitions. If old enough, the children will write defini*iions in note-books. LESSONS ON FORM. 15 LESSON II. Note. — Review lesson of yesterday, taking care that the children understand, as well as remember, surface, straight and curved faces, straight and curved edges. Then connect the new lesson with the old in such a way that the child will hardly realize where the review ends, and devel- opment begins. OBJECT. To cultivate Perception, Conception, Comparison, Memory, and Language. POINT. To develop idea of, and give terms. Corner, Point, Line, Straight and Carved Lines. MATTER. 1. The meeting of three edges forms a corner. 2. That which has position, but neither length, breadth, nor thickness, is called a point. 3. That which has length, but no breadth nor thickness, is called a line. 4. A line whose direction is always the same is called a straight line. 5. A line whose direction continually changes is called a curved line. METHOD. Teacher. (Presenting box.) Observe this edge (along the side of the box) ; this one (across the end) ; and this one (tracing thickness) ; and tell me what is true of them in regard to each other. Child. They come together. T. Tell me that in another way. Ch. The three edges meet. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. You may show me three other edges that meet. (Ch. does so; other children finding the same, and making full statements.) T. Who can tell me what the meeting of three edges makes (forms) ? Ch. The meeting of three edges forms a (Ch. or T. give term) corner. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) T. Find five different corners, and the edges that meet to form each. (Ch. does so, making full statements.) T. Look closely at this corner, and show me exactly where the three edges meet. Ch. I cannot touch the place. (Class decision. T. confirm, showing that it is impossible to touch the place of meeting without touch- ing one of the edges.) 16 LESSONS ON FORM. T. In connection with the size of objects, how many dimensions have you learned ? Ch. We have learned three dimensions, length, breadth, and thickness. T. What dimensions has this place where the three edges meet ? Ch. It has no dimensions. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. It has then no length, breadth, nor thickness ; now tell me what it has. Ch. It has place. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Who knows another word that means the same as place ? Ch. or 2\ Position. T. Now tell me all you have learned about this place. Ch. The place where three edges meet has position, but has neither length, breadth, nor thickness. T. Who can tell me what that which has position, but neither length, breadth, nor thickness, is called? Ch. That which has position, but neither length, breadth, nor thick- ness, is called (Ch. or T.) a point. (Sinuiltaneous recitation. T. write on board. T. aids pupil in the construction of this defini- tion, as the expression " that which" is unnatural to a child.) T. John, you may make a point on the board. (John makes a dot.) T. How many think that John has made a point? (Ch. thinks that he has not done so.) T. Why not? Ch. A point has position, but neither length, breadth, nor thickness. That which John made, has length, breadth, and thickness. (Class decision. T. confirm, showing that no dot can be made so small that it does not possess all three dimensions.) T. Now, what may we call that which John has made ? Ch. We may call it the picture of a point. (Class decision. T. con- firm, also stating that for convenience we shall call it a point.) T. (Presenting box.) Now look at this edge (along the side), and find the exact place where these places meet. Ch. I cannot find the exact place. It seems something like the point. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. What has this place that the point has not ? Ch. It has length. T. How does it resemble the point ? Ch. It has no breadth nor thickness. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. What do we call that which has length, but no breadth nor thickness ? Ch. That which has length, but no breadth nor thickness, is called (Ch. or T.) a line. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) T. Mary may make a line on the board. LESSONS ON FORM. 17 Ch. I cannot make a line. T. Why not? Ch. What I make has breadth and thickness. T. What shall we call that which Mary has made? Ch. We may call it a pictm*e of a line. (Class decision. T. confirm, having children make heavy and light lines, and show breadth and thickness; after which she states that for convenience they will call those pictures lines.) T. Out of what do we get a point ? Ch. Out of a corner, we get a point. T. Out of what do we get a line ? Ch. Out of an edge, we get a line. T. How many classes of edges have you learned? Ch. We have learned two classes of edges, straight and curved edges. T. Then how many classes of lines do you think there are ? Ch. There are two classes of lines, straight and curved lines. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. fJohn may make three straight lines, while Mary may make three curved lines, on the board. (Children do so, other children stating what they have done.) T. What is a straight line ? Ch. A line whose direction is alw^ays the same is called a straight, line. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) T. AVhat is a curved line ? Ch. A line whose direction continually changes is called a curved line. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) Remark. — Drill by having pupils make pictures of corner, point, line (straight and curved), while others identify each, and others read definitions from the board. Then erase work, remove objects, and have pupils recall what they have learned, and, if able to write, have them write definitions in their books, paying particular attention to penman- fihip, use of capital letters, punctuation, and spelling. If pupils cannot keep a note-book, have them copy the new terms they have learned on the slate, and make pictures of them. Note. — After teaching straight and curved lines, it will be well to teach crooked or broken lines and compound curves. Here there is nothing new, and the teacher can easily lead the child to see that a broken line is made up of different straight lines, or of straight and curved lines together, while a compound curve is composed of two oJ more simple curves. 18 LESSONS ON FORM. LESSON III. Review Corner, Point, Line, (Straight and Curved). OBJECT. To cultivate Perceptio?i, Conception, Comparison, Memory/, and Language. POINT. To develop idea of the different kinds of straight lines, and give the terms Horizontal, Vertical, and Oblique. MATTER. 1. A straight line that extends upward and downward, and inclines neither to the right nor to the left, is called a vertical line. 2. A straight line that extends to the right and to the left, and inclines neither upward nor doionward, is called a horizontal line. 3. A straight line that extends both upward and downward, and inclines both to the right and to the left, is called an oblique line. METHOD. Teacher. (Presenting ruler with straight edges.) Look at this edge ; observe what I am doing, and tell me what is true of its direction (slowly tracing from bottom upward). Child. It goes upward. T. Tell me that, using another word instead of goes. Ch. (or T.) It extends upward. T. (Tracing edge downward.) Now what is true of its direction ? Ch. It extends downward. T. Then in what direction does this edge extend ? Ch. It extends both upward and downward. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. And what is true of its inclination to the right or to the left ? Ch. It does not incline to the right nor to the left. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Now tell me what you have learned about the direction of this edge. Ch. It extends upward and downward, and does not incline to the- right nor to the left. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. How would you make a picture of this edge ? Ch. I should draw a line on the board. T. In order that it should be a true picture of this edge, what must be true of its direction? LESSONS ON FORM. 19 Ch. It must extend upward and downward, and incline neither to the right nor left. T. You may draw such a line. (Ch. does so ; class decision that it Is a true picture.) T. Now you may tell me in full what he has done. Ch. He lias drawn a straight line which extends upward and down- ward, and inclines neither to the right nor to the left. T. Who knows the name of a line of which this is true? Ch. A straight line that extends upward and downward, and inclines neither to the right nor to the left, is called a vertical line. (If neces- sary, T. gives term vertical.) (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) 2\ (Presenting ruler in different position.) In what direction does this edge extend now ? Ch. It extends to the right. T. In what other direction does it extend? ^ Ch. It also extends to the left. ^ T. And what is true of its inclination in this direction ? (Upward and downward.) Ch. It does not incline upward nor downward. (If children have any difficulty with the words inclination and incline, the teacher will use the word bending or leaning until they perceive the meaning of inclination.^ T. Xow tell me what you have learned about the direction of this edge. Ch. It extends to the right and to the left, and inclines neither upward nor downward. T. You may make a picture of this edge. (Ch. draws a horizontal line.) T. AVhat has she done? Ch. She has drawn a line that extends to the right and to the left, and (a &) inclines neither upward nor downward. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. I shall name this line a, h, and IMary may make three others like it, and name with other letters. (Ch. does so, other children giv- ing full description of each.) T. Xow we need the name for this line ; w^ho can give it? Ch. A straight line that extends to the right and to the left, and in- clines neither upward nor downward, is called (Ch. or T.) a hori- zontal line. (Simultaneous recitation. T. wTite on board.) T. Mary may draw on the board three vertical lines, and Ann may draw three horizontal lines. (Children do so, other children stat- ing what they have done.) T. (Presenting edge in a different position.) In what direction does this edge extend ? 20 LESSONS ON FORM. Ch. It extends upward and downward. T. And what is true of its inclination to the right or to the left ? Ch. It inclines either to the right or to the left. T. Tell me then all that you observe in regard to the direction of this edge. Ch. It inclines to the right or to the left. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Mary may make a picture of this edge. (Ch. does so, drawing an oblique line, and, by direction of the teacher, naming it 7n, n.') T. Describe the line 711, n, as to direction. Ch. The line m, n. It inclines either to the right or to the left. T. Who can make the definition from that description, and give the name of such a line ? Ch. A straight line that inclines either to the right or to the left is called (Ch. or T.) an oblique line. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) l4ll by having children make different kinds of straight lines and name each, and by having children read and copy definitions from the board. Then erase work, remove objects, and have them recall what they have learned. Note. — If the children are old enough, it will be well, for the sake of future work in Geometry, to teach the mathematical as well as the child's definitions of the different kinds of straight lines. 1. A line pointing to the centre of the earth is called a vertical line. 2. A line parallel ivifk the horizon is called a horizontal line. 3. A line which is neither vertical nor horizontal is called an oblique line. Even with more advanced pupils it will be best to develop first the child's, and afterwards the mathematical, definitions. As soon as children have learned the different kinds of straight lines, work in designing may be begun. Instead of giving them home tasks to commit to memory, such work as the following may be assigned. • 1. Make as many different designs as you can, using two straight lines; three; four; five; etc. 2. Bring me to-morrow three different designs, made by using two vertical and two horizontal lines. 3. Make five different designs, using two horizontal, three vertical, and two oblique lines. LESSONS ON FORM. 21 LESSON IV. Review carefully vertical, horizontal, and oblique lines. OBJECT. To cultivate Perception, Conception, Comparison, Memory, and Lan- guage. POINT. To develop idea of, and teach, Parallel, Converging, and Diverging lines. MATTER. 1. Lines that are the same distance apart throughout their length are called parallel lines. 2. Liiies that are not the same distance apart throughout their length, but which come together (converge) in one direction, and separate (diverge) in the other direction, are called converging or diverging lines. J g Teacher. (Drawing vertical parallel lines on the board.) y What have I done ? Child. You have drawn two vertical lines, and named them A and B. T. Now I touch the line ^ at a certain point x, and opposite X I touch the point y in the line B. I join these two points by a straight line. What does the line xy show? Ch. Line xy shows the distance between the lines A and B. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Now I take two points, m and n, opposite each other, in the lines A and B. I join these points by a straight line. What does the line mn show ? Ch. Line mn shows distance between the lines A and B. T. How does the distance between the lines A and B, shown by line xy, compare with the distance shown by mn ? Ch. The distance between the lines A and B, shown by line xy, is the same as the distance shown by the line mn. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Now I take two other points i and r, opposite each other in lines A and B, and join these points. How does the distance shown by ir compare with the distance shown by xy, or mn f Ch. The distance shown by the line ir is the same as that shown by xy or mn. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Compare these distances with the distance shown by st or ov. Ch. Those distances are the same as those shown by st and ov. (Class decision. T. confirm.") 22 LESSONS ON FORM. T. At how many places in the Imes A and B have we found those distances the same? Ch. We have found those distances the same at five places. T. Suppose I join other opposite points in the lines A and B, how will the distances compare with those we have found ? Ch. They will be the same. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Through how much of the length of A and B will they be the ~. 2 I I I I Ch. They will be the same through their whole length. T. Thinking of this, then what is true of the lines A and B'i Ch. Lines A and B are the same distance apart throughout their length. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. AVho can make other lines that are the same distance apart throughout their length? Ch. I can make horizontal lines that are the same distance apart throughout their length. T. You may do so, and Mary may make lines in some other direction that are the same distance apart throughout their length, while Jane may make others of which this is true. (Children do so, drawing the lines which show the distances, and stating, I have made two horizontal, two oblique, or two curved lines that are the same distance apart throughout their length.) T. AVho can tell me what lines of which this is true are called? Ch. Lines that are the same distance apart through- out their length are called (child or teacher) parallel lines. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) T. Look at these lines A and B, and tell me whether they are parallel lines. Ch. They are nOt parallel lines. They are nearer together at the top than they are at the bottom. T. Tracing the lines A and B upward, what do they do in regard to each other ? Ch. They come together. T. And tracing the lines C and D downward, what do they do in regard to each other ? Ch. They come together toward the bottom. T. Who knows a word that we may use instead of come together ? Ch. (or T.) Converge. T. In how many directions do the lines A and B converge ? LESSONS ON FORM. 28 Ch. They converge in one direction. T. And in how many directions do the lines C and D converge? Ch. They converge in one direction. T. Then what. kind of lines may we call them? Ch. We may call them converging lines. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Compare the direction in which I am now tracing the lines A and B with the direction in which I traced them before. Ch. You are tracing A and B in the opposite direction from which you traced them before. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. And what do these lines do now in regard to each other? Ch. They go apart (separate). T. What word may we use which means the same as go apart, and sounds better? Ch. or T. Diverge. T. Now tell me what is true of the lines A and B, thinking of the direction in which I am tracing them. Ch. The lines A and B diverge in the direction opposite to that in which they converge. T. Look at C and Z>, and tell me what is true of them in this respect. Ch. Lines C and D also diverge in the direction opposite to that in which they converge. T. Thinking of this, what kind of lines may we call them? Ch. We may call them diverging lines. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Now tell me all you have learned in regard to lines A and B, and C and D. Ch. Lines A and B converge in one direction and diverge in the oppo- site direction, and lines C and D converge in one direction and diverge in the opposite direction. T. Thinking of this, what kind of lines may we call them ? Ch. We may call them converging and diverging lines. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Who can define converging and diverging lines ? Ch. Lines which are not the same distance apart throughout their length, but which converge in one direction and diverge in the opposite direction, are called converging and diverging lines. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) Drill by having children make different kinds of parallel lines, differ- ent converging and diverging lines; by having them describe those already on the board, and by reading and copying in note-books written definitions ; after which erase work, close books, and have them recall what they have learned. Assign, to be brought in next day, a design made up of two parallel lines (or more), and two or three converging and diverging lines. If the 24 LESSONS ON FORM. children's ideas of drawing and designing are vague, and if drawing is taught in the school, it would be better for the teacher to assign this work in designing for the drawing hour, when she can aid and direct the work, so that it may be done intelligently. Note. — It is hardly necessary to remind the teacher that the correct way of measuring parallel lines is to find the shortest distance between opposite points, and the line joining these points is perpendicular to the parallel lines. LESSONS ON FORM. 25 LESSON T. Review Parallel, Converging, and Diverging Lines. OBJECT. To cultivate Perception, Conception, Comparison, Memory, and Lan- guage. POINT. To develop idea of, and teach, Angle, Right Angle, Perpendicular Line, Acute and Obtuse Angle. MATTER. 1. The opening bettaeen two lines, made to look like a knife when it is partly open, is called an angle. 2. The opening between two lines, made to look like a knife when it is half way open, is called a right angle. 8. A line which meets another line so as to form right angles, is called a 2)erpendicular line. 4. The opening betiveen two lines, made to look like a knife when it is less than half way open, is called an acute angle. 5. The opening between tivo lines, made to look like a knife when it is more than half way open, is called an obtuse angle. Matter for Mathematical Definitions of the Same. 1. The divergence between two lines in the same plane is called an angle. 2. When a line meets another line so as to form equal angles on the same side of that line, each angle is called a right angle. 3. A line which meets another line so as to form right angles, is called a perpendicular line. ^. An angle whose divergence is less than that of a right angle, is called an acute angle, b. An angle whose divergence is greater than that of a right angle, is called an obtuse angle. Note. — The teacher will observe that the child's definitions are de- veloped first, and afterwards the mathematical definitions of the same. It will probably be necessary to divide this lesson into two, if not three, school lessons. METHOD. Teacher. (Presenting a pocket knife closed.) What is this? 26 LESSONS ON FORM. Child. It is a knife. T. (Opening it.) What have I done ? Ch. You have opened the blade. T. Then what may you say of the knife ? Ch. It is open. T. Is'ame the parts of this knife. Ch. The parts of that knife are the blade and the handle. T. (Pointing- to opening.) What is this ? Ch. That is the opening between the blade and the handle. T. How would you make a picture of this knife as you see it now ? Ch. I should draw two lines with an opening between them. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Mary may do so. (Ch. does so.) What has she done? Ch. She has drawn two lines to look like an open knife. T. What do the lines represent ? Ch. They represent the blade and the handle. T. (Pointing to opening.) What is this? Ch. That is the opening between the lines. T. The opening between what lines ? Ch. The opening between the lines made to look like a knife when it is open. T. Who can make a definition from that de- scription ? Ch. The opening between two lines, made to look like a knife when it is open, is called (Ch. or T.) an angle. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) T. Who can make other angles? Ch. (Makes several.) T. Show me the angle in each. Ch. The opening between the lines is the angle. XoTE. — T. may here give terms vertex and sidesy taking care to show that the point where the lines meet is the vertex, while the lines them- selves are the sides of the angle. a T. Look at the knife now and tell me how it is. Ch. It is open. T. How far open is it? Ch. It is half way open. T. John may make a picture of it as it is now. (John does so.) T. Describe the opening in that picture. LESSONS ON FORM. 27 a Ch. It is the opening between two lines made to look like a knife when it is half way open. T. Who can make a definition from that description ? Ch. The opening between two lines, made to look like a knife when it is half way open, is called (Ch. or T.) a right angle. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) (f T. (Drawing a line.) What have I done ? Ch. You have drawn a line, and named it ab. T. (Drawing another.) And what have I done now? Ch. You have drawn another line, and named it cd. T. Where have I drawn cd in regard to ab ? Ch. You have drawn cd to meet ab in point d. T. By drawing these lines in this way, what have I made ? Ch. You have made two angles. T. And what kind of angles are they ? Ch. They are right angles. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Who else can draw a line to meet another line so as to form right angles? (Ch. draws several, stating each time. This line meets another line so as to form right angles.) T. Who knows a name for a line which meets another line, so as to form right angles ? Ch. A line which meets another line, so as to form right angles, is called (Ch. or T.) a perpendicular line. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) T. Look at this knife again, and tell me what is true of it in regard to the opening. Ch. It is less than half way open. (Class de- cision. T. confirm.) T. Who can make a picture of it? (Ch. does so, stating, This is the opening between two lines made to look like a knife less than half way open.) T. Who can make a definition to fit that de- scription ? Ch. The opening between two lines, made to look like a knife when it is less than half way open, is called an acute angle. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) LESSONS ON FORM. (t \ T. Look at the knife now, and tell me what is true of it. Ch. It is more than half way open. T. Make a picture of it, and speak of the opening. Ch. This is the opening between two lines made to look like a knife when it is more than half way open. T. John may make the definition. Ch. The opening between two lines, made to look like a knife when it is more than half way open, is called (Ch. or T.) an obtuse angle. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) Drill as usual, then proceed to develop the mathematical definitions of angle, right-angle, perpendicular line, acute and obtuse angles.) T. (Referring to first angle on the board.) Compare the direction of these lines jim and om, and tell me what is true of them. Ch. They have different directions. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. What shows that they have different direc- tions ? Ch. The opening shows it. T. Then what is this opening between the lines ? Ch. It is the difference of direction between the lines. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Who knows one word that we may use in- stead of " difference of direction " ? (Ch. does not know. T. gives term divergence.) T. Now what is this opening? Ch. It is the divergence between two lines. T. Observe the surface of this board, and tell what kind of surface it is. Ch. It is a smooth surface, or level surface, (if Ch. gives smooth, flat, or level surface, the T. may give instead the word plane) or plane surface. T. Then compare the position of these two lines, nm and om, in regard to the plane. Ch. They are in the same plane. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Thinking of this, speak of the divergence. Ch. It is the divergence between two lines in the same plane. (Class decision. T. confirm.) LESSONS ON FORM. 29 a T. Who can make a definition from that de- scription ? Ch. The divergence between two lines in the same plane is called an angle. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) T. (Again referring to previous work in right angles.) How is cd drawn in regard to dbl Ch. cd is drawn to meet ah. T. And what has been formed ? Ch. Two angles have been formed. T. Where are those angles in regard to the line a6? Ch. They are on the same side of the line ah. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. How do those angles compare in size ? Ch. They are equal. (Class decision. T. con- firm.) T. Now state carefully what is true of cd. Ch. Line cd meets the line ah, so as to form equal angles on the same side of line ah. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Now who can make the definition of these angles ? Ch. When a line meets another line so as to form equal angles on the same side of that line, each of the angles is called a right angle. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) T. Who can give me the name of a line which meets another line so as to form right angles? Ch. A line which meets another line so as to form right angles is called a (Ch. or T.) perpendicular line. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) T. (referring to acute angle.) How does the divergence of "this angle compare with that of the right angle ? Ch. The divergence of that angle is less than that of a right angle. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Thinking of this, who can make a definition ? Ch. An angle whose divergence is less than that of a right angle is called an acute angle. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) 30- LESSONS ON FORM. T. (Referring to obtuse angle.) How does the divergence of this angle compare with that of a right angle ? Ch. The divergence of that angle is greater than that of a right angle. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Who can make the definition ? Ch. An angle whose divergence is greater than that of a right angle is called an obtuse angle. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) Drill by having children make different an- gles and describe, and by reading and copying written definitions. Then erase work, remove objects, close books, and have them recall what they have learned. As an exercise in designing, ask children to make a design containing right angles only ; one containing two acute, two obtuse, and two right angles. The combinations that may be made with angles are endless. Two or three weeks of profitable work in drawing may be devoted to the study of angles, while little problems such as the following may be given. Find the num- ber of angles that can be made with two, three, four, five, or six lines. LESSONS ON FORM. 31 LESSON VI. Review Angle, Right, Acute, and Obtuse, Angle, and Perpendicular Line. It the teacher has not in the last lesson taught adjacent angles, they can be taught at the beginning of the present lesson. o\m OBJECT. To cultivate Perception, Conception, Comparison, Memory, and Lan- guage. POINT. To develop idea of, and teach. Adjacent, Vertical, Alternate, and Oppo- site angles. MATTER. 1. Angles which have one common vertex, and one common side, are called adjacent angles. y. 2. When one line intersects another line, the angles which are not adjacent are called vertical angles. 3. If, on the same side, a line is draicn to each ex- tremity of a given line, the angles thus formed are called opposite angles. 4. If, on opposite sides, a line be drawn to each ex- tremity of a given line, the angles thus formed are called alternate angles. METHOD. T. (Drawing a line on board.) What have I done? Ch. You have drawn a line he. T. (Again drawing a line.) And now what have I done ? Ch. You have drawn a line ad to meet 6c in the point d. T. And what have I formed? Ch. You have formed two angles o and m. T. What is the vertex of angle o ? Ch. d is the vertex of angle o. T. And what is the vertex of angle m? Ch. d is the vertex of angle m. T. Then what is tPoGTof tKe arri^^les o and 7/4? Ch. They ha^ the same vertex. (fuHIVBRSITTi) a Aq. LESSONS ON FORM. d t\.m u^n T. Who can tell me that in another way? Ch. (or T.) They have one common vertex. T. Look carefully and tell me whether you see anything else that angles o and m have in common. / Ch. Angles o and m have one common side ad. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. What have you learned about angles o and m ? Ch. They have one common vertex, and one common side. T. Who can make other angles that have one common vertex and one common side? (Children make several, each stating what he has done.) T. Who knows what we need now ? Ch. We need a definition. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. You may make it. Ch. Angles which have one common vertex, and one common side, are called (T. give term) adjacent angles. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) T. (Drawing line.) What have I done ? Ch. You have drawn a line al. T. (Again drawing a line.) And what have I done now ? Ch. You have drawn a line cd. T. Where is cd in regard to ah ? Ch. cd crosses ah. T. You may use the word intersects, instead of crosses. (Explains meaning of intersects.') Ch. Line cd intersects the line ah. T. Wliat have I formed ? Ch. You have formed four angles, m, n, u, t. T. Thinking of what you have just learned, what kind of angles are m and n? Ch. w and 71 are adjacent angles. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Find other adjacent angles. Ch. n and u are adjacent angles, u and t are ad- jacent angles, and t and m are adjacent angles. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Find angles which are not adjacent. LESSONS ON FORM. 33 UrJL a d m Ch. m and u aro not adjacent, and n and t are not adjacent angles. T. How have those angles been formed ? Ch. They have been formed by one line inter- secting another line. T. Now who can make a definition ? Ch. When one line intersects another line, the angles which are not adjacent are called (T. give term) vertical angles. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) T. (Drawing a line.) What have I done? Ch. You have drawn a line be. T. And now what have I done ? Ch. You have drawn a Une ab to meet be in point b. T. Where in regard to be have I drawn ab ? Ch. You have drawn ab to one end of be. T. You may use some other word that will mean the same as end. Ch. (or T.) Extremity. Ch. You have drawn ab to one extremity of be. T. (Drawing line dc.) And what have I done now? Ch. You have drawn line de to the other ex- tremity of be. T. How many lines have I drawn to the ex- tremities of &c? Ch. You have drawn one line to each extremity of be. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Compare the position of those two lines ab and dc in regard to be. Ch. ab and de are on the same side of be. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. By drawing these lines in this way, what have I formed ? Ch. You have formed two angles, o and m. T. Describe fully how these angles have been formed. Ch. By drawing on the same side a line to each extremity of a given line, you have formed angles o and m. T. You may make other angles in the same way. (Ch. does so, stating fully what he has done.) 34 LESSONS ON FORM. // T. If, on the same side, a line be drawn to each extremity of a given line, what are the an- gles thus formed called ? Ch. If, on the same side, a line be drawn to each extremity of a given line, the angles thus formed are called opposite angles. (Simulta- neous recitation. T. write on board.) T. (Drawing a line.) What have I done ? Ch. You have drawn a line, be. T. (Drawing ab.) And what have I done now ? Ch. You have drawn line ab to one extremity of be. T. (Drawing de.) And what have I done now ? Ch. You have drawn line ilc to the other ex- tremity of be. T. How many lines have I drawn to the ex- tremities of be ? Ch. You have drawn one line to each extremity of be. T. Compare the position of ab and dc in regard to be. Ch. ab and dc are on opposite sides of be. (Ch. may say they are not on the same side of be, when T. will lead him to say on opposite sides. Class decision. T. confirm.) T. By drawing these lines in this way, what have I formed ? Ch. You have formed two angles, ni and n. T. Describe fully how these angles have been formed. Ch. By drawing, on opposite sides, a line to each extremity of a given line, you have formed two angles m and n. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Who can make the definition from that description? Ch. or T. If, from opposite sides, a line be drawn to each extremity of a given line, the angles thus formed are called (T. give term) alternate angles. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) Drill by having children make different angles and describe fully j by T. making them and having children identify ; by having them read and copy definitions in note-books. Then erase work, close books, and have them recall what they have learned. Assign, as home work, designs in which a limited number of specified angles are to be used. It is needless to suggest that particular care should be given to neatness and correctness of werk in designing. The best designs should be preserved in portfolios, where the whole class can upon occasion examine them. The papers used should be all of the LESSONS ON FORM. 35 same size, and at first should be about eight inches long by ten wide. Pencils should be attended to. If the children are small, an hour in school had better be given to this work in order that the teacher may direct it. As a preparation for Greometry, the child may now be led to the con- clusions that, if one of two adjacent angles is a right angle, the other must be a right angle also ; or, if one be acute, the other must be obtuse ; or, if one be ob^se, the other must be acute ; and that : 1. The value of the sum of two adjacent angles equals iivo right angles. 2. The value of the sum of all the angles having a common vertex^ on the same side of a given line, equals ttvo right angles. 3. The value of all the angles round a given point (having a common vertex) equals four right angles. Also, the child may be led to see that vertical angles are equal ; that the value of the sum of two opposite angles between parallel lines equals two right angles ; that alternate angles between parallel lines are equal. It is possible that some teachers may be startled at the idea of little children solving problems in geometry ; but, in fact, they are only learn- ing to use their eyes, and to state what they cannot help seeing if they do use them. The child does not know that he is studying geometry ; he only knows that he is each day making delightful discoveries in re- gard to common things. 36 LESSONS ON FOKM. LESSON VII. Review all of previous work in Form, taking care to have children understand and remember what has been developed. Take as much time a^ may he necessary, and do not hurry the children. Triangles. OBJECT. • To cultivate Perception, Conception, Comparison, Reason, Memory, and Language. * POINT. To develop idea of, and teach, Triangle, Right-angled, Acute-angled, and Ohtuse-angled Triangles. MATTER. 1. A space enclosed hy three sides is called a triangle. 2. A triangle having one right angle and two acute angles is called a right- angled triangle. 3. A triangle having one obtuse angle and two acute angles is called an ohtuse-angled triangle. 4. A triangle lohich has all its angles acute is called an acute-angled tri- angle. METHOD. T. (Arranging three rulers to form a triangle.) When you were little boys and girls, you all liked to play with sticks, and you often placed them as I am doing now. What were you playing then ? Ch. We were playing at building houses. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. What are the parts of this house ? Ch. The walls and the room inside are the parts of that house. T. What are the walls ? Ch. The sticks are the walls, and the place shut in by the sticks is the room. T. Who can use one word that will mean the same as " shut in " ? Ch. (or T.) Enclosed. T. Who can use a word that will mean the same as "room"? Ch. (or T.) Space. LESSONS ON FORM. 37 T. Ch T. Ch T. Ch T. Ch T. Ch T. Ch T. Ch T. Ch T. Ch T. Ch T. The spac3 enclosed by the sticks is the room. (Class decision. T. confirm.) By how many sticks is this space enclosed ? It is enclosed by three sticks. How can you make a picture of this space? I can enclose a space by three lines on the board. You may do so, and in describing what you have done, use another word instead of lines. . This is a space enclosed by three sides. (Other children make several, each stating what he has done.) Who can tell what such a space is called? A space enclosed by three sides is called (T. give term) a triangle. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board. Explain meaning of the word triangle.) By enclosing a space by three sides, what have you formed ? , I have formed angles. (Class decision. T. confirm.) How many angles has a triangle? . A triangle has three angles. (Class decis- ion. T. confirm.) (Making a right-angled triangle.) What have I done ? You have made a triangle. Look carefully at it, and compare it with the first one you made. It is different from the one I made. How does it differ? It has a right angle. How many right angles has it? . It has one right angle ; the angle m. What kind of angles are the other two? . They are acute angles. (Class decision. T. confirm.) Thinking of what you have observed, describe this triangle fully. . That triangle has one right angle and two acute angles. Who can make other triangles of which this is true ? S8 LESSONS ON FORM. (Children make several, each stating what he has done.) T. What do we need now ? Ch. We need the definition and the name of that triangle. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Who can make it ? Ch. A triangle having one right angle and two acute angles is called (T. give term) a right- angled triangle. T. (Making an obtuse-angled triangle.) What have I done now ? Ch. You have made a triangle which has one obtuse angle. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. What kind of angles are the other two ? Ch. They are acute angles. T. Describe this triangle. Ch. That triangle has one obtuse angle and two acute angles. 2\ Who can make the definition? Ch. A triangle having one obtuse angle and two acute angles is called an ohtuse-cmgled trian- gle. (Sinuiltaneous recitation. T. write on board.) T. (Making an acute-angled triangle.) What is true of the angles of this triangle ? Ch. All of the angles of that triangle are acute. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Make other triangles of which this is true. (Children make several, each stating what he has done.) T. Who can make the definition to suit that description ? Ch. A triangle which has all its angles acute is called an acute-angled triangle. (Simultane- ous recitation. T. write on board.) Drill by having children make different triangles, and by having others identify ; by showing forms and having them describe ; and by having them read and copy definitions on the board. Then erase work, close books, remove objects, and have them recall what they have learned. Note. — The teacher may, by this time, be able to lead children to «tate that the description must always precisde the definition, as the latter LESSONS ON FORM. 39 depends entirely upon the former, thus establishing in them a habit of careful investigation before deducing principles. As Work in Inventive Drawing. 1. Bring in a design composed of the three different triangles you have learned. (May repeat either of the elements, if necessary, but have only these three elements.) 2. Decorate a right-angled triangle with obtuse angles. 3. Make a design composed entirely of obtuse-angled triangles, and decorate with right angles. Note. — It will be well now to lead the children to the idea that each design is for some purpose. It may be for a figure in wall-paper. It may be for a border m frescoing or stencilling. It may be for a figure for a carpet or a mat, or for oil-cloth, or for iron fence, etc. The teacher should procure pieces of calico, paper, carpets, etc., in which the designs can be examined, and lead the children to study the elements employed. 40 LESSONS ON FORM. LESSON VIII. Review Triangle, Right-angled, Obtuse-angled, and Acute-angled Triangles OBJECT. To cultivate Perception, Conception, Comparison, Memory, and Lan- guage. POINT. To develop idea of, and teach, Equilateral, Isosceles, and Scalene Tri- angles; Base, Vertex, and Altitude of a triangle. MATTER. 1. A triangle having all its sides equal is called an equilateral triangle. 2. A triangle having two of its sides equal is called an isosceles triangle. 3. A triangle having three unequal sides is called a scalene triangle. 4. The side upon which the triangle rests (stands) is called the base of a triangle. 5. The vertex of the angle opposite the base is called the vertex of a triangle. 6. The perpendicular distance from the vertex to the base (or to the base produced) is called the altitude of a triangle. METHOD. Teacher. (Presenting form.) What is this? Child. It is a triangle. T. Compare the sides with each other. Ch. Its sides are equal. T. How many of its sides are equal ? Ch. All its sides are equal. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Find other triangles of which this is true, and make pictures of them on the board. (Children make several, and find several among the forms, each stating, "This is a triangle having all its sides equal.") T. Who can make the definition from that de- scription ? LESSONS ON FORM. 41 Ch. A triangle having all its sides equal is called (T. give term) an equilateral triangle. (Simul- taneous recitation. T. write on board.) T. Now look at this triangle, and tell me what is true of its sides, in regard to each other. Ch. That triangle has two of its sides equal. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Find others of which this is true, make pic- tures of them, and make the definition. Ch. A triangle having two of its sides equal is called (T. give term) an isosceles triangle. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) Note. — The teacher will understand that, while some of the pupils are seeking among the forms, others may make the pictures on the board, while still others may make the descrip- tion and the definition. This keeps the whole class busy. T. Look at this triangle, and tell me how many of its sides are equal. Ch. That triangle has no equal sides. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Since that is so, what kind of sides may we call them ? Ch. They are unequal sides. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Now describe this triangle. Ch. That is a triangle having three unequal sides. T. Find others of the same kind, make pictures of them, and make the definition. Ch. A triangle having three unequal sides is called (T. give term) a scalene triangle. (Simul- taneous recitation. T. write on board.) T. Look at these triangles that have been made on the board, Aa&c, /^def, and Anion. What is the side be to the triangle abc ? Ch. It is the side upon which the triangle abc stands (or rests). (Class decision. T. con- firm.) T. Name the side upon which triangle dfe rests. Ch. fe is the side upon which triangle dfe rests. 42 LESSONS ON FORM. T. And what is the side upon which triangle man rests ? Ch. on is the side upon which triangle mon rests. T. If we could move these triangles, tell me whether we could make them rest on any other sides ? Ch. They could rest on either of the other sides. (Class decision. T. confirm, illustrating by means of forms.) T. Who knows what the side upon which the triangle rests is called? Ch. The side upon which the triangle rests is called (T. give term) the base of a triangle. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) T. Look at this triangle abc, and tell me to what I am pointing. Ch. You are pointing to an angle of the triangle abc. T. Where is this angle, in regard to the base be ? Ch. It is just opposite the base. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. To what part of the angle am I pointing? Ch. You are pointing to the vertex of the angle. T. I am pointing to the vertex of what angle ? Ch. You are pointing to the vertex of the angle opposite the base be. T. Find the vertex of the angle opposite the base in each of the other triangles. (Chil- dren do so, stating fully what they have found.) T. Who can tell what of the triangle the vertex of the angle opposite the base is called ? Ch. The vertex of the angle opposite the base is called (T. give term) the vertex of the triamjle. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) Note. — Teacher may here explaiu that the angle opposite the base of the triangle is called the vertieal angle. T. (Making triangle and droppmg perpendicular line.) AVhat have I done? Ch. You have made a triangle dbc^ and have drawn a line ad inside of it. LESSONS ON FORM. 43 T. From where to where have I drawn this line acfi Ch. You have drawn the line ad from the vertex to the base of the triangle. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. By drawing this line ad, what have I formed with the base ? Ch. You have formed angles with the base. T. What kind of angles are they ? Ch. They are right angles. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Since they are right angles, what kind of a line is ad'i Ch. Line ad is a perpendicular line. T. And what does line ad show ? Ch. Line ad shows the distance between the ver- tex and the base of the triangle. (Class deci- sion. T. confirm.) T. Since ad is a perpendicular line, what kind of distance does it show? Ch. ad shows the perpendicular distance between the vertex and the base of the triangle. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Show the perpendicular distance between the vertex and the base in eacli of these other triangles. (Children do so, each stating what he has done.) T. (Making triangle xyz.') What have I done ? Ch. You have made a triangle xyz. T. (Producing xy to m.) What have I done now? Ch. You have produced the base to m. T. Then what may you call ym ? Ch. ym is the base produced. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. (Dropping perpendicular xm.) What have I done now? » Ch. You have drawn a perpendicular line xu. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. From where to where have I drawn xu ? Ch. You have drawn it from the vertex of the triangle to the base produced. T. What does the perpendicular line from the vertex to the base pro- duced show ? 44 LESSONS ON FORM. Ch. It shows the perpendicular distance as before. (Class decision. T. confirni.) T. Who can make the definition and give the name for the perpendic- ular distance from the vertex to the base, or to the base produced, of a triangle ? Ch. The perpendicular distance from the vertex to the base, or to the base produced, of a triangle, is called the altitude of the triangle. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) Drill by having children find or make the different triangles, and name and describe ; by having them read and copy definitions ; by hav- ing them find base, vertex, and altitude of different triangles. Then erase work, remove objects, close books, and have them recall what they have learned. As AVoRK IN Inventive Drawing. 1. Make a design for an iron gate composed of equilateral triangles. 2. Make a design for the border of a rug, composed of isosceles tri- angles, decorated with curves. 3. Make a design for the centre of a table cover composed of the three different kinds of triangles, repeating each element as often as necessary. Note. — Teacher will of course study such designs as he sees around him, and lead the children to see in what directions the elements are to be repeated in different designs ; thus : In a design for a border, repeat the elements in a horizontal direction ; for curtains or for a wall, repeat the element of the design vertically ; for a centre-piece of a square, repeat the element in every direction from a common centre. LESSONS ON FORM. 45 LESSON IX. Review Equilateral, IsosceleSf and Scalene Triangles; Base, Vertex, and Altitude of a Triangle. Figures Having Four Sides. OBJECT. To cultivate Perception, Conception, Comparison, Reason, Memory, and Language. POINT. To develop idea of, and teach, Quadrilateral, Parallelogram, Square^ Rhotrib. MATTER. 1. A space enclosed hy four sides is called a quadrilateral. 2. A quadrilateral having its opposite sides paral- lel is called a parallelogram. 3. A parallelogram having all its sides equal, and all its angles right angles, is called a square. 4. A parallelogram having all its sides equal, and having one pair of its opposite angles obtuse, and the other pair acute, is called a rhomh. METHOD. Teacher. (Drawing quadrilateral.) What have I done? Child. You have drawn four lines. T. By drawing these four lines in this way, what have I done ? Ch. You have enclosed a space. T. What of the space may you call those lines ? Ch. Those lines are the sides of the space. T. Describe this space. Ch. That is a space enclosed by four sides. T. Look around the room and find spaces en- closed by four sides. (Ch. finds several, stating each time, " This is a space enclosed 'by four sides.") Who can make a definition to suit that description ? . A space enclosed by four sides is called (T. give term and ex- plain) a quadrilateral. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) 46 ' LESSONS ON FORM. T. (Presenting form.) What is this ? Ch. That is a quadrilateral because it has four sides. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. (Touching one side.) What am I doing ? Ch. You are touching one side of the quadrilateral. T. (Touching other side.) What am I doing now? Ch. You are touching another side of the quadrilateral. T. Where are those sides in regard to each other? Ch. They are opposite each other. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Thinking of their distance apart throughout their length, what kind of sides are they? Ch. They are parallel. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. (Touching other sides.) What am I doing now? Ch. You are touching the other two sides. T. Where are tliey in regard to each other ? Ch. They are opposite. T. And thinking of their distance apart, what is true of them ? Ch. They are parallel. T. Then what is true of the opposite sides of this quadrilateral ? Ch. The opposite sides of that quadrilateral are parallel. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Find other quadrilaterals of which this is true. (Ch. finds sev- eral, making a full statement each time.) T. Make on the board a quadrilateral having its opposite sides parallel. (Ch. does so, making a description.) T. Who can make a definition to suit that description ? Ch. A quadrilateral having its opposite sides parallel is called (T. give term) a parallelogram. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) T. (Presenting square.^ W^hat is this ? Ch. That is a parallelogram because its opposite sides are parallel. T. Compare the sides with each other in regard to length. Ch. The sides are equal in length. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. How many of the sides are equal ? Ch. All the sides are equal. (Class decisioh. T. confirm.) T. What kind of angles has this parallelogram ? Ch. That parallelogram has right angles. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. How many of these angles are right angles ? Ch. All the angles of that parallelogram are right angles. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Describe this parallelogram fully. Ch. That parallelogram has all its sides equal, and all its angles right angles. (Class decision. T. confirm.) • LESSONS ON FORM. 47 T. Look round the room and find other parallelograms of which this is true. (Ch. finds several, describing each.) T. Make on the board three such parallelograms, describe each, and then make the definition. Ch. (After describing.) A parallelogram having all its sides equal, and all its angles right angles, is called (T. give term) a square. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) T. (Presenting a rhomb.) What is this? Ch. That is a parallelogram. T. How does it resemble a square ? Ch. All its sides are equal. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. How does it differ from a square? Ch. All its angles are not right angles. T. How many right angles has it ? Ch. It has no right angles. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. What kind of angles has it ? Ch. It has two acute angles and two obtuse angles. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. What do you call two objects of the same kind ? Ch. We call them a pair. (Class decision. T. confirm.) Note. — If child does not know word pair, T. refers to two gloves she wears, two shoes, etc., and gets wordjaa/r. T. How many acute angles has this parallelogram? Ch. It has one pair of acute angles. T. And how many obtuse angles has it? Ch. It has one pair of obtuse angles. T. What kind of angles are the acute angles, thinking of their posi- tion in regard to each other ? Ch. They are opposite angles. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. And what kind are the obtuse angles ? Ch. They are opposite. T. Now, who can fully describe this parallelogram ? Ch. That parallelogram has all its sides equal, and has one pair of opposite angles obtuse and the other pair acute. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. (Giving different children scissors and paper.) Make parallelo- grams of which this is true. (Children do so, describing, while other children make the same on the board and describe.) T. What do we need now ? Ch. We need the definition and the name. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Who can make the definition ? 48- LESSONS ON FORM. Ch. A parallelogram having all its sides equal, and having one pair of opposite angles obtuse and the other pair acute, is called (T. give term) a rhomb. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) Drill by having children find different forme and identify; by having them find them in the room, and make them with paper ; and by having them read and copy definitions on the board. Then erase work, remove objects, close books, and have children recall what they have learned.) As Work in Inventive Drawing. 1. Make a square, and ornament it with triangles. 2. Make a design consisting of rhombs. 3. Ornament a square with curved lines. 4. Ornament a rhomb with isosceles triangles. Note. — Teacher may, at the close of this lesson, teach rectangle, or may leave it until she closes work upon parallelograms. The teacher may now require the children to begin to make each a set of forms for himself, cutting them first from paper, and afterwards from wood. If possible, hoys and girls should make them from wood. It would be well to procure a set of tools for the school, while all bits of paper and wood should be saved as material with which to work. LESSONS ON FORM. 49 LESSON X. Review Quadrilateral, Parallelogram, Square, and Rhomb. OBJECT. To cultivate Perception, Conception, Comparison, Memory, and Lan^ guage. POINT. To develop idea of, and teach, Ohlong, Rhomboid, Trapezoid, Trapezium, and Polygon. MATTER. 1. A parallelogram having one pair of its opposite sides longer than the other pair, and having all its angles right angles, is called an oblong. 2. A parallelogram having one pair of its opposite sides longer than the other pair, and having one pair of its opposite angles acute, and the other pair obtuse, is called a rhomboid. 3. A quadrilateral having one pair of its opposite sides parallel, and the other pair not parallel, is called a trapezoid. 4. A quadrilateral having none of its sides parallel is called a trapezium, 5. A space enclosed by three or more sides is called a polygon. METHOD. Teacher. (Presenting oblong.) What is this ? Child. That is a parallelogram. T. Compare the sides with regard to length. Ch. One pair of sides is longer than the other pair. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Thinking of their position in regard to each other, what kind of sides may you call this longer pair ? Ch. They are opposite sides. T. Now make the statement that was made a moment ago. Ch. One pair of opposite sides is longer than the other pair of opposite sides. T. What kind of angles has it ? Ch. It has right angles. T. How many of its angles are right angles ? Ch. All its angles are right angles. T. Now who can fully describe this parallelogram ? Ch. That parallelogram has one pair of opposite sides longer than the 50 • LESSONS ON FORM. other pair, and all its angles are right angles. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Find (or make) other parallelograms of which this is true. (Ch. find [or make] several, describing each time.) T. Who can make the definition based upon that description ? Ch. A parallelogram having one pair of opposite sides longer than the other pair, and having all its angles right angles, is called (T. give term) an oblong. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) T. (Presenting rhomboid.) Look carefully at this form and describe it as fully as you can. Ch. That parallelogram has one pair of opposite sides longer than the other pair, and one pair of opposite angles obtuse, and the other pair acute. (Class decision. T. confirm.) Note. — If the previous work has been thoroughly done, the teacher will have no trouble in getting the child to make this full description. In case he should fail, however, it will be necessary to go through the development questions, as in the work upon the oblong. T. Find (or make) other parallelograms of which this is true. (Children find several ; others make several on the board, and cut them from paper ; while others describe each.) T. Who can make the definition from the description? Ch. A parallelogram having one pair of opposite sides longer thun the other pair, and having one pair of opposite angles acute and the other pair obtuse, is called (T. give term) a rhomboid. (Simul- taneous recitation. T. write on board.) T. (Presenting trapezoid.) What is this ? Ch. It is not a parallelogram. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. I asked you what it is. Thinking of the number of sides, what may you call it ? Ch. It is a quadrilateral. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Look at its sides carefully and tell me how many are parallel. Ch. One pair of its sides are parallel. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. A\Tiat kind of sides are those, thinking of their position in regard to each other ? Ch. They are opposite sides. T. What is true of the other pair of opposite sides ? Ch. They are not parallel. T. Now describe carefully all that you have learned about this quad- rilateral. Ch. That quadrilateral has one pair of its opposite sides parallel and the other pair not parallel. LESSONS ON FORM. 51 T. Make other quadrilaterals of which this is true. (Children do so, describing each.) T. Who can make the definition ? Ch. A quadrilateral having one pair of its opposite sides parallel, and the other pair not parallel, is called (T. give term) a trapezoid. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) T. (Presenting trapezium.) What is this ? Ch. That is a quadrilateral. T. And how many of its sides are parallel ? Ch. None of its sides are parallel. (Class decision. T, confirm.) T. Draw on the board a quadrilateral of this kind, while others make two or three from paper. (Children do so, others describing fully.) T. Now we are ready for the definition. Ch. A quadrilateral having none of its sides parallel is called (T. give term) a trapezium. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) Note. — T. may, if she has not already done so, teach rectangle, and show that the square and oblong come under this name, while the rhomb and rhomboid may be called oblique-angled parallelograms. T. We have had in the two (or three) last lessons spaces enclosed by how many sides ? Ch. We have had spaces enclosed by four sides. T. And before that we studied spaces enclosed by how many sides ? Ch. Before that we studied spaces enclosed -by three sides. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Think carefully, and tell me what is the smallest number of sides that will enclose a space. Ch. (Trying to enclose a space.) Three is the smallest number of sides that will enclose a space. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Enclose a space by more than four sides. (Children do so, stating: This space is enclosed by five sides. This space is enclosed by six sides, etc.) T. (To board.) What have we here ? Ch. That is a space enclosed by three sides. T. (To another figure.) And here ? Ch. That is a space enclosed by four sides ; that one is enclosed by five sides ; and that one by six sides. T. I shall call the first A ; the second B ; the third C ; and the fourth D. Now we want a name for a space enclosed by three, four, Jive, or six sides. Who can make the definition ? Ch. A space enclosed by three or more sides is called (T. give term) a polygon. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) 52 LESSONS ON FORM. T. (To triangle.) What is this? Ch. It is a polygon having three sides. T. By what other name do you know it? Ch. It is a triangle. T. (To quadrilateral.) What is this ? Ch. It is a polygon having four sides, and we call it a quadrilateral. T. To-morrow we shall find a name for a polygon having five, six, seven, eight, or nine sides. You may be thinking about them, and may bring ine one of each kind made of paper. Drill by having children select and name different forms, by having them make them, and by reading and copying definitions from the board. Then erase work and have children recall what they have learned. Work in Inventive Drawing. 1. Make a design in which trapezoids and triangles are combined. 2. Ornament a trapezium with acute-angled triangles. 3. Make a design in which the rhomb and square are combined. 4. Make a design using three different kinds of polygons. Designs for brackets, wall-pockets, or braiding may be made. LESSONS ON FORM. 58 LESSON XI. Review Oblong, Rhomboid, Trapezoid, Trapezium, and Polygon. OBJECT. To cultivate Perception, Conception, Comparison, Memory , oxid. Language. POINT. To develop idea of, and teach. Pentagon, Hexagon, Heptagon, Octagon, etc., Regular Polygon and Diagonal. MATTER. 1. A polygon having Jive sides is called a pentagon. 2. A polygon having six sides is called a hexagon. 3. A polygon having seven sides is called a hep- tagon. 4. A polygon having eight sides is called an octagon. 5. A polygon having equal sides and equal angles is called a regular polygon. 6. A line drawn from the vertex of one angle in a polygon to the vertex of another angle, not ad- jacent, is called a diagonal of that polygon. METHOD. Teacher. (Presenting pentagon.) What is this? Child. That is a polygon having five sides. T. Who knows a name for it ? Ch. A polygon having five sides is called (T. give term) a pentagon. (Simultaneous reci- tation. T. write on board.) T. (Presenting hexagon.) Without making a description, make a definition that will suit this. Ch. A polygon having six sides is called (T. give term) a hexagon. (Simultaneous reci- tation. T. write on board.) T. (Presenting heptagon.) Make a definition to suit this. Ch. A polygon having seven sides is called (T. give term) a heptagon. (Simultaneous reci- tation. T. write on board.) T, (Presents octagon without speaking.) o4 LESSONS ON FORM. Ch. A polygon having eight sides is called (T. give term) an octagon. (Simultaneous reci- tation. T. write on board.) Note. — T. may here get, by presenting forms, definitions of nonagon, decagon, etc. No new development work is needed for these terms. T. (Presenting irregular polygon.) I wish you to compare the sides of this polygon with each other, and tell me what you observe. Ch. Some of the sides of that polygon are longer than others. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Since that is true, what kind of sides may you call them ? Ch. They are unequal. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Now compare the angles of this polygon with one another, and tell me what you observe. Ch. The angles are unequal also. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Now describe this polygon. Ch. That polygon has unequal sides and unequal angles. T. (Presenting regular polygon.) Compare the sides and angles of this polygon. Ch. That polygon has equal sides and equal angles. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Find other polygons having equal sides and equal angles. (Chil- dren find some among forms, some make them on board, others make them with paper, while others describe those made.) . T. Think of some polygon that you have seen that has equal sides and equal angles. Ch. An equilateral triangle and a square have equal sides and equal angles. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Who can make the definition that we need ? Ch. A polygon having equal sides and equal angles is called (T. give term) a regular polygon. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) T. (Drawing a diagonal in a quadrilateral.) What have I done ? Ch. You have drawn a line ac in the polygon abed. T. From where to where have I drawn it ? Ch. You have drawn it from the angles dab to the angle deb. T. From what part of the angle dab have I drawn it? Ch. You have drawn it from the vertex of the angle dab to the vertex of the angle deb. (Class decision. T. confirm.) LESSONS ON FORM. 55 regard to the line ab, what kind (Class decision. T. T. Thinking of their position of angles are dab and cba ? Ch. Angles dab and cba are adjacent angles. confirm.) T. Then what is true of angles dab and deb in this respect ? Ch. They are not adjacent. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Find angles in this polygon that are adjacent. Ch. Angles cda and dab ai'e adjacent, and ade and deb are adjacent. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Now tell me where I have drawn the line ac. Ch. You have drawn line ac from the vertex of one angle dab, in the polygon, to the vertex of another angle deb, not adjacent. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. (Drawing diagonal in a pentagon.) What have I done now? Ch. You have drawn a line db from the vertex of one angle abe, in the polygon cabed, to the vertex of another angle cde, not adjacent. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. (Drawing diagonal in a hexagon.) What have I done now ? Ch. You have drawn a line nz from the vertex of one angle mno, in a polygon, to the vertex of another angle izx, not adjacent. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. For what are we now ready ? Ch. We are ready for a definition and a name. T. Who can make the definition ? Ch. A line drawn from the vertex of one angle in a polygon to the vertex of another angle not adjacent is called (T. give term) a diagonal of that polygon. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) Drill, by having children make, or select from among forms, regular and irregular polygons, regular and irregular pentagons, hexagons, hepta- gons, etc ; and by having them read and copy definitions from the board. Then erase work, close books, remove objects, and have children recall what they have learned. Work in Inventive Drawing. 1. Ornament a hexagon with curved lines. 2. Make a design composed of regular pentagons. 3. Ornament a heptagon with triangles. 56 LESSONS ON FORM. Note. — If the teacher intends carrying on the work in Geometry, he may now teach angles in relation to polygons ; viz. : interior, exterior, and reentrant angles, and may assign such elementary problems lor solution as the following : — 1. Find the greatest number of diagonals that can be drawn in a quadrilateral, in a pentagon, in a hexagon, in a heptagon, etc. 2. Find the rule. 3. How many and what kind of figures have you made by drawing these diagonals? 1. In the quadrilateral? 2. In the pentagon ? 8. In the hexagon? 4. In the heptagon ? 5. How many interior angles can be made in a polygon? 6. What is the greatest number of reentrant angles that can be made in any polygon, quadrilateral, pentagon, hexagon, heptagon ? 7. What is the greatest number of exterior angles in any polygon, triangle, quadrilateral, penta- gon, hexagon, heptagon? How does one- exterior angle of a triangle compare with the interior angles of the same triangle ? or prove that one exterior angle of a triangle equals the sum of the two interior angles not adjacent. What is the value of the sum of the interior angles of a triangle ? "SVliat is the value of the sum of the interior angles of any polygon ? What is the value of the sum of the exterior angles of any polygon ? How does the reentrant angle of a quadri- lateral compare with the Interior angles not adjacent? Review carefully all work figui-es. upon straight-line LESSONS ON FORM. 57 LESSON XII. It would be well, before going farther, to spend several days in review- ing work upon straight-line forms. . Circles. OBJECT. To cultivate Perception, Conception, Comparison, Reason, Judgment, and Language. POINT. To develop idea of, and teach, Circle, Circumference, Center, ArCf Semi-Circumference, and Quadrant. MATTER. 1. A space enclosed by a curved line, all points of which are equally dis- tant from one point within, is called a circle. 2. The curved line is called the circumference. 3. The point within the circle, from which all points in the circumference are equally distant, is called the center of a circle. 4. A part of the circumference is called an arc of a circle. 5. An arc which is half a circumference is called a semi-circumference. 6. An arc that is one quarter of a circumference is called a quadrant. METHOD. Teacher. (Describing a circle.) What have I done ? Child. You have drawn a curved line. T. By drawing this curved line in this way, what have I done? Ch. You have enclosed a space. T. (Touching center.) What have I done? Ch. You have touched a point in (within) the space. T. (Drawing radius.) What have I done now? Ch. You have drawn a line from the point within the space to a point in the curved line. (Class decision. T. confirm.) 58 LESSONS ON FORM. T. (Drawing another line.) What have I done now? Ch. You have drawn another line from the point within to a point in the curved line. T. How do those lines compare in length ? Ch. They are equal. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. What do these lines show ? Ch. They show distance from points in the curved line to a pomt within the space. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. How do these points in the curved line compare with each other in regard to distance from the point within ? T. (Drawing other lines.) What have I done ? Ch. You have drawn other lines, .showing distances from points in the curved line to the point within. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. How do those distances compare with the others and with one another? Ch. They are the same. (Class decision. T. confirm.) r. If I were to draw other lines from points in the cui'ved line to this point within, what would be true of the distance of those points from the point within? Ch. All points in the curved line would be equally distant from the point within the space. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Suppose I should take another point n within the space, tell me whether all points in the curved line are equally distant from that point within ? Ch. All points in the curved line are unequally distant from that point within the space. (Class decision. T. confirm.). T. How many points within the space are there from which all points in the curved line are equally distant ? Ch. There is only one such point. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Thinking of that, you may describe this space as fully as you can. Ch. That is a space enclosed by one curved line, all points of which are equally distant from one point within. (T. aids Ch. in the construction. " All points of which," being rather umiatural to a child.) T. Who else can make a space of this kind and describe? (Ch. makes one on the board as nearly like as possible, and describes.) T. Who can make the definition to suit that description? Ch. A space enclosed by a curved line, all points of which are equally distant from a point within, is called (T. give term) a circle. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) T. Show me which part is the circle. LESSONS ON FORM. 59 Ch. The space is the circle. T. (To circumference.) What is this ? Ch. That is the curved line which bounds the circle. T. Who knows what it is called ? Ch. The curved line is called (T. give term) the circxmference. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) r. (To center.) What is this? Ch. That is the one point within the circle from which all points in the circumferance are equally distant. (Class decision. T. con- firm.) T. Who knows a name for this point ? Ch. The point within the circle from which all points in the circum- ference are equally distant is called (T. give term) the center of a circle. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) T. (Touching circumference.) What have I done ? Ch. You have taken point a in the circumfer- ence. T. (Touching another point.) What have I c done now ? Ch. You have taken another point h in the circumference. T. (Joining a and h.) What have I done now ? Ch. You have joined a and h by a straight line. T. What have I done to the circumference ? Ch. You have divided it into two parts. T. (To a, 6») AVhat is ah of the circumference ? Ch. It is a part of the circumference. T. And M'^hat is ach ? Ch. ach is a part of the circumference. T. Who knows what a part of the circumference is called ? Ch. A part of the circumference is called (T. give term) an arc. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) T. (Drawing diameter.) What have I done to d the circumference now ? Ch. You have divided the circumference into two arcs, adh and ach. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. How does arc adb compare with arc ach ? Ch. Arc adh is equal to arc ach. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. To how much of the circumference is arc adb equal? 60 LESSONS ON FORM. CJi. Arc adh is equal to one-half of the circumference, and arc acb is equal to one-half of the circumference. T. Make a definition to suit that description. Ch. An arc that is equal to one-half of a circumference is called (T. give term) a semi-circumference. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) T. (Drawing radius.) What have I done to the semi-circumfer- ence adh ? Ch. You have divided it into two parts, ad and dh. T. What may you call ad'i Ch. It is an arc. T. How does arc ad compare with arc dhl Ch. Arc ad is equal to arc db. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. How does arc ad or db compare with the semi-circumference adb or acb ? Ch. Arc ad or db is equal to one-half the semi-circumference adb or acb. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. How does arc ad or db compare with the whole circumference ? Ch. Arc ad or db is equal to one-quarter of the whole circumference. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Who can make the definition we need? Ch. An arc that is one-quarter of a circumference is called (T. give term) a quadrant. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) Drill by having pupils make different parts and identify, and by having them read and copy definitions. Then erase work and have them recall what they have learned. Work in Inventive Drawing. 1. Make a design consisting of circles. 2. Make a border of circles. 3. Ornament a circle with arcs. LESSONS ON FORM. 61 LESSON XIII. Review Circle, Circumference, Center, Arc, Semi-Circumference, and Quadrant. OBJECT. To cultivate Perception, Conception, Comparison, Reason, Judgment, and Language. POINT. To develop idea of, and teach, Radius, Diameter, Chord, Tangent. MATTER. 1. A line drawn from the center to a point in the circumference of a circle is called a radius. 2. A line draivn from one point in the circumfer- ence, through the center to another point in the circumference of a circle, is called a diameter of a circle. 3. A line which is drawn from one point in the circumference to another point in the circum- ference of a circle, and does not pass through the center, is called a chord of a circle. 4. A line drawn so as to touch the circumference of a circle in but one place is called a tangent of a circle. METHOD. Teacher. (Describing circle.) Whathavel done? Child. You have made a circle. T. (Drawing radius.) What have I done now? Ch. You have drawn a line ah. T. From where to where have I drawn it ? Ch. You have drawn it from the center of the circle to a point in the circumference. T. You may make a circle and draw a line similar to ah. (Child does so, stating, 1 have drawn a line from the center to a point in the circumference of this circle.) T. Who can make a definition from that de- scription ? 62 LESSONS ON FORM. Ch. A line drawn from the center to a point in the circumference of a circle is called (T. give term) a radius. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) (T. explains that the plural of radius is radii; then drawing other radii in the same and in equal circles, also in circles unequal to the first, she has the pupils compare, and leads them to the conclusion that all radii in the same or equal circles are equal.) T. (Describing circle and drawing diameter.) What have I done ? Ch. You have made a cu-cle, and drawn a line in it. T. From where to where have I draw n the line ? Ch. You have drawn the line from one point in the circumference to another point in the cir- cumferehce. T. Where is that line in regard to the center ? Ch. It i^asses through the center. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Describe that line fully, as to where it is drawn. Ch. That line is drawn from one point in the circumference through the center to another point in the circumference. T. You may draw a line in a circle in the same way. (Ch. does so, stating what he has done.) Tr Who can make a definition to suit the description ? Ch. A line drawn from one point in the circumference through the center to another point in the circumference of a circle is called (T. give term and explain meaning) a diameter of a circle. (Simul- taneous recitation. T. write on board. T. here leads children to state that a diameter is equal in length to two radii, and that all diameters in the same or equal circles are equal.) 1\ (Drawing chord in a circle.) What have I done ? Ch. You have drawn a line from one point in the circumference to another pomt in the circum- ference of a circle. T. Where is this line in regard to the center ? Ch. It does not pass through the centre. T. Describe this line fully, thinking of where it is drawn. Ch. That line is drawn from one point in tho circumference to another point in the circum- ference of a circle, and does not pass through the center. (Class decision. T. confirm.) LESSONS ON FORM. 63 T. You may draw another line in the same circle similar to the one I have drawn, and describe. (Ch. does so, describing fully.) T. What do we need now V Ch. We need a definition and a name. T. You may make the definition. Ch. A line which is drawn from one point in the circumference to another point in the circumference of a circle, and does not pass through the center, is called (T. give term) a chord of a circle. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board. T. may show that a diameter, according to this definition, is not a chord, though it is sometimes called the greatest chord in a circle.) T. (Drawing a tangent.) What have I done ? Ch. You have made a circle and drawn a line ah. C'\" T. Where is the line in regard to the circle ? ^\ Ch. It is outside of the circle (near to the circle). \ T. How near the circle is it ? ] Ch. It touches the circumference. / T. In how many places does it touch the cir- y cumf erence ? Ch. It touches the circumference in one place. T. Tell me whether you think it can be made to touch the circumference in more than one place? Ch. It can touch the circmiiference in but one place. T. Draw a line similar to this, and describe. (Child does so, stating : This line touches the circuuiference in but one place.) T. l^ow you may make the definition based on that description. Ch. A lino drawn so as to touch the circumference of a circle in but ono place is called (T. give term) a tangent of a circle. (Simul- taneous recitation. T. write on board.) Drill by having children make circles, draw and describe different lines, and by having them copy and read definitions on the board. Then erase work, remove objects, and have them recall what they have learned ? Work in Inventive Drawing. 1. Make a design in circles, ornamenting with curved lines. 2. Ornament a circle with chords. 3. Ornament a circle with triangles. 4. Ornament a circle with arcs. 5. ]\IakG a design in quadrants. Questions for Geometry. 1. What is the gratest number of radii that can be made in a circle of diameters ? 2. Greatest number of spaces that can be made by the intersection of two circles, of three, of four, of five, of six ? 64 LESSONS ON FORM. LESSON XIV. Review Radius, Diameter, Chord, and Tangent. OBJECT. To cultivate Perception, Conception, Comparison, Reason, Judgment, and Language. POINT. To develop idea of, and teach, Secant, Semicircle, Segment, and Sector. MATTER. A line which intersects (cuts) the circumference of a circle in two points is called a secant. 2. A space enclosed hy the semi-circumference and the diameter of a circle is called a semicircle. 3. A space enclosed hy an arc and a chord of a circle is called a segment of a circle. 4. A space enclosed by two radii and the inter- cepted arc is called a sector of a circle. METHOD. Teacher. (Describing circle and drawing secant.) What have I done ? Child. You have made a circle and drawn a line. T. Where is the line in regard to the circle ? Ch. The line passes through the circle. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. And what does this line do to the circumfer- ence ? Ch. The Ime crosses the circumference. T. Tell me that, using another word instead of crosses. Ch. The line cuts the circumference. T. AVho can use another word that means the same as cuts f Ch. (or T.) Intersects. T. In how many points does this line intersect the circumference? Ch. That line intersects the circumference in two points. LESSONS ON FORM. 65 r. You may describe a circle and draw a line similar to this. (Ch. does so, stating : This line intersects the circumference in two points.) T. Who can draw a straight line that will in- tersect the circumference in more than two points ? Ch. We cannot draw a straight line that will intersect tlie circumference in more than two points. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Now, for what are we ready ? / Ch. AVe are ready for the definition. T. Very well, make the definition. Ch. A line that intersects the circumference of a circle in two points is called (T. give term) a secant. (Sinmltaneous recitation. T. write on board.) T. (Describing a circle and drawing diameter.) What have I done? Ch. You have made a circle and drawn a di- ameter. T. (Tracing the semi-circumference.) IVhat is this? Ch. That is the semi-circumference. (Class de- cision. T. confirm.) T. (Pointing to space.) What is this ? Ch. That is a space. T. By what is this space enclosed ? Ch. That space is enclosed by the semi-circumference and the diam- eter of the circle. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. (Pointing to the other space.) By what is this space enclosed ? Ch. That space is enclosed by the semi-circumference and the diameter of the circle. T. You may make other spaces enclosed by the semi-circumference and the diameter of a circle. (Child does so, describing fully.) T. Yv^ho can make the definition that we need now? Ch. A space enclosed by the semi-circumference and the diameter of a circle is called (T. give term) a semicircle. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) T. (Describing circle and drawing chord.) What have I done now ? Ch. You have made a circle and drawn a chord. T. (Tracing arc.) What is this? Ch. That is an arc. 66 LESSONS ON FORM. T. (To space.) What is this ? Ch. That is a space. T. By what is this space enclosed ? Ch. That space is enclosed by an arc and a chord. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. (To the other space.) By what is this space enclosed? Ch. That space is enclosed by an arc and a chord. (Class decision. T. confirm.) 7'. Show me other spaces enclosed by an arc and a chord. (Ch. does so, stating fully.) T. Who can make the definition ? Ch. A space enclosed by an arc and a chord of a circle is called (T. give term) a segment of a circle. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) T. (Describing circle and drawing two radii.) What have I done now ? Ch. You have made a circle and drawn tw^o radii. T. (To space n.) What is this ? Ch. That is a space. T. By what is this space enclosed ? Ch. That space is enclosed by two radii and the arc amb. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Where is the arc amb in regard to the radii oa and ob ? Ch. The arc amb is between the points a and b, or it is cut off by the radii oa and ob. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Thinking of this, what may we say of this arc amb ? Ch. (or T*.) It is included between oa and ob, or it is the intercepted arc. (T. explain the use of the word.) T. Now describe the space n ? Ch. It is a space enclosed by two radii and the intercepted arc. T. Show me other spaces enclosed in the same way. (Ch. does so, stating : This space is enclosed by two radii and the intercepted arc.) 2\ Now we are ready for the definition. Ch. A space enclosed by two radii and the intercepted arc is called (T. give term) a sector of a circle. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) Drill by having children find and describe tangent, segment, semicircle, and sector; by having pupils cut forms in paper and describe, and by having them read and copy definitions on the board. Then erase work, remove objects, close books, and have pupils recall what they have learned. LESSONS ON FORM. ^7 Note. — If the children are able to make the description of ellipse, and to construct the definition, they may do so now. If not, the form for the present may be presented and the name given. The oval may be taught now. It is very simple, and both description and definition may be given. Before beginning work upon solids, review all the previous work in form. Let several days be spent in the review, and be careful to have the children understand as well as remember. Work in Inventive Drawing. 1. Make a design in segments of circles. 2. Make a design in tangents and secants. 3. Make a design, using sectors of circles. Work in Geometry. 1. Make in a circle an angle, two of whose sides are radii (central angle.) 2. Construct an angle, two of whose sides are chords of a circle (in- scribed angle). 3. Make a polygon, all of whose sides are chords of a circle (inscribed polygon). 4. Make a polygon, all of whose sides are tangents of a circle (circum- scribed polygon). 5. To what class of angles does an angle inscribed in a semich-cle belong ? 6. To what class does an angle inscribed in a segment less than a semicircle belong ? 7. An angle inscribed in a segment greater than a semicbcle ? 68 LESSONS ON FORM. LESSON XV. Solids. With very young pupils, it would be well to begin " Form " with a study of " Solids." The pupils may handle the objects, giving such de- scriptions as their limited language will allow, and using the terms riven them by the teacher. In this way they will learn to distinguish the dif- ferent solids, and to give partial descriptions that will be of use later. The solids, as studied, should be moulded by the children in clay or putty. The work of moulding may be carried into older classes with great advantage, and will be of great service in drawing. The order of work may, or may not, be the same for primary and advanced work The order here given takes in all the solids having curved surfaces first, and afterward the solids having plane faces or surfaces. OBJECT. To cultivate Perception, Conception, Comparison, Reason, Judgment, Memory, and Language. POINT. To develop Idea of, and teach, Solid, Sphere, Hemisphere, Diameter of a Sphere, and Cylinder. MATTER. 1. An object that has length, breadth, and thickness, is a solid. 2. A solid bounded by a curved surface, every point of which is equally distant from a point called the center, is called a sphere. 3. A hemisphere is half a sphere. 4. A straight line passing through the center oj a sphere, and terminated by the surface on opposite sides, is called the diameter of a sphere. 5. A solid bounded by tico equal parallel plane circular bases and one curved face (between the bases) is called a cylinder. METHOD. Teacher. (Presenting a solid.) How many di- mensions has this solid ? Child. It has three dimensions. T. Name them. Ch. It has length, breadth, and thickness. LESSONS ON FORM. 69 Note. — The teacher will remember tliat pupils are to be led to ap- preciate length, breadth, and thickness, before beginning the regular work in form. T. Find other objects that have length, breadth, and thickness. (Children find several each, stating : This object has length, breadth, and thickness.) T. What is an object that has length, breadth, and thickness called ? Ch. An object that has length, breadth, and thickness is called (Ch. or T. give term) a solid. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board. T. here lead children to state that a line is terminated by points, a surface is bounded by lines, and a solid is bounded by faces ; or, as in the case of sphere and spheroid, etc., by a surface.) T. (Presenting a sphere.) What is this? Ch. It is a solid. T. By what is it bounded? (Ch. may state : It is bounded by faces. If so, T. will correct.) Ch. It is bounded by a surface. T. By what kind of surface, thinking of its direction, is it bounded ? Ch. It is bounded by a curved surface. T. (Opening the sphere, which ought to be com- posed of two hemispheres fastened by a hinge.) Observe what I do. (Marking a point in the surface near edge of hemisphere.) What have I done ? Ch. You have touched a point in the surface. T. (Touching the central point in the plane of the circle of hemis- p)here.) What have I done ? Ch. You have touched a point inside. T. I shall draw a line from the point I touched in the surface to that point inside. (Does so, and then takes another point in the sur- face.) What have I done now ? Ch. You have touched another point in the surface. T. 1 draw another line from that point to the point inside. How does this line compare in length with the first ? Ch. It is the same length. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. What do these two lines show ? Ch. They show distances. T. Distances from where to where ? 70 LESSONS ON FORM. Ch. They show distances from two points in the surface to a point within the solid. T. How do the distances of those two points in the surface from the point within the solid compare in length ? Ch. Those two points in the surface are equally distant from the point within the solid. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Suppose I take another point in the surface, how do the distances of the three i^oiuts in the surface, from the points within, compare with each other? Ch The three points in the surface are equally distant from the point within the solid. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. How many points in the surface are equally distant fi'om that point withiii the solid? Ch. All points in the surface (or every point) are equally distant from that point within the solid. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Now, if I take another point within the solid, how do the distances of all points in the surface from that point compare ? Ch. The points in the surface are unequally distant from that point. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. If I take another, what will be true in this respect ? Ch. The points in the surface are unequally distant from that point. T. How many points are there within this solid from which all points in the surface are equally distant? Ch. There is only one. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. What is that point called ? Ch. It is called the center. T. Thinking of what you have learned, describe this solid. Ch. It is a solid bounded by a cm-ved surface, every point of which is equally distant from a point within, called the center. T. Find other solids of which this is true. (Children find several, ball, marble, etc., stating each time what he has found.) T. Who can make the definition that is based on this description ? Ch. A solid bounded by a curved surface, every point of which is equally distant from a point within, called the center, is called (Ch. or T. give term) a sphere. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) T. (Presenting hemisphere.) What is this? Ch. That is one-half a sphere. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. AVho knows what it is called? (Ch. or T. give term hemisphere.) T. What is a hemisphere ? Ch. A hemisphere is half a sphere. (Simultane- ous recitation. T. write on board.) LESSONS ON FORM. 71 Note. — The teacher may lead the pupils to state that a hemisphere is bounded by a curved face and a plane face, which is a circle whose circumference is the circumference of the whole sphere. T. (Presenting sphere dissected.) Observe and state what I do. Ch. You made a straight line within the sphere. T, Where is this line in regard to the center of the sphere ? Ch. It passes through the center of the sphere. T. Where are the ends of the line ? Ch. We cannot see them. T. Why not? Ch. They are in the sphere. The line stops in the sphere. T. By what is the line stopped (terminated) ? Ch. The line is terminated by the surface of the sphere. T. In how many places is the line terminated ? Ch. In two places. T. Where are they in regard to each other ? Ch. They are opposite each other. r. Now describe this line. Ch. It is a straight line passing through the center of the sphere, and terminated by the surface at opposite points (sides). T. Who can make the definition ? Ch. A straight line passing through the center of a sphere, and ter- minated by the surface on opposite sides, is ca^ed (T. or Ch. give term) the diameter of a sphere. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) Note. — T. may here teach circumference of sphere, which can be easily shown (by showing edge of a hemisphere) . jT. (Presenting a cylinder.) What is this ? Ch. It is a solid. T. By what is it bounded ? Ch. It is bounded by two plane (flat) faces and one curved face. (Class decision. T. confirm.) (The word plane, taught in connection with lessons upon surface.) T. How do the plane faces compare in size with each other? Ch. They are equal. (Class decision. T. con- firm.) T. What kind of faces are they, thinking of their distance apart at all points ? Ch. They are parallel faces. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. And thinking of the direction of the circumference of each face, what kind of faces are they ? 72 LESSONS ON FORM. Ch. They are circles or circular faces. T. Now, thinking of all you have learned about the two faces, describe this solid carefully. Ch. That solid is bounded by two equal, parallel, plane, circular faces, Ciid one curved face. (Class decision. T. confirm. T. may here lead children to state that the plane faces are bases, since the solid rests on either of them.) T. Find other solids like this in every respect. (Children find several, stating what they have found.) T. Who can make the definition based on this description ? Ch. A solid bounded by two equal, plane, parallel, circular bases, and one curved face, is called (Ch. or T. give term) a cylinder. (Simul- taneous recitation. T. write on board. T. may teach right and oblique cylinders here, or may leave this for later work.) Drill by having pupils find and name different solids, by having them give descriptions, make drawings, and read definitions on the board. (Copy in note-book.) Then erase work, remove objects, and have pupils recall what they have learned. Note. — After teaching hemisphere, spheroid (prolate and oblate), ovoid, and ellipsoid may be taught. If, however, the children are young, these may be left till later. LESSONS ON FORM. 73 LESSON XIV. Review carefully Solid Sphere, Hemisphere, Diameter of Sphere, and Cylinder. OBJECT. To cultivate Perception, Conception, Comparison, Reason, Judgment, Memory, and Language. POINT. To develop idea of, and teach, Cone, Pyramid, Cube, and Prism. MATTER. 1. A solid that has one plane circular base and one curved face that tapers to a point called the apex, is called a cone. 2. A solid that has one polygonal base and as many triangular side faces as the base has sides, all meeting at a point called the apex, is called a pyramid. 3. A solid that has six equal square faces is called a cube. 4. A solid that has two equal, plane, parallel, polygonal bases, and as many parallelogram side faces as each base has sides, is called a prism. METHOD. Teacher. (Presenting a cone.) What is this ? Child. It is a solid. T. You may describe it. Ch. It has one plane face and one curved face. T. What is the form of the plane face ? Ch. It is circular. T. (Placing- cone on table on base.) What else may you call the plane circular face ? 74 LESSONS ON FORM. Ch. We may call it a plane circular base. T. You may now compare the curved face of this solid with the curved face of the cylinder, and state any difference you observe. Ch. The curved face of this solid comes to a point, and the curved face of the cylinder does not. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. What word may we use instead of cones f Ch. (or T.) Tapers. T. What is this point called ? Ch. (or T.) It is called the apex. T. Now describe this curved face. Ch. This curved face tapers to a point called the apex. T. Now, thinking of what you have learned, describe this solid. Ch. This solid has one plane circular base, and one curved face that tapers to a point called the apex. T. Find other solids of which this is true. (Children find or mould several, giving description of each.) T. Who can make the definition based on that description ? Ch. A solid that has one plane circular base, and one curved face that tapers to a point called the apex, is called (Ch. or T. give term) a cone. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) T. (Presenting a pyramid.) What is this ? Ch. It is a solid something like the cone. T. In what points is it like the cone ? Ch. It has one plane base, and it has an apex. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. How does it differ from the cone ? Ch. The cone has one curved face, and this solid has several plane faces. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Examine first the base, and tell me to what class of figures it belongs. Ch. It is a pentagon. T. Why do you call it a pentagon ? Ch. Because it has five sides. T. Then what kind of base is it ? Ch. It is a plane pentagonal base. T. And how many side faces are there ? Ch. There are five side faces. T. What is the form of each ? Ch. Each side face is a triangle. T. How does the number of triangular side faces compare with the sides of the base ? Ch. The number of triangular side faces is the same as the number of sides of the bases. LESSONS ON FORM. 75 T. Observe the base of this solid in regard to the number of sides. Ch. The base of this solid has four sides. T. And the base of this one ? Ch. This one has three sides. T. Suppose you were to describe these bases as to form, without stating the number of sides of each, what one term would you apply to all ? Ch. I would say that they are polygons. T. What kind of base has this solid ? Ch. It has one plane polygonal base. T. And this? Ch. It has one plane polygonal base, and so has the other. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. And how does the number of side faces of each com- pare with the number of sides of bases V Ch. The side faces in each are of the same number as the sides of the bases. T. What kind of side faces are these ? Ch. They are triangular side faces. T. Show me the base of each triangle. Ch. The base of each triangular side face forms one side of the base of the solid. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Show me the apex of each triangular side face. Ch. They all have the same apex or point where they meet. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Thinking of what you have learned, describe this solid. Ch. That solid has one plain polygonal base and as many triangular side faces as the base has sides, all meet- ing at one point called the apex. T. Find other solids of which this is true. (Children find or mould several, and describe each.) T. For what are we now ready ? Ch. We are ready for the definition and the name. T. Who can make the definition ? Ch. A solid that has one plane polygonal base, and as many triangular side faces as the base has sides, all meeting at one point called the apex, is called (Ch. or T. give term) a pyramid. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) Note. — T. may teach here the difference between right and oblique cones and pyramids. T. (Presenting a cube.) What is this ? Ch. It is a solid. 76 LESSONS ON FORM. T. Describe it, tliinking of the way in which it is bounded. Ch. It has six plane faces. T. Compare those faces with each other in regard to size, and state what you observe. Ch. The faces are equal. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. What is the form of these faces ? Ch. They are square faces. T. Describe this solid, thinking of what you have learned. Ch. That solid has six equal square faces. T. What is it called ? Ch. A solid that has six equal square faces is called (Ch. or T. give term) a cube. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board. Have Ch. mould other cubes.) T. (Presenting prism.) Look at this solid, and state what you observe in regard to its bases. Ch. It has two equal, plane, parallel polygonal bases. (Class decision. T. confirm.) Note. — If the previous work has been carefully done, the children will have no difficulty in making this statement in reaard to the T. You may speak of the side faces. Ch. It has several side faces. T. How does the number of side faces compare with number of sides of each base ? Ch. The side faces are as many as the sides of each base. T. WTiat is the form of the side faces ? Ch. They are parallelograms. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Describe this solid in regard to what you have learned. Ch. That solid has two equal plane parallel polygonal bases, and as many paraUelogTam side faces as each base has sides. T. Find other solids of which this is true. (Children find several, mould others, and describe until familiar with the words.) T. Who can make the definition ? LESSONS ON FORM. 77 Ch. A solid that has two equal plane polygonal bases, and as many parallelogram side faces as each base has sides, is called (Ch. or T. give term) a prism. Drill by having child find and describe different solids ; by having them mould ; and by having them read definitions on the board. Then erase work, remove objects, and have children recall what they have learned. Note. — T. may here lead pupils to see that a cube is one kind of a prism, and that a prism whose bases are parallelograms is called a par- allelopipedon. With small children, I would advise that the teacher do not trouble them with the definitions of solids for some time ; but, with more ad- vanced pupils, a great deal of good will result from describing and con- structing definitions based upon the descriptions. LESSOlSrS Ol^ PLACE. LESSON I. Patterning. OBJECT. To cultivate Perception, Conception, Co7nparison, Judgment, Memory, and Language, POINT. To develop idea of Position, by imitating what the Teacher does. MATERIALS. Table inclined towards the class, to enable each child to see the pat- terns placed on it. Papers cut in different forms, — squares, tri- angles, circles, etc. At first these papers should be large, and such as will form simple designs. In the first lesson, not more than three papers should be used in any one design, and not more than three different designs should be made by the teacher. Each child must have as many papers as the teacher uses. If he has more, there will be greater room for the exercise of comparison and judgment. METHOD. Teacher. (Presenting papers.) What have I? Child. You have some cards. T. How many cards have I in my hand ? Ch. You have three. T. Observe carefully what I do with these cards. (Arranges them in a simple design on the table.) What have I done ? Ch. You have laid the cards on the table. T. Where have I placed them in regard to each other? Ch. You have placed them near each other (or close to each other). (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. You may each find among your cards three cards just like these three I have used. (Children find them, stating : These cards are just like yours.) 80 LESSONS ON PLACE. T. Now you may place them on your desks, and make something just like this that I have made. (If the children have no desks, the T. may have three or four go to the table and make patterns there, the other children watching and describing what has been done. It is much better, however, for all the children to work at the same time, as children, as well as gTown people, appreciate what they do with their own hands, much more than what they see done.) T. What have you done, Mary? Ch. I have placed three cards together, and made something just like what you made. T. How many think that Mary has made something like this which I have made ? (Children examine closely and decide. T. confirms.) T. What have you done, John ? Ch. I have placed three cards on the desk, and made something just like that which you made. 2\ James, you may tell what John has done. Ch. John has made something like that which you made. T. Jane and Susan may tell what they have made. Children. We have made something like that which you have made. T. (After examining each desk to see that no mistakes have been made.) You may all tell me what you have done. Class. We have made something just like that which you made. T. (Presenting other papers.) What have I now ? Ch. You have three other cards. T. Compare them with the first cards I used, and tell me what you observe. Ch. They are not the same shape as those you first used. (Class de- cision. T. confirm.) T. AVhat other difference do you observe ? Ch. They are smaller than those you first used. T. Observe what I do. (Makes a new design.) What have I done ? Ch. You have placed those three cards together, and made something else (another figure). T. Compare the figure I have just made with the one I first made, and tell me what you observe. Ch. The figure you have just made is smaller than the one yon first made. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Mention any other difference you observe. Ch. It is not the same shape as the first. (Class decision. T. con- firm.) T. Each child may find three cards just like those I used in making the second figure, and make a figure like this. (Children do so, each statmg what he has done, as in the previous work. Care LESSONS ON PLACE. 81 should be taken here that the children speak distinctly, and describe accurately, using full statements every time they speak. If the work is properly done, there is little danger that the children will tire of talking. Children love to tell what they know.) T. (Presenting other papers, no two of which are alike.) What have I now ? Ch. You have three more cards. T. Compare them with those I have already used, and tell me what you observe. Ch. They are smaller than any you have used. (If they should be larger, or of the same size, of course the children will state the diiference or resemblance, as the case may be.) T. What other difference do you observe? Ch. They are not shaped like any of the cards you have used. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Compare these cards with each other in regard to size, and tell me what is true of them. Ch. They are not of the same size ; or, they are of different sizes. T. Compare them with each other in regard to shape, and state what you observe. Ch. They are of different shapes. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Now observe what I do. (Makes new design.) What have I done ? Ch. You have placed them together and made another figure. T. You may each find three cards like these I used last, and make a figure like this which I have made. (Children have, perhaps, some difficulty in selecting three cards of different forms, but at length get them, and make the design, several stating accurately and fully what they have done.) T. (Disarranging the designs and mixing the cards used.) What have I done now ? Ch. You have put all the cards together. (Children do so.) T. Now you may each select the three cards you first used, and make the first figure I made. (Children do so perhaps with some diffi- culty. Perhaps some can not remember the design, in which case they may look at the work of those who have been successful in recalling the work done. After the first, the T. may give direc- tions to have the second and third reproduced.) Note. — The work in patterning from sight and memory may last a week, and to keep up the interest, other objects than paper may be used. Blocks and boxes make a pleasant variety, and may be used. After the first day or two the T. may appoint some bright pupil to make the designs at the table, and have the other children imitate his work. 32 LESSONS ON PLACE. LESSON II. Position Words. OBJECT. To cultivate Perception^ Conception^ Comparison, Judgment, Memory^ and Language. POINT. To develop idea of, and teach words in, On, Under, Over, Above, Be- low, Across, Round, Behind, Against, Beside, By, etc. MATTER. The ball is in the cup. The ball is on the table. The ball is under the cup. The cup is over the ball. The block is above the cup. The cup is below the block. The string is across the book. The string- is round the ball. The child is behind the door. The chair is against the door. The book is beside the box. The marble is by the ball. METHOD. The T. may open the lesson with a short conversation about the dif- ferent articles on the table, getting from the children the names of each, after which the work may begin. Teacher. Watch me now and see what I do. (Placing the ball in the cup.) What did I do ? Child. You put the ball in the cup. (T. write on board word m, call attention to it, and drill.) T. ^Yhere is the ball, Jane ? Ch. The ball is in the cup. T. (Placing the ball on the table.) Where is the ball now? Ch. The ball is on the table. (T. write on board word on, and drill.) T. (Turning the cup over the ball.) Wliere is the ball now ? Ch. The ball is under the cup. (T. write on board word under, and drill.) T. Where is the ball, thinking of the table ? Ch. The ball is on the table. LESSONS ON PLACE. 83 T. Where is the cup, thinking of the table ? Ch. The cup is on tlie table. T. Where is the cup, thinking of the ball ? Ch. The cup is over the ball. (T. write on board word over, and drill.) T. (Presenting a block.) What is this ? Ch. It is a block. r. (Holding the block.) Where is the block ? Ch. It is in your hand. T. (Placing it on the table.) Where is it now ? Ch. It is on the table. T. (Placing it under a book.) Where is it now ? Ch. It is under the book. T. Where is the book, thinking of the block ? Ch. The book is over the block. T. (Holding the block above the cup.) T\Tiere is the block now, thinking of the cup V Ch. The block is above the cup. (T. write on board word above, and drill. It is possible that a child may say the block is over the cup, in which case the T. will lead him to see that the word over im- plies covering, while above does not.) T. Where is the cup in regard to the block ? Ch. The cup is below the block. (T. write on board word below, and drill. If child should say the cup is under the block, T. leads him to see that under implies covered.) T. You may place something over something, and state what you have done. Ch. (Placing open box over the block.) I have put the box over the block. (Drill on these words in various ways, until children fully appreciate their use.) T. (Presenting string.) What have I ? Ch. You have a string. T. Where is the string ? Ch. It is in your hand. T. (Placing it on table.) Where is it now ? Ch. It is on the table. T. Where is it now ? Ch. It is above the table. T. ^VTiere is it now ? Ch. It is below the ball. T. (Lajdng it across the book.) Where is it now ? Ch. It is on the book. T. How is it on the book, thinking of the direction ? Ch. It is across the book. (T. write on board word across, and diill.) 84 LESSONS ON PLACE. T. You may place the string across something, and state what yon have done. Ch. (Placing string across the box.) I have put the string across the box. T. Where is the string? Ch. It is across the box. T. Maiy, what did John do ? Ch. He put the string across the book. T. Watch closely and see what I do. (Placing string roimd the ball.) Where is the string now ? Ch. It is on the ball. T. Where on the ball is it? Ch. It is round the ball. (T. write on board word round, and drill.) T. You may do as I did, just now, with the string. Ch. (Placing string round a bottle.) I have put the string round the bottle. T. John, what did ^Mary do ? Ch. ^lary put the string round the bottle. T. Now, watch closely and see what I do. (Placing a little girl behind the door.) Where is Mary ? Ch. She is behind the door. (T. write on board word behind ; drill as with the words across, over, under, etc.) T. Watch and see what I do this time. (Placing a chair so that it touches the door.) "Where is the chair ? Ch. The chair is against the door. (T. write word against, and drill. Possibly the children may say the chair is near the door, or close to the door, in which case the teacher will lead them to see that she cannot open the door without moving the chair, as the chair is against the door.) T. Now observe what I do. (Placing the book beside the box.) AVhere is the book, thinking of the box ? Ch. The book is close to the box. T. Tell me that in another way. Ch. The book is near the box. 7\ That is true, but tell me in another way. Ch. The book is beside the box. (T. write on board word beside, and drill as before.) T. Where is the marble, thinking of the ball ? Ch. The marble is beside the ball, or by the ball. (T. write on boaird word by.) Drill by having children replace objects in the positions indicated by the position words on the board, and by having them recall objects in their homes that are in certain positions. LESSONS ON PLACE. 85 Note. — The work upon position words will occupy at least a week, as it will not be possible for little children to learn to use more than two or three new words in each lesson. Encourage the children to talk as much as possible, but do not let them wander from the point of the lesson. With a little care the T. can help them form a habit of concen- tration that will be of great value in later work, and indeed throughout their lives. 86 LESSONS ON PLACE. LESSON III. Right and Left. OBJECT. To cultivate Perception, Conception, Comparison, Judgment, Memory^ and Language. POINT. To develop idea of, and teach terras, Right and Left. METHOD. Teacher. John, you may bring me a book. (Ch. does so.) T. AVith what did John bring me the book ? Child. He brought you the book with his hand. T. John, show the hand with which you brought it. Ch. (Presenting hand.) I brought the book with this hand. T. Mary may toss this ball. (Ch. does so.) T. Show the hand with which you tossed the ball. Ch. I tossed the ball with this hand. T. James, you may take this knife and stick, and whittle. (Ch. does so.) T. Show the hand which holds the knife. Ch. This hand holds the knife. T. Susan may shake hands with Mary. (Children do so.) T. Each child may show the hand she used just now. Ch. I used this hand. Ch. I used this hand. T. Bring me a book, John, and do not use the hand you used before. (Ch. does so.) You may show the hand with which you brought the book. Ch. I brought the book with this hand. T. How many hands have you ? Ch. I have two hands. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Raise your hand, James. (Ch. does so.) T. That is not the hand I wished you to raise. Why did you not raise the one I wanted ? Ch. I did not know which one you wanted me to raise. ^ T. What can I do to make you know which hand I wish you to raise ? Ch. You can say which hand you mean. T. What shall I say that will tell which hand I mean ? Ch. You can say the name of the hand. LESSONS ON PLACE. 87 T. Very well. Who knows the name of the hand which James raised ? (Children may not know.) T. It is called the right liand. (Simultaneous i-ecitation. T. write on board word right.) T. Each child hold up the right hand. (Children do so, stating: This is my right hand.) T. You may mention things that you do with the right hand. Ch. I write with my right hand. Ch. I hold the knife with my right hand. Ch. I shake hands with my right hand. T. Hold up the other hand. (Children do so.) T. Who knows the name of this hand ? Ch. (or T.) This is called the left hand. T. All show their left hands. (Children do so, stating : This is my left hand.) T. Show me your right eye. Ch. (Touching.) This is my right eye. T. Show me your right ear. Ch. (Touching.) This is my right ear. (This work of right and left parts of the body should be carried on until the children can name them rapidly.) T. You may point to the right. Look to the right. Throw a ball to the right. Walk to the right. Name a house to the right of this. Name a tree to the right of this. (T. have similar work for lej\ until the children can use the terms intelligently and readily.) T. Go to the table, and find parts of top. (Children find sides and ends.) T. Find the right end of the table. Ch. (Touching.) This is the right end of the table. T. Find left end. Ch. This is the left end. T. (Touching front.) What shall we call this part of the table ? Ch. This is the front of the table. T. (To back.) What is this called ? Ch. That is the back of the table. T. (To comer.) What is this? Ch. That is a corner. T. How many corners has the top of the table? Ch. It has four corners. T. (To right front corner.) What corner is this ? 88 LESSONS ON PLACE. Ch. It is the right front corner. T. (To left front corner.) What corner is this ? Ch. This is the left front corner. T. Find and name the other corners. Ch. This is the right back corner. This is the left back comer. T. (Placing various objects upon different parts of the table.) Where is the book ? Ch. It is on the right end of the table. Ch. The ball is on the right back corner of the table. Ch. The cup is on the left front corner of the table. (This work may be continued until the children can describe positions i-eadily.) T. Now we shall look at the top of the table again. (Removes ob- jects.) Compare the front of the table with the right end, and tell me what is true of their length. Ch. The front of the table is longer than the right end. (Class de- cision. T. confirm. Ch. had better measure before deciding.) T. Compare the front with the back, thinking of their length, and tell me what is true. Ch. The front and back of the table are of the same length. (Class decision. Measuring. T. confirm.) T. Compare the right end with the left end, thinking of their length, and tell me what is true. Ch. The right end and left end are of the same length. (Class de- cision. Measuring. T. confirm.) T. (Presenting slate.) I wish you to make a pictm-e of the table on this slate. Xow, where shall we place it ? Ch. We might place it on the table. T. In what position shall we put it ? Ch. We must put it so that the ends of the slate point to the ends of the table. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Xow find the parts of the slate as you found the parts of the top of the table. Ch. This is the front of the slate. Ch. This is the back of the slate. Ch. This is the right end. Ch. This is the left end. Ch. This is the right front corner. Ch. This is the left front corner. Ch. This is the right back corner. Ch. This is the left back corner. T. Now we shall make a picture of the back of the table first. "What shall we use to make this picture ? Ch. We shall use a line. LESSONS ON PLACE. 89 T. What kind of a line must it be V . Ch. It must be a straight line. T. Where on the slate shall we draw it ? Ch. We shall draw it along the back of the slate. T. You may do so, and state what you have done. Ch. (Drawing the line.) I have made a picture of the back of the table. T. What part shall we draw next ? Ch. We may draw the picture of the right end of the table. T. You may do so, and state what you have done. Ch. (Drawing the right end line.) I have made a picture of the right end of the table. T. What shall we draw next ? Ch. We shall draw the left end next. T. You may do so. Ch. (Drawing left end line.) I have made a picture of the left end of the table. T. What have we left to draw V Ch. We have the front left to draw. T. You may draw that part. Ch. (Drawing front line.) T have made a picture of the front of the table. T. What have we now on the slate ? Ch. We have a picture of tlie top of the table on the slate.. 2\ (Pointmg to right end line.) Find the part of the table of which this is a picture. (Ch. finds the part, stating what he has found. T. may drill in this way until the children fully miderstand. The T. will then place objects on diiferent parts of the table, have children describe their positions, and have other children repre- sent them in corresponding positions in the picture ; have others describe positions of objects on the table and in the picture.) Note. — The work upon right and left will take a week. 90 LESSONS ON PLACE. LESSON IV. Points of the Compass. With young children this part of the study of Place belongs to the second 3^ear's work, as it is more difficult than the previous part. OBJECT. To cultivate Perception, Conception, Comparison, Judgment, Memory, and Language. POINT. To develop idea of, and teach. East, West, North, South. MATTER. 1. Where the sun rises is East. 2. Where the sun sets is West. 3. Standing loith the right hand pointing towards the East, anil the left hand towards the West, the North is directly before us, and the South directly behind «. cold, dampness, sudden changes of ^ Cotton ) weather, etc. II. ni. THEY Produce . LT ( Classes as to Posi- tion ON the Stem IV. Kinds as to Cover- ing V. Conditions of Growth . . Flower buds. ' Terminal (growing from apex of the stem). — Maple, hickory, horse-chestnut, etc. Lateral (growing from sides of the stem). Axillary (growing from the axils of leaves) . — Locust, buttonwood. Supernumerary (two or more growing in addi- tion to the ordinary axillary bud). Adventitious (growing without order from stems, roots, or leaves). Scaly. — Horse-chestnut, hickory, etc. (Found generally on trees of northern climates.) Naked. — Sumac, honey locust, etc. (Found on herbs of all climates ; also found on per- ennials in tropical regions.) Latent buds are those without developing, invisible externally. f Nourishment. J Light. ) Warmth, t Air. which survive long They are generally VI. Uses To produce the aerial parts of the plant. 124 LESSONS ON PLANTS. LESSON T. SUMMARY OF WORK UPON LEAVES. The Leaf. I. Parts r Description (full). Blade -j Veins (mid-vein, small veins and veinlets). (Parenchyma (pulpy or fleshy part). ( Description (full). Petiole -l Bundle of woody fibres. ( Stipules. II. Classes as to ( Simple. Blade . . . ( Compound. III. Classes as to Venation. . Position Net-veined ( Palmate. — jMaple. rexoo-enons^ ] Pinnate.-Apple,birch,peach,etc. (^exogenous) ^ p^rcate or forked. r From base to apex. (Parts : blade, Parallel-veined J sheath, and ligule). — Grasses, (endogenous) 1 corn, etc. [ From mid-rib to margin. r Petiolate (attached by a petiole. May be stipulate rV. Classes as to J or exstipulate). Insertion . 1 Sessile (without a petiole; sitting on the stem. [ May be stipulate or exstipulate). V Ci AssFs 4q TO ( ^auUne (growing along the stem). V. ^LAbSEh AS loj ^^^IqqI (growing from the stem close to the ( ground). "Alternate (one leaf growing from a node). — Apple, oak, etc. Opposite (two leaves growing from a node). — Maple, lilac, etc. Verticillate or whorled (three or more leaves grow- ing frpm a node). — Madder, etc. Induplicate or inflexed (folded crosswise). — Tulip tree. Conduplicate (folded along the mid-rib). — Oak, cherry. Plicate (folded like a fan). — Maple, currant. Circinate (rolled lengthwise). — Fern, sundew. Convolute (rolled edgewise). — Cherry, plum. Involute (both edges rolled inward towards the mid-rib). — Apple, violet. Revolute (both edges rolled outward). — Willow, azalea. VI. Phyllotaxy, or Arrangement on the Stem . VII. Vernation, or Arrangement in the Bud .... LESSONS ON PLANTS. 125 Vin. Forms of Leaves IX. Forms of Bases . X. Forms of Apexes XI. Margins XII. Motions of. Leaves . f Peltate, oval, orbicular. Broadest in J Elliptical, oblong, the Middle 1 Linear, acicular. [ Acrose. r> J J. x C Deltoid, ovate, lanceolate. Broadest at 3 e^^^l^te, cordate, tne liase ^ Reniform, hastate, sagittate. r Obcordiform, obovate. Broadest at J Oblanceolate, spatulate. the Apex 1 Cuneate, obcordate. [ Lyrate, runcinate. r Cordate. Auriculate. Oblique. Tapering. Abrupt. Clasping. i Perfoliate. Connate. Decurrent. Acute. Acuminate. Obtuse. Truncate. Retuse. Obcordate. Emarginate. Mucronate. Cuspidate. Entire. Serrate. Dentate. Crenate. Repand. Sinuate. Incised. Lobed. C left . ( Abruptly pinnate. Divided. f Pinnate } Unequally pinnate. Parted. (Interruptedly pinnate. Bipinnate. ^ Compound . ■< Tripinnate. Five-fingered. Seven-fingered. Cirrose. Note. — Surface and Color of leaves may be conr sidered after Margins. ( Turn towards the sun. } Venus' fly-trap. ( Sensitive plant. 126 LESSONS ON PLANTS. XIII. Modifica- tions . ' Venus' fly-trap. Pitcher-plant. Bracts. Leaf scales. Thorns. Prickles. Cones. — Tendrils. before the close of the r Fugacious (falling early ; XIV. Duration of J season). Leaves . . 1 Deciduous (falling at the close of the season). [^ Persistent (remaining through the winter). ' Absorb nourishment from the atmosphere. Act as limgs to the plant. ij A f f A ^ Tea, palm. XV. Uses . . . ^ ^^^^ ^°^ ^° } Cabbage, lettuce, etc. Used in medicines. Fibres of palm leaves used for thread in some comitries. LESSONS ON PLANTS. 127 LESSON VI. SUMMARY OF WORK UPON INFLORESCENCE. I. Parts Inflorescence. Peduncle (stem of a simple flower, or of a cluster of flowers). Scape (a naked peduncle). Rachis (a peduncle from which flowers branch off). Floret (one of the flowers of a cluster). Pedicel (stem of a floret) . Bracts (small floral leaves growing from the peduncle). Involucre (a whorl of bracts). _ Receptacle (the top of a peduncle). IL Classes - ' Solitary -j Terminal. Axillary. Clustered Indefinite or indeterminate Definite or determinate ' Raceme (lily of the ' valley) Corymb (yarrow) Umbel (milkweed) Panicle (oats) Thyrsus (lilac) Spike (plantain) Spadix (calla lily) Ament (willow) Head (clover) J ' Cyme (elder). Fascicle (sweet-william). Glomerule (mint). Verticillaster (motherwort). , Scorpioid (forget-me-not). Florets having pedicels. Florets sessile. 128 LESSONS ON PLANTS. LESSON TIL SUMMARY OF WORK UPON FLOWERS. The Flower. ' Calyx (cup ; the outer circle of floral leaves). Corolla (crown ; the inner circle of floral leaves). Stamens (a thread; slender parts inside the corolla). Pistil or pistils (the part or parts in the center, I. Parts . . . •{ surrounded by the stamens). Perianth (the cal}Tc and corolla when not easily distinguished). Receptacle (the part upon which the organs of the flower are inserted). II. Protective Organs . . ( Sepals. Calyx . ■< Monosepalous. ( Polysepalous. ( Petals. Corolla -< Monopetalous. ( Polype talous. m. Essential Organs . ( Anther (pollen). ( Stamens 4 Filament. ( Connective. ( Stigma. i ^Pistil . •] Style. ( Ovary. IV. Kinds . ' Complete (having four sets of organs present). Perfect (ha\dng stamens and pistils present). Symmetrical (same number of parts in each set ot organs) . Regular (petals and sepals uniform). Pedunculate (having a peduncle). Sessile (without a peduncle). Monoecious (stamens and pistils on same plant). Dioecious (stamens and pistils on two different plants). LESSONS ON PLANTS. 129 V. Modifications OP Type . . ' \. By absence of parts : Of stamens, pistillate (imperfect). Of pistil, staminate (imperfect). Of calyx, asepalous (incomplete). Of corolla, apetalous (incomplete). 2. By variation from type number : Unsymmeti'ical (different number of parts in each set of organs). 3. By variation in form and size of petals and sepals : Irregular (sepals and petals not uniform). 4. By cohesion of parts of organs : Of sepals, monosepalous (myrtle). Of petals, monopetalous (larkspur). Of stamens, monodelphous (dandelion). Of pistils, compound. 5. By adhesion of parts of organs : Of stamens and petals (nearly all monopetalous flowers). Of stamens to pistils (hollyhock, hibiscus) . Of sepals to petals (bishop's cap) . Of stamens to sepals (currant blossom). The Calyx. "" Size. Form. Surface. I. Description arts. They are jointed to the upper sides of the mesothorax. When in a position of rest, the upper edges fold over each other so as to form a kind of triangle along the back. The uses of the upper wings are to aid in fiirimt nriif'frf pnrni'rrr the un- der wings. 8. kV* #>t» trrs-m ^^ THl? 158 LESSONS ON INSECTS. METHOD. Teacher. In examining the upper wings I wish you to be very careful that nothing may escape your notice. You may first speak of the size. Child. The upper wings are about two inches long, and about half an inch wide at the widest part. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. What in regard to size have you omitted to mention ? Ch. We have omitted to mention the thickness ; but the wings are so thin that we cannot judge of their thickness. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Then what statement w411 you make about them in this respect ? Ch. They are very thin. T. Describe the shape of the upper wings. Ch. They are long, flat, and nearly straight. T. Why do you say nearly straight ? Ch. Because they are not quite straight, but curve a little at the end farthest from the body. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. You may speak of the surface of these wings. Ch. They are smooth and glossy. T. Use the sense of touch, and state what you observe. Ch. They are soft in some places and hard in others. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. You may speak of the color. Ch. They are light brown with dark brown spots. (Ch. objects.) T. AVhat objection do you make to that ? Ch. They are more like yellow than brown. T. Then in what way can you modify what has been said about the color? Ch. They are yellowish brown with dark brown spots. T. Who wishes to modify that still further ? Ch. They are pale (or light) yellowish brown with dark brown spots. T. Now I wish you to state anything that has not been mentioned about the upper wings. Ch. At the upper end, where the wings join the thorax, they seem to be gathered together a little. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. WTio can see any reason for that arrangement ? Ch. It makes the place at the joint smaller, and the ends fit more snugly under the shield. T. Mention some other point. Ch. The wings are thicker on one side than on the other. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. What causes that thickening? THE GRASSHOPPER. 159 Ch. It seems to be caused by a hard ridge near the outer edge of the wing. T. Who can describe that ridge ? Ch. It seems to be made up of two or three rows of a bony substance. T. Who can describe it more carefully ? Ch. It is rather horny than bony, and the ridge is made up, I think, of three threads that are near together near the upper end, and spread apart near the lower end. T. W^ho else can describe this ridge more closely? Ch. One of thpse threads runs along the lower edge, and when they get near the lower end of the wing, they all grow so small that we cannot feel them. (Class decision. T. confirm.) Note. — T. will explain that these are veins, and will explain how they admit air and so help in flying ; also show how the blood is aerated. If the pupils are very young, no mention need be made of this, but T. merely gives name, veins. T. Mention anything else that you observe. Ch, The wings are all full of little fine hairs or threads. Note. — If the pupils are supplied with lenses, they may examine those small veins closely. T. Those are small veins or veinlets. Now hold the wings between you and the light, and tell me what you observe? Ch. The wings are clear. T. What do you mean by that ? Ch. I can see through them. T. How many can see through the upper wings? Ch. W^e can see light through them, but cannot see objects very well. (Class decision. T. confirm, and give word semi-transparent.^ T. Now, you may mention anything else that you observe. Ch. The dark brown spots are not on the large veins, but on the veinlets. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Mention anything else you see. Ch. The upper wings are longer than the body of the grasshopper. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. You may now describe their position. Ch. They are fastened to the thorax. T. To what part of the thorax are they attached ? Ch. They are attached to the mesothorax. T. WIio can be more particular in describing their position ? Ch. They are jointed to the upper side of the mesothorax. (Class decision. T. confirm.) 160 LESSONS ON INSECTS. T. In how many ways does the grasshopper use his wings ? Ch. He uses them in two ways. He spreads them out when he flies, and he folds them straight along his sides when he rests. (Class decision. T. confirm, and explain meaning of word Ortlioptera : orthos = straight, pteron = a wing.) T. When the upper wings are folded how are they arranged in regard to each other ? Ch. (Examining.) They fold over each other. T. I should like you to be very careful to make a statement that will exactly describe the arrangement. Ch. AVhen the grasshopper is at rest, the upper edges of these wings fold over each other and make a kind of flat place on the back. T. Of what shape is that flat place? Ch. It is a triangle. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Now make a full statement in regard to the folding of the upper wings. Ch. When in a position of rest, the upper edges of the upper wings fold over each other so as to form a kind of triangle along the back. T. You may now consider the uses of the upper wings. Ch. They aid in flying. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Who can think of another way in which they are of use ? Ch. They cover the lower wings when the grasshopper is at rest. T. And of what use is that ? Ch. They protect the lower wings. T. Mention one quality which they have that fits them to protect the lower wings. Ch. They are strong. T. Mention another way in which they are a protection. Ch. They are longer than the lower wings, and they keep their whole length and width, and so cover the lower wings completely. T. Think of another way in which they are fitted as a protection for the whole body. (Children cannot think.) T. You have seen one flying, and tried to catch it; when it lighted on the ground you could not find it, and in a moment it flew from your very feet. Why could you not find it when it was so near you? Ch. I could not tell it from the ground. T. Why not? Ch. Because it looked like the ground. T. What of it looked like the ground? Ch. Its color was like the color of the ground. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. How many of you have seen grasshoppers that were not the color of the ground ? (Children have probably seen green grasshoppers.) THE GRASSHOPPER. 161 T. Where did those green grasshoppers live ? Ch, They lived on trees or in green grass. T. Now think why the green grasshoppers live among green leaves while the brown ones stay near the brown earth ? Ch. They do that so that other animals cannot catch them. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Then of what use is the color ? Ch. It is a protection. T, Yes. When we see an animal that has the same color as the objects around it, we say that it has protective color. Perhaps you can think of some animals that have protective color. (Children men- tion butterflies. T. leads them to think of many other creatures, and leads them to understand that domestic animals do not need this protection ; consequently do not have it. Tells them that it is one of Nature's ways of preserving her creatures ; and leads them to understand something of God's care over the least of his creatures.) Drill by having pupils describe the upper wings, mentioning position and uses. Assign the usual time for reproduction, and the usual time for draw- ing the upper wings. 162 LESSONS ON INSECTS. LESSON TI. Review previous lesson carefully. OBJECT. To cultivate Perception^ Conception, Comparison, Reason, Judgment, and Language. POINT. To develop idea of, and teach, Description, Position, and Use^ of the under wings of the grasshopper. MATTER. 1. The under loings are about tioo inches long at the outer side, and one inch along the inner side. 2. When spread out, they are about two inches broad at the widest part. 3. T^hey are very thin. 4. They are shaped something like a fan. 5. They are smooth and glossy. 6. They are of a^ pale yellow color. 7. They are attached to the upper side of the metathorax. 8. They are used in flying. METHOD. Teacher. You may first speak of the size of the under wings. As soon as a pupil gives his opinion in regard to lengih, in any direction, you may measure. Note. — Pupils should be provided with rulers one foot long, upon which they have marked inches. They will need to use them continu- ally in their work. Child. The under wings are about two inches long. T. Who objects to that statement ? Ch. T think it is not exactly true. The wings are about two inches long at the outer side, but the inner side is only about one inch in length. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. You may speak of the width. Ch. We can hardly tell how wide they are, they are so doubled up. Ch. They are about two inches broad at the widest part. (Class de- cision. T. confirm.) T. Where is the widest part ? Ch. It is near the outer end. At the end where the wings join the body, it is quite narrow, not half an inch wide. (Class decision. T. confirm.) THE GRASSHOPPER. Ig3 T. What other dimension will you mention, in connection with size ? Ch. We shall mention thickness. Ch. We cannot give the thickness by measurement. T. Then, what statement will you make ? Ch, They are very thin. T. Speak of the form (shape). Ch. The wing is shaped something like a fan. T. What difference do you observe ? Ch. It is not shaped so much like a fan, but it folds as a fan does. T. What difference do you observe between the shape of the wing and that of a fan ? Ch. The wing is longer at one side than at the other, while the two sides of the fan are of the same length. T. Mention something else in connection with the form. Ch. The wings are curved at the outer end, and the end which joins the thorax is drawn together. It is somewhat triangular. T. Speak of the surface. Ch. The sm-face is smooth and glossy. T. Speak of some other point. Ch. The wings are of a pale yellow color. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Now, I should like each one to mention whatever he observes. Ch. The wings are nearly transparent. Ch. They have veins, as the upper wings have. T. Compare these veins with those of the upper wings. Ch. They are not so large, nor so hard. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. How do the large veins compare, in number, with those in the outer wings ? Ch. There are just as many in the under wings as in the upper. (Class decision. T. confirm.) Note. — It would be well (with a view to future work) for the teacher to pay particular attention to the number of large veins in the wings (especially in the outer pair) of every insect studied. The typical num- ber is five, and in different species the number varies. It is not necessary to give young pupils the names, costal, subcostal, median, submedian, and internal veins. T. What else do you observe in connection with the large veins ? Ch. They all run the way of the greatest length of the wings. (T. gives the word longitudinal, and may again explain, that, like the veins of the upper wings, these veins are really double, having an air tube inside the tube through which the blood passes.) T. Mention anything else you observe. 164 LESSONS ON INSECTS. Ch. The small veins lie between the large veins, and seem to run in every direction. (T. give term net-veined.') T. What else do you observe ? Ch. The folds of the under wings are longitudinal. T. You may describe the position of the under wings. Ch. They are attached to the upper side of the metathorax. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Of what use are these wings ? Ch. They are used in flying. T. Who has another statement to make in regard to these wings ? Ch. They are like a soft veil. (T. may give term gossamer.) T. Why do you say they are like a gossamer veil? Ch. Because they are so fine, and smooth, and soft. T. Since they are so fine, and smooth, and soft, how may we say they are made ? Ch. They are very delicately made. T. Of what advantage is this fine, delicate texture ? (If children do not understand the word texture, the teacher will explain.) Ch. They are very pretty. Ch. They fold up nicely. Ch. They take up very little space when folded, and are easily covered. Ch. They have very little weight when the grasshopper flies. T. When does the grasshopper fold them? Ch. When it stops to feed. T. What advantage is there in folding them so ? Ch. They have not protective color, and so are better out of sight when the grasshopper is at rest. Note. — T. may show children other grasshoppers and locusts that have the under wings brightly colored, and lead them to understand the reason for bright colors in nature. Review work upon both upper and under wings. If pupils are old enough, lead them to see that the wings are expansions of the outer crust spread over the horn-like framework of veins. Spend the usual time upon the written reproduction, and the usual time upon the drawing. Review previous work THE GRASSHOPPER. 165 LESSON VII. OBJECT. To cultivate Perception^ Conception, Comparison, Reason, Judgmenty and Language. POINT. To teach Number, Description, Position, and Uses of the legs. MATTER. 1. Attached to the thorax are three pairs of legs. 2. The front legs (frst pair) are attached to the prothorax. 3. The middle legs {second pair) are attached to the mesothorax. 4. The hind legs (third pair) are attached to the metathorax. 5. The legs are of different sizes. The front legs are very slender ; the middle legs are longer and thicker than the front legs; and the hind legs are very much larger in every loay than either of the other pairs. 6. The surface is smooth and somewhat glossy. 7. The colors are light and dark brown, with little stripes of white on the hind legs. 8. The grasshopper uses the front legs as we do our hands, for grasping and holding things. 9. The middle legs seem to be used when the grasshopper is at rest. 10. The hind legs are used for hopping or jumping. METHOD. Teacher. You may describe the legs of the grasshoppers you have in your hands, mentioning first anything you observe in regard to number and position. Child. This grasshopper has six legs. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. How are they arranged ? Ch. They are arranged in pairs. T. Then how many legs may you say it has ? Ch. It has three pairs of legs. T. Where are the legs ? Ch. They are attached to the thorax. T. Observe very carefully and find to what part of the thorax they are attached. Ch. The two front legs are attached to the prothorax. Ch. The two legs next to the two front legs are attached to the meso- thorax. 166 LESSONS ON INSECTS. Ch. The hind legs are attached to the metathorax. T. ^lention anything else that you observe. Ch. The hind legs are very large. T. Compare their size with that of the other legs. Ch. The legs are of different sizes. T. Speak of each pair, beginning with the smallest. Ch. The two front legs are very slender. Ch. The two middle legs are longer and thicker than the front legs. Ch. The hind legs are larger in every way than either of the other pairs. T. Speak of any other point. Ch. They are smooth and glossy. T. What objection do you make to that? Ch. I think we cannot say they are smooth. I find on the lower part of the legs little sharp prickles on the surface. T. Who else has observed those little prickles ? Ch. They are not all over the surface of the lower part of the legs. There are two rows of what seem to be little teeth on the outside of the leg. T. Upon which legs are those teeth the largest? Ch. They are largest on the hind legs. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Who has another remark to make about those teeth ? Ch. I think they are on the outside of the lower part of the hind legs only. They seem to be along the inside of the other legs. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Who has observed any other point ? Ch. I notice that the colors on the outside of the first four legs are nearly the same as those on the other parts. On the inside the colors are lighter. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. You may speak of the colors on the hind legs. Ch. On the large parts of the hind legs the colors are arranged on the outside in little slanting rows that meet in the middle, and the light brown seems to have faded to white. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Speak of anything else you observe. Ch. Each leg has three joints. T. Describe the joints. Ch. The first joint is where the leg is fastened to the body ; the second is where the upper part joins the lower part — it is like a knee-joint ; and the third is where the lower part of the leg joins the foot. Note. — Unless the pupils are somewhat advanced it would perhaps not be well to burden them at present with the names of the different parts of the leg. The name tarsus may, however, be given to the part they call the foot. THE GRASSHOPPER. 167 T. I wish you to examine the part you call the foot, and state what you observe. CTi. The foot (tarsus) is made up of jointed pieces too. (Class deci- sion. T. confirm.) T. How many joints do you find in the tarsus ? Ch. The tarsus has four joints. (T. give plural of tarsus, tarsi.) Note. — It is not at all probable that a whole class will at the same time have specimens with four-jointed tarsi, as they will not be able to distinguish between the grasshopper and the locust, and will doubtless have many of the latter, which have three-jointed tarsi. T. You may mention an3rthing else you observe about the tarsi. Ch. The tarsi seem to have little teeth fastened to them as the legs have. T. Who can think of the use of those little teeth ? Ch. They are to grasp and hold things with. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Now you may continue your observation of the legs. Ch.' The front legs point forward. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Who has observed the way in which the grasshopper uses the front legs? Ch. It uses them to hold its food and to catch hold of things. T. Who can think what part of the body boys and girls use for that purpose ? Ch. Boys and girls use their hands for that purpose. T. Then what can you say of the way in which the grasshopper uses the front legs ? Ch. The grasshopper uses the front legs as we do our hands. T. Of what use are the two middle legs ? Ch. They help him to hold on to things steadUy when he is resting. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. You may now speak of the uses of the third pair of legs. Ch. I think the grasshopper uses them in jumping or hopping. T. "Why do you think he uses them more than the others ? Ch. Because they are so large and strong. (Class decision. T. confirm.) Drill by having pupils recall description, position, and uses of the legs, then give the usual time to reproduction and drawing of the parts studied. 168 LESSONS ON INSECTS. LESSON VIII, Review previous work. OBJECT. To cultivate Perception, Conception, Comparison, Reason, Judgment, and Language. POINT. To develop idea of, and teach, Description, Position, and Uses of the abdomen. MATTER. 1. The abdomen is about an inch and a half in length (horizontally), it measures half an inch (vertically') at the largest part, and about one- quarter of an inch in thickness (from side to side). 2. It is shaped something like a flattened (compressed) tube. 3. It is larger near the thorax than at the other end. 4. It is smooth, shiny, and rather soft (to the touch). 5. It has a sharp ridge along the back, and two ridges on the under side. 6. Its color along the back is dark brown. 7. The sides are light brown, with dark brown dots arranged vertically. 8. The under side is striped with yellow and brown. 9. The abdomen is composed of eight rings (segments). 10. The organs of hearing are placed on the ring of the abdomen nearest the thorax. 11. The spiracles are placed on the rings of the abdomen, one on each side of each ring. 12. The ovipositor is at the end of the abdomen. METHOD. Teacher. You may now begin to describe the abdomen of the grass- hopper, taking care to keep the usua^ order. Child. The abdomen is about an inch and a half long. T. What objection do you make to that statement ? (Ch. objects.) Ch. I think he had better state the direction in which he measured. T. He may do so. Ch. It is about an inch and a half IV. Grasshopper, with Parts REMOVED. a a Spiracles on Beg- g Shield, ments. h Foreleg. h Tympanum. i Compound eye. c Wing attachments, o Antenna. def Parts of thorax. in length, horizontally. (Class decision. T. confirm.) THE GRASSHOPPER. 169 Ch. Its greatest vertical measurement is about half an inch. Ch. It is about one-quarter of an inch thick, from side to side. T, Who is ready to make the next statement ? Ch. I cannot tell the shape ; it is not quite round. T. Who can describe the form of the abdomen ? Ch. It is something like a tube that has been flattened. (T. leads Ch. to state that the abdomen is compressed.) T. Mention anythmg else you observe. Ch. The abdomen is larger at the part near the thorax than at the other end. T. What else do you observe ? Ch. The surface is smooth and shiny. Ch. It is quite soft to the touch. Ch. It has a sharp ridge along the back. Ch. There are two ridges on the under side. T. You may speak of the color, and be very careful to omit nothing. Ch. It is dark brown along the back. Ch. The sides are light brown, with small, dark brown dots on them. Ch. The under side is yellow and brown. T. How are those colors arranged on the under side ? Ch. They are arranged in stripes. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. How is the abdomen made ? Ch. It is made up (composed) of rings. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Of how many rings is the abdomen composed? Ch. It is composed of eight rings. (Class decision. T. confirm.) Note. — The T. may find the abdomen (in some specimens) composed of nine rings, and will be careful, here, that the children do not gain wrong impressions. T. Now, I wish you to describe, carefully, everything you observe about the rings, each child mentioning one thing. Ch. The rings are of different sizes. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. W^ho can describe them, in regard to this difference in size ? Ch. Each ring seems smaller than the one before it, so that one fits over the edge of another. Ch. The largest ring of the abdomen is the one which is joined to the thorax. Ch. The smallest one is out near the end. T. Of what advantage is it for the rings to pass each over the edge of the other? Ch. (May not know. If not, T. explain). T. It enables the grasshopper to move the abdomen in any way. (T. 170 LESSONS ON INSECTS. may here compare the motions of insects with those of animals differently constructed.) T. We are ready, now, for further observations. Ch. The dark brown spots are on the outer edge of each ring, just where it covers the one coming after it. T. The ring which joins the thorax has none of these dots. (Class decision. T. confirm.) Ch. The five rings nearest to that one have each ten dots, and the rest of the rings have only eight. (Class decision. T. confirm.) Ch. The ring that joins the thorax has two queer things on it. T. You may describe them. Ch. They are two little round holes, one on each side. (Class decis- ion. T. confirm.) T. (Giving fresh specimens.) Examine these closely, and tell me whether you find those holes. Ch. Yes, they are here, but they are covered over with a thin skin. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. These are the organs of hearing, and that thin skin has the same effect as the parchment stretched over a drum. This organ has the same name as that given to the drum of the human ear, — the tympanum. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board word tympanum, explain signification, and give plural.) T. You may mention anything else you observe. Ch. The rings on the under side of the abdomen do not fit, exactly, with those on the upper side. T. You may state more fully what you observe in regard to them. Ch. They are smaller on the under side. T. What is the result of this difference in size ? Ch. Along the edges, where the upper rings meet the lower, there are two ridges extending horizontally. T. Very well, what else do you observe in connection with the ridges ? Ch. On the edge of each ridge there are little dots. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. You may tell me anything you observe about these dots. Ch. They are very small, not larger than the point of a pin. T. How many dots are there ? Ch. There are two dots on each ring, one on each side. (Class decis- ion. T. confirm.) T. You may examine them under the glasses. Ch. They seem to be little holes in the covering of the body. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. These little holes are called spiracles. You may describe their position carefully. THE GRASSHOPPER. 171 Ch. The spiracles are placed on rings of the abdomen, one on each side. T. These spiracles are openings into a set of little tubes, as fine as the finest hairs, running all through the body of the grasshopper. These air-tubes are called tracheoe. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board word trachece, and explain singular form.) T. Who can think of the use the trachea? are to the grasshopper ? Ch. I should think the air would go into the body. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Of what advantage is it to the grasshopper to have the air in its body in that way ? Ch. I suppose he needs the air to breathe. T. How often are the spiracles open ? Ch. They are always open. (Class decision. T. confirm.) 7\ Then, what kind of air has the grasshopper always in the body? Ch. He has fresh air^ T. What does the fresh air do for him ? Ch. It makes him strong. T. AVho can think of something else the air does for the grasshopper ? Ch. It makes him light, so that he can fly easily. (Class decision. T. confirm.) Note. — If the pupils cannot think of this, the teacher will explain, and refer to the birds as an illustration, showing that the bones are hollow, etc. T. (Showing a living grasshopper under a glass.) What do you ob- serve, in regard to the movement of this grasshopper ? Ch. The abdomen is moving. T. Explain the movement as fully as possible. Ch. The grasshopper seems to draw in the abdomen, and then to spread it out. T. What is he doing? Ch. He is taking in air. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. You may mention anything else that you observe, in connection with the abdomen. Ch. I find something at the end of the abdomen that I cannot describe. T. Who can describe it? Ch. The upper and lower parts of the abdomen seem to have sepa- rated for a short distance, and each side has grown into two little hooks. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Touch those little hooks, and state what you observe? Ch. They are hard, and have quite sharp points. (Class decision. T. confirm, explaining the ovipositor, and the use that is made of the little hooks in digging holes in the ground in which to deposit eggs.) The usual time will be given to writing the reproduction, and to draw- ing the abdomen, showing segments (rings), ridges, and spiracles. 172 LESSONS ON INSECTS. LESSON IX. Review carefully previous work upon the grasshopper, from the begin- ning. Two or three of the regular recitations may be taken for this review. The time for written reproduction may be occupied in the stu- dents preparing carefully-written papers upon what they have studied ; while the time for drawing each day should be spent in making well- finished drawings of different kinds of grasshoppers. OBJECT. To cultivate Perception, Conception, Comparison, Reason, Judgment, and Language. POINT. To develop idea of, and teach, Kinds, Localities, Habits, and Uses of grasshoppers. Note. — In this lesson I shall omit the usual arrangement of matter at the beginning, as it will appear in the summary of the study of the grass- hopper. The T. will, however, in preparing this part be very careful to have the usual arrangement of matter, as this is the most interesting part of the work. METHOD. Teacher. Since we began this work, how many kinds of grasshoppers have we exammed ? Child. We have examined one kind. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Who can tell whether there are other kinds ? Ch. There are other kinds, for we have caught them. T. You may tell what you know about the other kinds. Ch. The grasshoppers that live on trees are different from those we have studied. T. Mention the differences. Ch. They are green in color. T. ^Vhyisthat? Ch. That is their protection. They are the same color as the leaves. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. In what other way do they differ ? Ch. The grasshoppers that live on trees are larger than the others. T. Mention any other difference. Ch. The green grasshoppers have more slender antennae than the field grasshopper. (Class decision. T. confirm.) THE GRASSHOPPER. 173 Note. — The pupils may here confuse the locust with the grasshopper, and it will be well for the T. to have both insects, and have the children observe differences and learn to distinguish one from the other. The marked differences will be found to exist in the length of antennae, the position of wings when at rest, the number of joints in the tarsi, the man- ner of flight, the habit of migration, etc. T. Who can tell where grasshoppers are found ? Ch. We read of them in the Bible. T. That proves that they were found long ago, where ? Ch. In Asia. Note. — The T. may tell the pupils the different countries where these little creatures are known, and may read to them of the ravages of the locust in many different countries. He may tell them of the time of the coal-forests where grasshoppers and cockroaches abounded before the earth was fitted for the habitation of the higher animals. The pupils will probably be familiar with the accounts of the destruction caused by these insects in the West; and the teacher may introduce the talk upon locality by referring to them. T. We shall now speak of the habits of the grasshopper. Each one may think of the things he has seen the grasshopper do, and let us see who has been the most careful observer. Ch. The grasshopper jumps (hops). T. AVliy does he not walk when he wishes to go from place to place ? Ch. His legs are so uneven he cannot. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. Very well. Now we are ready for another habit. Ch. The grasshopper sings. (T. will have Ch. try to imitate the noise, — zic, zic, zic, — and then lead them to discover that this noise is made by drawing the back part of one of the hind legs across the large veins of the outside wing. Also tell them that it is the male grasshopper that makes the noise to call its mate.) T. That singing noise is called stridulation. (Simultaneous recitation. T. write on board.) Ch. When the grasshopper stridulates he uses only one leg. T. How does he use it ? Ch. The motion is something like drawing a bow across the strings of a violin. (Class decision. T. confirm. Pupils will now perceive the use of the large teeth on the hind legs.) Ch. I think some grasshoppers make another noise. T. Yes, some do ; and that noise is supposed to be made by the air rushing in and out of the spiracles and striking against a sharp edge which borders the spiracles. 174 LESSONS ON INSECTS. T. "NVho has observed any other habit? Ch. The grasshopper stridulates only in fine weather. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. About what time does the grasshopper appear ? Ch. He comes late in the summer. T. How long does he stay? Ch. He stays until cold weather. T. What do you infer from that ? Ch. He is fond of warm weather. T. When you have watched him in the field, what have you observed in regard to his fondness for warmth ? Ch. We saw him sitting in the sun. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. How many have seen grasshoppers in the shade ? Ch. We have seen them in the shade, but they stay longer in the sun- light. T. On what kind of land have you found the greatest number of grasshoppers ? Ch. On high land. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. What is true of high land in regard to moisture compared with low land? Ch. The high land is dry, and the low is not. T. Then what places do the grasshoppers frequent ? Ch. They frequent dry places. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. We are now ready for other statements. Ch. They eat a great deal. (T. here refers to the destruction of crops by the locust.) T. What else can you say of them ? Ch. They eat vegetables. Ch. They chew (grind) their food. Ch. They make a noise at night. (Xearly every child will know that the tree grasshopper does this. If not, the T. will tell them.) T. You may tell where they live. Ch. The large green grasshoppers live in trees ; the small grasshop- pers frequent meadows and fields. (Class decision. T. confirm.) Ch. They lay their eggs in the ground. (T. will tell pupils that the true grasshopper does this, and refer them to the use of the ovipos- itor. But the locust does not take such good care of its eggs ; it deposits them in the ground without making a hole. ISIay also tell them the habit the green grasshoppers have of leaving the trees at night and betaking themselves to the meadows and fields. T. "Wlio can think of another habit ? Ch. They use their fore legs as vre do our hands. (Class decision. T. confirm.) THE GRASSHOPPER. 175 T. You may speak of their manner of flying. Note. — If the children have not perceived the short, uncertain flight of the grasshopper, the T. may explain ; also lead them to state that the locusts make long journeys from place to place, moving in crowds.) T. Now, if you have mentioned all the habits of the grasshoppers and locusts, we shall consider of what use they are in the world. Ch. They are not of any use. T. Who knows whether that is true ? Ch. They are food for birds. (Class decision. T. confirm.) T. may lead children to see that they destroy weeds and much offensive matter ; may refer to the use the wasp makes of them ; and, if they . do not know, tell them that grasshoppers and locusts were (and are) used by the people of the East for food. They are eaten with honey and oil, and are considered very delicious. (T. may here explain partial metamorphosis.) 176 LESSONS ON INSECTS. SUMMARY OF WORK. The Grasshopper. I. Parts Head 1. Description. Eyes, I. Parts ■> 1. Description. two, compound, facets, elHptical, hard, smooth, glossy, bro^\Ti. Antennae, — two, long, slender, round, dark brown, in front of eyes. Labrum. Mandibles. Maxillae. Labium. Maxillary palpi. . Labial palpi. . Mouth parts Thorax 2. Parts i I Attachments . Abdomen -I I 2. IL Geographical Distribution f Three segments, irregular in form, — j prothorax, mesothorax, metathorax. r Three pairs of legs and two pairs of wings. Shield covering the [ shoulders. Description. ' Eight or more articulated (jointed) seg- ments, bearing apparatus on first Parts -l segment. Spiracles, — two on each segment, ovi- positor. Throughout the United States. Li Europe. In Asia. In Africa. (Mention countries where the locust has been especially destructive.) IIL Habits - 10. IL 12. 13. 14. 15. Stridulation (in dry weather). Hopping or jumping. Deposit eggs in the earth. Partial metamorphosis. Live in meadows. Green grasshoppers live in trees. Vegetable feeders. Cut and grind food. Locusts move in crowds, and are migratory. Grasshoppers' flight unsteady. Frequents dry land. Sits in the sun. They eat enormously. Use the forelegs for holding food. ' 1 . The egg. Three stages of existence - ing, and continues to read until the teacher, for some good reason, desires another to take his place. If a pupil hesitates in naming a word in- stantly, another pupil is named, who commences where the previous one commenced. If any pupil thinks that a word has been miscalled, or that the readmg has not conveyed the thought intended by the writer, up goes his hand, and, as soon as the teacher deems it advisable, she names the 196 QUINCY SCHOOL WORK. owner of one of the " hands up," who tries his luck, but you may rest assured that very soon the thought is brought out, and the exercise goes forward. If the class cannot agree in regard to the thought the author intended to express, the utmost freedom is allowed the class in discussing the matter among themselves. If they do not finally agree, a note is made upon the board, and the subject is passed for some future occasion, giving the pupils ample opportunity to gather, from any source they may, such information as will furnish evidence to settle the point of difference. In the meantime, during the exercise, the teacher has made a note of all the words upon which any member of the class has hesitated, which words go into the list of very difficult words for future development. After continuing the exercise the proper length of time, the books are taken up, replaced in their case in the cupboard, and the class permitted to write a resume of the reading lesson, which is examined by the teacher, and the members of th^ class credited according to their deserts, by the aid of the most beautiful and ingenious device I have ever seen, and which I regret not having time to describe. I would also say, that while examining the resume, the teacher makes a note of each word misspelled, and writes it on the board to be copied by the class. Sometimes an oral exercise is used in place of the written one, but this is seldom done, it not being considered a good test, or one worthy to be relied on, but is used rather as an exercise in oral expression. There are fourteen sets of books belonging to the C primary gTades, nearly all of which are read through by each grade in the course of a year. So, you see, the children of this grade have a great deal of sight- reading in the course of the year, all of which is fresh when it comes into their hands ; and the condition of the class, when it is called upon to read, very much resembles that of a healthy child who has breakfasted at six, and is invited to sit down to a well-loaded table at noon, without having had his appetite spoiled in the interim by a piece of pie or cake ; and, I must here remark, that I never saw children at a picnic, after hav- ing gone beyond their usual hour of eating, show greater enjoyment when refreshments were finally served, or their eyes sparkle more brightly when the confectionery came, than those of this class when they found the les- son they were to read was such a story as most children delight in reading. In fact, I never knew how interested children of seven or eight years of age could become in healthful reading, until practised in Quincy schools ; or how truthful the remark I have often made, " that the best example in reading which can be given a person to study is the animated conversa- tion of an intelligent child of seven, eight, or nine years, when talking upon a subject with which he is familiar, and which comes within the range of his mental development and vocabulary." Children in Quincy read as they talk, and I have often tried the experiment of turning my QUINCY SCHOOL WORK. I97 back to a class, in order to know if I could tell by the .tones of the voice whether they were reading or talking, and in a large majority of cases I have not been able to tell. Q. Have you any other device of teaching reading ? A. A good way to teach is by writing a small word, and then causing the pupils to trace it with their fingers in the air. Progress should be so slowly and patiently made that the child would never imagine that it was doing a difficult thing. From the start a child should never be allowed to do a thing wrong. As we learn to do a thing by doing it, a child could only be taught to do a thing correctly by never being allowed to do it wrong. Care should enter into this work, and praise should be judiciously bestowed. Q. Some teachers, in teaching the child to read, begin with a draw- ing. Do you approve of it? A. No. Any method that makes drawing precede the idea is wrong. Let the pupils close their eyes, and see the word in their minds. Q. What words should first be taught ? A. The favorite words of the child should be used. The first book should be printed in the child's own idiom. Q. What is the limit of a child's vocabulary ? A. The number of words that the child can recall is the definite boun- dary of his vocabulary. Learning to read is learning a vocabulary. Q. How do you manage to keep up an interest in reading, with beginners ? A. Keep up an appetite for a neio word ; so work that every face will brighten up when you say, " a new ivord." Let a charm hang around the new word, and when you say, " Children, we are going to have sl new word to-day, and I want you, to find it, and I will introduce it to you. It is a stranger, and we want to get acquainted with it." Q. Some teachers say they cannot teach children to read without com- bining the use of the chart with the blackboard. A. Blackboard is better than the chart. Chalk and talk, — a limited use of both. A skilful teacher needs no chart. Use script for five months. Wlien to leave ofP script and take up the chart depends upon the ability of the child and the skill of the teacher. If a teacher cannot succeed with the blackboard in teaching script, let her take chalk and print. Q. About how much reading would you have from the blackboard ? A. Work slowly, and have the First Reader read nearly through on the board before the book is given. By doing this we find it is not diffi- cult for them to keep the place. In the reading class, thought-analysis should be the most prominent feature. Q. Why do you prefer the script in teaching the child to read ? A. Script is the method of economy. The child not only gets the 198 QUINCY SCHOOL WORK. thought, but it enables him to give the thought ; the child gets the thought, and gives it right back to you. This is its excellency. Q. How would you change from script to print ? A. Fill up the board with a nice little lesson ; let them read it. During their absence change from scri]3t to print. Request them to read it. They will do it immediately. They will see a resemblance. I will first explain why we begin with script. First, because you can work more rapidly with script than print; second, because the child works from the blackboard, combining reading with spelling and composition at the same time. We keep the pupil at script, say for five months, and the change to print is then made with ease. The way it is done is this : we write something on the blackboard, and the children read it and copy it on their slates. After they go home it is rubbed off from the board, and the same matter is printed by the teacher. On the return of the children, they read the print Avith very little hesitation ; they learn to read the print in a day or two. Children don't see differences like grown people ; they see like nesses in things quicker than older folks. Q. Does the change from script to print discourage the child ? A. Having progressed so far, a change is made from script to print, but the change is effected under such circumstances that the pupil don't notice it. When they have learned to read I give them plenty of reading matter, saj'" six or eight different first readers, so that the result of tlieir studies will be entirely devoid of the mechanism that characterizes the studies of the public-school child. I would not have them read over and over again the same book, as is the case in your public school to-day. Q. Why not begin to teach a child the sounds of the letters? A. If we take in a part of the thing, it weakens the power to see or understand the whole. Q. Why do you use the word method ? A. Because it is the natural method ; the sentence method is also the natural method ; the script method is economical, because while you teach the script, you are teaching penmanship, sj)elling, and reading. Use all three methods ; in them you get the strength of the bundle of twigs. Q. Some teachers object to the sentence method because the thought is composed of words, violating this principle, " Teach one thing at a time." A. A thought is a unit of mental action. A sentence is the unit of language expressed. Q. When would you take up the sentence in reading ? A. When eight or ten words have been learned we have the founda- tion for several sentences. Q. Would you require teachers to put reading books into the hands of beginners ? QUINCY SCHOOL WORK. I99 A. The best teachers of reading do not put books into the hands of the beginner. They show an object to the child, and write its name on the blackboard. The pupil learns, after a practical drill of this kind, that ivords are but names ; when this stage is reached it is proper to give him a book, but still the blackboard is to be steadily and methodically used. This is a great advance upon the old method of spelling out the words. Let the words learned each day remain on the board, and be put on the slates while in their seats ; it is not expected that young children should study — that must be learned. 1 would group ten together, according to their mental calibre, and use the blackboard till they can read without difficulty. Q. AVould you call upon pupils to read round by turns ? A. But very little attention should be given to such an exercise. Q. What is your opinion of silent reading? A. I favor it. A very profitable and pleasant exercise. I would let them read silently for a few minutes, and then take their books away, and question the class in regard to what they had read ; sometimes I would request them to reproduce the thought orally, at other times I would have a written reproduction. Q. What is the most essential point in primary reading ? A. The most essential point in primary reading is to lead the pupil to see and understand the thought before giving expression to it. Q. Do you consider that getting the thought is reading ? A. Yes; you cannot read well orally without getting the thought, and so the first work is to get the thought ; this is done by silent reading. Gaining the thought is the first work ; you must first gain money before you can use it. Let that be your sun by day, and your moon by night. Q. Do you not think that too little attention is given to thought reading ? A. All reading should evolve thought; every lesson should evolve thought ; every lesson should be reproduced ; giving back the thought is a part of the lesson. Q. Can thought and expression be divorced in reading ? A. Thought training, and expression training go hand in hand ; the expression measures the power and the intensity of the thought. Q. Is not the reading lesson the most fertile field for the development of thought and expression ? A. The reading lesson is one of the best exercises in school. It in- cludes so much matter — frequently a lesson contains something on history, geography, biography, manners, and morals — a good opportunity is afforded for language development. Q. Which should receive the more attention in reading, the mterpre- tation or the expression of the thought ? 200 QUINCY SCHOOL WORK. A. More attention should be paid to the interpretation than to the ex- pression of the thought. A pleasant and profitable exercise is silent reading of the lesson by the pupils, after which the teacher questions the pupils about what they have read. One of the most promising results which I find is the steadily increasing power of children to study, to con- centrate their minds upon, and to master the thoughts that are awakened. The love for books and reading is increasing with rapid strides. Books should not be put into the hands of the little ones, until they are ready and eager to use them, and then only when they bring pleasure to the readers, thus keeping the appetite for reading keen and active. The large number of books (in sets of twenty-five), owned by the town, .forms a circulating library, furnishing a great amount of excellent read- ing. Good reading is one of the direct results of good teaching. Q. Why do so many children read unnaturally ? A. We destroy naturalness, because the child's attention is diverted from the whole to the part. The very struggle of the children shows the lack of originality; shows that nothing is coming from the mind but mechanical association, not sense association. Q. How would you prevent hesitation and unnatural tones in read- ing? A. Pupils will not hesitate and read in unnatural tones, if they are taught properly : these are acquired. In order to prevent it, let the pupils read the sentence through silently, before giving oral expression to it. The understanding of the thought is the main feature. By this plan, children will not hesitate in reading, nor use unnatural tones. In the lowest pri- mary grades, sight reading shouM receive close attention. Q. Should a teacher read a sentence, giving the proper emphasis, for .the benefit of the child ? A. Emphasizing for a child is not development. If the child does not see the thought, develop it. If he has the thought in his mind, the thought will control the emphasis. If the teacher reads the sentence, she gets the benefit, not the child. Never teach pupils to imitate your voice or expres- sion in reading. Let him develop himself, in order that his efforts may have some individuality. If you would learn to read, listen to the child's readmg. Q. Why do the children give the wrong emphasis ? A. It is evident that they do not understand what they read. The teacher should so question the pupils that they may see their faults ; but not tell them. Q. How would you proceed to examine the first five months' work in reading ? A. Examine the pupils from the blackboard, using the vocabulary presented by the teacher, which the pupils have learned. Second five months in very short, easy, printed sentences. QUINCY SCHOOL WORK. • 201 Q. How would you proceed to examine pupils in the first and second readers ? A. By requiring them to read from readers which the pupils have never seen. Q. How should a superintendent examine a class in primary reading? A. The teacher should know how many words she has taught ; she should keep a list of them for the examiner, who should test the child's idiom. Q. What should be the test of reading in examinations ? A. First, to be able to read without hesitation ; second, to be able to get the thought ; third, to be able to express it ; fourth, to be able to repro- duce the thought ; fifth, to be able to give a reason for the use of capital letters and punctuation marks. Q. What should be the standard of examination of reading in the lowest primary classes ? A. The habit and power of getting thought before it is given (expressed orally) ; the habit of giving the thought just as the readers should talk. Q. How do you foster a love for reading ? A. A love for reading is fostered by the teacher, who takes some standard book into the school-room, and reads from it and talks about it until " each child is full of enthusiasm concerning it, and all are anxious to read the book at their homes." Another is commenced in the same way, and the interest increases ; thus a love for good reading is created. Q. How does the child learn new words ? A. By unconscious analysis he makes the word the same as he makes everything, or tries to make everything. Q. Do you say that a child should write a legible hand at the end of the first year in school ? A. Yes ; this may be done through persistent work. At the end of the second year every child should write a beautiful and rapid hand, using pen and ink. Q. Should the teacher, from the first, give attention to technical writing ? A. Technical writing should be taught from the first, beginning with the letter " i." Q. Do the children get sufficient reading-matter ? A. The amount of reading which can be disposed of during a year in a good primary school is amazing. Such books as these are simply devoured by children who have hitherto been starved so far as their fancy and their imagination are concerned. If any one cares to test practically how strong the interest of children who are thus taught really is, he has only to buy a dozen picture-books, or, indeed, story-books of any kind, go to some primary school where this system is in successful operation, 202 • QUINCY SCHOOL WORK. and tell the children that he has brought them something new to read. He will probably be satisfied that there is no lack of eagerness about him, and the little people know quite well what they want. Q. Where do you obtain sufficient supplementary reading ? A. From juvenile magazines, reading-books, and selections from the daily and weekly press. Q. Would you have as much oral reading as some teachers do ? A. Gret at what is meant first, and the (expression will follow as a matter of course. Q. Should any elocutionary drill be given ? A. I don't believe in this so-called elocution. There should be no reading by the teacher to instruct the puj^il in pauses, emphasis, etc. The boy should be made to read it himself, so that you can get at his thought. Reading is a means of stud}', and the getting of thought by means of words. Any training that teaches words, and not thought, is mischievous. The teacher discovers what is in the mind of the child by making him read the book himself. If the teacher does it for him, she does the think- ing, and the boy imitates the tone of the voice, and when he in turn reads, you cannot tell whether he has got the thought or not. Thought is im- pression, and reading aloud is expression. I would have more than one text-book ; there ought to be several very easy readers, instead of having one book which the boy learns by heart. In Boston we have several sets of primary readers, and when one school gets through with its set, it ex- changes with another school, and thus the children have new reading matter all tlie time. AV^e make good readers ip three years, and finish the instruction in reading, as reading, in that time. That is a strong statement, but it is true. Q. Are the readers properly graded ? A. The change from the First to the Second is too great ; the child has gone out of his idiom in the Second. A Conversational Reading Exercise. " A quotation ; somebody else wrote it." " Anybody know who wrote it?" Nobody did. "Find out at the library." Again, reverting to the main subject : " Our ships at Quincy don't come up to Mr. Wilson's store. How is it that these boats do, in Holland, come to the store doors to un- load?" "Canals; the streets are canals." " Any other place in Europe where the streets are water ? " Boy locates Venice on map, and makes a dot for it. His neighbor makes his dot for it at Sicily. " How many," pointing to this last, " think this is right? " Nobody rises. " How many don't know ? " Three or four rise, not in the least ashamed to be igno- rant, but evidently " wanting to know." The majority of the class, how- QUINCY SCHOOL WORK. 203 ever, rose to the opinion tliat the first draughtsman had put his Venice in the right place ; and the second one, thus corrected, but not snubbed, made his repairs accordingly. " What should we see people walking on, in Holland?" "Stilts." "No; that's in Sweden," says a class critic. " Wooden shoes." " Any other place in Europe where the people wear wooden shoes?" "Constantinople." "Russia." ^^ French peasants," "Any part of our country?" 'i There are boots," said slowly a junior Emerson, " in Mr. 's store window, with wooden soles about an inch and a half thick." Finally, it was brought out that in Canada you could still see and hear wooden shoes among the French farmers around Quebec. It was not easy to leave this class for the history lesson, but time was flying, and in Miss Dearborn's room already Columbus was making his voyages across the Atlantic. The little girl at the blackboard dropped her voice, as the visitor entered, but was promptly reminded by the teach- er's " I can't hear a word you say " to take up the narrative in a clear voice. In this room, another earth-map of North America lay on the blue- board, but America was discovered (this being an older class) by the blackboard above. Columbus sailed out into space, and the islands were put in " as he sailed," or rather when he came up to them, the track of each voyage drawn across the Atlantic. This was after England and Spain had been put in for the Genoese voyager, and after Queen Isabella had sold her jewels, to the approval of the class. " A priest thought con- siderable of Columbus, and he got a part of the money for him, and the Queen gave the other part." Palos is located, and the date of the first voyage written there. " Then he sees the Canary Islands." " I don't see them," said the teacher : so they are dotted into place. "What was Co- lumbus doing when he stopped there ? " " Repairing his ships." " What date do we want all along here ? " So the sailor took her to San Salvador, and writes October ; takes her from there, goes on to Hayti. " Did he call it Hayti ? " " No ; Hispaniola ; " and brings him back to Spain by a chalk sail. " What year? " " Early in 1493." Here the superintendent, Mr. Parker, comes in and looks on, but says nothing. Columbus gets his reception in Spain, Indians and all, and is taken out again to San Domin- go, while the class discovers Jamaica, and the chalk voyager marks it in place, and dates it. " Stays about here till 1496." On his third voyage, the Cape Verde Islands are discovered in the track of the chalk pencil. " Why Verde ? What verd have we in our names ? " " " Vermont." By this time a party of earth-workers were putting in the islands on the earth-map, following the instructions from the little leader at the board. Not all history can be taught in this way, but that of the United States, especially, gives a good field for it. Even in political history of the Old World, what life and action may be given to the details, for instance, of 204 QUINCY SCHOOL WORK. eventful wars that have changed political boundaries ; what interest to the character and civilization of any people, to follow out, by the earth- maps, and by blackboard lines, the marches of contending armies, or the local peculiarities of a nation that come of its frontiers, its access to neigh- bors, and spirit towards neighboring States, and its commercial opportu- nities ! The earth and chalk empires can gro\^ and spread, and shrink and fall, by means of these pictures under the fingers of the little work- ers, and even old Cadmus, " bringing letters into Greece," will not seem so much connected with the postal service as he now does, when the chil- dren can follow his voyage, and fix the rich country he came from. Going into the next room for the language lessons, I found an arith- metic class, one of the primaries, just finishing its work, being delayed a few minutes by some questions that the superintendent, Mr. Parker, had been asking. I could not judge of this exercise, therefore ; but it was evidently not so mechanical as the New York schools, nor had it such lightning calculators. The points were brought out that you couldn't divide minutes by apples, even if you should succeed in eatmg fifty-two apples in a day; and the lesson was kept well down to numbers simple. So far as I could see, the reason was at work quite as much as the rule. Is considered of great importance, as quickening observation out of school and expression in class. There were quite young children in the fifth primary. The talk was about the cow. A child starts up : " / would call the cow an animal." Another: "We would call the cow an animal." " The cow is an animal." " Every cow is an animal." " The cow is a tame animal." " The cow is a domestic animal ; " and so on, each child making a new sentence, and all enjoying the rapid game of changing sen- tences. Teacher: " We will write the name of the cow. Is this right ? " putting a small " t," a small " c," and an interrogation mark. " Xo ; we are not asking a question, we are telling something ; we don't want that mark." " What then, this M ' ? " " No ; only a period." Also directed, she writes a capital " T " and " C." " AVhat is a capital ? " "A head letter." Now, we shaU write down all that we can recollect about the cow. "What does recollect mean?" "To bring together again." First we shall write the color. "What is the color of your cow ? " to a small girl, who immediately responded that the color of her cow was pure white. Teacher writes " white " at edge of board, making "whi" with the "te" on next line, but is reminded by the class that it cannot be divided, no more than and can. "What shall I do, then?" " Leave the space, if there isn't room for it all, and put it all in the line below." Then again the cow was tossed from bench to bench. " The color of my cow is clear black." " My cow is pale red and white." " The cow I saw this morning was black and white." " That cow is black." "Is the color of your cow red?" "The cow I had was brown." "Is QUINCY SCHOOL WORK. 205 your cow tan, like mine ? " " Why don't I call that horse a cow ? " This was the turn for a new series of observations. " You can tell it by the noise it makes." " A horse hasn't got any horns. It hasn't any bag." " You can tell it by the hoofs." " The cow's hoofs are split." " Did you ever notice how funny the cow's hoofs look?" "My cow has cloven feet — cloven means split.'" "The cow's hoofs have the same substance as our finger nails." " Cow's hoofs always cover their toes." " My cow's hoofs are not perfectly round." "All animals have split hoofs except the horse " was one contribution from a boy who hadn't got his summary quite clear. Instantly there was a chorus, " A dog I A dog has no hoofs." " A cat." " A rabbit hasn't any." " A mouse." " A pig." " A pig has hoofs." So the teacher got out the picture of a pig, to satisfy the demand, holding up successively an ox and a turkey, a dog, and so on, to set the animal philosopher right in his summary, and on his feet again. " You can tell that a cow isn't a horse, by the horns, you say ? " " Let us talk about the horns." " My cow's horns turn outward first, and then inward." " I think the Chinese finger-nails look like horns." "It hurts to saw off a cow's horn — it will bleed." "What's the use of horns?" " To make combs out of." " Cows don't make combs out of their horns. What is the use of horns to the cow?" "Oh, to hook with." "When a dog goes at her she will bite." " She can't bite anything but grass. She has to hook dogs." The various points that were brought out were written on the board by the teacher, as the talk went on, but the main object, to get a varied expression of a familiar subject, in a class of quite young children, was shown in the rapid tossing of sentences from one to another, and no repetition nor stammering in the class. The horses and cows talked about were in view from the window of the school-room, to be sure, but the city child can be taught to get its observations from the car horses, the animals in the Zoo (which ought to be open free to the public-school children for their object lessons, at certain times), and from all the variety of our street scenes. The three hours spent at the Quincy school were all too short, although much of its method was shown in that time. They were long enough, as visits to other school-rooms have shown by contrast, to de- monstrate that the noon bell found children, visitors, and teachers all fresh, instead of drained and dull by text-book and routine. The teacher is the only text-book, and I was anxious to learn the effect of the new system on these young girls and mature women. 206 QUINCY SCHOOL WORK. SUMMARY ON READING. The results in Reading, Writing, and Spelling bear no just ratio to the time and effort given to these branches. Definition of Reading. Reading consists : first, in gaining the thought; second, in giving expression to the thought. First : Gaining the Thought. (a) Through silent reading, — this is fundamental. Purely a mental act. Called eye reading. (&) Cultivate " sight reading " (eye reading) from the first. (c) See that the pupil acquires the power of directly receiving thought from the printed page. (jd) Let the child " learn to read by reading." (e) Nothing of detail or analysis (as spelling, punctuation, pronouncing slowly), inflection, or emphasis should stand in the way of the clear comprehension and expression of the thought. Caution. — Concentrated attention of both teacher and pupils. Second : Giving the Thought. (a) Let the sentence be read mentally, that is, silently ; read to one's self before giving oral expression to it. (6) Do not let the pupil read a sentence aloud, that is, orally, until the thought is in the mind. (c) When the thought is in the mind it will control expression ; the sen- tences will be read naturally. (d) Bear in mind that oral reading is subordinate to " eye reading." (e) With the child, the " unit of thinking is the thought, and the unit of expression is the sentence." Third : Preparatory. (a) Let there be kept up continual expression of thought by the pupil, with the use of objects. (6) Let the transition from the written work to the book be done cau- tiously. It will require only a few lessons to make the transition from the board or slate to the book. (a) Teacher should become familiar with the lesson. (6) Give books to pupils after they are ari-anged in the class. (c) Let pupils look over the lesson for imfamiliar words. (d) Pupils close book, and teacher develops the meaning by questions and answers. (e) Pupils use new words in the construction of sentences. (/) Write new words developed on the board. QUINCY SCHOOL WORK. 207 {9) Pupil^^ look over each sentence carefully to see if they can under- stand the thought. Qi) Pupils read. Everything written on the board should be absolutely correct. First — In spelling. Second — In the use of capital letters. Third — In punctuation. Fourth — In grammatical construction. Fifth — In penmanship. Sixth — In form^ such as index, margin, etc. SPELLING, Question. Does not the teaching in the primary grades lack simplicity ? Ansiver. I advocate a grand simplicity of teaching. According to the present method of instruction in the public schools, a child is told to spell "hat," and having done that, is shown the article. I would first draw the hat on the blackboard, and then tell the child to bring it to me. The idea is grasped at once. It is detrimental to progress to teach the child the word so that it must be mentally analyzed before the youthful mind can understand it. According to my method, the boy learns to write the word ivhen he sees^ the article, by identifying the name of the article with the article itself. I am the deadly enemy of emptij words, yet millions of dollars are annually expended in the teaching of empty words. Q. What should the first year's work do ? A. The first year's work should be to prepare the child for the work of composition. The year's work should be spent in acquiring the forms of words — COPYING — so that the child would not be compelled to struggle with them afterward. Particular attention should be given to the use of words. The method I would recommend would be to write familiar words on the blackboard until they could be written rapidly and correctly by the pupil. There was no necessity for their making mistakes, if thoroughly trained in the beginning. Q. How would you teach spelling, the second year ? A. During the second year's work, children should be taught by caus- ing them to write upon a slate all the words they know. If they had been thoroughly trained the first year, they would never make a mistake. Then these w^ords should be combined into sentences, which might be written upon the blackboard and copied. Afterward, these sentences might be erased, and written again from memory. He would take his seat in a chair, then call upon the pupils to tell what he had done with a pencil. Or, he would walk to the window and open it, with the children watching 208 QUINCY SCHOOL WORK. him. Then he would call upon them to tell what he had done correctly. These sentences should be begun with a capital letter, and ended with a period, every time. When a child wanted a new word, the mind should be first aroused to the necessity for it. Then the word should be written on the blackboard. It was wonderful to all how readily and how perma- nently words might be acquired, if taught in this manner. Q. Wpuld you teach the sounds of letters ? A. No spelling by sound at first ; let them pronounce slowly. Words should be taught as wholes, and when pupils are sufficiently strong, let them analyze the words. Go slowly, slowly, slowly; ten words well known are better than one himdred not well known. Q. What relation does oral spelling hold to spelling? A. The same relation that description does to drawing. Q. How would you proceed to make the child understand? A. Never let a child guess at a word. Every wrong form you get into a child's head stays there. Real teaching is by object ; and if this method is observed, the child leams the words with ease, and can be taught to talk as eloquently and as beautifully with the pencil as with the tongue. The effect must be in the mind of the child, or the teacher must present it, otherwise there can be no mental action. Q. Would you use a spelling-book ? A. I would teach spelling along with reading. I would teach him to talk with the pencil from the start. It is grossly wrong to teach the pupil to spell from monotonous columns of 'words. If I do nothing more than to banish the spelling-book from the public school, I will have done a great work. If I had my w ay, all the spelling-books in existence would be heaped together in one pile, and burned. I assure you that if this were done, they would shed more light in this dark world than they ever did in the school-room. Q. How would you proceed to conduct the spelling exercise ? A. I would have the children at first copy the w^ork on the slates ; second, write from dictation. The teacher should always examine the slates of the pupils, and instantly erase all misspelled words, and write the correct form. Get the word incorrectly spelled out of sight as soon possible. The teacher should keep a list of misspelled words, and call them her list of " difficult words," and require the pupils to write and re-write until they are learned. Q. How would you advise teachers to drill a poor speller V A. If a word is misspelled by a pupil, put it on the board, and drill the whole class in every possible way (seeing that this pupil is giving close attention, and not let him know that all this work is for his benefit) ; after sufficient amount of drill is put into it, let him point to it on the board, ten, twenty, or as many times as the teacher may see fit, until he is able to spell it. QUINCY SCHOOL WORK. 209 Q. We wish to know more about the spelling exercise, — inform us. ■ A. Every word which the pupils have found difficulty in mastering is placed upon this list in the order of its occurrence, as is also every other word in the spelling of which the children fail. It is a notable fact that the most failures are made in words in common use ; therefore, the spell- ing of each grade is confined to the words in use by the children, and those they are likely to use within a few years. Thus the spelling of the words belonging to the.vocabulary of each grade is taught in that grade. Besides these words which occur in other lessons, a large proportion of this list is composed of words given by the class in special exercises, which may be called " word-developing exercises." No w^ord is placed upon the list until it has first been written upon the blackboard, and copied by the children upon their slates. No word developed in these exercises is left until it has, either orally or upon their slates, been embodied by the children in sentences framed by themselves, as a test of their knowledge of the true meaning of the word. I have repeatedly spoken of the framing of sen- tences by the children, and lest the expression may mislead some one, hasten to explain that here they do not " make a sentence," but " tell a story," about the word ; and the child is at liberty to say as much as he will about the word, provided he does not occupy too much time ; the object being not to limit the child's flow of thought or expression, but to afford both the fullest liberty consistent with improvement ; and when the teacher says, " Who will tell me a story about the word cold ? " there is no constraint on the part of the pupils, but they pour forth all they think that shall express their idea of the word, thus : " This is a cold day." " I saw a little girl on my way to school who looked as though she was cold." " I shall eat a cold dinner." One of these word-developing exercises is conducted thus : Each child in turn is allowed to touch something in the room, the name of which is put upon the board. This association of the name of the object with the object itself is a great help. One lady says there are over 300 objects in her room which may be touched. Any pecu- liarity of spelling is spoken of while the word is being written upon the board. If there be silent letters, a line is drawn through or under them to attract attention to them. The words thus developed are all name-words. At first it seems next to an impossibility to represent action- words ; but I am assured that they are all, or nearly all, capable of repre- sentation, which is done either by the teacher or a pupil previously in- structed. The word run is readily represented, if a pupil run across the room ; and at the same time the word stop is suggested. Not only the words, but their different forms, are thus illustrated, as : Drop, dropping, dropped ; walk, walking, walked. In obtaining descriptive words from the class, the teacher has often to resort to questioning, though some- times these, too, can be illustrated ; as, for instance, the teacher takes a 210 QUINCY SCHOOL WORK. flower from her vase and smells of it. Such words as sweet, fragrant, odor, handsome, scent, will be suggested. Q. How do you test the work in spelling ? A. The committee furnishes each teacher in town with slips of paper, called " Dunton slips," and when all the previous methods for fixing the word in the mind of the child have been correctly used, one of these slips is given to each member of the grade, and the teacher, from her list of difficult words contained in the vocabulary already acquired, pronounces as many words as is desirable to constitute a written spelling lesson or exercise, and each child writes the word instantly after it is pronounced. The slips are then taken up and passed to the teacher, who, at the proper time, examines the papers, and makes a note of the words misspelled, in another list, which she keeps as a list of most difficult words. I should have said the first thing done by the pupil, after receiving his slip, is to write his name at the head, also the name of the grade, and the school, town, county, and state, the hour of the day, the day of the week and month, together with the year. When a sufficient number of words have accumulated in tJie very difficult list, these words are redeveloped from the insipient steps, through to the final test ; thus making it almost im- possible for a pupil, in after life, to be at a loss how to spell each word correctly. Q. Do you think it best to require pupils to write a misspelled word a certain number of times as a punishment ? A. I would not require the pupils to write a word a certain number of times as a punishment, except for persistent carelessness. Q. How would you train pupils on hard words ? A. Suppose the word be locality. Request the child to read the sen- tence again, and let him say places, as he goes on without stopping to the end. This synonym exercise should be required, when necessary, on hard words, and let the substitute be made when he reads, showing that the entire paragraph is understood. Q. How do you teach the use of the word ? A. We teach the use of most words through synonyms. Q. How would you proceed to teach the meaning of a word? ■ A. After a pupil has read a sentence or paragraph, I should ask him to give a synonym in the place of some selected word, or to use some, word he has just read, in a sentence of his own; or, I might give him a word from the sentence, to be used in a sentence written on the black- board, while another pupil is reading. Q. How is the true meaning of each word tested ? A. After the lesson has been well studied in this matter, the children's knowledge of the true meaning of each word is tested, as I have before said, by sentences, or stories told by the pupils, and containing the words QUINCY SCHOOL WORK. 211 in the lesson. No sentence is accepted which does not convey the mean- ing. " She is sorrowful," is not satisfactory, but " She is sorrowful be- cause she had offended her mother," shows the desired knowledge in regard to the word sorrowful. This story-telling is often conducted in the following manner, which will be recognized as intensifying in the extreme. The children are permitted each to select the word about which they are to tell a story, and as their teacher calls them by name, each tells his story, and stepping to the board, erases the word, after which he passes to his seat. I observe that there are usually as many words as pupils. I also observe that the teacher invariably calls on the brightest pupils to tell their stories first, and, in consequence, the dull ones have sometimes to select a number of words, and have stories ready several times before they are called upon. IE a pupil is not prepared with a sen- tence, he is not reprimanded, or called stupid, but some other takes the word and goes on, while the delinquent makes haste to select again, and prepare for a more successful attempt. Q. How would you aid the pupil to acquire the use and meaning of words ? » A. The knowledge of the pupil, as to the significance of words, is aided by " learning at least four lines of choice poetry each week." This exercise seems to improve the pupil in reading, and in the use of language, in a marked degree. It is also an excellent practice for the cultivation of the memory, and a source of much pleasure to the pupil. Q. Why is it that so many adults spell poorly ? A. Bad spelling is a product of the schools. The teacher should never receive any careless work, and should ever enforce the necessity of care. Everything a child does should be inspected and marked. There was no use of a pupil doing work, if the teacher did not see it. Teachers were sometimes careless themselves, which he thought an inexcusable fault. There should be no oral spelling during the first year, and absolute correctness in copying should he enforced. A skilful teacher could thus lead the pupil to absolute accuracy. He could not too strongly impress upon teachers the value of this rule. There was only one right form for a M^ord, and if one or more wrong forms were used by the child, they would be reproduced in after life in the most unexpected manner and time. He condemned the spelling-book as a "wicked thing." By his own method, a child could be taught to spell almost every word correctly in three years, but he challenged any one to produce a similar instance of success by the spelling-book method. Q. What should be the standard of examination in copying sentences? A. The standard of examination should be absolute perfection in copying sentences from the blackboard, the words of which (sentences) have been previously copied by pupils. 212 QUINCY SCHOOL WORK. Q. Would you request the children to write sentences ? A. Yes ; as soon as they can, let them talk with the pencil from the slate. Q. AVhat kind of sentences should be dictated in primary grades ? A. Teachers are to keep the list of words learned by the pupils, and the sentences dictated should be composed of these words. Q. How would you mark errors ? A. If there is a single mistake in spelling, capitals, or punctuation in a sentence, the sentence should be mai'ked wrong. Q. What is the value of a sentence ? A. The value of a sentence is the thought. Q. How do you lead the child up to understand the thought? A. The value of a word is the value of the idea of which it is the sign ; therefore a word is of no value unless it recalls an idea, and children are never allowed to think they have read a sentence, if the thought it con- tains is not understood. Comprehension of thought is absolutely essen- tial to proper expression ; that is, a thought in the mind is the incentive to emphasis^ inflection, modulation, and pauses. If the thought is gTasped by the pupil, the expression will be natural. It follows that a sentence cannot be properly read until the thought be perceived by the pupil, — now, how can the thought be perceived by the pupil, unless the ideas which the words are intended to recall have been developed in his mind previous to his attempt to read? " The letter kilieth, but the spu'it mak- eth alive." LANGUAGE. Question. Do you teach language specially, or only incidentally? Answer. Language should be taught in connection with, or rather in- corporated in, each exercise ; aside from this, there should be a portion of time set aside for special drill in expression, termed "conversational lessons." Q. What is the object of conversational exercises, as you call them ? A. To teach expression and readiness ; also to train children to use their eyes. Q. How would you begin to teach language ? A. Do something-, and let the child tell what you did. Accurate de- scription is the highest point of cojuposition. Let them see thought of God in Nature. Give the child plenty of food from which to get thought. Q. How would you teach language to little children ? A. First, do something ; second, ask the children what you did ; third, let the children tell you by writing it. QUINCY SCHOOL WORK. 213 Q. How do you teach language in the primary grades ? A. One of the most valuable methods of the " new departure " is the use of pictures. The teachers are furnished with all the pasteboard, cut into graded sizes, necessary to back all the pictures they can collect ; and by mutual exchange, each teacher secures a large number of pictures suited to use in her grade. These pictures are classified according to their adapta- tion for particular class exercises, and kept in boxes (which are also fur- nished them), each box being labelled like the pictm-es it contains. Each teacher has a catalogue of her pictures, numbered so that she can readily get any one that she desires. These pictures are now used just as black- board pictures have been heretofore, but more especially for the purpose of cultivating the perceptive faculties, particularly the eye. Each child being given a picture, he is permitted to tell or write all he sees in it ; and, to a stranger, it is astonishing to perceive how much more the child will see than an adult, or even his teacher. The child failing to see all that there is in the picture, the teacher makes suggestions in the form of statements or questions. These suggestions are as few as possible. This is " Busy Work." Q. Give us an example of the way you begin to teach language. A. Besides the language lessons in connection with, or rather incor- porated in, each lesson of the day, there is a portion of each half day devoted to special drill in expression, — conversation lessons. It is seen at once that these lessons afford still wider scope for the exercise of inge- nuity and acuteness on the part of the teacher, and are, if possible, still more interesting and beneficial to the children, since a specialty is made of describing accurately acts, occurrences, and things, which is a much more difficult and rare accomplishment than the description of imaginary events or things. A piece of chalk is dropped upon the floor. This is a very simple act, and it is described in a single sentence. The variety of expressions used by the pupils in such a description is surprising. These corrections are commended or a correction pleasantly suggested. I hear continually such quiet yet forcible expressions as these : " I think you can do better than that." " Try it again, and see if you don't improve." " I don't think you have done your best." " Think a minute." All the time there is an avoidance of calling names, particularly in cases of correc- tion, so that no member of the class feels that he is looked upon as a culprit. Connected acts are performed and described in the same way. For instance : The teacher goes into the hall, leaving the door ajar, and returns, closing the door ; passing to the pail of water, she takes a drink, throwing what remains in the dipper out of the window. Or, a little girl being asked to do something, goes to the blackboard, and standing one rubber on end, balances another on top of it ; she then tumbles them down, and going to the window, looks out ; then passing to her seat, she folds her 214 QUINCY SCHOOL WORK. arms : a few of the children play marbles, etc., etc., — all of the class giv- ing a description of what is done. Great pains is taken not to fall into the natural error of trying to do too much at once, which is sure to end in doing nothing. The actions are few, and the time occupied in one scene seldom exceeds three minutes. Sometimes the children sit perfectly still, and write about any noise they may hear in any given number of minutes ; or, they are asked to imagine they are at home, or in the woods, etc., and are told to describe the sounds they hear, or rather imagine they hear. A very interesting exercise, too good to be forgotten^ is one in which the children are told to describe something they saw on the way to school, while the rest try to think what it is ; and if they fail to think, the child giving the description may tell them the first letter of its name, or give some word that sounds like it, till it is guessed. It appears to me that no one who considers the natural results of this continued training of the perceptive faculties, together with facility of expression, both oral and written, can fail to see with delight the comparative ease with which these children will master elements and principles in the broad field of investigation that lies before them. They are, indeed, ready for anything. Q. When would you permit a child to write a thought ? A. As soon as a child can tell something that he has learned ; then I would have him write it. The child can often give a very good oral description, when he finds much difficulty in writing what he knows. AVriting insures exactness. Q. When the children are able to write, how would you proceed to in- struct them in language ? A. Natural objects were the best to be used in the instruction of chil- dren. A bird, a flower, a plant, were all great helps. Two birds brought into the school-room could be compared with much benefit by the pupils. There was nothing like comparison for developing a child's power of ob- servation and testing its knowledge of the language. Bring the child face to face with animals, and cause it to exhaust its powers of descrip- tion upon them. It should be taught to find out everytliing for itself One excellent means of acquiring habits of observation recommended was the keeping of diaries. This induced a habit of care and a methodical way of accumulating facts. Children should be able to write down clearly and concisely what they saw. Besides the educating influence of this method, a love for natural science is aroused in the mind of the child, the benefit of which is untold. A child that loved nature possessed at least one element of salvation, and an influence which would draw it nearer to good and to God. His plan was to teach the parts of flowers, and when children required a new word to give it to them. Accurate description was the thing to be aimed at. Everything a child gains, it gains for itself of its own mental activity. It took a child a long time to see a thing well. QUINCY SCHOOL WORK. 215 He advocated the use of animals and plants in teaching children the lan- guage. Children were especially interested in animals, and a favorite way of his was to get them there to tell what they could about those they were the most familiar with. Q. In what other way would you teach it ? A. The pupils in the lowest primary grades should invent stories, and illustrate them by drawings on the slate ; they also write their thoughts, and read them before the class ; as soon as an idea is gained, it is sm'e to find expression. All lessons given should be in part language lessons ; the language part consists in constantly taking care that the forms of ex- pression are correct, and the arrangement of words proper. The onerous drudgery of learning to spell is not necessary, for children learn a new word when a new idea demands one, and not before. Q. Is not description a good way to acquire language ? A. Requiring pupils to describe actions is the highest kind of lan- guage lessons ; all language can be taught in that way. Let them describe things ; their quality, actions, and uses. As soon as they can easily write, let them describe their little parties, picnics, travels, etc. Accurate DESCRIPTION IS THE HIGHEST POINT OF COMPOSITION. Q. How do you manage to teach language with pictures ? A. Each teacher should be furnished pasteboard cards, on which she shall paste pictures from pictorial papers, magazines, etc., or that the children bring to her for that purpose. The pictures should be passed, and the pupils requested to write about them. By the aid of pictures, the lessons are greatly enlivened, and much information is gained ; and, at the same time, ideas are suggested which are sure to find expression, and that is what is particularly desired. Q. How do you cultivate original composition ? A. Exactly the same thing holds true of writing. Xo human being can be interested in making pot-hooks, or in filling dreary copy-books with copies, but almost any one can be interested in putting his thoughts into words, if he is rightly taught. As a matter of fact, nothing seems to en- tertain children more, after they begin to write with tolerable ease, than to give on their slates an abstract of some story they have read, or to describe anything else that happens to have attracted their attention. Where this system of original composition has been adopted from the be- ginning, the classes soon acquire real ease and facility of expression ; they write as they read and as they talk, — naturally. Q. How do children learn to speak correctly ? A. Xever allow a child to see a word incorrectly written. He never asked a child "Is this correct?" It should be allowed to see no incorrect words. People only learned to speak incorrectly by hearing the language spoken incorrectly. N"o one ever learned to avoid faults of expression by 216 QUINCY SCHOOL WORK. hearing incorrect language given them to translate into correct language. Children should also be trained to know when they are wrong. They should be taught to be certain about everything they had learned. Q. Suppose the child uses "is " for " are," how would you correct it? A. In order to correct the habit, give him many opportunities to use it correctly. Q. Is it not a good practice to permit pupils to question each other ? A. Pupils should be permitted to question each other. This is a very interesting and profitable exercise. For instance, suppose a child should read a line containing the word adventure. Let one pupil ask another to use it. The pupil answers, "I met with an adventure last summer." " What was it ? " The pupil replies, " I had a fight with a wild-cat, and the cat got the worst of it." Q. What does the general term "language" include? A. The general term " language teaching " includes all the various de- vices for developing ideas, as well as the time and manner of furnishing the child with a vocabulary, to be used as recallers of ideas in acts of perception and conception. Such lessons include, also, the various meth- ods for impressing indelibly upon the mind the forms of the words as a whole, as well as the analysis and the synthesis of its parts, including the training of the vocal organs in the utterance of these sounds, of which the parts of the words are to the mind merely reminders. A word is not considered learned until it can be recognized and spoken by the pupil the instant his eye covers it. Q. Do you teach grammar from text-books ? A. No; not in the primary departments, and a limited Tise in the grammar departments. We train them in correctly spoken and written language, and make these prominent at every step of the pupil's progress. We train the children to observe carefully, to think accurately, and to express their thoughts readily and easily. Q. What is your judgment of the general method of teaching grammar? A. The present general method of teaching grammar is all wrong. If you want children to speak correctly, present occasion for thinking ; let them express their thoughts in words, and when far enough advanced, let them read the science of the English language, and they will not hate grammar as they do now, while, at the same time, they will be able to speak and write more correctly. I have heard school children rattle off from memory page after page of geography, grammar, and reading, but it was all mechanical. This is not so much the fault of teachers as it is generally supposed to be. You select for school directors, gentlemen who apply to the education of the young a system that has been handed down from the traditions of our English forefathers. These directors say : " This method made my ancestors great men. See what it has made us." They don't seem to think that this is a progressive age. QUINCY SCHOOL WORK. 217 GEOGRAPHY. Question. How would you begin to teach geogi-aphy to children ? Anstoer. The moulding-board is used in teaching geography, for all the forms of relief, and the contour of the continents. In short, the teaching is objective; ideas are acquired from the object of thought by the children, and they are led to a correct expression of them. Q. Would you require the child to memorize the definitions in the geographies ? A. No. Teach geography, as far as possible, by observation ; when you cannot teach all of the land and water divisions by observation, deal with the imagination. Let them see the hill, slopes, range, chain ; if no hills are near, use the moulding-board. A stereotyped definition of a hill, valley, or a plain is of no use to a child ; he may easily commit the words to memory, and not acquire one new idea. Q. How do you teach geography in the grammar schools ? A. The recitations in geography in the grammar schools are sometimes thus conducted : A miniature wagon containing sand is wheeled before the class, and the subject of the lesson practically illustrated by what may be called world-building. Suppose the subject is Africa. Teacher and pupils outline the continent, heap up mountains in one place, scoop out valleys in another, draw the lines of the water-courses, locate cities, des- erts, capes, until the real Africa seems to lie in little before them. They search with Livingstone for the sources of the Nile ; they push their way with Stanley across the " dark continent." Q. What 2ive the barriers in teaching geography ? A. We, ourselves, lack the ideas, and what we fail to understand we fail to impart to others. Q. How long would you keep a class in elementary geography ? A. One year is sufficient in elementary geography as a preparation for the building up of continents. Q. Should drawing maps precede moulding ? A. The drawing should succeed moulding; do not strive for perfect maps. Use squares or outlines for groundwork. Q. What is the measure of the child's geographical knowledge ? A. The child's experience is the measure of everything he knows. Q. Tell us about world-building. A. Let me describe the work of a teacher : Now', it would seem that every teacher ought to know the one proper way of studying and reciting a lesson on Africa. But this teacher evidently did not. Instead of that, she wheeled before the class what looked like a miniature express-wagon, upon it a pile of sand, and with this sand she began to play with these 2iy QUINCY SCHOOL WORIv. big boys and girls. The game seemed to be a sort of world-buildiiig. For tlie waters were gathered together in one place, and the dry land of Africa appeared; and certainly a veiy beautiful, tell-tale likeness of Africa it was. Then the mountains were raised up, both in the east and in the west, joining towards the cape, and between them appeared the great deserts, and streams began to flow from the mountains, and joined to form great rivers ; real rivers, real deserts, real capes, real mountains those ; and strange to say, those boys and girls seemed to know all about them, and to act over anew the drama of creation with delight so intense as if the original God-image of their souls had not long since been de- stroyed by original sin. And now they made the waters bring forth abundantly moving creatures ; and the earth, cattle, creeping things, and gTeat beasts ; the dry land, herb and tree, all after the genuine African kind ; they people the coast ; they built great cities ; they founded em- pires ; a band of young philosophers, they tried to discover the causes of the desert and of the annual inundation of Egypt ; a band of young ex- plorers, they searched with Livingstone for the sources of the Xile, and they were lost with him ; and so many young Stanleys, they pushed their way through the " dark continent," and found him. Not one child, of course, that was not thoroughly absorbed in doings like these, — and this w^eird play they had the audacity to call a lesson in geography. Q. Should you study a continent before a state ? A. The general features of a continent should be studied before those of a state. It becomes easier to study a state afterwards. Q. How would you begin to teach the idea of a continent? A. First find out all that the child has for a foundation, and from this teach him to observe elementary forms. Let the child tell you all he knows. Let him use the sand, blocks, form, for hours. Train him to observe things in the open field. Give them liberty to see at random ; afterward, lead them to combine and classify. Q. How would you begin the study of a continent ? A. Build it up in the imagination. Let it be the product of the senses. It is a good means of cultivating the imagination. Q. What do you mean by study of a continent ? A. The study of a continent is the framework in which the detail, or local geography, can be placed. The facts accumulate, and gradually the framework is filled in, — it is the groundwork. Q. How would you proceed to impress the whole ? A. The clearness and distinctiveness of the whole depends on the clearness of the parts. The study of elementary geography is the study of parts, separate structures ; the child should see the mountain slopes. Q. Would you teach mathematical geography in primary grades ? A. Mathematical geography can be taught successfully only in the high school. " The pure in heart shall see God." QUINCY SCHOOL WORK. 219 Q. Do you not think it is a good plan to teach geography by com- parisons ? A. Yes. AVhen the second continent is made, compare it with the first. Compare in relation to its physical features, contour, minerals, vegetables, and animals; its shelter, food, clothing, advancement, etc.; its rain-fall and snow. Q. What is the great unit of division of the continent ? A. The highlands, — analyze the highlands. Q. What determines the character of a continent? A. The form. Q. What determines the shape of a continent ? A. Its elevation. The elevation determines the life products; they determine the climate. NUMBEB. Question. How would you teach number ? Answer. Begin with a number that the child knows. Teach all there is to this number before passing to the next. Q. How would you teach number from one to tw^enty ? A. It should be taught so thoroughly as to be recalled automatically. Q. Would you teach number abstractly at first ? A. All the elementary facts in arithmetic should be entirely learned from objects. All rules, definitions, and processes should be discovered by the pupil himself. The end of education (and this is an important thing) is not the acquisition of knowledge, but the development of the mind. Q. How is a knowledge of numbers and their relation gained ? A. 1. A KNOWLEDGE OF NUMBERS and their relations is gained in the same way as a knowledge of color, form, size, or weight. The ideas of of which red, square, large, and six are the signs, are taken (abstracted) from objects. What these words (red, etc.) are to the mind depends en- tu'ely upon the products of sense-perception, and no amount of study of signs alone will ever bring the slightest knowledge of the things they represent. Signs may be learned without a definite association with the ideas that they should recall ; they are learned, in fact, and the learning of figures and not numbers — signs, not things — is the fundamental mis- take in teaching arithmetic. 2. a number cajif be separated into equal or unequal parts. Equal or unequal numbers may be combined. Nothing more can be done with a number or numbers. 220 QUINCY SCHOOL WORK. To illustrate : Present a number of marks, thus, 1 1 1 1 — the sign is 4. Present the same objects thus, II I I . The relations seen may be exjiressed, "In four I see two and two," "I see two twos," "Two marks and two marks are four marks," or " Four marks less two marks are two marks." The two relations of separation and combination are seen together ; they are reciprocal ; one suggests the other ; one cannot be thought wdthout the other is known, either consciously or unconsciously. Therefore, the teaching of one relation is greatly aided by the teaching of the other at the same time. 3. The combination of numbers is Addition ; of equal numbers is Multiplication. The separation of a number is Subtraction ; the separation of a number into two equal parts is Division ; the separation of a unit into equal parts gives Fractional Units. All that belongs to pure arithmetic has for its foundation, root, and source, the simple put- ting together and putting apart numbers of things. 4. Plants and Numbers should be taught by precisely the SAME method. First, the whole plant or number is observed ; then the parts on the plant or number, or severed from the whole ; afterward the plant or number is to be compared with all other known plants or numbers. Grube simply extended the method of object-teaching to teaching of numbers of objects. 5. The proper way of teaching language in number pre- sents A complete and logical illustration of the manner in which all language should be taught. Ideas are gained from objects. When an idea becomes by sense- perception a clear idea, it demands expression. From repeatedly seeing and handling three blocks, three marbles, three sticks, etc., there comes into the mind the idea of which three, 3, or III is the sign. The relation of two or more ideas — a thought — is seen again and again. When this thought is clear, it of itself demands expression by a sentence. To illustrate : supposing the idea and signs 3, 2, 5 to be already known, then the repeated observation of these objects III, 1 1 , O /I7 O, CJ O, ± ± ±, ± ±, * * * * *, thus arranged, awakens the thought expressed by the sentence, " Three and two are five." The very important law is, tpach clear ideas first, then their signs ; teach relations of ideas, and then the sentences which express them. We can express that only which is clear in the mind ; it is dangerous to force expression of that which is dim ; lead to clearness before any attempt at expression is demanded. Ideas groio very slowly, and the most important part of a teacher's duty, after presenting the proper opportunities for the growth of ideas, is to wait and watch. Pupils should be allowed to express their thoughts in the idioms which QUINCY SCHOOL WORK. 221 they have been using all their lives. The early introduction of terms, phrases, and sentences entirely foreign to their minds, such as " divided by," " multiply," " subtract," " taking one number from another," " taking one numbel* so many times," is disastrous ; for such forms cannot, for a time, contain a child's thoughts. The child should be slowly led to these expressions by permitting it at first to use its own words, and slowly make the new forms known by association and repetition. Q. How" long should objects be used in teaching number, to produce sense-products ? A. It is difficult to tell ; it may cease at ten. Q. How far should a child go in number the first year ? A. A child cannot be taught more than ten the first year. Q. How would you proceed with number lessons ? A. In number lessons, I would have the child tell how he performed a problem, and the next time he writes it, and then he has a rule subject to the changes which later experience suggests. Q. Would you have the examples solved without the use of figures ? A. Have the pupil illustrate everything. Have the examples solved without figures. Q. Should facts be learned? A. All facts should be discovered by the child. Do not force an inference. HISTORY. Qtiestio7i. Give us an idea of your method of teaching history. .4 nsicer. For example, let the topic be " Sir Walter Raleigh and the first Settlement in Carolina." After sufficient study, I would request the pupils to write, in a letter to their friends, what they know about it. I would give them forty or forty-five minutes to wTite upon the subject. Such a method would produce genuine interest in the study, and develop language. Q. How is the recitation in history conducted ? A. The methods by which this most desirable result is obtained can- not be given in full here, but they may be suggested. The recitation in history is thus conducted : Each pupil writes, in the form of a letter to a friend, all he knows concerning a certain topic, as, for instance, the settle- ment of Montreal. This is not only an exercise in composition, but in penmanship, orthography, punctuation, capitalization, and letter-writing. The mistakes are afterward pointed out and corrected, and the pupil, if apt, soon learns to wi'ite page after page correctly at first draft. The pen is used as freely by the student as the tongue in ordinary schools. g^2 QUINCY SCHOOL WORK. Q. "What is the foundation for remembering and miderstanding history? A. We teach geography, first, as the foundation for remembering and •understanding history; second, to understand the adaptation of the earth's forms and phenomena to life ; third, as the proper beginning of the study of the normal sciences. We try to teach history so that pupils may form a great liking for reading in this direction, and that they may acquire a method by which they can take in the great leading facts of history. PENMANSHIP. Question. How do you teach writing ? Answer. We begin by writing familiar words on the blackboard, which the child copies as a whole on his slate. Then little instances, in which those words appear, are constructed on the board and carried off, and thus the child proceeds. Further on, the letters themselves are taught, beginning with the letter "i," then to "u," and "w," and so on. It is of great importance to teach them to write carefully from the first. Q. When would you begin to teach the child to write ? A. Just as soon as he becomes acquainted with me and the school, — when he feels at home. Teach technical writing from the start. Begin with one letter, not with principles. Keep at it as long as you please. Technical writing is a separate exercise ; it is not to be connected with copying ; copying is done without, technical writing with, counting. Q. You seem to insist upon perfect work in writing at the board by the teacher. A. Yes ; that is so. Nothing but perfect work. Tlie child at first will pass in crude work, but your perfect work will soon enable the child to pass in perfect work. The subject should be taught very thoroughly in the lowest primary grades. Continual, persistent practice should be kept up on one letter at a time until it is mastered. The progress at first may be slow, but future progress will be rapid. Quality of work, not quantity, is demanded. QUINCY SCHOOL WORK. 223 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. Question. How would you open the school in the morning ? Answer. By reading a short selection; or, by reciting, — teacher lead- ing, using a very low voice, — followed by chanting the Lord's Prayer in a low, sweet, and reverent tone, and by singing a pretty, childlike hymn or song. Q. Would you teach manners and morals directly? that is, in set lectures, or incidentally ? A. I would riot teach manners and morals through set lectures, but by continued daily application of the duties and attention due each other ; for instance, if a class wish to enter the room, I would have the leader knock at the door, and wait until it is opened, and- request the teacher to extend a hearty welcome to the pupils ; for example, the teacher, on the approach of the pupils, says " Good morning, children ; how do you do ? " The pupils acknowledge it with a bow, and quietly pass to their seats. Q. What would you do the first day of school ? A. In the first place, you want to grasp your little pupil warmly by the hand, to let him know that you love him. Then lead him into the school-room, not a prison-like apartment, with high, bare walls, but a nice warm room, with tinted wall-paper, plants in the windows to give it a cheerful appearance, and a desk for our little pupil, to give him individu- ality. Added to all these things, you must have that one great element necessary to the successful education of the young, — a good teacher. Xo amount of adornment will take the place of a good teacher. Xow that we have our little fellow in homelike surroundings, what shall we do with him? We don't say, "Get down in that seat, or I'll whip you," but we kindly conduct him to his individual desk, and impress him with the ne- cessity of order. Not graveyard order, for that is horrible, hypocritical, and universal ; but a degree of quietness consistent with the progressive study-hall. Let the little man talk to his neighbor if he wants, and the knowledge of this privilege will prevent him from abusing it. The next thing to be done is to set his little faculties to work preparatory to devel- oping them mentally and morally. To do this effectually, we take the child along step by step in nature's own course. Q. How do you manage to keep children in order ? A. By good teaching and proper treatment. Q. If you had a class of sixty, what would you do ? A. In the first place, thirty pupils is enough for any teacher; but, having sixty scholars, they should be divided into groups of ten, accord- ing to their mental calibre. One group may be at low-set blackboards, drawing, writing, etc. ; another group at the block-table, building bridges. 224 QUINCY SCHOOL WORK. houses, and churches ; another group at the sand-table, making hills and valleys ; another group at their desks, writing and drawing on their slates ; and another braiding splints, weaving, arranging shoe-pegs, stringing beads, etc. Ten minutes is long enough to keep the pupils at any partic- ular work, when a movement should be made, such as marching, gymnas- tics, and singing. The dull scholars should be very carefully treated with slower work, and never be made to feel that they are dull, and after a time you will find the dull boys overtaking the brighter ones. They seem to retain better because they are slow in getting it. Slow and sure is a good motto. Q. How do you manage to keep order ? A. Order takes care of itself, if you have the attractive power. Q. How would you secure order? A. Order limits energy to the work of the school ; that is, the best order in which the best work can be done ; order is not a question of silence. The criterion is work. Q. Tell us some means of securing order. A. The attractiveness of the school-house, the pleasure in the work, confines the energy to the work. All hrain-worTc gives either pain or pleas- ure. Order limits energy to the work of the school. Concentration of work is a means of securing order. That is the- best order in which the hest work can be done. Order is not a question of noise or silence ; the criterion is work. Play is nature's method of giving work. Be sure to make the school-room and its surroundings attractive. Let the work attract. See that the work is made a pleasure. Confine the energy of the pupils to the work. Let them draw ; the child has a gTeat desire to express thought by pictures. This is a driving power. Q. Do your teachers govern much ? A. No; the teachers give the pupils freedom., and let them govern themselves. Busy work worketh wonders. Order takes care of itself, if you have the attractive power. Q. Would you permit communication ? A. Keep children at work, at work that they love, and communication will take care of itself. Q. Do you believe in rigid school government in the lowest primary grades ? A. The children in the lowest primary grades should not be obliged to toe the mark and stand at a position of rest. Let them enjoy home- like surroundings, and, act childlike. Teachers who " hear pupils recite," " keepers of school," might question the propriety in extending such lib- erties to the little ones. Teachers should pay but little attention to the changes in position, but keep busily at work, making the subject so attrac- tive that the children will be eager to catch at everything new. QUINCY SCHOOL WORK. 225 Q. Are not some means used in government, by teachers, that are questionable ? A. Yes. Continued watching on the part of a teacher to discover the weak side of the pupil ; acting the part of a detective instead of a teacher ; using bitter sarcasm in the presence of the school ; adverting to the low standard of instruction before you took charge of the school; movements in order to express the hideousness of some childlike freak ; taking names ; and a score of petty things utterly unworthy the teacher. No one mean is so abominable as taking names ; the pupils will hold a council of war, and openly denounce such a course, Q. Your school-room seemed so pleasant ; — how made so ? A. The teachers and pupils try to outdo each other in this particular. The board of education supply us liberally, also, with apparatus and objects for teaching. Q. The children were not uneasy and restless. How do you prevent it? A. We use the natural restlessness and curiosity as potent factors in sound mental growth. This is wisely directed by pleasant and earnest teachers. We keep the children busy and happy in using their own power for their own progress. Q. We understand you. But all teachers are not pleasant and earnest. What sliall we do ? A. We sifted out the poor teachers, — the weak ones, — and that is the way to do it. Our teachers are intelligent, and use tact ; able to devise methods marked by their own individuality. Q. Yoar teachers seemed so pleasant and the pupils so happy. Is this general ? A. We do not believe in the stereotyped expressions of too many who pretend to be teachers. Such expressions as " Pay attention," " Stop your whispering." " Go to your seat," " Stay in at recess," " Study yom* lesson," " Stay in and study your lesson," " You'll get a whipping," should not be heard in the school-room. Q. How do you work to attain such homelike feeling ? A. We endeavor to adapt all instruction and criticism to the child's •capacity and temperament, so that he shall never get discouraged, but become more and more confident of his own power. Q. Do you approve of keeping children in at recess ? A. No. Q. Would not too much work produce disquietude ? A. If the struggle to do is too great, if there is weariness, the charac- ter of the work as a whole is wrong. Sometimes the voice produces wearisomeness. Oh, the constant annoyance of a terrible voice ! Again, the mannerism of the teacher, dress, — all these have a tendency to make or unmake a school. The power to do, — singing, drawkig, writing, read- 226 QUINCY SCHOOL WORK. ing, — the work of the teacher, is an incentive; the child sees the work, and says, " My teacher can do it ; so can I." Q. Do you think that little children should be trained to work silently ? A. I do not advocate a graveyard stillness in school. Oh, the hum of busy work ! Precision when restrained is abuse. Q. I saw the children in the lowest primary grades run to their seats. Does not this cause disorder ? A. Oh, no ; this is natural ; it pleases the little ones, and they like it ; and really it is productive of good order. Q. Do you believe in corporal punishment ? A. Corporal punishment is a weakness ; a teacher may do well that manages a school with it, but he does better who manages a school without it. Teaching is an art. It is said that teachers are born, not made ; — we have made ours. With the rational teacher, discipline takes care of itself. We give the children a great deal of freedom, and they work up to good order. Q. What will banish corporal punishment ? A. Corporal punishment is a substitute for the weakness of the teacher. If the will is governed by reason, — not unreason, such as moods, troubles, sorrows, — the order of the school will be looked upon as a means, not an end. The teacher should go to the school-room in good, high health. If you are cross, stop teaching ; if you are sick, let the children do the work. Rational teaching will banish corporal punishment from the school-room. Have the courage to stand up and work. Courage is quietness ; bluster is weakness. Q. Do you give any attention to physical culture ? A. Yes. Physical culture receives attention. We believe that the moral and mental natures may be entirely changed by neglect of the body. Every child not deformed by nature, — and even those deformed, — may be benefited by proper exercise. I would have daily exercises in physical training, and would pay special attention to the way in which the children stand and walk. The change in the bearing of children should be noticeable. Q. Would you give much attention to military movement in school ? A. Just enough to insure a correct carriage of the body, and perfect step in marching. I would have the pupils pass in and out to music. Q. What means of recreation do you furnish ? A. In nearly all the Quincy schools the children sing fifteen minutes each day. This furnishes a pleasant means of recreation, improves the voice materially, aids the instructor in the teaching of reading, and, what is of far greater importance, is beneficial as an aid in securing to the children health. Q. Do you practise physical exercises ? QUINCY SCHOOL WORK. 227 A. Daily physical exercises are held in all tlie Quincy schools, under charge of a competent teacher. Special regard is given to the way in which the children stand and walk. Prizes have been given to the best schools, and also to the best individual gyn)nasts in some of the schools, thus inducing a healthy rivalry among teachers and children that has resulted in much good. Q. How would you manage a stubborn boy ? A. The will should be guided by reason, not unreason. Do not mag- nify the faults of the pupils. Give them the right way, and they will forget to do the wrong way, because they take pleasure in doing what is right. The studies of school can be made a constant delight. For in- stance, reading may be made a constant delight by the pictures behind the words. Reading, alone, may be taught so as to make the child hungry for reading. Q. How do you manage to keep the slates in a cleanly condition ? A. Each child uses a sponge to erase the matter on the slate. All slates are erased at the same time. This should be made a playful exer- cise, and let the children work at it vigorously. Q. What books should the teachers read ? A. First, study psychology in Porter, Hamilton, and Spencer. Mas- ter the subject of sense-perception before you take any other step. Read Joseph Payne's " Lectures on the Science of Education " ; " Lectures on Teaching," by J. G. Fitch ; Tate's " Philosophy of Education " ; Garvey's " Human Culture " ; Spencer on " Education " ; and kindred books. Q. Do not some teachers imitate too closely, in order to do rational work? A. Above all, in the school-room, ask yourself at every step, " Why do I take this step ? Have I a good reason for it ? Am I doing this because I was taught so, or because my superintendent tells me to do it this way, or because it is adapted to the nature of the child's mind f " Q. How would you proceed to teach morals ? A. The teacher should encourage the pupils to confess their faults ; the teacher should not, by w ord or act, deceive the children. The rough- est children may be won over on the side of right through fair dealing. The whole tendency of school work should be to elevate, ennoble, and re- fine, — the pupils should realize that they must be distinguished by good manners, and that good manners are the outgrowth of good morals. Q. Tell us more about objective teaching. A. Next, numbers are taught objectively, and the operations with numbers in the same way. Much attention is given to lessons which de- velop the power to use language as the expression of the ideas which the pupils acquire in these lessons. Writmg and drawing are prominent ex- ercises. The pupils begin to write their words as soon as they begin to 228 QUINCY SCHOOL WORK. read ; and they continue the daily expression of thoughts in writing. Much attention is given to teaching a good handwriting. He started with the primary schools, and made primary reading his first object ; required all his teachers to teach the subject by the objective word-method. Q. Do you believe in pupil-teachers ? A. Yes. You will find in all of the primary grades pupil-teachers \ you will see these young women looking over the work on the slates, of their dictation exercise the day before, not marking the child for errors, but marking the errors of the child. Q. How do you manage with dull children ? A. I would take half an hour each day, when necessary, to bring on a dull child, or encourage it. Emulation, and not punishment, is the power used. Q. Should not pupils be permitted to ask questions themselves? A. Yes. Instead of the teacher asking questions, permit the pupils to question each other ; the pupils should ask such questions as will require a full sentence in reply. Pupils will ask apt questions. Q. Can children learn, under a feeling of timidity ? A. No ; not nmch that will remain with them. Self-consciousness must be learned ; make the child feel at home, before either reading or writing is begun. Three or four months should be spent in generating power, getting the range of the child's ideas, — a sense training. Q. Suppose a child has been absent from school, and some of the work has been omitted, what then ? A. If some of the work has been omitted, — not been done, — do it. Q. If a child has been poorly taught, how would you proceed? A. Don't discourage him and try too much. Q. V\^hy are some pupils so thoughtless ? A. Primary work should be well done. It was seldom that grammar- school teachers received classes well prepared for that grade. The purpose of schooling was to develop the mind. Sometimes teachers made an effort to teach words only, which he thought was a mistake ; children should be taught to think, for only by thought could the mind of the pupil be developed. We learn to do a thing by doing it, doing it under careful criticism and direction, doing it better every time until it is done well. Q. How long would you keep pupils at a task ? A. Pupils in the lowest primary grades should be kept at their tasks for ten minutes at a time ; frequently they work, if there is pleasure in it, for a much longer time. Q. Do you believe in concert exercises ? A. To a limited extent. They may be used to fix facts in the mind, but there is a tendency to destroy individuality. Q. Should primary classes be heard frequently ? QUINCY SCHOOL WORK. 229 A. Pupils in the lower grades require less time, but greater frequency, in class exercises than those more advanced; a great deal of repetition is necessary, and at first the work proceeds but slowly. " Slow and sure" should be the primary teacher's motto. Q. Should each day's lesson be reviewed ? A. Divide the class in sections and have them alternate. The object is to teach concentration of thought, and to avoid stammering and hesi- tancy. Each day review the lesson of the preceding day. Q. Do you think it best for the teacher to mark pupils at each recitation ? A. No. It is mechanical, and nothing more than a staging process. Q. Do your teachers resort to individual criticism ? A. Individual criticism is looked upon to be an evil, as it has a ten- dency to restrain free expression of thought. I do not believe in calling names, particularly in cases of correction. It is not best to make a mem- ber of a class feel that he is looked upon as a culprit. Individuality should not be suppressed, but stimulated. Q. Do the pupils correct each other's mistakes ? A. There was no smirking of the class, no lifting of hands to call atten- tion conspicuously to the fault. The teacher quietly wrote " instead " on the board. " How do you pronounce this word ? " Class in chorus, including the delinquent, " Instead ! " It was a polite way of correction, instead of hypocritical snapping up of each other's slips that makes over-righteous little critics, I fear, of some of our school children ; and it was another witness to the way in which, as Miss Morse had said, " the class brings the duller ones along with it." As the reading proceeds, — " Put in an- other word for ' localities.' " Child reads the sentence again and says "place " as he goes on, without stopping, to the end. The teacher makes this synonym-exercise, I notice, at all the hard words, and the substitute is made as the reader goes on, showing that the entire paragraph is under- stood. Something following about the water in Holland being older than Adam, and yet the Dutchmen cannot drink it, — " Why is this ? Who's Adam ? Why cannot they drink the canal water ? " " Because it is salt and dirty." "Can you think of any other situation in which people would have nothing to drink ? Here it says, ' Water, water everywhere, and not a drop to drink.' " " Caspian Sea," calls out a boy, going far inland for a comparison. Q. In written exercises of the pupil, do you mark all the mistakes ? A. No. The teacher should not mark every mistake at first, only errors that are general, and then explain all the corrections to the class. Criticisms should be adapted to the child's capacity, so that no pupil may be discouraged, but become more confident of his own powers. Q. Would you require pupils to commit to memory pages from text- books ? 230 QUINCY SCHOOL WORK. A. I would not require pupils to commit to memory pages from tlie text-books, without understanding them; pupils should be taught t^o think, and to express their thoughts correctly. Q. When should the will-power be used ? A. When attractiveness fails, then the will should be used ; always to be tempered by reason, not unreason. Q. You insist upon absolute perfection of work. When and how are corrections made ? A. To mark every mistake would be a task ; but this is not done at each exercise, nor, indeed, is it oftener than occasionally done. Ordina- rily these written exercises are corrected as a whole, that is, the errors that are general, are marked, spoken of, and their correction explained to the class, and when the next set of papers are looked over these errors are looked for, and if not found, others are selected and hunted down in the same way. Q. Suppose the pupil continues to make errors after corrections are made? A. If an error is persisted in, the writer is spoken to personally, but as a rule, individual criticism is held to be an evil, as it has a tendency to restrain free expression of thought. Q. About how many- pupils should each class contain? A. Minimum, thirty, in the lowest primary grades ; maximum, fifty, in the highest primary and granunar grades. Q. "\^'Tiat is the Quincy System ? A. The Quincy System, so-called, is an attempt to apply the science of education. It is only an attempt, and compared with what can be done for children in public schools, it is far from being a complete suc- cess. The results of the work in the Quincy schools mark the transition from the old, lifeless text ways of teaching to the living way, which will develop the whole mind and the whole man. The so-called Quincy methods, learned and simply imitated, would produce a result as poor as methods which we are trying to avoid. Now to answer the question. On the one side is the nature of the mind to be developed, on the other, the nature of the subject with which the mind is to be developed. The perfect adaptation in teaching of the subject to the mind is the perfect method. Q. What is the object of the Quincy System ? A. The object of the Quincy System is to transform the public schools from machines to living organisms ; to make growth take the place of drill ; to put life and soul into routine, and make the school- room a pleasure house rather than a weary prison. Q. Do you claim that your system is new ? A. I want to say in the beginning that I present nothing new. I QUINCY SCHOOL WORK. 231 have been accused of inventing a system of teaching. Systems of this character are not invented, they are discovered ; and the one I speak of is as old as Adam. It is an old system, and that is one great reason why it should be universally adopted. It is old and good. Q. Where did you begin to reform the teaching ? A. In the primary schools, — and made primary reading the first object ; then required all the teachers to teach the subject by the objective word- method ; taught reading alone, — not spelling before reading. The chil- dren learned to read without knowing the alphabet. Ideas first, then language as. the expression of ideas brought in much reading besides that found in the primary-school readers. Q. Are members of our boards of education qualified to supervise schools ? A. The greatest discovery of the last 500 years was that of a few school-committee men of Quincy, who discovered that they did not know how to superintend schools. Q. Should the power of selecting a superintendent be vested in a board of education? A. No objection, if intelligent men are chosen ; otherwise, the super- intendent better be appointed. Q. Should the superintendent be held responsible for results ? A. The superintendent should be held responsible, but only on condi- tions that he gets power. The principal should say to the teacher, "I hold you responsible for real work, real results." This condition should be understood, — that the teacher be left free to w^ork out her own salva- tion. The test should be general results, tested by examination, inspec- tion, visits. Q. Do parents appreciate good teaching ? A. It is a pleasant thing to notice the increasing appreciation of good teachers, on the part of parents who have children under their care. Q. Should parents teach ? A. I would prefer not, because teaching is a great art, which few can master. Let parents simply keep their children clean and healthy, and leave the teaching to be done in school. Hearing recitations is not teach- ing, by any means. Teaching is the bringing of new ideas into the mind through objects ; classifying ideas; comparing them, and combining them into creatures of the imagination. All that a teacher can do is to lead the child's mind to act, to acquire knowledge. Rote learning is simply inculcating stupidity, both in pupil and teacher. Q. Do you approve of class criticism ? A. At Quincy, class criticism — something apart fro m the tea cher's — was directed to substance rather than form tions. 232 QUINCY SCHOOL WORK. Q. What promotes regular attendance ? A. Means of stimulating attendance, behavior, and study, outside of real teaching, are becoming less and less necessary. The results seem to prove that the attractive influence of real teaching will render punish- ment and compulsion in attendance unnecessary. The moral effect of filling children's heads full of good thoughts, and their hands full of pleasant, absorbing work, is the formation of good habits of thought and action. Q. Do you approve of requiring the children to study at home ? A. I would not require small children to take books home for study. I do not like to see children burdened with books ; five hours' daily study is enough. The children, on the way to school, should act childlike, but not childish. Q. Would you consider it a serious matter for a pupil to make a mistake ? A. No. I would not permit teachers to crush out errors, nor make a culprit of the child who makes a mistake. Q. I saw no laughing at mistakes. Do you forbid it ? A. No. It is not a crime to make a mistake ; no child is ashamed to acknowledge it, nor does he try to conceal it. Q. Do you believe in courses of study ? A. Yes, when they give the minimum of the amount of work to be done, they are necessary as a general guide. No, w hen they give the max- imum of the amount of work, for then they cause teachers to cram for ex- aminations. As a whole, it is best not to conform to the course of study, nor fear superintendents. Q. Do you approve of story-telling in school ? A. Yes. Every teacher should be a good story-teller. Q. Are books used to any considerable extent in Quincy? A. To this question I am obliged to make both an affirmative and a negative reply. Affirmatively, books are used, frequently referred to for the purpose of obtaining valuable information beyond the possible indi- vidual experience of the pupils. Negatively, books are as infrequently used for the purpose of obtaining that know-ledge which comes loithin the possible individual experience of the child. Books which are usually termed " text-books " are seldom seen in the hands of pupils or teachers inside of the school-room. All books from which useful information can be obtained are constantly sought after by both teacher and pupil, not for the purpose of memorizing the text, but for the purpose of enabling them to absorb the ideas contained in them. Q. I noticed that the children were able to repeat many lines of choice poetry. How do you proceed to get the results ? A. All children above the lowest primary grades learn at least four QUINCY SCHOOL WORK. 233 lines of poetry each week. The teachers, without exception, enter into this with enthusiasm, and all succeed in a greater or less degree. Schools which had accomplished most with this exercise made a degree of improve- ment in reading and in the use of language more marked than the others. And besides being an excellent practice for the cultivation of memory, it will be a source of much pleasure to the pupils in future years. Q. Some teachers as they grow old become cross. Do you think that such persons are fit for teaching ? A. Xo. The teacher should ever be young, and take delight in child- like sports. Be a child with the child, see how it grows, and grow with it. Q. What should a pupil accomplish in a grammar school ? A. When the child leaves the school, he should be able to read well and understandingly, at sight, ordinary reading ; speak the English lan- guage correctly ; write a letter in a neat, rapid, and legible hand ; perform any arithmetical problem he would be likely to meet in practical life ; and be able to think and reason. Q. Have you means of ventilating your rooms ? A. No modern means. I would throw open the doors and windows at recess and at night. While the doors and windows are open during the day, I would immediately put the pupils through some physical exercise. Q. Do you mark pupils for " what is perfect recitations " ? A. All work done upon the slate is inspected by the teacher, and com- mended in proportion to its merit. No permanent record of merits and demerits is kept during the first year, but, when inspecting the slates, the teacher marks a slate which shows but indifferent effort on the part of a child, with a stroke of a blue crayon ; those which show a reasonable effort, she marks with the " silver mark," or white crayon ; and an unusual effort is honored with the " gold mark," or a stroke of the yellow crayon. This quiet method of indicating approval excites eager anxiety on the part of the children. Q. Into what two general divisions do you divide the work of the teacher ? A. Into training and teaching. Training leads to the formation of cor- rect and skilful habits of mechanical execution, as seen in the reproduction of all forms of language, writing, phonic analysis, spelling, use of capital letters, and punctuation. The products of training are secondary and subordinate aims of school work ; most of them are simply means to an end, — means of learning well. Q. What order of talent is required for teaching? A. There is no place, always excepting the nursery, where one is called on for the active display of so many varieties of talent and ability as in the school-room. There is no person, except the mother, who needs 234 QUINCY SCHOOL WORK. to be so capable, so accomplished, so consummate in methods as the teacher. These two — the mother and the teacher — make the scholar, the orator, the statesman, the theologian, the man, the woman. They take the tender, pliable, budding nature, and surround it with circumstances best suited to its individual development. For each child has a nature of its own, and requires special treatment. As the florist gives to each plant the soil, the warmth, the moisture, the stinmlus, the sun, the shade ; as he prunes it at one time, and at another allows it to flourish in wild luxu- riance ; so the mother, the teacher, adapts to each child, according to its development, to its needs, the special culture and treatment suited to it, changing this from time to time as the child changes. Q. Granting scholarship, what feature should be prominent in teach- ing? A. Ingenuity of the teacher is one of the best features of school work. The teacher should be left free to invent new ways of interesting pupils. Q. Is not the majority of teaching mechanical routine work. A. Teachers should not stop at the books placed in their hands. It should be their greatest j^leasure, as it certainly is their highest privilege, to point out to their children the books to read at home, and thus to give that invaluable lesson which is now so seldom learned, — how to go alone. Nothing can be done, however, so long as school remains the victim of routine. Immense buildings, costly apparatus, multitudes of studies, for- mal parade and show do not make good schools or good scholars. That school is good in which the work is done intelligently and with interest. That school is bad in which the work is superficial, unintelligent, or dull. Q. What is the difference between a teacher and the teacher ? A. He thought there was a vast difference between a school-keeper and a real teacher. The one was always at a stand-still, while the other was continually growing. Q. Do not the primary teachers attempt to teach too much ? A. All good things were of slow gTowth, and usually the slowest growth was the fastest in the long run. Object-lessons were condemned as pernicious and repressive. Too much was required of the child, and the facts given them by the teacher were often confusing. There should be no repression or set way of teaching. Q. Do not the teachers make the work too dilBcult ? A. Teachers should not make a difficulty for the pupil. If they make a difficulty, and lead the child into it, and cannot get him out, they are to blame. Q. Should freedom be granted to teachers in imparting instruction ? A. Yes; give teachers freedom to choose what they please. Poor teachers will cut their own throats with freedom ; good ones wull save themselves. Throw all the responsibility of action upon the teacher. QUINCY SCHOOL WORK. 235 Q. Do you hold teachers to a rigid manner of doing work ? A. There is much freedom and ease in the conduct of the school ex- ercises. The children are orderly, but perfectly at ease in the expression of thought and feeling ; and they are happy in their work. The teachers have the opportunity, and are required to carry out normal principles and methods ; and this in all the schools. Q. Should teachers be required to instruct children before they know Avhat to do ? A. No ; don't ask teachers to put anything in practice until they see and understand it. Q. Should the superintendent instruct his teachers ? A. Yes ; the superintendent should give lessons in the class-rooms, and frequently call all the teachers of one grade together, and teach and train them how to teach. Q. How should he proceed to instruct the teachers ? A. Take up one point at a time, — the most important, — and work it up ; start it before taking up a new one. Q. Do you practise holding teachers' meetings ? A. A large number of meetings for the instruction of teachers have been held. The teachers, one and all, are indefatigable students of the science and art of teaching. Q. Would you have long meetings ? A. No ; short meetings, and many of them. Q. Would you make it obligatory, on the part of teachers, to attend? A. Optional in attendance. Q. I saw no mechanical teaching. Tell us how to do away with it. A. The teachers have been trained to do the work ; they know how to teach ; they do rational work ; the teachers breathe life, growth, and happiness into their work. Q,. You ignore text-books. Will not that make teaching difficult ? A. That modern ideas should be bitterly resisted by many teachers trained under old ideas is natural. They worship the text-book as a resource in time of trouble, and do not know what to do if they are called on to rely upon themselves. Yet no text-book, however good, can give what must be given to make teaching effective. Instruction depends for all its vitality and for all its vigor on the life and power which the teacher can put into his talk. Without that, the best of books must be dull to school-children; the most carefully digested course must become mere humdrum routine. There is no public question of more interest and of more importance. The schools do not do the work they might ; they do not fill the place they should. The expense at which they are carried on is crushing. More will not be given until more is demanded by the pub- lic ; and to arouse public interest and call public attention to the school 236 QUINCY SCHOOL WORK. question as it now stands is the best service that can be performed for popular education. Q. Suppose some teachers are not progressive, how would you proceed? A. Put your work where it will do the most good ; help the teachers who help themselves, let the others alone. Q. Should worthless teachers be kept in school? A. If the superintendent is strong enough with the committee, he should weed out the worthless teachers. Worthless teachers are elements of weakness, — only weakness. Many a comparatively poor teacher may be made good, and even excellent, by training and judicious advice. Edu- cate and weed. Old teachers are the worst; God alone can "change their hearts." Q. Why do some teachers fail to teach thoroughly, even when well grounded in the principles of teaching ? A. Teachers often dissipate their power by too much charge ; they do not give sufficient drill or repetition. Q. Your teachers seemed uniformly kind and ladylike ; how brought about ? A. Teachers should be very kind to the little ones, and always be kind. Harshness and brutality should never be exhibited by the teacher. If a child is unrestful, the teacher should approach it and tenderly place it in its proper position. Kindness should be the rule of the school and even the law of management. The children should be made as happy as possible. The teacher should be so true and kind as to be able to break up all rowdyism, profanity, and wrong-doing. Q. Are not some teachers too self-conceited ? Does not the teaching make one so ? A. Self-conceit is a fault. Study to find out your faults; have a critic. Q. Should a teacher blunder ? A. A' teacher must have the courage to blunder. Q. If you had a class of sixty little children, how would you manage to teach them ? A. Y^ou ask, " If I had a class." I wouldn't teach so many. You may be obliged to do it, but it is wicked, — yes, it is cruel. Thirty little children are enough, even for a skilful teacher. Group them ; group the children according to their ability and power to pay attention, with eye and ear being the test. Do not let them know that one division is higher or lower than another ; tell them they are all in the same grade. Groups run into classes. In the second year it will not be necessary to group. Q. Some of the children are so young that we don't know what to do with them. A. Set them to making something, — if nothing more than making block houses. QUINCY SCHOOL WORK. 287 Q. My pupils do not advance equally. Am I to blame ? A. One child has inborn qualities, and needs but little light, — he will advance in spite of the teacher ; the other is dull, and what is light to the other child is darkness to him, — he needs extra drill and training, and the point must be repeated until a sufficient number of aggregations are gathered in his mind to make a permanent impression. m. LECTURES ON THE SCIENCE ANB THE ART OP TEACHING. LECTURES ON THE SCIENCE AND THE ART OF TEACHING. READING. I. Preparation for Reading. 1. Biography of the author. 2. Get- ting the sense of the sentence. 3. Getting the sense of the sub- ject. 4. Giving the sense. 5. Telling the sense. Biography, a. Early life : birth, childhood, youth, manhood, h. Later life : preparation, occupation, c. Characteristics. How TO GET THE Sense OF THE SENTENCE, a. Ask qucstions about the sentence, h. Let the pupils translate what they read. c. Let the pupils infer the meaning of words from the context, d. Let the pupils use the word correctly. How TO GET THE Sense OF THE SUBJECT, a. Converse with the pupils. h. Let the pupils mention the principal object, and the prominent facts concerning the object, c. Compel the pupils, by means of questions, to thinks to reason^ and to express the thoughts fully, understandingly, and logically. How TO GIVE THE Sense. — General Principles, a. All words expres- sive of ideas new to the subject are emphatic, b. Words used in contrast to a preceding term are emphatic, c. All words suggestive of unexpressed antithesis are emphatic, d. All words expressive of ideas, not new to the context, are unemphatic. Characteristics of Unemphatic Parts, a. Any word or thought necessarily implied is unemphatic. b. Any word involved in the context is unemphatic. c. Any word or thought already stated is unemphatic. d. Explanatory words are unemphatic. e. Repeated words are unemphatic. f. Words are unemphatic, also, through : 1. Anticipation; 2. Sequence; 3. Subordination, g. What is well known or understood needs no emphasis. Telling the Sense, a. Let the pupils reproduce the thoughts read and acquired, orally and written, in their own language, b. Dis- 242 LECTURES ON THE Inflectioxs or Slides, a. The rising slide is associated with what is incomplete in sense, doubtful, interrogative, supplicatory, untrue, uncertain and negative ideas, h. The falling slide is associated with what is complete and independent in sense ; whatever is posi- tive, exclusive, dogmatical, mandatory, true, certain, etc. c. Sin- cere, honest, simple ideas, should be read with the simple slides. d. Jesting, sarcasm, ridicule, scorn, irony, etc., should be read with the compound slides. Every recitation wherein the pupil reads anything should be a reading lesson, or exercise in voice culture, to teach distinct and natural utterance. Gradually introduce punctuation marks, one at a time, mastering it fairly before taking another. As early as possible, let pupils copy their lessons in script. Keep prominently in view, that the purposes of reading are to acquire and impart knowledge. Let there be intelligent and earnest interest in what is read, in order to read it well. Remember that children read best what they like best. Appeal to the pupils' own senses of the beautiful, the good, the brave^ and the spirited. Teach pupils to read carefully, not only what is written or printed, but also pictures, nature, — all that meets the eye. Remarks. — The chief hindrance to success in teaching reading arises from the insufficient preparatory training of our teachers. The end of reading should be to give expression to thought and feeling ; but how can we give proper and effective expression to that we do not understand ? Reading should be an exercise in thinking and expression, a very effi- cient educating process. In extemporaneous delivery, our perfect knowledge of our own inten- tion dictates the emphasis that best expresses our meaning ; so, in read- ing, a clear perception of the author's aim suggests the emphasis that is expressive of the intended meaning. The selection of emphatic M'ord$ is regulated by principles which can be exactly formulated for teaching. It is an error — but still reproduced — to suppose that words are emphatic in virtue of their grammatical rank. Emphasis has nothing to do with the grammatical rank of words. The reader should be able to bring the expression of a thought to a focus, and recognize, as applicable to the art of teaching, generally, that "WHAT IS BEST ADMINISTERED IS BEST." SCIENCE AND THE ART OF TEACHING. 243 SPELLING. Basis of Work for the Lowest Primary Grades. (a) If we misspell a word our brain picture of it is defective. (b) If wrong, we compare the written work with the brain work. (c) The foundation of spelling should be, tlien, the reception in tlic brain of forms, not sounds. (c?) In order to retain form in the mind, the closest attention, and the most energetic exercises of the sense of sight must be brought to bear upon that form. (e) The closest attention to form is attained by attempting to draw it. {/) The closest attention to a word that can be given, is to draw it, that is, to copy it in writing. (g) All primary study of spelling should be by copying words. PRINCIPLES. 1. The forced attempt to reproduce or express that which is vague and indistinct in the mind is detrimental. 2. The child should be prevented, as far as possible, from seeing or reproducing incorrect forms. CAUTIONS. 1. No reproduction of the copying at first. 2. Never have one word written incorrectly, if you can possibly avoid it. 3. Work carefully. " Make a difficulty and you will have it." 4. Teach the child to perceive. Trained sight will take in a word form at one seeing, so that it can be correctly reproduced with great ease. 5. Teach the most used words first. Reasons why the Teacher should be Cautious. 1. Incorrect forms and expressions stamp themselves as readily on the mind as correct forms. 2. Incorrect forms and expressions — which produce imperfect impres- sions — turn up sometimes in life's work as unwelcome intruders. If the above points are heeded in teaching primary classes, excellent results will follow in spelling. The same will prove true of all forms and expressions ; as, capitals, punctuation, and syntax. 244 LECTURES ON THE First Year's Work. METHOD. 1. The first year's work (lowest primary) should be spent in copying words, with little or no reproduction without copy. 2. Every word and every sentence taught should be copied from the blackboard on the slate, and then read from the slate. 3. Let the first copyings, no matter how crude and awkward, be com- mended, and the writer encouraged. (They are types of the child's crude percepts.) 4. Request the child to persevere, — the better the picture of the word the child makes, the more distinct will the impression be on the mind. 5. All study of spelling should be by copying words and sentences in the hest possible handwriting. 6. The copied words should be marked and corrected just as carefully as any other lesson. 7. The first year the child should be taught to express thought orally. Second Year's Work. METHOD. 1. At the beginning of the second year mental pictures will be stored in the mind, and pupils may be required to reproduce them. (It is safe to begin reproduction now: the children have been taught writing technically, and are able to write a plain hand.) 2. Begin carefully. After a word has been copied from the board, erase it, and have it reproduced without copy. 3. Do the same with tw^o words, then three, and so on, until the pupil can reproduce the copy correctly. 4. Write a sentence, erase a part of it, and then cause the whole to be WTitten correctly. 5. Teach those words only which your pupils use in language. (This holds good throughout the whole course. By language we mean words used in any and all recitations.) 6. No word should be taught until it is a sign of a distinct idea in the mind. 7. The second year the child should talk with the pencil. (This only involves the reproduction, continually, of words which he knows.) 8. When a word is misspelled, the teacher should at once erase it, and substitute the correct form. 9. Keep a list of misspelled words, and teach no other words until they are learned. Note. — Too much stress cannot be laid upon the importance of care- ful and correct work on the part of the teacher. SCIENCE AND THE ART OF TEACHING. 245 Third Year's Work. METHOD. At the beginning of this year, if the first and second year's work have been faithfully performed, the children will write correctly most new words after reading them once. 1. Require the children to read a sentence and reproduce it. 2. Introduce oral spelling. 3. The teacher should dictate familiar sentences to the pupils to copy on slates and the board. 4. The pupils should be required to use original sentences involving the use of the word. 5. Every word misspelled should be corrected in the Exercise Book by the pupil. 6. Pupils should be required to use words in various ways before copying in the Exercise Book. 7. Give attention to the spelling of words separately and in sentences. (The best test of spelling is writing from dictation.) The writing of words and sentences helps reading essentially, and if it were done for no other purpose, the time would be well spent, — time which would otherwise be given to listlessness or tiresome idleness. Fourth Year's Work. HOW TO PREPARE THE SPELLING EXERCISE. 1. In the Book for Primary Departments, the pupils should be required to copy the words, and sentences that follow them, on the slates many times before the recitation, giving attention to the proper spelling, correct use of capital letters, and punctuation-marks. (T. write words on the board.) 2. For the dictation exercise the teacher should write the words on the board beforehand, and require the pupils to study them, and write sentences containing them ; the words should be erased from the board, and the teacher should then dictate a sentence containing one of the words. Pupils wi'ite the sentence in this book. 3. For the original exercise, the teacher should write the words on the board before the recitation, and require the pupils to write many sentences illustrating the use of the words ; the words should then be erased, and the teacher should pronounce one of the words at a time, and require the pupil to write an original sentence containing the word. 4. The teacher should develop the exercises in drawing which the pupils are to draw upon their slates ; and, after the corrections are made, copy in the book. 246 LECTURES ON THE 5. Keep constantly in mind the three steps through which the pupils must pass — the copying step, the memory step, and the mastery step — in spelling. 6. Let eveiy exercise bear upon the correct use of language. 7. grve undivided attention to the thought and its proper expression. Directions for the Spelling Exercise. 1. Use pen and ink if the pupils are provided with desks. 2. Require the pupils to write the words neatly as soon as pronounced. 3. Construct each letter according to the models given. 4. Pupils check missj)elled words. 5. Permit no erasures, insertions, or writing over of letters or words. 6. Pupils write the corrected words at the bottom of the page. 7. When a pupil fails to write a word, a blank should be left. 8. All blanks, letters, or words erased, inserted, written over, or wrifc- ten illegibly, should be counted as errors. 9. Pronounce the words only once. 10. Ascertain if all the members of the class have faithfully attended to the checking and the rewriting of the incorrect words. 11. Have occasional exercises — say twice a week — in dictation. Dic- tate sentences once only. Mark wrong, if there is a single mistake in punctuation, capitals, or words. Use blank speller, or slips of paper. Remarks. — The incorrect words can be corrected by the pupils as a part of the same exercise, or reserved for further study and drill, and re- written as a special exercise. The spelling blanks should be kept in the possession of the teacher. LOCAL GEOGRAPHY. Preparatory. SUGGESTIONS. (a) In teaching beginners, general observation is not sufficient. (6) Knowledge must descend to minute detail. (c) Lead the pupil to observe the natural scenery about him, and acquaint him with it. (d) Begin to obsei-ve these at the point where he is most familiar. (e) So teach that the terms will cease to be mere words, and offer him realities. (/) Put the child in possession of the terms by which these are de- noted. SCIENCE AND THE ART OF TEACHING. 247 River 1. Banks 2. Water 3. Channel 4. Course Steep Sloping Flat Dark Clear Level Sloping Pebbly Rocky ^ Earthy. > Rocky. ) Grassy, i Deep. 1 Shallow, j Flowing. J Eddying. I Broad. I Narrow. j 1. On the slope of the country. I 2. On mountain spurs. .5. Bed Head Source Rise Length - Mouth. Cataract. II Sandy. Pebbly. Rocky. Continuous. Intermittent. Smooth Rough Springs Lakes Glaciers 1. Configuration. 2. Area. 3. Character of the soil. Deposits, deltas, basin. Precipice. So teach geography that it may be understood by the children, so that it may interest them and remain with them, and form the subject of future thought. HOW TO TEACH LOCAL GEOGRAPHY. 1. Talk with the children rather than to them. 2. Present the idea by illustration rather than by description*. 3. Show the objects in nature, or have models of them, or pictures of them. Remarks. — Knowledge is not power to the child, if it be abstract. Every class of facts, and every principle involved, should have illustration from the wide range of nature. Every sense and power of the child can be grasped and applied in the teaching of geography. I. Elevations of Land II. Parts of Hills and Mountains . . . . GEOGRAPHY. Study of Hills and Mountains. f (a) Hills, — high or low. (.) Mountai„s||^^^;Xtg,-} o"'fl (a) Base. (h) Foot. (c) Summit. (d) Side, slope, or slant. 248 LECTURES ON THE III. Construction of Hills and Moun- tains (a) Single (b) Group (c) Chain (d) liange (e) Peak I (/) Systems J A hill or mountain may be bare oy< covered with " Grass. Heath. Shrubs. Trees. Snow. IV. Forms of Land Sur- face (a) Level or flat, — plain. (b) Uneven or undulating, caused by the elevations and depressions, forming valleys. (c) Plateau. ( Pelat' ' -J ^' -^^^^ respect to other bodies of land. 1. Latitude and Longitude. With resp With respect to other bodies of water 1. Indentations 2. Projections 1. General form. 2. Coast outline 1. Northern Coast. 2. Eastern Coast. 3. Southern Coast. _ 4. Western Coast. 1. Relative, as compared with other bodies of land. 2. Length and width. 3. ui.rea. 1 ZT- 7 /^ 7„ V 1- Plateaus 1. Highlands | ^ Mountains 2. Lowlands 1. Lakes 2. Rivers *lains. 'alleys. ( 1. PL I 2. Yt < 1. Salt > , TT 12. Fresh 1 1- ^^^^ 1. Systems 2. Main streams 3. Tributaries 4. Useful for 1. Systems. 2. Ranges. 3. Peaks. ( 1. Asyieldingfish. 12. Form lavigation. r Length, size, and -< description of par- ( ticular rivers. 'igation. -power. Yielding fish. (1. Navigj ^2. Water- (3. Yieldii 254 LECTURES ON THE VI. Climate VII. Vegeta- tion . Vni. Animals 1. Temperature. 2. Moisture ( 1. 8. Salubrity \ 2. Healthf ulness, or Unhealthfulness {i; "1. Latitude. 2. Elevation. 3. Presence and di- rection of moun- tain ranges. 4. Nearness to the ocean. 5. Land and sea winds. 1. Of the ToiTid Zone "] 2. Of the Temperate Zone \ Wild and cultivated. 3. Of the Frigid Zone J 1. Of the Torrid Zone Of the Temperate Zone Of the Frigid Zone Wild and domestic. HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY. I. Races of Peo- ple . . . . L Primary 2. Secondary II. Social and Intellectual Condition III. Civil and So- cial Organiza- tions .... ' 1. Governments ^ 2. Religions 1. White,— European" 2. Yellow, — Asiatic 3. Black, — African \. Indian 2. Malayan 3. Australian 1. Savage. 2. Nomadic. 3. Civilized. 1. Republican. Regions y inhabited by each. 2. Monarchical [l:Ab3^'^f 1. Christian. 2. Jewish. 3. Mohammedan. 4. Other. IV. Industries L Leading 1. Agriculture, includ- ing grazing 2. Mining Occupa- < 3. Manufacturing, in- tions . V. Internal Improvements Natural re- gions adap- ted to the pursuit of each. eluding lumbering 4. Commerce \ \ ^."^'^'-'l: ( 2. Domestic. 9 fi.-f- . J 1- Manufacturing ( Location and nat- i les ■{ 2_ Commercial ( ural advantages. 1^: Local railroads. Trunk lines. L Railroads 2. Canals. 3. Navigation, on lakes and rivers. SCIENCE AND THE ART OF TEACHING. 255 ARITHMETIC. The study of arithmetic should secure the following results : — First. Mental Discipline. Second. Accuracy and Expertness. Third. Preparation for Business. PRINCIPLES. 1. The pupil must acquire accurate and clear perceptions. (a) The teacher must have accurate perceptions and conceptions of the truth. (b) Nothing should be presented beyond the comprehension of the pupil. (c) The teacher should present all operations and principles objec- tively. (rf) More attention should be given to the study of processes than to analysis, — computation comes frst, then calculation. After pupils become expert in computation, greater attention should be given to calculation, — the thinking. 2. The teacher must have a definite plan of doing the work. (a) Vague, indefinite, and incorrect perceptions of the real, the true, produce mental disorder and weakness. (6) Begin with the simple, and couple it with the difficult. (c) Insist upon the correct reading and understanding of the problem. 3. See that the pupil's attention is concentrated, — mind is developed and strengthened in proportion to the effort PUT forth. (a) The teacher must avoid doing the pupil's work, — mental growth is attained through self-e^ort. (&) Arouse every power of the mind to its fullest activity. GENERAL SUGGESTIONS. 1. See that facts are j)i"esented to the mind through the same sense. 2. Associate the sum with the characters, rather than with the name of the characters. 3. The assistance rendered by the teacher should be indirect, — let it be done through questioning. 4. See that the process (the operation) is not confounded with the reasoning for performing the operation. 256 LECTURES ON THE 5. The processes of arithmetic are both analytic and synthetic, hence analysis precedes synthesis. 6. Accustom the pupil to state each point clearly, and in logical order. 7. In the grammar departments require pupils to write out the analy- sis of two or three problems daily. 8. After each fact has been fully developed, review, review, review (par- ticularly in the primary classes). 9. See that the pupils acquire a correct and practical knowledge of business language and business practice. Hold the pupil personally responsible for correct work. Note. — See that the tables of decades and of decimations are taught thoroughly in every grade. Take five or seven minutes each day in gene- ral drill. Make the pupils accurate and expert in mathematical computa- tion and calculation. TABLE OF DECADES AND OF DECIMATIONS. I. Ist. Dec'n. Decade. 0, 2d. Dec'n. 1, 3d. Dec'n. 9 **> 4th. Dec'n, 3, 5th. 6th. Dec'n. Dec'n. 4, 5, 7th. Dec'n. 6, 8th. Dec'n. 7, 9th. Dec'n. 8, lOth. Dec'n. 9, II. " 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, III. « 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, IV. " 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, V. " 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, VI. " 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, VII. " 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, nil. " 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, IX. " 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, X. " 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, XI. " 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109. LANGUAGE LESSONS. The primary object of education in language is to learn to use lan- guage. The use of lanugage is an art; and we learn the art by imitation and practice. The pupil who has alw^ays heard good language will use good language ; his ability to use good language does not depend upon his knowledge of grammar, but upon his having heard good English, and read it. The fundamental principle of language lessons is, that pupils are to be taught the practical use of language by the use of language, rather than by a study of its principles. They must learn the art, and, through the art, come up to the science. SCIENCE AND THE ART OF TEACHING. 257 [We do not wisli to condemn the study of grammar, — the teacher should understand it. Technical grammar is the study of the science of language, and it belongs in the advanced course.] The object of language lessons is to teach the art of correct expression ; of grammar, to teach the science of language. The language lessons should prepare for, and lead up to grammar. According to this principle, a knowledge of language should precede a knowledge of grammar. Suitable for Beginners. DIRECTIONS. 1. 1. Require pupils to write the names of objects. 2. Require pupils to write the names of parts of objects. 3. Require pupils to write the names of qualities of objects. 4. Require pupils to name the uses of objects. II. 1. Require pupils to give a name that will apply to everything which they can perceive (matter) . 2. Require pupils to classify the different kinds of matter (mineral, vegetable, animal). 3. Require pupils to name things that belong to the different classes. III. 1. Require pupils to write the names of objects with the name of action, forming a sentence. 2. Lead pupils to an idea of a sentence, as asserting something of something. 3. Develop telling or declarative sentence, asking or interrogative sentence, commanding or imperative sentence, and feeling or exclaiming sentence. 4. Teach them that each sentence begins with a capital letter ; that a declaration or imperative sentence ends with a period ; an interrogative sentence with an interrogation point ; and an exclaiming sentence with an exclamation point. (Drill them in writing sentences, and correcting sentences which violate these rules.) 5. Have them write sentences introducing adjectives, adverbs, pro- nouns, etc. (The teacher will give the words and have them form sen- tences. Of course the pupils are not to know anything about these words as parts of speech.) 6. Show the difference between particular and common names, and teach the use of capitals for particular names. Teach also the use of capitals I and O. (Have them write exercises involving these things, and correct sentences which violate their correct use.) 258 LECTURES ON THE IV. 1. Give two wojds, and have pupils write sentences containing them ; give three words to put in a sentence ; four words, etc. (Let the pupils select words which they are to write in a sentence.) 2. Give pupils sentences, with words omitted, and require them to insert the correct words. (The teacher should select and prepare a large list of such sentences, write them on the board, or take a copy from the copygram.) V. 1. Present an object to the pupils ; let them examine it and de- scribe it. (Let them describe one another.) 2. Present objects to the pupils ; let them compare and tell the re- semblances and differences. 3. Let the pupils look at a picture and tell what they see in it ; repro- duce it orally and written. (The teacher should call the attention of the pupils to the objects, number, appearances, etc., if unnoticed by pupils.) 4. Tell or read something ; have them repeat what you have said in their own words, and then write it out on their slates or on paper. (They will see that writing a composition is merely telling in writing ■what they know and can tell in talk.) 5. Call out the pupil's knowledge of an object by asking questions about it, and then have him write down what has been said, in full sen- tences. (Ask questions about a sponge, about dew, rain, water, snow, winds, habits of animals, plants, etc.) VI. 1. Teach the use of the hyphen, as connecting compound words, and also its use at the end of a line, in connecting one syllable with the syllable beginning the next line. 2. Teach the use of the comma, as placed after the name addressed, and also as connecting three words of a series ; as, "Jane, come here ; " as, " He saw a boy, a girl, and a man." 3. Teach the use of the period after abbreviations, and drill pupils on the common abbreviations; as, Mr., Dr., Rev., Hon., Esq., LL.D., Ph. D. 4. Teach the use of quotation marks. 5. Teach the use of a colon before a quotation, as follows, As he said : " Mr. Speaker, the gentleman is mistaken." 6. Teach the use of the apostrophe in denoting possession, as, Min- nie's book ; also its use in denoting omission of letters, as, ne'er, 'tis, etc. VII. 1. Give related simple sentences, and require pupils to unite them into compound sentences. Thus, "Mary is studying," "Mary is walking," changed into " Mary is studying and walking." 2. Give the pupils a proverb, and have them write out an explanation. " It is hard for an empty bag to stand upright." " Birds of a feather flock together." " A rolling stone gathers no moss." SCIENCE AND THE ART OF TEACHING. 259 3. Require them to express sentences in different ways; as, "The birds sing sweetly in the spring of tlie year," changed to " In the spring of the year, the birds sing sweetly." 4. Change poetry into prose. (Write a stanza on the board, and have them express the same thing in prose.) 5. Exercise them daily on misused words and in correct construc- tions ; as, " I done it ; " " Me and her done it ; " " I and John saw it ; " " Let Mary and I go out ; " " Between you and I." VIII. 1. Teach them how to write a letter; as, the heading, address, salutation, introduction, body of the letter, close, superscription, punctua- tion, and the correct use of capital letters. 2. Require pupils to write letters of different kinds, as business let- ters, social letters, notes of invitation, notes of acceptance, notes of con- dolence, excuses for absence, receipts for money, due bills, notes, etc. (It is a good plan not to receive an excuse from a pupil unless it is written in his own hand ; it will teach him how to construct sentences.) 3. Let them write letters to the teacher, to the trustee, to a friend, to their parents, schoolmates, etc. (Teacher must give pupils the correct form as a model, and drill thoroughly upon it.) 4. Have them write little newspaper paragraphs, as an account of a fire, of a party, of a runaw^ay, of a railroad accident, etc. 5. Encourage the pupils to commit to memory and recite choice selec- tions of prose or poetry. (This will develop a literary taste.) 6. See that the pupils are interested, and give suitable subjects, and require them to write short compositions. Encourage the timid. Lead them to write naturally. In the outlines presented, the teacher should make the exercises very complete. Do not be afraid of having too much under each head. CAUTIONS. 1. Make haste slowly in language. 2. Give variety to the lessons. 3. Let every exercise bear upon the correct use of language. 4. Do not place a text-book in language in the hands of pupils at first. 5. Correct kindly and gently, and strive to make them love to write. What to Avoid in the Use of Words. 1. Avoid ignorance., a. Common errors, b. Ungrammatical expres- sions, c. Incorrect articulation. 2. Vulgarity. " Immodest words admit of no defence, For want of decency is want of sense." 3. Affectation. 260 LECTURES ON THE How TO Cultivate the Command of Words. 1. Constant use of the dictionary. 2. Make words a special study. 3. Read only best authors. 4. Seek the company of the cultured. 5. Have good thoughts to express. 6. Study synonyms. 7. Translating from one language to another. " I had rather speak five words with my understanding, that by my voice I might teach others also, than ten thousand words in an unknown tongue." — ! Cor. 14:19. COMPOSITION Definition. — Composition is the art of expressing our ideas and thoughts in words. Importance. — a. It prepares pupils for success in life's work. h. It affords valuable culture to the mind. c. It cultivates exactness in expres- sion, d. It becomes a source of the most refined and exquisite pleasure. Errors in Teaching Composition. — a. Subjects too difficult and abstract, h. Requiring pupils to write without any instruction on the subject, c. Making it a monthly exercise instead of a daily one. d. Put- ting words together mechanically, without any idea of their meaning, e. Performing the work as an allotted task, without any interest. / Re- quiring pupils to express ideas on a subject when they have no ideas to express. Sources of Material. — 1. Observation. 1. Reading. 3. Discus- sion. 4. Reflection. Observation. — a. Objects of the material world, h. Causes, effects, etc. c. Experience of others. Reading. — a. To obtain facts, ideas, sentiments, b. To obtain pro- ductions from master minds, c. To cull fine passages, write them, and commit to memory, d. To take note of interesting and important facts. e. To familiarize yourself with authors, their writings, opinions, judg- ments. /. To digest and assimilate, — make the thoughts your own. g. To gain seed-thoughts that will produce other thoughts in abundance. (Read extensively, read and re-read, write and re-write,^ Discussion. — a. To excite interest, b. To break up artificial training. c. To cultivate independence, d. To develop originality and individu- ality, e. To dissipate stupidness and insipidity. /. To teach pupils to think for themselves. Reflection. — a. To think in order to learn to write, b. To evolve thoughts for ourselves, c. To cultivate a reflective and creative cast of mind. d. To inquire into the reason of things ; to search for causes and effects. SCIENCE AND THE ART OF TEACHING. 261 Writing a Composition. — 1. Subject. 2. Matter. 3. Analysis. 4. Amplification. Subject. — a. The teacher assigns the subject to the pupil, h. Pupil select and insert topics for themselves, c. Subject should be adapted. Analysis. — a. Make an outline. I. Let it be logical. Amplification. — a. Present facts in an orderly manner, h. Sentences clear and correct, c. Style suited to the subject. First. — Introduction. Second. — Subject Matter. Third. — ClosQ. General Directions. — 1. Require pupils to use paper of uniform size. 2. The subject should be written at the top of the page on the mid- dle of the first line. 3. Leave a blank between the heading and the com- position. 4. Leave a margin on the left-hand side of the page, to allow for corrections. 5. The first line of each paragraph should be indented about one inch. 6. Writing neat and legible. 7. Signature on a line below the close of the composition, near the right-hand edge. 8. Compo- sition folded neatly. 9. The name of writer, the subject, and date on the "back of the composition. Corrections. — 1. Promptly handed in on time, for corrections. 2. Corrections, as a rule, to be made by the teacher. 3. Corrections include orthography, punctuation, use of capitals, hyphens, apostrophes, construc- tion of sentences, etc. (Severe criticism at first may discourage young writers.) 4. Indicate errors rather than correct them. 5. Draw a line under each error, and indicate the error by a symbol in the margin. 6. Pupils copy in a composition book the corrected composition. Reading Compositions. — a. Let the compositions be read by one of the pupils, h. Appoint an editor, and have the composition copied into a paper, to be read before the school, c. Let the paper contain items of news, amusing incidents, wit, humor, poetry, advertisements, notices, mai-riages, etc. d. Let the school be resolved into a literary society, with regular officers, progi-amme of exercises consisting of inaugural address, orations, recitations, essays, answers to referred questions, etc. WORDS. "Like words made magical by poets dead, Wherein the music of all meaning is The sense hath garnered, or the soul divined; They mingle with our life's ethereal part, Sweetening and gathering sweetness evermore, By Beauty's franchise, disenthralled of 4ime." — Lowell's CathedraL 262 LECTURES ON THE What does Emerson call words? Ans. "Words are fossil poetry." Wliat does Mirabeau say of words? Ans. "Words are things." What author has expanded the thought into a volume ? Ans. William Mathew, Richard Grant White. What is Wordsworth's definition of a word? What objection to saying that a word is the vehicle of thought ? What play in Shakespeare contains these words : " I thank thee, Jew, for teach- ing me that word " ? Ans. Merchant of Venice, Act IV., Sc. 1. " Not a word ? Not one to throw at a dog." Shakespeare, As You Like It, Act I., Sc. 3. By w hom w- ere these words used : " But yesterday the word of Caesar might have stood against the world"? Ans. By Mark Anthony in reply to Brutus, in Julius Ccesar, Act III., Sc. 2. What is Hamlet's advice on gesture? Ans. "Suit the action to the word, the word to the action." Which is the more important, the study of words or of thoughts ? Should we be careful of our words ? . " O many a shaft, at random sent, Finds mark the archer little meant ; And many a word at random spoken, May soothe or wound a heart that's broken." " Words are living powers." " AVords bear the stamp of greatness, or of degradation, of glory or shame." " Words are mighty, words are living ; Serpents, with their venomous stings, Or bright angels, crowding round us With heaven's light upon their wings ; Every word has its own spirit, True or false, that never dies ; Every word man's lips have uttered Echoes in God's skies." Which are of greater value, words or deeds ? Ans. " Words are wo- men, deeds are men." — Herbert. "Words are the daughters of men, but things the sons of God."— Dr. Johnson. What character in Shakespeare exclaims, " AVords, words, words ! " ? Ans. Hamlet. AATiat poem has for its leading thought the force of words ? The Poet, by Tennyson. Can words fully express the meaning? " I sometimes hold it half a sin. To put in words the grief I feel ; For words, like nature, half reveal. And half conceal the soul within." "To those who know thee not, no words can paint! And those who know thee, know all words are faint." — Hannah More. SCIENCE AND THE ART OF TEACHING. 2(33 " No words suflBlce the secret soul to show, For truth denies all eloquence to woe." " Farewell ! For in that word, — that fatal word, — howe'er We promise — hope — believe — then breathes despair." Is a word ever lost ? See " Ninth Bridgewater Treatise," by Mr. Bab- bage, and Chaucer's " House of Fame." Is grief sometimes too deep to be expressed in words ? " Give sorrow words ; tlie grief that does not speak, Whispers the o'er-fraught lieart, and bids it break." — Macbeth, Act IV., Sc. 3. " How forcible are right words," yet " a word fitly spoken is like apples of gold in pictures of silver." — Solomon. Whence did Adam get words to name the animals ? Should we use the simplest words ? " When you doubt between words, use the plainest, the commonest, the most idiomatic. Eschew fine words as you would rouge ; love simple ones as you would native roses on your cheek." " Simplicity is beauty ; simplicity is power." " Learn the value of a man's words and expressions, and you know him. He who has a superlative for everything wants a measure for the great or small." — Lavater. " It is with words as with sunbeams, — the more they are condensed, the deeper they burn." — Southey. " The fool hath planted his memory with an army of words." — Shake- speare. " The world is satisfied with words ; few care' to dive beneath the sur- face." — Pascal. 9 GENERAL DIRECTIONS TO THE TEACHERS. See that the pupils become familiar with the tools of measurement, and are able to make application of them, — a knowledge of definitions and formulas is useless apart from experimental acquaintance. Let things that have to be done be learned by doing THEM. — Comenius. All spelling should prepare for composition, — talking with the pen or pencil. 264 LECTURES ON THE Requisites. (a) Pupils should be taught to copy from the blackboard with perfect accuracy words and sentences. (b) Pupils at the end of the first year in school should be able to reproduce the words and sentences taught. (c) Write words and sentences to be copied in bold, distinct, and large letters. (d) Let the written exercise be confined to the child's vocabulary. (e) Let the pupil read what he writes. 3. As soon as the child can tell something he has learned, permit him to write it. Note. — Children take an intense interest in what they see and tell for themselves. How TO Get the Children to Talk. (a) Do something and ask the children to tell what you did ; let them write it. (6) Show an object and let the children tell something about it. (c) Show objects and let the children tell their differences, then their resemblances. (d) Pass pictures ; pupils write about them. (e) Read some interesting story, and let the children report it in writing. Note. — Let the children read each his own, and all judge who has told the story well. Let the children grasp the story in its fulness, and narrate it in their own language. 4. Never receive poor work. HoiD to prevent it. (a) If the pupil makes the least mistake, erase the word ; or better, erase the whole sentence. (6) Erase all work that is not the pupil's best attempt ; let them learn to do good work by doing it, by doing it until it is right, until it is well done by every pupil. (c) Be very cautious about individual criticism ; it has a tendency to repress free thought. Let criticism cease to be the work of a detective. Do not seize upon every violation of law and magnify the pupil's mistakes. Rather let the advice be that of a friend seeking to make the child a law unto himself. (d) Try and make each pupil confident ; confidence begets success, (c) The teacher should inspect and mark every mistake, making, as a rule, no comments ; if the same mistake is made frequently, quietly advise the pupil about it. 5. See that children gain the new knowledge before taking up additional work. SCIENCE AND THE ART OF TEACHING. 265 DEFINITIONS. I. Postulate. — That the object of a definition is to tell what a thing is. IT. Deduction. — Knowledge must go before the definition, a. De- velop the correct idea, then give the technical term (in primary grades). b. See that the definition is clearly understood : first, ask searching ques- tions about it ; second, if necessary illustrate by objects, pictures, draw- ings, etc. c. In reading let the meaning be inferred from the context, rather than commit a definition to memory. Let the pupil see that a definition, instead of preceding a lesson, as it often does, should be the conclusion of a lesson, or of some definite part of it ; it is not the giving of additional knowledge, it is the summing up, a general truth, an abstrac- tion, a deduction. III. Cautions. — a. After the definitions are thoroughly understood, see that the pupils memorize them. b. Teach your pupils to think, to reason, rather than imitate or repeat, c. See that they understand subjects, rather than memorize books. ETIQUETTE. It is important to form good manners and correct habits in youth. DEFINITION. The recognized forms of good breeding prescribed by good society ; respect for one's self as toell as respect for others. OBJECT. To train pupils to form right habits of action. METHOD. 1. To teach pupils to be uniformly polite. 2. To inspire pupils to put down their own faults, instead of trying to put down one another. 3. To do something toward making all whom we meet happy. 4. To express due deference to superiors. 5. To encourage pupils to confess their faults. 6. To cultivate a spirit of forgiveness. 7. To teach pupils that people need all the kindness they can get from others in this world. 8. To not offend, — this being the first step towards pleasing. " The small, sweet courtesies of life " are doubly dear to young people. 266 LECTURES ON THE Let your pupils realize that they iiuist be distinguished by good nian> ners, as good manners are the outgrowth of good morals. " A knowledge of etiquette is a knowledge of the customs of society at its best. There is no one who may not be instructed in some points that it is for his advantage to know." " The first years of a man's life are precious, since they lay the founda- tion of the merit of the rest. Whatever care is used in the education of children, it is still too little to answer the end." " Manners and morals are indissolubly allied, and no society can be good where they are bad." ORAL EXAMINATIONS. Standard of Examinations. The standard should be upon work presented by the teacher as com- pleted. The test in every subject should be quality of work, not quantity. Reading. (a) Lowest primary grades should be examined on the blackboard, in the vocabulary presented by the teacher. (p) Close attention should be given to the habit and power of getting thought, before expressing it orally. The habit of giving the thought just as the reader would talk should be the criterion. (c) In the First, Second, and Third Readers, reading should be selected that the pupils have never seen ; the pupils should be able to get thought readily, and express it easily ; pupils should be able to tell why capital letters and punctuation marks are used. {(1) In the Fourth and Fifth Readers, reading should be selected that pupils have never seen (corresponding to the grade of work), and they should be able to give the sense of the passages, and the subject ; should also be able to assign a reason for emphasizing and inflecting certain words. Language. (a) In the fifth and fourth grades, primary department, the test should be the ability to describe actions, pictures, and objects, and tell what they have read orally ; also, be able to correct the common mis- takes in speech. (J) In the third, second, and first primary grades the test should be readiness to describe pictures and objects accurately, giving attention to spelling, capital letters, penmanship, punctuation, and neatness of work ; also, ability to correct errors in speech, and to give examples of the telling, asking, commanding, and emotional sentences. SCIENCE AND THE ART OF TEACHING. 267 (c) In the grammar classes, pupils should be required to write on a subject impromptu, giving attention to all of the above points in divisions (a) and (b) ; be able to correct grammatical mistakes, and give reasons for the same ; write the different kinds of sentences, and tell what termi- nal points should be placed after them ; also, analyze sentences, and parse the words; define the parts of speech, and write sentences illustrating their use. Penmanship. (a) Classes : Single letters in their order ; also, capital letters ; analy- sis of the same by all classes, except the fifth grade primary departments. (b) In the highest primary and grammar classes, pupils should be required to write a verse as a specimen of work. Attention should be given to spelling, capital letters, punctuation, and neatness. No work should he received unless scrupulous care has been taken in every particular. Copying Sentences. — Spelling. In the low^est primary grades the standard should be absolute perfec- tion in copying sentences from the blackboard, the words of which (sentences) have been previously copied by the pupils. In the highest primary and grammar grades sentences should be dictated. Dictation. Teachers should keep a list of words learned by the pupils, and the sentences dictated should be composed of these words. If there is a single failure in spelling, capital letters, or punctuation, the sentence should be marked wrong. Sentences should be given but once. Teachers should present the principal and superintendent with a list of words taught. Number. All the primary classes should be examined orally with and without objects. Pupils should be examined upon the work given by the teacher as already taught. The test should be readiness in writing and reading numbers, readiness and accuracy in computation, both in oral and written work. Arithmetic. Pupils should be examined upon work presented by the teacher as completed. All classes in the grammar department, and the highest classes in the primary department, should be examined on intellectual arithmetic. Ac- curacy and rapidity in computation in the lowest primary classes should be the test, and u\ the grammar gTades the pupils should be required to 268 LECTURES ON THE SCIENCE AND THE ART OF TEACHING. give reasons for the different steps, and solve practical problems embraced under the work as completed. Drawing. In the lowest primary grades, pupils should be required to draw the different kinds of lines. The main point in these grades should be to find out if the pupils have a correct idea of the different kinds of lines. Pupils should be required to draw simple figures from copy ; in the highest primary and grammar grades, pupils should be required to draw the different kinds of lines, define them, and draw figures from dictation and from memory, and original designs. Geography. In the lowest primary grades, pupils should be required to tell where objects are in the room ; locate the prominent buildings and the streets ; and locate and name local land and water divisions. In the highest primary classes, the pupils should tell wherein a city differs from a town or village ; a county from a state ; name and locate the prominent land and water divisions about the city ; uses of them ; tell the number of towns in the county, and counties in the state ; draw a map of the city, locating the principal streets, public buildings, and draw a map of the county, and locate prominent villages and cities. In the grammar classes, pupils should be required to draw a map of the city, the county, the state, and locate and name the prominent physical features, and locate and name the large cities. Should be able to bound the state and men- tion its principal industries. In the highest grammar classes, pupils should be required to pass an examination upon the work presented by the teacher as completed, draw a map of the continents as far as com- pleted, and locate the physical features. General Exercises. Examinations in the lowest primary grades should be upon home, food, clothing, names of the days of the week, months of the year, names of domestic animals, different kinds of matter, and the primary colors. In the highest primary grades, the pupils should be examined upon well- known forms of the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms ; secondary colors ; table of time ; dollars and cents ; measurement by inches, feet, yards and miles ; general terms, as length, width, depth, area, surface, and edges; also upon the gnawers, cud-chewers, flesh-eaters, etc.; upon the bones in the human body, names and uses; muscles; circulation and respiration ; and the lives of a few of the prominent men of America. In the grammar grades, pupils should be examined upon the above ; also upon plants, animals, air, wind, forces, etc. IV. SCHOOL DISCIPLINE, SCHOOL DISOIPLIISrE. GENERAL POINTS. Essentials on the Part of the Teacher. I. The teacher must yet a thorough knowledge of the subjects to be taught^ — absolute mastery of them. How Acquired. 1. By attending first-class Public Schools. 2. By attending Normal Schools. 3. By attending Training Schools. 4. By attending Colleges and Universities. 5. By close personal application. IL The teacher must attain the best modern methods, and seek to acquire perfection in them. How Acquired. 1. By attending Normal Schools. 2. By attending Training Classes. 3. By attending Teachers' Institutes. 4. By thorough study of works on teaching. 5. By experimenting successfully. 6. By rational experience in teaching. 7. By continual thought, — closely watching the unfolding of the child's mind. 8. By studying the history of education, and experimental psychology. in. The teacher must love the work of teaching ; must possess an absolute fondness for it, and take an eager delight in it. If this love of the work is not inborn and God-given, it Can be Acquired. 1. By cultivating a fondness for children. 2. By complete familiarity with the work. 3. By casting aside all thoughts foreign to the work. 4. By so working that the occupation will be pleasurable rather than painful. All school work should be pleasurable. 272 SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. IV. The teacher must create a thirst for knowledge, — a strong and eager desire on the part of the pupil to acquire learning. How Produced. Attractive means. 1. By singing. 2. By marching. 3. By calisthenics. 4. By drills in uniform movement. 5. By drawing pictures. 6. By illustrations. 7. By story telling. 8. By reading stories. 9. By pleasant tones. 10. By agreeable manners. 11. By neat attire. 12. By teaching objectively. 13. By teaching one thing at a time. 14. By arousing every power of the mind to its full activity. 15. By presenting facts to the mind through the senses. Rational means. 1. By writing. 2. By lucid analysis. 3. By rational questioning. 4. By rational teaching. 5. By the development of clear ideas. 6. By development of thought. 7. By teaching things rather than words. 8. By the development of clear and accurate perceptions. 9. By having a definite plan of work. 10. By proceeding from the simple to the more difficult. 11. By requiring that things that have to be done be learned by doing them. 12. By topical teaching. 13. By developing mental power. V. The teacher must attain absolute mastery over self, — ready power to control and determine ; a will-power guided by reason. How Acquired. 1. By preservation of a sound constitution. 2. By cultivation of good habits. 3. By cultivation of great and unselfish motives. SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. 273 4. By congenial and elevating companionship. 5. By cultivating social and devotional instincts. 6. By the exercise of careful and studied judgment. 7. By admission of errors of judgment. 8. By studying to discover our faults, and willingly hearing criti- cisms. CAUTIONS. 1. See that the will is governed by reason. 2. Use authority only when attraction fails. 3. Don't let the will be governed by unreason, — such as moods, feelings, failures, disappointments, sickness, intemperance, etc. No man is free who cannot command himself. — Pythagoras. That person is of all others the most powerful who has himself in his own power. — Seneca. The worst education which teaches self-denial and self-control, is better than the best which teaches everything else, and not these. — Bacon. SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. Definition. — Discipline is that restraining influence which produces and sustains order, and prompts the pupil to diligent study and good conduct. Order. — Order limits energy to the work of the school ; that is, the best order in which the best work can be done. Order implies fitness of condition. Postulate. — True rational discipline does away with all need of arbitrary discipline. Object. — The object of school discipline is to train pupils to right habits of thought and action, — to conduce to permanent well-doing. Results. — The result should be to teach pupils to govern them- selves. Two kinds of discipline are in use to-day : ihejirst ruling by love, and the second governing by /ear. Instead of offering bribes and using threats, the young should be so influenced in their surroundings that they may see virtue and happiness united. Both of the methods — love and fear — may be artificial and temporary. The teacher should seek from the beginning to form correct habits, and then there will be no occasion to reform bad ones. 274 SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. The child should be taught that it is its duty to do right, and that it should do right because it is right. The teacher should not procure exer- tion by a bribe, because the eifort is felt to be a sacrifice, and it will not be repeated without a like inducement. It is useless to drive a boy or a girl to work, or cause either to work through fear ; the task maybe done, but then there will be no heart in it, and the coercion will be resented. There is only one way which can create a new habit of industry capa- ble of supplanting the old habit of indolence, and that is the awakening oi pleasure in work /or its own sake. The teacher should make all school work pleasurable. Give a pupil a sense of pleasure in work, and idleness will be cured and the need of arbitrary discipline obviated. K parents and teachers better understood the child's mind there would be a relief of much of the drudgery in school discipline. Under the pres- ent undeveloped condition of our knowledge of child-nature in the family and in the school, we can only approximate the desired results. In view of this, we will specifically speak of some of the causes, preventives, and correctives which may be used in order to secure more effective discipline in the schools. I. COMMUNICATION. A. Causes. 1. Lack of teaching and training on the part of the parents. 2. Lack of wisdom on the part of the teacher. B. Preventives. 1. By suggestion. 2. By advice. 3. By reproof. 4. By making communication unpopular. 5. By licensing communication. 6. By busy work. 7. By appealing to the pupil's intelligence. C. Correctives. 1. Separate seatmates. 2. Restraint of personal liberties. 3. Request pupils to report their own offences to the teacher ])ri- vatehj. 4. Encourage pupils to confess their faults, and forgive every offender who reports. 5. Administer punishment by a written communication. 6. Detention after school, — an extreme measure. SQHOOL DISCIPLINE. 275 II. TARDINESS. A. Causes. 1. Lack of systematic family government, 2. Thoughtlessness. 3. Overweening sentimental indulgence on the part of parents. 4. Parents' covetousness. 5. Exacting too much of the pupil. 6. Requiring work unsuitable to the age of the pupiL 7. Impartiality. 8. Unkindness. 9. Lack of earnestness on the part of the teacher. 10. Lack of preparation on the part of the teacher. 11. Lack of promptness on the part of the teacher. B. Preventives. 1. By pleasant and instructive opening exercises. 2. By a pleasant reception on entering the school. 3. By creating a love for study. 4. By cultivating pride in habitual promptness. 5. By making play-grounds attractive. 6. By introducing new plays. 7. By taking part in the plays. 8. By reports to parents. 9. By visiting parents. 10. By an exposition of the pernicious influence on the schools. 11. By retractive power of personal example. 12. By presentation of a written excuse from the parent. C. Correctives. 1. Cessation of exercise when pupils enter the school. 2. Silent reception of the pupil. 3. Detention after school. 4. Private admonition. 5. Rebuke before the school. 6. Severe reproof. 7. Refuse admission to the pupil, — a severe measure. III. ABSENCE. A. Causes. 1. Lack of interest on the part of the parent. 2. Lack of interest on the part of the teacher or pupiL 3. Lack of proper classification of the pupils. 4. Lack of rational teaching. 276 SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. 5. Conflict of authority, (j. Abuse of authority. 7. Abdication of authority. 8. Pevishness and fretfulness of the teacher. 9. Personal discomfort. 10. Favoritism by the teacher. 11. Parents' demand of child's services. 12. Unnecessary exposure of ignorance by the teacher. 13. Unjust accusations. 14. Lack of sympathy. 15. Backwardness in studies. 16. Improper grading. 17. A failure to understand subjects. 18. Neglect of private study. 19. Teacher not recognizing the principles of mental development. 20. Teacher neglecting to take child into confidence. 21. Improper home associations. 22. Lack of suitable garments. B. Preventives. 1. By making school work attractive. 2. By taking an interest in the pupils' studies and plays. 3. By thorough and rational teaching. 4. By visitation of parents. 5. By weekly and monthly reports. 6. By cultivating a pride in regular attendance. 7. By uniform kindness on the part of the teacher. 8. By proper appreciation of work. 9. By earnestness of the teacher. 10. By consideration in the. treatment of mistakes and faults. 11. By uniform cheerfulness. C. Correctives. 1. Gentle rebuke. 2. Disapprobation of the teacher. 3. Extra study outside of school. 4. Visitation of parents. 5. Severe reprimand. 6. Public rebuke. 7. Suspension. 8. Expulsion, — a severe measure. SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. 277 IV. TRUANCY. A. Causes. 1. Unpleasant home associations. 2. Improper home training. 3. Unsatisfactory results in school work. 4. Severe administration. 5. Lack of sympathy. B. Preventives. 1. By making the school-room attractive. 2. By making school work pleasant. 3. By making all the exercises interesting. 4. By frequent changes in the exercises. 5. By winning to a love of knowledge. 6. By reading, or telling short, instructive stories. 7. By experiments in the elementary natural sciences. 8. By private reprimand. 9. By welcoming the prodigal on his return. 10. By visiting pupil's home. 11. By requesting pupil to reflect upon seriousness of the offence. 12. By educating the child's conscience, so that he shall regret the waste of time as a sin. C. Correctives. 1. Severe reproof. 2. Inform parents. 3. Suspension. 4. Expulsion. V. QUARRELLING AND FIGHTING. A. Causes. 1. Lack of moral cultivation. 2. Bad associations. 3. Uncontrollable temper. B. Preventives. 1. By making the offence unpopular. 2. By the utter abhorrence of the offence on the part of the teacher. 3. By the disapprobation of the teacher. 4. By the disapproval of the pupils. 5. By enlarging upon the meanness of such acts. 6. By persuading of sinfulness. 7. By striving to strengthen the child's will to do right. 8. By encouraging the pupil to practice self-control. 278 SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. 9. By watchfulness of teacher during recesses, mtermissions, and dismissals. 10. By cultivating self-respect. 11. By exciting shame and sorrow. 12. By cultivating a true sense of honor. 13. By good-natured ridicule. C. Correctives. 1. Separation of offenders. 2. Deprivation of privileges. 3. Require offenders to play alone. 4. Severe reproof. 5. Suspension. 6. Expulsion, — extreme measure. VI. PERSISTENT DISOBEDIENCE AND WILFULNESS. A. Causes. 1. Antagonism of parents to teacher. 2. Antagonism of pupil to teacher. 3. Revengefulness of teacher. 4. Revengefulness of pupil. 5. Unmindfulness of the teacher on the first appearance of disobe- dience and wilfulness. 6. Weakness and uidecision of the teacher. B. Preventives. 1. By not antagonizing parents. 2. By not ridiculing pupils. 3. By not using bitter sarcasm. 4. By not using harsh tones. 5. By not driving strong-willed pupils into obstinacy. 6. By repressing the bad qualities. 7. By needlessly giving pain to a pupil. 8. By unnecessary exposure of ignorance, error, or mistakes. 9. By using patience, and bringmg to bear on the self-willed pupil the influence of kindness, sympathy, and reason. 10. By impartial judgment. 11. By example of the teacher. C. Correctives. 1. Severe reproof. , 2. Suspension from class. 3. Suspension from school. 4. Expulsion from school. SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. 279 VII. IMPERTINENCE AND IMPULSIVENESS. A. Causes. 1. Neglect in early training. 2. Cultivation of evil associates. 3. Harboring revengeful feelings. 4. Physical weakness. B. Preventives. 1. By treating pupils as human beings. 2. By recognizing the manhood and womanhood of the pupils. 3. By being uniformly circumspect in manner and deportment. 4. By refusing to listen to pupils' mutterings. 5. By entire suspension of work. 6. By developing the higher motives. 7. By cultivating the power to resist wrong. 8. By avoiding a laugh at the expense of the pupil. 9. By avoiding direct collision with the pupil. 10. By watching the will of the pupil so that it does not gain control over his reason and judgment. 11. By overlooking childlike faults and not seizing upon every oppor- tunity for censure. 12. By teaching and training children, not merely telling them what to do. C Correctives. 1. Let the pupil suffer the result of his conduct. 2. Severe reproof. 3. Proper acknowledgment. 4. Summary justice. 5. Suspension of work. 6. Suspension from school. 7. Expulsion from school. VIIL UNTRUTHFULNESS. Causes. 1. Ignorance. 2. Thoughtlessness. 3. Selfishness. 4. Cowardice. 5. Innate tendency. 6. Self-reporting. 280 SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. B. Preventives. 1. By regarding all pupils as truthful until the teacher has positive proof to the contrary. 2. By encouraging full and frank confession with a remission of pen- alties. 3. By placing implicit confidence in pupils. 4. By telling the pupils the effects of untruthfulness, as, (a) Loss of reputation. (b) Loss of character. (c) Loss of conscience. (rf) General demoralization. 5. By cultivating sentiments of honor and truthfulness. 6. By the example of the teacher. 7. By the teachings of the Bible. 8. By indication of approval when the child speaks the truth. 9. By not frightening the pupil by terrible denunciations of the anger of God against liars. 10. By cultivating a spii-it of forbearance. C. Correctives. 1. Suspension of teacher's confidence. 2. Suspension of pupil's confidence. 3. Deprivation of school privileges. 4. Severe reproof. 5. Confession followed hy acknowledgment. IX. TATTLING. A. Causes. i. Meanness. 2. Jealousy. 3. Ignorance. 4. Selfishness. B. Preventives. 1. By shunning impropriety. 2. By elevating and refining. 3. By the precepts of the " Golden Rule. 4. By persuading of sinfulness. C. Correctives. 1. Refuse to notice it. 2. Disapprobation of the teacher. 3. Severe reprimand. SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. 281 X. LOUD STUDY. A. Remedies. 1. Train pupils to study with closed lips. 2. Suspend exercises until quiet is restored. 3. Appeal to pupil's sense of politeness. B. Punishments. 1. Reproof. 2. Show impropriety. 3. Separation of pupils. XI. LAUGHING. Remedies. 1. By suspension of exercises. 2. By letting pupils laugh until weary of it. 3. Reproof. XIL QUESTIONS DURING RECITATIONS. Remedies. 1. By showing impropriety. 2. By refusing to notice questions. 3. By prohibiting them. 4. Reproof. XIII. NOISE. Remedies. 1. By training pupils how to walk, to sit, and to move. 2. By always admonishing them when a command is violated. 3. By letting pupils try again, until they do it quietly. 4. By quiet movements on the part of the teacher. XIV. WRITING NOTES. Remedies. 1. By destroying notes without reading them. 2. By reading the notes, omitting names. 3. By asking for the author of the note. (As a rule, avoid public exposure.) 4. By private reprimand. 282 SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. XV. LITTER ON THE FLOOR. Remedies. 1. By encouraging neatness. 2. By carefully inspecting the floor in the presence of the pupil, with- out making any remarks. 3. By requiring everything to be done decei tly, and in order. XVL UNCLEANNESS. Remedies. 1. By insisting that the pupils shall give proper attention to sanitary conditions. 2. By permitting pupils to leave the school-room, to be admitted when in proper condition. 3. By visiting parents and finding out the cause. 4. By sending pupil home, — stating cause. 5. The neat attire of the teacher. 6. By habitual attention to the cleanliness of the school-room. XVII. LISTLESSNESS. Remedies. 1. By securing proper ventilation. 2. By securing even temperature, — 75°. 3. By avoiding concert recitations. 4. By avoiding the practice of " keeping in " pupils at recess, or after school, for failure in lessons, or behavior. 5. By giving adequate attention to preparatory work. 6. By carefully inspecting the work of each pupil. 7. By exhibiting a real interest in the welfare of the pupil. XVIII. PROFANITY. Preventives. 1. Teach the children the sinfulness of profane speaking. 2. Train pupils to perfect purity of speech. GENERAL POINTS. 1. Provide proper means for the activity of children. 2. Train pupils not to act without weighing motives, feelings, or claims. 3. Do not attempt to instil too many habits at once. SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. 283 4. Concern yourself with the general welfare of each pupil. 5. Deal openly, justly, and resolutely on all occasions ; and reprove openly, when the offence has been open. 6. Distinguish between offences that originate from ignorance, for- getfulness, or sinfulness. 7. Lead pupils to govern themselves. 8. Preventive is better than punishment. 9. The preventive of evil is better than the cure. 10. Reform the offender. 11. Do not make threat of punishment in advance of offences. 12. Let the child learn to be obedient by being obedient. 13. Captivate the right doers, and capture the wrong doers. 14. Cultivate a public opinion in school in favor of right. 15. Strong terms of reproof should be sparingly used, in order to be effective. 16. He best uses punishment who uses it least. 17. Bear in mind that loss of temper, however excusable, is really a victory to wrong doers. 18. Minimum of punishment is the maximum of qualification. 19. Make your punishment light, but certain as the rising sun. 20. Let your government be steady, uniform, and consistent. 21. Manifest a real sympathy for children, and an earnest desire for their happiness and improvement. 22. Secure the love and respect of your pupils, and retain it. 23. Let duty be above all consequences. 24. Require the pupils to have a place for everything. Teacher see that everything is in its place. 25. Pupils should leave the seat only by the permission of the teacher. 26. Pupils should always be held accountable for proper care of property. 27. Pupils should be taught to give quiet and respectful attention when being addressed. ADAMS'S PAPER. To give the condition of the Quincy schools before Supt. Parker assumed charge of them, how the subsequent work was done, and what was accomplished under his supervision, the following abstract of a paper by Charles F. Adams, Jr., is inserted. THE NEW DEPARTURE IN THE COMMON SCHOOLS OF QUINCY. The changes and experiments made in the Quincy schools during the five years of Col. Parker's superintendency caused more than local interest. Mr. Adams was instrumental in producing the reform, and the work justifies a particular statement in regard to the condition of af- fairs which preceded and led to it. This statement will not be without general value, as that condition of affairs was by no means peculiar to Quincy, and the results reached are attainable anywhere. Object of the Changes. The object of the changes and experiments was to secure a thoroughly good common-school education at a reasonable cost. The two points of excellence and economy were to be kept clearly in view, and neither was to be subordinated to the other. The Schools in a State of Immobility. A retrospect of ten years discovered no very remarkable results. The committee found, on examination, that most of the pupils who had finished the grammar course of study could neither speak nor spell their own lan- guage correctly, nor read and write it with that elegance which is desir- able. The Quincy schools were neither better nor worse than those of surrounding towns. How THE Examinations were Formerly Conducted. A day was publicly set aside for each school, and on that day the chil- dren were present in their best clothes. The committee sat on the plat- form in dignified silence, and the teacher conducted the exercises over safe and familiar grounds. The exercises closed with some peculiarly un- natural display of childish declamation. The teacher asked the members of the committee to gratify the children with a few remarks, — which were always of a highly commendatory character. After it was over, the committee knew nothing more about the school than they did before it began ; and, as for tests, there were none. 2SS 'J^tlE NEW DEPARTURE The ever-present object in the teacher's mind was to nave his or her school pass a creditable examination ; and, to insure this, the teacher unconsciously turned his scholars into parrots, and made a meaningless farce of education. Certain motions had to be gone through, but for real results there were none. The whole thing was a sham. It was, in a word, all smatter, veneering, and cram. How THE New Committee Conducted the Examinations. A special branch of studies was assigned to each member of the com- mittee ; and, during the examination, the schools were taken wholly out of the hands of the instructors. The results were deplorable. The schools went to pieces. Although the pupils in the grammar schools could parse and construe sentences, and point out the various parts of speech with great facility, repeating correctly and with readiness the rules of grammar applicable in each case, yet, when called upon to write an ordinary letter, they were utterly unable to apply the rules and principles they had so painfully learned, or to form a single sentence, or to follow any rule of composition. So, also, as respects reading. Rote-reading, so to speak, — that is, the practised reading of certain familiar pieces in given Readers, — had been brought to a point of very considerable perfection. Where the severer test of sight-reading, — that is, the reading of an ordinary book which the pupil had never seen before it was put by the examiner into his hands, — where this test was applied, the result was simply bewil- dering. The greater part of the pupils could merely stammer and bungle along, much as a better-educated person does when reading a book in some language with which he is only imperfectly acquainted. It was found, also, that after eight years' of school-teaching, the children, as a whole, could neither write with facility nor read fluently. The fact was, that the examinations had shown that in far too many cases they could neither read nor write at all. The school system had fallen into a nit. A gTeat multiplicity of studies had in one way and another been intro- duced, and each was taught by itself. Waste of Public Money. It was plain to the committee that a great waste of public money was steadily going on ; but of the amount expended not fifty cents out of each dollar were effectively spent. It was a simple question whether they w^ould leave things as they found them, or attempt a wholly new departure. The cost of the schools could not be reduced, but their quality could be improved. IN THE COMMON SCHOOLS OF QUINCY. 28i) Members op the Committee Unequal to the Ta8K. The committee found it useless to attempt any steady improvement through the efforts of individual members. They were busy men and not specialists in education. Committees elected by popular vote are entirely unequal to any sus- tained effort; and only through sustained effort can any permanent improvement be infused into teachers, and steady direction given to it. Intelligent direction could only be attained through a trained superin- tendent. The committee determined to ask the town to employ a superin- tendent of schools, and to put the working out of the new system into his hands. The authorities of the town granted permission to the com- mittee, and the members began to canvass for the man. Xow, the first serious difficulty presented itself in the practical selection of an efficient superintendent. The ordinary superintendent is apt to be a grammar-school teacher, a retired clergyman, or local politician out of a job, who has no more idea of the processes of mental development or the science of training the mind than the average schoolmaster has of the object of teaching grammar. The committee desired to obtain a trained specialist, knowing that it would be as manifestly absurd to try to elevate the schools without such a man as it would be to try to manage a college without a president. The committee recognized this fact, that the superintendency had actually fallen into a sort of discredit through the wretched substitutes for trained men to whom towns and cities have in their need been com- pelled to have recourse. Everything depended on the selection of the right man. The only way to improve the schools was to concentrate the directing individuality in one man, and trust him to infuse his spirit into the others. Col. F. W. Parker Selected to do the Work. After some desultory discussion of candidates, they chanced across •one who had not only himself taught, but in teaching had become pos- sessed with the idea that it was a science, and that he did not understand it. Accordingly he had gone abroad in search of that training which he was unable to get in America, and at a comparatively mature age had made himself master of the modern German theories of common school education. The opportunity was offered to Col. Parker, and under circumstances peculiarly favorable to success. 290 THE NEW DEPARTURE The Committee Strong in the Confidence of the People, and Holding Office with a Degiiee of Permanence. The committee had gone to work to remedy matters ; but, as usually happens in such cases, they had succeeded only in destroying the old system without developing a new one. It gradually, therefore, had begun to dawn upon them that they had taken a larger contract on their hands than they had at all intended. Realizing this, — conscious of the fact that they themselves were unequal to the work before them, — the mem- bers of the committee were also sensible enough to know that an agent to be successful must have a chance. He must not be continually ham- pered and thwarted by unnecessary interference. They were not jealous of their little authority. The superintendent's plans were submitted, and the committee gave them consideration. After the plans were approved, the superintendent had a free field in which to carry them out, with the understanding that by the results, and the results only, would he be judged. While the members of the committee had ideas of their own, as well as the superintendent, yet in no instance did the superintendent set aside the less clearly defined ideas of the committee. Between the superintendent and the committee there was no conflict. The System Marked by Intense Individuality. The specialty of the superintendent was primary instruction. The result was a gradual revolution in the entire system. The essence of the new system was that there was no system about it ; it was marked by intense individuality. Mechanical Work Ignored. The programme found no place anywhere in it ; on the contrary, the last new theory, so curiously amplified in some of our larger cities, that vast numbers of children should be taught as trains on railroads are run, on a time-table principle, — that they are here now, that they will be at such another point to-morrow, and at their terminus at such a date, — this whole theory was emphatically dismissed. Experiments were to be cau- tiously tried, and results from time to time noted. The revolution was all pervading. Kothing escaped its influence ; it began with the alphabet and extended into the last efforts of the grammar-school course. The New Departure Changed the Manner of Teaching. The change that excited the greatest interest was at the very begin- ning. The old " dame school " disappeared at once. In place of it ap- peared something as different as light from darkness. The alphabet was IN THE COMMON SCHOOLS OF QUINCY. 291 no longer taught. In place of the old, lymphatic, listless, "school-marm," pressing into the minds of tired and listless children the mystic signifi- cance of certain hieroglyphics, instead of this time-honored machine process, young women full of life and nervous energy found themselves surrounded at the blackboard with groups of little children who were learning how to read almost without knowing it ; learning how to read, in a word, exactly as they had before learned to talk, not by rule, and rote, and by piecemeal, but altogether and by practice. The hours of school were kept diversified ; the fact was recognized that little children were, after all, little children still, and that long con- finement was irksome to them. Blocks and toys were used to anmse and instruct, and occasionally the exercises were stopped that all might join in physical movement. This system was harder for the teachers, as it called on them to be active and throw themselves into the work. While more exhausting, it was more inspiriting. The children were delighted with the school, and the teachers became conscious of individuality, and took a perceptible pride in the work. She felt in fact that she was doing something in a new way, and doing it uncommonly well. The Effect on the Children Pleasing. The effect produced by the change was, -however, the point of interest. Going to school ceased to be a homesick tribulation. The children went to school because they loved to go. The simple fact was, that they were happier, and more amused, and better contented at school than at home. The drudgery of the impossible primer no longer made infant life mis- erable. The alphabet was robbed of its terrors, and stole upon them unawares ; while the most confounding thing to the members of the com- mittee was, that in hearing the primaries read, not a child among them could repeat its letters, or even know their names, unless, perchance, to the teacher's increased trouble they had been taught at home. Experiments Tested by Practical Results. The method, after four years, ceased to be an experiment, as proven by the experience of parents and teachers, as well as observed in the chil- dren. The practical results obtained are self-convincing. All now join in their testimony that the ways of nature are the easiest ways. The lesson is not a very profound one ; and it is strange, indeed, that it took so long to find it out. A child learns to talk and icalk — the two most difficult things it is called on to learn in its whole life — with- out any instruction, and by simple practice. The practice of learning is 292 THE NEW DEPARTURE not painful to it or ^yea^iso^le to others ; on the contrary, it is an amuse- ment to both. Why the same process should not have been pursued in other and less difficult branches of education, is not apparent. One thing only is clear : it was not pursued. In place of it an arbitraiy system of names and sounds, having no significance in themselves, and of rules and formulas absolutely unintelligible except to the mature intellect, was adopted; and with these, generation after generation of children have been tortured. Only now do we deign, in imparting knowledge, to give any attention to natural processes, which have forever been going on be- fore our eyes and in our families ; and yet we profess to think that there is no science in primary education, and that all there is to it can be- learned in a few hours. The Reforms Instituted. The new departm-e started with the Quincy primaries, and it left little in them that had not undergone a change. The reorganization was com- plete. This, however, was entirely the work of Superintendent Parker ; the committee simply gave liim a free field to experiment in, and the re- sult fully justified them in so doing. Ascending into the several grades of grammar schools, the case was somewhat different. The committee there had their own views, and those views were little else than an em- phatic protest against the whole present tendency of the educational sys- tem of Massachusetts, — whether school, academy, or university. If there is one thing which may be considered more characteristic of that system of late years than another, it is its tendency to multiply branches of study. The school-year has become one long period of diffusion and cram, the object of which is to successfully pass a stated series of examinations. This leads directly to superficiary. Smatter is the order of the day. To enter college, the boy of seventeen must know a little of everything ; but it is not necessary for him to know anything well, — not even how to write his own language. From this, the vicious system has gone up through the professional, and down through the high, to the very lowest grade of grammar school. Xo matter whether it can understand it or not, the child must be taught a little of everything ; at any rate enough of it to pass an exammation. Against this whole theory and system the Quincy school committee resolutely set their faces. They did not believe in it ; they would have nothing to do with it. Instead of being multiplied, the number of studies should, they insisted, be reduced. It was impossible to teach everything in a grammar-school course, and for the vast majority of chil- dren a thorough grounding in the elements of knowledge was all that IN THE CX)MMON SCHOOLS OF QUINCY. 293 could be given. The attempt to give more simply resulted in not giving that. In proof of this the examination papers for admission to high schools were appealed to. These showed the acquirements of the more proficient scholars ; for as a rule it is they who go to the high schools. Judging by these papers the graduates of the grammar schools were very far from proficient in either writing, spelling, or grammar. Now, these are things which the common schools can and should give all children, no mat- ter what else is sacrificed. But they are not given for the simple rea- son that to give them requires practice, and the multiplicity of studies forbids practice in any one study. The results of the old system in Quincy, as brought to light through the earlier examinations, have already been referred to; the ridiculous knowledge, for instance, of parts of speech and abstract rules of grammar, acquired in order to be able to parse complicated sentences, but combined with an utter inability to cor- rectly write or decently spell the words of the most ordinary letter. Under these circumstances the general policy outlined by the com- mittee was sufficiently radical. Execution Entrusted Wholly to the Superintendent. Its execution was entrusted wholly to the superintendent. Education was to recur to first principles. Not much was to be attempted ; but whatever was attempted was to be thoroughly done, and to be tested by its practical results, and not by its theoretical importance. Above all, the simple comprehensible processes of nature were to be observed. Children were to learn to read and write and cipher as they learned to swim, or skate, or to play ball. The rule by which the thing was done was nothing -, the fact that it was done well was everything. Books Hustled out of Schools. English grammar as now taught in our schools is a singularly unprofi' table branch of instruction. It was now immediately hustled out of them; and the reader was sent after the grammar, and the spelling-book after the reader, and the copy-book after the speller. Then the process of simplification began. Reading at sight, and writing off-hand were to constitute the basis of the new system. The faculty of doing either the one or the other of these could, however, be acquired only in one way, — by constant practice. Practice took time, and neither school-days nor school-hours were endless. Economy of time, therefore, was above all else necessary; and economy of time was wholly incompatible with mul- tiplicity of studies. Under the old system, everjrthing had been taught 294 THE NEW DEPARTURE separately. The reading lesson, the writing lesson, the spelling lesson, had, in regular order, followed the lesson in grammar, and in arithmetic, and in geograj)liy, and in history. Two afternoon half-hours each week, for instance, would be devoted to the copy-books, a blotted pile of which on the master's desk testified unmistakably to the inadequate results reached. Tlie children then could glibly tell what a peninsular was, but they did not know one when they lived on it ; they could stand up and spell in a spelling-bee, but put a pen in their hands, and the havoc they made with orthography was wonderful. Seven studies have been enum- erated ; all considei-ed elementary. Instead of adding yet others to these the direction of the committee was that they should be reduced to three, — "the three R's," — reading, writing, and arithmetic. Subjects to be Taught by Incessant Practice. The process by which this was to be brought about was simple enough. Reading and writing were to be regarded as elementary ; as such they were to be taught in the primary schools. They were to be taught there, also, by incessant practice, book and pencil in hand ; and no scholar who could not read at sight, and write with comparative ease, could be consid- ered ready for promotion. Then, in the grammar grades, concentration was reduced to a system. Instruction in reading, writing, grammar, spel- ling, and, to a very considerable degree, in history, and geography, were combined in two exercises, — reading and writing. The old reader having disappeared, the teacher was at liberty to put in the hands of the class geographies, or histories, or magazine articles, and, having read them first, the scholars might write of them afterwards, to show that they understood them. Their attention was thus secured, and, the pen being continually in the hand, they wrote as readily as they spoke, and spelling came with practice. Under this system, the absurdity of ever having expected any adequate results from the old one became apparent. How even the poor results which had been obtained, were obtained, was matter of sur- prise. To illustrate this, it is but necessary to revert to some of the other branches of education, and, realizing the method in which they are ac- quired, to then compare it with the methods adopted in the schools for imparting branches less difficult. Take, for instance, walking and talking again, the examples already referred to. Every child acquires these perfectly ; he is wholly at home on his feet, and talks with absolute facility. He acquires them thus perfectly by constant practice. He never, in his life, would have learned to walk firmly, or to talk fluently, if he were shut up in a sitting posture, and, after being elaborately in- structed in the principles of equilibrium and articulation, were practised in actual walkiuQ- and talking for half an hour a day each. Yet this was IN THE COMMON SCHOOLS OF QUINCY. 295 exactly what was done under the old system of the Quincy schools, as respects reading and writing. The grammar and the copy-book effectu- ally put a stop to all chance of facility in either ; for children are slow to learn, and the time given to the study of formulas is time lost in practice. Study Under the New Method Full of Life and Interest. In arithmetic no great changes or improvement in the methods of instruction, as yet, seem possible. The faculty of dealing rapidly with figures is given to some people, and is withheld from others ; that, with sufficient attention and labor, almost any one can acquire a tolerable degree of proficiency with them, is, of course, undeniable ; but that it can be acquired, except by a strict regard to formulas patiently learned, is, at least, doubtful. As respects geography, it is by no means so, and in no study has the new departure in the Quincy schools been more marked than in this. The old method, all are familiar with, for there are few indeed, who have ever been into a regulation school, who have not heard child after child glibly chatter out the boundaries, and capitals, and prin- cipal towns, and rivers of states and nations, and enumerate the waters you would pass through, and the ports you would make, in a voyage from Boston to Calcutta, or New York to St. Petersburg. What it all amounted to is another matter. It approached terribly near the old rote methods. Go, to-day, into the Quincy schools, and in a few moments two or three young children, standing about an earth-board, and handling a little heap of moistened clay, will shape out for you a continent, with its mountains, rivers, depressions, and coast indentations, designating upon it the prin- cipal cities, and giving a general idea of its geographical peculiarities. I do not know whether, so far as utility is concerned, the result obtained under this method is very different from that obtained under the other. Geography is not like reading, writing, or arithmetic. In the practical work of ordinary life, a knowledge of it is an accomplish- ment, rather than a thing of necessary daily use. But there is this differ- ence between the two methods : the study under the new method becomes full of life and interest ; while, under the old, it was as tedious and as much like arithmetic and grammar as it could be made. Such was the theory, and obviously, in that its aim was thoroughness, — which it sought to secure by attempting little, — it was a complete negation of the whole present common-school system, founded on a faith in the infinite capac- ity of children to know, at an early age, a little of eveiything. By its results only could this also be judged, and opinions seem to differ as to what is after all the end and aim of a common-school educa- tion. On this point, however, the Quincy committee had early defined their position. In their report of 1873, they had laid down utility as the one and only end which should always be kept in view. 296 THE NEW DEPARTURE Studies Should Result in Something of Direct Use. They had then said, " The studies pursued in our common-school course should be so pursued that they may result in something of direct use in the ordinary lives of New England men and women." This being the object they had in view, the success or failure of their new departure was to be measured by what it actually accomplished in that way, and by nothing else. The faculty of easily writing an ordinary letter on a business topic, correctly spelled and properly expressed, is a valuable faculty to have of every-day utility. A knowledge of the rules of gram- mar may be useful to critics and scholars, but in the lives of ordinary men and women it can be regarded only as a useless accomplishment. The complete expulsion of the grammar from the schools seemed to take away the breath of the old-time masters. It had been taught from the beginning ; it was a tradition ; it could not be but in ordinary life there was utility in the study. That the scholars could read at sight, without bungling and stumbling over every unusual word the moment they left the familiar page of their readers, — that they could write a simple letter without being painfully conscious of an unaccustomed labor, — these, though very considerable, were by no means the only or even the most noticeable results of the new departure. In the upper grammar, as well as the lowest primary, there was an entire change of spirit, and going to school was no longer what it had been. This was recognized by the parents quite as nmch as by the teachers. Marked Improvement in Attendance Under the New Method. Not only was there a marked improvement in attendance, but the attendance was cheerful. The "whining schoolboy" was no longer seen "wending like snail unwillingly to school "; and, remembering what had been, it was certainly most pleasant to go into the rooms and feel the atmosphere of cheerfulness, activity, and interest which pervaded them. Not that the children liked their vacations less, but they had ceased to dislike their school-rooms ; and to those who remember as vividly as most persons over thirty do, the wholly unattractive, not to say repulsive, char- acter both of the old-time school teaching and the old-time school dis- cipline, this change is one for which those who enjoy the advantage of it may well be grateful. The improvement of the schools under the new departure, while freely admitted by teachers, parents, and committee, was made even more clearly apparent by the general interest the experiment excited, and the number of those from all parts who came to see for themselves what was being done. Before 1875, no visitor ever entered the schools of Quincy, except some parent now and then, or an occasional acquaintance of a teacher. IN THE COMMON SCHOOLS OF QUINCY. 297 In 1878, the number of those coming to observe the new system, espe- cially teachers and specialists in education, was so great that it threatened seriously to interfere with instruction, and the committee found them- selves obliged to take measures towards regulating it. Economy is Wealth. But while the improvement was apparent enough, and did not need to be pointed out, the all-important question remained : At what money- cost was it bought ? If it involved a heavy addition to taxes, no matter how great the improvement, it was none the less a failure. The common- school system of Massachusetts was, in the view of the committee, in very great danger of crushing the community it was meant to protect. The average annual cost of educating a child in Quincy had increased fivefold in thirty years; and the experience of Quincy in this respect was not exceptional. It has already been suggested that there is such a thing as taxing a community to death ; and it is quite apparent that the recent ratio of increase in taxation for school purposes will, if it goes on, soon afford in the case of Massachusetts a practical illustration of the process. The eifort in Quincy had therefore been to so economize expenditure, by better and more intelligent direction, that the town should get in value received one hundred cents for each dollar spent, instead of fifty, or per- haps only forty, cents as had before been the case. On this economical calculation the whole action of the committee was based. The money question was kept steadily in view, and never for a moment did they allow the superintendent's zeal in his work to hide it. The whole thing was a failure unless at least twice the educational results were obtained for the same money. On this point, the figures of their annual reports told the whole story, and it was a plain and unmistakable story. In 1875, when the new departure was made, the annual cost of educating each child was $19.24 ; three years later, in 1878, it was $15.68. While the quality of the instruction given had been immeasurably improved, its cost had been reduced one-fifth. Money Intelligently Applied. But, to do this, money must be intelligently applied, and not igno- rantly muddled away. Honesty and good intentions are not enough ; some science is here necessary. At present, among other things, well- meaning stupidity, greediness of petty authority, and jealousy of superior knowledge, on the part of local school committees, are proving terribly expensive luxuries to our towns. Studied in the light of the recent experience of Quincy, the statistics of the board of education show clearly enough that, under a moderate 298 THE NEW DEPARTURE computation, an annual v.aste of some two millions a year is now regularly going on in Massachusetts, from the lack of a pervading and intelligent direction of expenditures for school purposes. Success Due to Three Concurring Circumstances. In conclusion, whatever degree of success has marked the recent expe- rience of Quincy has been due to three concurring circumstances: the town, by its action, retained a committee in office long enough to enable it to mature and carry out an educational policy, — in fact, to all intents and purposes, it was a commission ; that committee had a distinct idea of something necessary to be done, and of a method of doing it ; and, finally, the assistance of a competent and intelligent executive officer was secm'ed. This concurrence of circumstances is one not easy to be brought about, and if it is not brought about, there is no remedy, — the community must pay at least twice what they are worth for its schools. For one only of these three conditions can any further public provision be made ; that, however, is the most important of the three. An intelligent direction can be given. Altogether too often it is as if, in cities and towns, mills or factories were kept in operation for public purposes, but the care of them was entrusted to shifting committees chosen by popular vote. Just those mills and factories are indeed running ; but, instead of put- ting into them hemp or cotton or iron to be worked up, we put in our children. The teaching of a human generation is such a very simple busi- ness that any one can direct it ! The result is precisely the same as if a like policy were pursued in those industries which pay the taxes Avhich support the schools. If mills and founderies were run in this way, you would have very poor cloth and iron at a very high cost. So it is as respects the common- school system, — only the human intellect is a much more delicate raw material with which to deal, than cotton, or iron ore. The consequence is that very few person^, whose attention has not been particularly called to the matter, have any idea what a wretched article of public education we in Massachusetts are now getting, in spite of the large sum we pay for it. So far as my observation enables me to judge, the old Common- wealth is in this matter living on its past reputation. Education now a Science. Neither can any improvernent in the present state of affairs be hoped for from the school committee as it now exists. In a permanent point of view, indeed, the temporary presence of an active-minded, restless man upon a committee is more apt to work an injury than otherwise. He in- troduces his changes, and does not carry them out. He rides his hobby IN THE COMMON SCHOOLS OF QUINCY. 299 for a year or two, in school and committee-room, and then goes away, leaving his hobby behind him. Teachers and scholars, after he has gone, mount the hobby and go through the motions he has taught them, for a time. But they are no better than any other motions ; just as a rut, after all, is a rut, and nothing else. Education is now a science, even com- mon-school education. Only within the last thirty years, however, has it become so. Being a science, it must, like all other sciences, be carried forward by specialists, and not experimented on by amateurs. Indeed, the wise amateur is he who will recognize his own insufficiency and call in the assistance of the specialist. In our larger cities, and most noticea- bly so in the case of cities the size of Boston, the committee system is, therefore, wholly outgrown. It should long since have given way to the commission. Spasmodic, lumbering, changeable, and incapable of that sustained eifort necessary to carry out any enlightened policy, the school- committee, once its work has outgrown it, invariably becomes a mere fo- cus of intrigue. Progress through it cannot be said to be impossible ; but it is terribly slow, and even more costly than it is slow. Our people have a democratic, and, perhaps, healthy prejudice against commissions ; but they come to them at last. Though no one yet has uttered the word, it is probably not unsafe to predict that the next interest to be entrusted to them for development will be the common schools of OTir larger cities. As yet, how^ever, in Massachusetts, so far as the common-school system is concerned, specialists in education do not, as a class, exist. Individuals there are fully qualified for the work, — men of observant character, who have reflected much on their own experience, and are self-trained ; but the science of training and developing the human mind, through a careful study of its laws, is not, as yet, recognized here as a science at all. It is looked upon as a business, or a knack, — something to be acquired by prac- tice, or picked up by observation. Young men are elaborately trained in schools of theology, of law, of medicine, and of science ; but teaching itself, is, as yet, looked down upon by educationalists as something too ludicrously simple to call for any special preparation. Any one can under- stand the development of the human intellect ! The normal schools are consequently looked to to supply the want, if, indeed, there is a want. This, however, is not the mission of the normal schools. Their field of usefulness — and it is a very large field — is on a wholly different plane. They supply teachers, and they have their hands full in doing that. No Plan Successful in Incompetent Hands. The teacher, however, even the successful teacher, does not need to have the enlarging influence of an entire liberal education. The superin- tendent does need it. From the necessity of the case, also, the profes- goo ' th:e new departure sional teacher of the common school, especially the countiy common school, must be a person contented with the smaller prizes of life. You cannot have forty professors, or persons qualified to be professors, to teach their A B C's, or "the three R's," to the 1,600 children of a country town. It is possible, however, to have one professor, or, at least, a part of one pro- fessor, to direct and infuse, with his spirit, the others. But before he can direct or infuse others with his spirit, this man must himself have a spirit. In other words, he must have acquired the principles of his science in the same way that physicians, and lawyers, and clergymen acquire those of their sciences. Until some public provision exists for this, every attempt at an organized superintendency will only result — as those attempts hitherto have resulted — in a dangerously large percentage of failures, bringing discredit on the system. Yet, what is there which does not fail when en- trusted to incompetent hands ? Is it a campaign, or a ship, or a business, or a household, or a college ? In this matter our institutions of higher education would seem to owe a debt of recognition to the cause of general education, which they have been somewhat slow to recognize. There is a missing link here, and, in what should be an American specialty, we seem to be behind other countries. Teachers are Made, not like Poets, Born. The apparent attitude as yet taken by our universities towards our common schools is either that those who direct and develop the latter, must, like poets, be born, and cannot even be improved, or that any one is equal to so simple a work. Certainly, training their graduates for every other path in life, they make no effort to train them for this. And yet, taking into view the vast field of our common-school system, and its intimate connection with the mass of the people, it would not be easy to conceive any position in which a competent teacher, a man believing in his mission, could exercise a wider and larger influence over the future of this country, than in the chair of pedagogy of the past graduate course of one of our great universities. He would teach the teachers. It is en- couraging to find, also, that an appreciation of this fact — of the fact that our institutions of higher learning owe something to the cause of general education — begins to find acceptance. To the University of Michigan belongs, in this case, the honor of the lead, through the recent establishment as part of its course of a chair of the science of Education. Unquestionably the example will speedily be followed elsewhere, and a spirit of scientific instruction will be generally diffused. IN THE COMMON SCHOOLS OF QUitlCY. 30 1 A Trained Superintendent needed in Order to Give Intelli- gent Direction to Teachers. The common schools are the one thing in regard to which there is no division of opinion in America. The people of the country cling to them and lavish appropriations upon them in the firm belief that they are the ark of the national salvation. In Massachusetts one-fifth of the entire amount raised by taxation is expended on them. That under these cir- cumstances they should be no better than they now are is a significant fact, meriting more than a passing notice. They are not what they should be, — indeed, they are very far from it. Any practical experience which throws light on the causes of their deficiency is, therefore, of value ; any intelligent experiment made with a view to remedying that deficiency cannot be unworthy of attention ; what is true of one is probably not untrue of all ; and it is a wide-spread public want, — this pressing need of intelligent direction concentrating the costly and misdirected efforts to a given end, and inspiring them with a consciousness of progress, — this advantage of a trained superintendency, which more than all or anything -else has been illustrated in the common-school experience of Quincy. ^^ O? THB ftJiriVBRSITT] PRESSWORK BY BERWICK & SMITH. BOSTON. 'VIVE' THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO REH-URN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO 50 CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO $1.00 ON THE SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE. JUN 29 1936 OEC a 1946 nAur52SS Jfcl3((^:r5??^ ,yr.^lW8t36 RETC"^ SEP 5'67-gPM LOAN DtrT. 1 m/ LD 21-100m-8,'34 lUllili CDSflDllflll I x-/'-'* ■•, .'■"^.^ . 02 UNIVERSITY OF CAIylFORNIA lylBRARY